GIFT   OF 
MICHAEL  REESE 


\  J 


I 


MODERN    MECHANISM 


EXHIBITING   THE  LATEST  PROGRESS  IN  MACHINES,   MOTORS, 
AND   THE  TRANSMISSION   OF  POWER 


EDITED    BY 

PARK    BE£eJ>MiN,    LL.B.,    PH.D. 

• 

EDITOR     OF     APPLETONS'     CYCLOPAEDIA     OF     APPLIED     MECHANICS,     EDITION     OF     1880 

MEMBER      OF      THE      AMERICAN   SOCIETY      OF       MECHANICAL      ENGINEERS 

OF    THE    AMERICAN     INSTITUTE    OF    ELECTRICAL    ENGINEERS,    AND 

OF   THE    BRITISH    CHARTERED    INSTITUTE    OF   PATENT   AGENTS 


ILLUSTRATED 


LONDON 

M  A  C  M  I L  L  A  N     AND     CO. 
NEW    YORK 

1892 


PEEFACE. 


APPLETOXS'  DICTIONARY  OF  EXGIXEEIUXG,  published  in  1851,  was  the 
first  work  in  which  were  gathered,  in  cyclopedic  form,  descriptions  of  the 
products  of  American  mechanical  industry.  It  served  the  best  purpose  of  such 
a  publication,  in  that  it  crystallized  existing  knowledge  into  concrete  shape, 
digested  it,  and  so  rendered  it  easily  available  to  the  busy  mechanic  and  engi- 
neer. Thirty  years  afterward — so  great  had  been  the  advances  due  to  American 
invention  in  every  department  of  the  mechanic  arts — it  was  found  that,  to  bring 
the  work  abreast  of  the  time,  its  complete  reconstruction  was  necessary.  As  a 
result,  appeared  Appletons'  Cyclopaedia  of  Applied  Mechanics,  in  which  of  the 
older  publication  nothing  remained  save  the  small  proportion  which  was  valu- 
able in  point  of  historical  interest,  or  which  dealt  with  subjects  still  instruct- 
tive  when  brought  into  contrast  with  later  achievements. 

Xo  work  of  a  technical  character  so  signally  and  so  quickly  demonstrated 
its  own  usefulness.  It  became  at  once  the  recognized  standard  of  American 
mechanical  practice.  It  found  its  way  into  the  workshops  and  the  manufac- 
tories and  the  technical  schools  all  over  the  land.  It  has  borne  a  prominent 
part  in  the  education  of  the  American  mechanic  as  he  is  to-day ;  and,  more 
than  any  other  literary  production,  it  has  helped  him  toward  the  pre-eminence 
which  he  has  attained. 

But  modern  progress  in  all  the  great  fields  of  invention  and  discovery 
is  moving  with  a  constantly  accelerating  speed.  In  the  bending  of  that  great 
force  of  Xature  which  we  call  "electricity"  to  human  needs,  advances  are 
becoming  almost  a  matter  of  hours.  A  decade  of  such  onward  motion  calls  for 
a  new  record — a  new  crystallization  of  the  results — and  a  new  effort  to  bring 
them  in  the  same  tried  and  assimilable  form  to  those  who  constitute  "  the 
hands  of  the  nation."  Hence  the  present  volume. 

It  is  not  a  revision.  It  is  a  new  book,  dealing  solely  with  the  principal  and 
most  useful  advances  of  the  past  ten  years ;  and  it  is  therefore  issued  under  a 
new  name  which  exactly  describes  its  contents — Modern  Mechanism.  It  does 
not  supersede  the  Cyclopaedia  of  Mechanics,  but  adds  to  it. 

A  word,  in  conclusion,  as  to  how  the  book  has  been  made.  Countless  letters 
and  circulars  asking  information  on  mechanical  topics  have  been  sent  to  manu- 
facturers and  engineers  throughout  the  country.  A  large  collection,  not  merely 

(iii) 


iv  PREFACE. 


of  trade  literature  but  of  valuable  practical  suggestions,  has  thus  been  gathered  ; 
and  this  has  been  supplemented  by  the  best  papers  which  have  appeared  in 
American  and  foreign  technical  periodicals  and  in  the  transactions  of  engi- 
neering societies.  The  great  mass  of  accumulated  material,  carefully  digested, 
has  been  intrusted  to  eminent  experts  on  each  subject,  and  by  them  has  been 
winnowed  and  selected  in  the  light  of  their  special  knowledge  and  judgment. 
The  result  is  now  submitted  to  the  higher  adjudication  of  the  master-mechan- 
ics of  the  United  States. 


CONTRIBUTORS. 


Prof.  ELIHU  THOMSON,  Chief  Electrician  the 
Thomson-Houston  Co.;  Past  President 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers. 

ELECTRIC  WELDING. 

ALFRED  E.  HUNT,  M.  E.,  President  Pittsburg 
Keduction  Co. 
ALUMINIUM. 

General  WILLIAM  F.  DRAPER,  George  Draper 
&  Sons,  Hopedale,  31  ass. 

COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 

SAMUEL  WEBBER,  C.  E. 
WATER-WHEELS. 

T.  COMMERFORD  MARTIN,  E.  E.,  Past  President 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 

JOSEPH  WETZLER,  E.  E.,  Editors  "  The  Elec- 
trical Engineer/' 

DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MACHINES,  ELECTRIC  MO- 
TORS, ELECTRIC  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER,  AND 
THE  STORAGE  BATTERY. 

ROBERT  GRIMSHAW,  Ph.  D. 

ARTICLES  ON  WOOD-WORKING  MACHINERY. 

Lieutenant  ARTHUR  P.  XAZRO,  U.  S.  X. 

ARMOR,  ORDNANCE,  PROJECTILES,  AND  TOR- 
PEDOES. 

GEORGE  L.  FIELDER. 

TYPEWRITERS. 

THEODORE  F.  ELLIOTT,  M.  E. 
GRAIN-MILLS. 

RUDOLPH  EICKEMEYER. 

HAT-MAKING  MACHINES. 

H.  X.  FENNER,  Xew  England  Butt  Co. 
BRAIDING-MACHINES. 

GEORGE  H.  PAINE,  M.  E.,  Union  Switch  and 
Signal  Co. 

SWITCHES  AND  SIGNALS. 

Colonel  H.  G.  PROUT,  Editor  "  Railroad  Ga- 
zette.'' 

RAILS. 


Prof.  WILLIAM  C.  UNWIN,  F.  R.  S.,  Member 
Institute  of  Civil  Engineers;  Professor  of 
Engineering  at  the  Central  Institution  of 
the  City  and  Guilds  of  London. 

THE  UTILIZATION  OF  NIAGARA  FALLS. 

WILLIAM  KENT,  M.  E. 

BOILERS,  STEAM-ENGINES,  STEEL  AND  IRON 
PRODUCTION,  AND  METAL-WORKING  MACHINE- 
TOOLS. 

ALEXANDER  M.  MCC'LURE. 

ARTICLES  ON  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY. 

WALTER  R.  INGALLS.  M.  E.,  Mining  En- 
gineer Pittsburgh  and  Mexican  Tin-Min- 
ing Co. 

ARTICLES  ON  METALLURGICAL  MACHINERY. 

GEORGE  H.  GRAHAM,  M.  E. 

ICE-MACHINERY,  BOOK-BINDING,  CARRIAGES 
AND  WAGONS,  CYCLES,  ETC. 

H.    II.     WESTINGHOUSE,    General    Manager 
Westinghouse  Air-Brake  Co. 
BRAKES. 

EUGENE  H.  KIERNAN,  M.  E. 
ROPE-MAKING  MACHINES. 

WILLIAM  G.  RICE,  Vice-President  Consoli- 
dated Car-heating  Co. 

CAR-HEATING  APPARATUS. 

WILLIAM  L.  SAUNDERS.  M.  E. 

QUARRYING  MACHINERY  AND  ROCK-DRILLS. 

GEORGE  W.  HEY. 

LETTER-STAMPING  MACHINE. 

Captain  JOHN  RAPIEFF. 
PNEUMATIC  GUN. 

Dr.  HERMAN  HOLLERITH. 

CENSUS  TABULATING-MACHINE. 

THE  EDITOR. 

ARTICLES  ON  SEWING  -  MACHINES,  SAFES, 
BRICK-MACHINES,  FIRE-ENGINES.  ELEVATORS, 
ETC. 


VI 


CONTRIBUTORS. 


Detailed  information,  specially  prepared  or  supplied  by  the  following  contributors,  has 
been  embodied  in  the  appropriate  articles : 


On  Printing-Presses,  by  R.  Hoe  &  Co. 
Aerial  Navigation,  Octave  Chanute,  C.  E. 
Elevators,  the  Otis  Elevator  Co. 
Electrical  Measuring  Instruments,   Edward 

Weston. 
Rock-Drills  and  Air-Compressors,  the  Rand 

Drill  Co. 
Locks  and  Hoisting-Machines,  H.  H.  Snpplee* 

M.  E. 

Pumps,  J.  F.  Holloway,  C.  E. 
Safes  and  Bank  -  Vaults,  Herring  &  Co.,  and 

the  Marvin  Safe  Co. 
Sewing-Machines,  Isaac   Holden,  Esq.,   and 

the  Singer  Sewing-Machine  Co. 
Water-Meters,  John  Thompson.  M.  E. 
Steam  Fire-Engines,  the  Clapp  &  Jones  Manu- 
facturing Co. 
Wood  -  ivorking    Machinery,    J.    A.    Fay    & 

Co.,    the    Egan    Co.,    and    C.    B.    Rogers 

&Co. 
Rope-Driving  and  Link  Belts,  S.  Howard- 


Smith,  Esq.,  Treasurer  the  Link  Belt  En- 
gineering Co. 

Locomotives,  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works. 

Steel  Manufacture,  A.  E.  Hunt  and  Edwin 
Norton,  Esq. 

Emery-Wheels,  T.  Dunkin  Paret,  Esq.,  Presi- 
dent the  Tanite  Co. 

The  Steam-Loop,  Walter  C.  Kerr,  Esq. 

Pipe-Coverings,  C.  J.  H.  Woodbury,  Esq.. 
Vice-President  Boston  Manufacturers'  Mu- 
tual Fire-Insurance  Co. 

The  Driggs-Schroeder  Gun,  Lieutenant  Will- 
iam H.  Driggs,  U.  S.  N. 

The  Fiske  Range-Finder,  Lieutenant  B.  A. 
Fiske,  U.  S.  N. 

Calorimeters,  George  J.  Barrus,  M.  E. 

Electric  Motors,  Frank  J.  Sprague  and  Nikola 
Tesla. 

Telegraph,  Thomas  A.  Edison. 

Electric  Light,  William  Hochhausen. 

Ore-Crushing  Machines,  S.  R.  Krom. 


MODERN  MECHANISM. 


FIG.  1.— Tissandier's  electrical  balloon. 


AERIAL  NAVIGATION.  Within  the  last  decade  a  balloon  has  been  driven  against  a 
moderate  wind,  and  a  man  is  said  to  have  flown  a  hundred  yards  near  Paris.  A  number  of 
skilled  observers  are  investigating  the  elements  of  air  resistances  and  reactions,  and  the  law 
which  governs  flight.  The  problems  of  aerial  navigation  are  passing  into  the  hands  of  the 
engineers. 

I.  BALLOONS. — As  regards  balloons,  it  has  been  proved  that  an  elongated  gas-bag  can  be 
propelled  through  the  air  with  a  screw,  and  steered  with  a  rudder ;  that  it  can  be  made  stiff 
enough  by  internal  gas  pressure  to  resist  the  speeds  hitherto  attained,  and  that  the  velocity  is 
limited  by  the  power  and  weight  of  the  motor,  which  the  buoyancy  of  the  balloon  enables  it 
to  carry  up.  Thus  far,  as  the  outcome  of  various  experiments,  dating  back  to  1852 — first  by 
Giffard,  the  inventor  of  the  injector, 
next  (1872)  by  Dupuy  de  Lome,  the 
French  chief  naval  constructor,  and 
then  (1883)  by  Tissandier,  the  distin- 
guished author  and  aeronaut — in  which 
constantly  increasing  velocities  have 
been  reached — a  maximum  speed  of  14 
miles  an  hour  has  been  attained.  This 
was  accomplished  by  Commandant 
Renard.  of  the  aeronautical  establish- 
ment of  the  French  War  Department, 
who  in  1884-'85  made  seven  trial  trips, 
on  five  of  which  he  was  enabled  to  re- 
turn to  his  point  of  departure. 

The  Tissandier  Electrical  Balloon 
is  represented  in  Fig.  1,  and  is  92  ft. 
long  and  30  ft.  in  diameter  (3'04  to  1), 
inflated  with  37*439  cub.  ft.  of  hydrogen,  and  has  a  lifting  power  of  2,728  Ibs.  The  netting 
in  this  case  was  formed  of  flat  ribbons  sewed  to  longitudinal  gores,  which  arrangement  was 
found  materially  to  diminish  the  air  resistance  due  to  the  ordinary  twine  netting.  The  appa- 
ratus was  driven  by  a  Siemens  dynamo  weighing  99  Ibs.,  actuated  by  a  primary  battery  (bi- 
chromate of  potash)  weighing  517  Ibs.,  and  capable  of  developing  !-£  horse-power  for  2-£  hours. 
The  screw  was  9-18  ft.  in  diameter,  with  two  arms,  and  was  rotated  at  180  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  apparatus,  at  a  height  of  1,600  ft.,  was  just  able,  while  exerting  the  full  power 
of  its  motor,  to  stem  a  breeze  blowing  at  the  rate  of  6*7  miles  per  hour.  On  a  subsequent 
trial  it  is  claimed  by  M.  Tissandier  to  have  made  a  speed  of  9  miles  per  hour.  On  neither 
trial  could  the  balloon  return  to  its  starting-point.  The  results  were  so  far  inferior  to  those 
obtained  at  about  the  same  time  by  the  French  War  Department  that  further  experiments 
with  this  balloon  were  not  prosecuted. 

The  French  War  Walloon. — The  aeronautical  establishment  of  the  French  War  Depart- 
ment at  Calais  was  reorganized  in  1879.  In  1884  the  officers  in  charge,  Messrs.  Renard  and 

Krebs,  built  an  elongated 
balloon  165  ft.  long  by  27£ 
ft.  in  diameter,  in  which  the 
largest  section  was  no  longer 
placed  midway  of  the  spin- 
dle, as  in  all  previous  at- 
tempts, but  toward  its  front 
end,  as  obtains  in  the  case 
of  birds  and  fishes.  More- 
over, they  placed  the  screw 
in  front  instead  of  behind, 

Fia.  2.  —The  French  war  balloon  La  France.  as  previously  practiced  ;  but 

the  great  improvement  con- 
sisted m  largely  increasing  the  energy  of  the  motor  in  proportion  to  its  weight.  Besides 
this,  they  obtained  stability  and  stiffness  by  the  use  of  an  internal  air-bag  and  a  better  mode 


AERIAL  NAVIGATION. 


of  suspension,  and  they  inclosed  the  whole  apparatus  in  a  shed,  so  that  it  might  be  kept  per- 
manently inflated  and'  await  calm  days  for  experiment.  This  air-ship,  which  was  named  La 
France,  held  65,836  cub.  ft.  of  hydrogen,  and  its  lifting  power  was  4,402  Ibs.  The  car  was 
very  long  (105  ft.),  in  order  to  equalize  the  weight  over  the  balloon  and  yet  admit  of  both 
being  placed  close  together,  in  order  to  bring  the  propelling  arrangements  as  near  the  center 
line  of  gravity  as  possible.  The  screw  was  placed  on  thftcar :  it  had  two  arms,  and  was  23  ft. 
in  diameter.  The  power  of  the  motor  was  ascertained  by  experiment  in  the  shop  to  amount 
to  9  horse-power,  and  speeds  of  17  to  20  miles  per  hour  were  expected  with  46  revolutions  of 
the  screw.  Fig.  2  represents  this  air-ship.  Experiments  made  with  La  France  gave  a  speed 
of  14  miles  per  hour  with  an  electric  motor  of  9  horse-power,  weighing,  with  its  primary 
battery,  1,174  Ibs.,  this  being  the  utmost  that  the  air-ship  could  lift,  in  addition  to  its  owii 
weight  and  that  of  the  aeronauts  and  their  supplies.  Further  calculations  show  that  by 
simply  doubling  the  dimensions  of  the  balloon  its  lifting  power  will  be  so  much  increased 
that  a  motoi  weighing  at  the  same  rate — 130  Ibs.  per  horse- power — will  produce  a  speed  of  25 
miles  per  hour.  This,  however,  depends  upon  the  practicability  of  a  balloon  330  ft.  long — 
which  remains  to  be  proved.  Commandant  Renard,  after  stating  that  "the  conquest  of  the 
aii  will  be  practically  accomplished  when  a  speed  of  28  miles  per  hour  is  obtained,"  expresses 
the  opinion  that  we  are  on  the  eve  of  freely  navigating  the  air,  and  that  probably  France  will 
possess  the  first  aerial  fleet.  It  is  stated  that  the  German,  Russian,  and  Portuguese  Govern- 
ments have  recently  organized  aeronautical  establishments,  and  are  experimenting  in  secret. 
Should  some  notable  success  follow,  it  will  not  be  the  first  time  that  a  great  invention  has 
been  advanced  by  the  necessities  of  war.  Leaving  speculation,  however,  the  accompanying 
table  gives  the  principal  data  as  to  the  four  air-ships  which  have  been  described,  and  the 
horse- power  necessary  to  drive  them  at  25  miles  per  hour.  The  last  line  shows  how  light  a 
motor  must  be  to  produce  25  miles  per  hour  without  increasing  the  weight. 

Schedule  of  Navigable  Balloons. 


DATA. 

Giffard,  1852. 

Dupuy  de  Ltane, 
1872. 

Tissandier, 
1883. 

Renard  and  Krebg, 
1884-'85. 

Length,  out  to  out  

ft. 

144-3 
39  3 
3'67  to  1 
88,300 
3,978 

118-47 
48-67 
2  43 
120.088 
8,358 

91-84 
30-17 
3-04 
37,439 
2,728 

165  21 

27  -55 
6 
65,830 
4.402 

Diameter,  largest  section  

Length  to  diameter  .... 

proportion 

Cubic  contents 

Ascending  power  

Ibs. 

Weight  —  Balloon  and  valves 

Ibs 

704 
330 
660 

"176 
924 
462 
154 
567-6 

1,255-5 
396 
1,316-5 
165 
308 
1.287 
2,000 
310 
1,320 

374 
154 
75 

'iio 

220 
616 
330 
849 

812 
279 
170 
193 

"695 
1,174 
308 
471 

"          Netting  .and  bands  
Spars  and  adjuncts 

Rudder  and  screw  

Anchor  and  guide-rope  

Car  complete  

Motor  in  working  order  
Aeronauts  

Ballast  and  supplies 

"         Total  apparatus  

Ibs. 

3,977-6 

8,358 

2,728 

4,402 

Horse-power  of  motor  

3 
154 
6-71 
155 
3 

0-8 
2,500 
6-26 

52(?) 
38(?) 

1-5 
410 
6-71 

77 
8 

9 
ISO 
14 
51 
23 

Weight  of  motor  per  horse-power  .  . 

Ibs 

Speed  obtained                                    milt 

;s  per  hour 

Horse-power  required  25  miles  per  hour 
Motor  Ibs.  per  horse-power  

Possible  Improvements  in  galloons.— The  greatest  speed  thus  far  attained  has  been  14 
mi  es  per  hour,  which  is  insufficient  to  cope  with  most  of  prevailing  winds,  particularly  at 
sailing  heights  above  the  ground,  and  the  following  difficulties  have  been  encountered  and  to 
a  certain  extent  overcome : 

1.  Excessive  loss  of  gas  in  early  experiments.     This  has  been  remedied  by  closer  tissue  of 
envelope  and  better  varnishes,  as  well  as  by  regulating  valves,  so  that  the"  loss  of  gas  has 
been  reduced  so  as  to  average  less  than  2  per  cent  per  day. 

2.  Resistance  of  air  to  forward  motion.     This  has  been  largely  diminished  by  pointed 
ends,  but  much  remains  to  be  done  in  ascertaining  the  best  proportions. 

i6-  u°f.  a  P™PeUer  to  act  on  the  air.  This  has  been  measurably  solved  bv  the  aerial 
screw,  which  is  said  to  exert  from  50  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  power  applied,  but  is  yet  less 
efficient  than  the  marine  screw,  which  works  up  to  84  per  cent 

4  Need  of  steering  gear.  This  has  been  fairly  worked  out  by  various  arrangements  of 
rudders  and  keel  cloths,  which  have  given  command  of  the  apparatus  when  in  motion. 

•  V.;  *  i?!  a  light  motor.  This  is  the  great  difficulty.  Steam  has  been  tried  with  a 
weight  ol  Io4  Ibs.  per  horse-power,  including  fuel  and  water,  and  electric  engines  with  a 
weight  of  130  Ibs.  per  horse-power.  Neither  are  sufficiently  light  to  give  the  necessary  speed, 
except  for  very  large  apparatus. 

6.  Need  of  endwise  stiffness.  This  has  been  remedied  by  compressing  the  gas  inside  the 
balloon  either  through  the  use  of  a  loaded  safety-valve  or  through  the  use  of  an  internal  air- 
bag.  As  speed  increases  more  will  needs  be  done  in  this  direction,  and  this  will  require 
stronger  and  heavier  envelopes  for  the  gas-bag. 


AERIAL   NAVIGATION. 


7.  Need  to  prevent  deviations  in  course.     This  has  been  overcome  by  placing  the  screw  in 
front,  where  it  is  more  effective  than  behind. 

8.  Need  of  longitudinal  stability.     This  has  only  been  partly  solved  by  various  methods  of 
suspension.     There  is  still  a  tendency  to  pitch  when  meeting  gusts  of  air,  and  this  will  in- 
crease when  greater  speeds  are  attained.     It  will  need  to  be  worked  out  by  experiment. 

9.  Need  of  altitudinal  stability.     This  is  the  tendency  of  the  balloon  to  rise  or  fall  with 
the  heating  or  cooling  of  the  gas.'    It  has  been  met  in  only  a  crude  way  by  alternately  dis- 
charging either  gas,  to  prevent  the  balloon  from  bursting,  or  ballast,  to  prevent  it  from  com- 
ing down.     This  rapidly  exhausts  both  gas  and  ballast,  and  limits  the  time  of  the  trip.     It 
has  been  repeatedly  proposed  to  substitute  for  this  method  a  vertical  screw,  to  raise  and  de- 
press the  balloon,  which  should  then  be  at  starting  slightly  heavier  than  the  air  which  it 
displaces.     The  great  desideratum  is  to  gain  increased  speed,  "and  there  are  at  least  four  ways 
by  which  this  may  be  accomplished  :    1.  By  giving  the  balloon  a  better  form  of  hull,  so  as  to 
diminish  the  resistance.     La  France  was  rather  blunt  in  front,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  by  simply  moving  the  largest  section  farther  back,  increased  speed  will  result.    2.  By 
designing  a  more  efficient  aerial  screw.     Commandant  Renard  has  been  experimenting  in  this 
direction,  arid  says  there  is  a  shape  much  better  than  others,  and  that  this  form  can  not  be 
departed  from  without  getting  very  bad  screws;  falling,  as  he  expresses  it,  into  a  veritable 
precipice  on  either  side.    3.  By  devising  a  lighter  motor,  in  proportion  to  its  energy.     This  is 
the  great  field  in  which  work  remains  to  be  done.    4.  By  simply  building  larger  air-ships,  for, 
inasmuch  as  their  contents,  and  consequent  lifting  power,  will  increase  as  the  cube  of  their 
dimensions,  while  their  weight  will,  approximately,  only  increase  as  the  square,  the  surplus 
lifting  power  will  evidently  increase  with  the  size,  and"  greater  motive  power  in  proportion 
can  be  used. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  the  sake  of  this  argument,  that  no  improvement  whatever  has  been 
achieved  in  either  of  the  first  three  ways  which  have  been  mentioned,  and  inquire  simply 
what  would  be  the  effect  of  doubling  the  dimensions  of  La  France.  The  comparison  will  be 
approximately  as  follows : 


PRINCIPAL  DIMENSIONS. 

La  France. 

Doable  size. 

Length  out  to  out 

ft. 

165 

330 

Diameter,  largest  section  

27  5 

55 

Contents  of  gas  

...cub.  ft. 

65,836 

526,688 

Lifting  power 

IDS. 

4.402 

35.216 

Weight  of  apparatus  

2.451 

9.804 

cargo  and  aeronauts 

M 

779 

1,500 

"        machinery 

U 

1  174 

23912 

From  the  data  obtained  by  his  experiments,  M.  Renard  has  deduced  the  following 
formula-:  (1)  R  =  0-01685D2VV(2)  W=  (M)165S5D*V3,  and  (3)  T  =  0-0326D* V3 :  in  which  R 
is  the  air  resistance  to  motion  in  kilogrammes ;  V,  speed  in  metres  per  second ;  D,  diameter  of 
the  balloon ;  W,  work  done  in  kilogrammetres ;  and  T,  work  done  on  the  shaft  of  the  screw. 
From  this  he  calculates  that  a  balloon  32*8  ft.  in  diameter  would  require  43^  horse-power  to 
drive  it  at  22  miles  per  hour. 

As  the  motor  (dynamo  and  battery)  of  La  France  weighed  130  Ibs.  per  horse-power,  we 

23912 
have  for  that  of  double  the  size  —     —  =  182  horse-power  motor,  and  calculating  the  speed 

J.oU 

by  the  formula  of  Commandant  Renard,  and  inserting  the  new  diameter,  16-8  metres,  we 
have  :  T  =  0-0326  x  16¥2  x  V3  in  kilogrammetres. 

But  as  we  have  182  horse-power,  and  there  are  75  kilogrammetres  in  the  horse-power,  we 

3  /1365Q 
have  further:  182  x  75  =  0*0326  x  16-82  x  V3.  whence  V  =  y  -^-  =  11.2  metres.     So  that 

we  see  that  the  speed  of  the  new  air-ship  will  be  11-20  metres,  or  36*7  ft.  per  second — say,  25 
miles  per  hour.  The  same  result  is  arrived  at  by  considering  that  the  new  balloon  will 
require  four  times  the  motive  power  of  La  France  to  go  at  the  same  speed,  and  that  the 
power  required  increases  as  the  cube  of  the  speed.  So  that  we  see  that  a  speed  of  25  miles 
per  hour  is  even  now  in  sight,  without  any  other  improvement  than  doubling  the  size  of  the 
balloon.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  somewhere  a  limit  will  be  reached  beyond  which  un- 
manageable sizes  will  be  met  with.  The  weight,  the  size,  the  resistance  will  increase,  as  well 
as  the  speed,  and  somewhere  there  will  be  impracticability.  We  have  seen  that  to  go  25  miles 
per  hour,  and  thus  brave  the  wind  about  three  quarters  of  the  time,  we  need  an  elongated 
balloon  similar  in  shape  to  La  France,  330  ft.  long  and  55  ft.  in  diameter.  It  is  probable 
that,  by  improvement  in  the  first  three  ways  which  have  been  mentioned,  it  may  attain  a 
speed  of  30  or  35  miles  per  hour;  but  when'it  is  attempted  to  obtain  40  miles  per  hour  out 
of  it,  it  will  grow  to  lengths  of,  say,  1,000  ft.,  or  as  long  as  four  ordinary  city  blocks,  and 
diameters  of  150  ft.,  or  the  height  of  an  ordinary  church  steeple. 

These  seem  unmanageable  and  impracticable  sizes  for  ordinary  uses.  They  are  greater 
than  those  of  ocean  steamers,  because  the  speed  required  is  greater  to  overcome  the  aerial 
currents:  and  the  care  and  maintenance  of  these  great  air-ships  will  be  a  difficult  matter.  It 
seems  likely,  therefore,  that  in  the  near  future  elongated  balloons  will  be  built  which  will  be 
driven  at  25  or  30  or  a  few  more  miles  per  hour,  which  will  be  able  to  sail  about  on  all  but 


AERIAL  NAVIGATION. 


stormy  days ;  but  the  cargoes  carried  in  proportion  to  the  size  will  be  small,  and  to  obtain 
speeds  similar  to  those  of  express  trains  some  other  form  of  apparatus  will  have  to  be  sought 

War  Balloons  in  the  Field.— The  ingenious  appliances  which  were  used  by  Italy  during 
the  recent  Abyssinian  War  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  3,  4,  and  5.    Abyssinia  is  not  a  country  in 

which  the  gas  necessa- 
ry for  the  inflation  of 
balloons  can  be  easily 
procured.  It  was  nec- 
essary to  provide  an 
apparatus  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  gas, 
and  to  find  a  fit  means 
Vc  I  of  transporting  it 

across  the  desert.  Fig. 
3  represents  a  balloon 
ascent  in  the  field. 
The  inflation  has  just 
been  effected,  and  the 
balloon,  held  by  a  rope 
attached  to  a  windlass, 
is  swaying  in  the  air. 
In  countries  provided 
with  gas-works,  the  in- 
flating is  usually  ef- 
fected by  means  of  il- 
luminating gas,  and 
it  is  only  necessary  to 
connect  the  balloon 
with  one  of  the  city 
mains.  In  the  case 
under  consideration, 
the  gas,  produced  by 
a  process  hereafter  ex- 
plained, was  contained 
in  forty  tubes,  united 
in  two  groups  of  twen- 
ty, with  a  barrel  that 
supplied  the  conduit, 
which  ends  at  the 
place  where  the  bal- 
loon is  located  in  the 
center  of  a  circle  of 
ballast-bags.  Around 
the  drum  of  the  wind- 
lass winds  the  cable, 
the  extremity  of  which 
is  affixed  to  a  trapeze 
that  surrounds  the 
car.  Within  the  cable, 
which  is  of  several 
strands,  there  are  two 
telephone  wires,  which 
are  not  exactly  in  the 

center,  but  a  little  to  one  side,  in  order  that,  in  case  of  a  breakage,  the  point  where  the  acci- 
dent occurred  may  be  known  at  once.  By  this  means  the  balloon  is  constantly  in  commu- 
nication with  those  who  remain  below,  who  can  instantaneously  pay  out  or  draw  in  the  cable 
at  will.  It  takes  ten  men  to  do  the  manoauvring,  the  traction  to  be  exerted  not  exceeding  650 
Ibs.  in  a  pretty  swift  wind,  and  but  325  Ibs.  in  a  dead  calm.  These  balloons  are  wholly  of 
silk,  and  are  so  pliable  that  each  fits  into  its  car,  which  has  a  capacity  of  but  35  cub.  ft.  The 
whole  is  contained  in  a  compartment  in  the  hind  carriage  of  the  vehicle  (Fig.  4),  the  front 
part  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  windlass.  The  carriage  is  very  low,  and  is  built  to  withstand 
shocks  and  jolting.  It  requires  but  two  horses  to  draw  it,  since  the  whole  weighs  but  about 
1,425  Ibs.  The  hydrogen  is  prepared  in  a  special  apparatus,  represented  in  Fig.  5.  This  ap- 
paratus, which  is  quire  cumbersome,  can  not  be  carried  everywhere,  and  so,  in  certain  cases, 
the  gas  must  be  carried  all  prepared.  In  order  to  reduce  its  volume,  the  idea  has  occurred  to 
compress^  it  under  very  great  pressure  into  very  strong  steel  cylinders.  Each  of  these  latter 
weighs  65  Ibs.,  and  is  8  ft.  in  length,  5  in.  in  diameter,  and  -J-  in.  in  thickness.  The  gas  is 
preserved  therein,  without  any  loss,  at  a  pressure  of  135  atmospheres.  It  takes  from  70  to  75 
of  these  cylinders  to  inflate  a  balloon  of  10,500  cub.  ft.  They  are  borne  upon  .another  car- 
riage, and,  as  their  total  weight  is  between  4,400  and  5,000  Ibs.,  they  can  be  easily  hauled  by 
three  horses.  In  Abyssinia,  when  the  land  did  not  allow  of  the  passage  of  a  vehicle,  these 
cylinders  were  carried  upon  the  backs  of  camels.  In  the  operation  of  inflating,  but  one  cyl- 


Fio.  3. — Balloon  operations  in  Abyssinia. 


AERIAL  NAVIGATION. 


inder  is  opened  at  a  time,  since  the  gas,  in  passing  from  135  atmospheres  to  1  atmosphere, 
would  produce  through  its  expansion  an  intense  cold,  and  so,  in  order  not  to  cool  it,  it  is 


FIG.  4. — Balloon  carriage. 

necessary  to  operate  successively  cylinder  by  cylinder.  In  the  manufacture  of  the  hydrogen 
gas  in  the  apparatus  represented  in  Fig.  5,  iron  filings  immersed  in  dilute  acid  are  placed  in 
two  large  generators.  The  gas  formed 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  iron  escapes 
through  a  pipe  fitted  to  each  generator, 
and  passes  into  a  large  vessel  filled  with 
water,  and  called  a  purifier,  where  it  is 
freed  from  all  its  impurities.  It  then 
ascends  in  a  conduit,  whence  it  makes 
its  exit  ready  for  use,  and  to  be  stored 
in  the  steel  cylinders.  This  gas-gener- 
ator, which  is  very  simple,  can  be  easily 
transported  to  the  vicinity  of  the  field 
of  operations  of  an  army. 

II.  FLYING  -  MACHINES. — These  are 
usually  constructed  upon  one  or  the 
other  of  the  following  principles:  1. 

The  imitation  of  the  napping   action  ^  s.-Charging  apparatus  for  war  balloons, 

of  the  wings  of  birds.     2.  The  sustain- 
ing of  weight  and  obtaining  progress  simultaneously  through  the  air  by  horizontal  screws. 
'6.  The  sustaining  of  weight  by  fixed  aeroplanes,  and  the  obtaining  progress' by  means  of  screws. 

A  great  many  experiments  have  been 
tried  and  a  great  deal  of  ingenuity 
has  been  expended  in  each  of  these 
three  directions,  but  thus  far  not  a 
machine  has  been  able  to  leave  the 
ground  with  its  prime  motor,  and 
what  measure  of  success  has  been  at- 
tained can  only  be  exhibited  through 
toy;;,  which  give  an  idea  of  the  prin- 
ciples involved. 

Pi  ch  an  court's  Mechanical  Bird, 
represented  in  Fig.  6.  is  about  12  in. 
from  tip  to  tip  of  wings,  and  weighs 
385  grs.,  one  third  of  which  consists 
in  the  twisted  rubber  strings  furnish- 
ing the  motive  power.  The  necessary 
flexion  of  the  wings,  to  obtain  a  pro- 
pelling as  well  as  "a  sustaining  reac- 
tion, is  produced  by  triple  eccentrics, 
each  actuating  a  lever  fastened  to  a 

FIG.  G.-Pichancourt^s  mechanical  bird.  different  point  in  the  wings.     Upon 

being  wound  up  and  released,  the  ap- 
paratus flies  slightly  upward,  and  to  a  distance  of  30  to  60  ft.  in  from  3  to  6  seconds.     Similar 


AERIAL  NAVIGATION. 


FIG.  8.— Mechanical  bird. 


but  larger  birds,  of  the  same  make,  are  said  to  have  flown  up  to  a  height  of  25  ft.  and  a  dis- 
tance of  70  ft.  against  a  slightly  adverse  wind.  The  relative  power  absorbed,  however,  is  quite 
beyond  the  capacity  of  any  known  prime  motor. 

Dandrieux's  Artificial  Butterfly  (Fig.  7)  is  an  example  of  an  aerial  screw  used  to  sustain 
and  to  propel  simultaneously  by  its  horizontal  revolutions.  It  has  been  proved,  however,  that 
about  1  horse-power  of  energy  is  required  to  sustain  33  Ibs.  in  the 
air.  Fig.  8  represents  a  similar  contrivance  propelled  by  two 
screws.  The  motive  power  in  both  devices  is  furnished  by  a 
twisted  rubber  cord. 

Hargrave's  Flying-Machines.  —  Mr.  Laurence  Hargrave,  of 
Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  has  been  experimenting  for  many  years 
with  models  of  flying-machines,  and  has  succeeded  in  getting 
longer  flights  than  any  hitherto  obtained. 
Up  to  December  3,  1890,  he  had  con- 
structed nine  aeroplanes,  operated  by 
bands  of  India-rubber  arid  propelled  by 
wings;  one  operated  by  rubber  bands 
and  a  screw ;  two  operated  by  com- 
pressed air,  with  wings ;  and  two  oper- 
ated by  means  of  a  cross-bow,  with 
wings.  From  Mr.  Hargrave's  experi- 

FiG.7.-Dandrieux's butterfly.  m™is  he  concludes  that  the  wing  and 
the  screw  are  about  equally  efficient  in 
action.  His  first  screw-propelled  aeroplane  weighed  2  Ibs.  and  was  driven  by  the  contractile 
power  of  48  elastic  bands,  geared  in  tension,  a  horizontal  distance  of  120  ft.,  by  the  expendi- 
ture of  196  foot-pounds.  Another  machine  in  which  flapping  wings  were  similarly  driven, 
weighed  33£  oz.  and  flew  a  distance  of  270  ft.  with  470  foot-pounds  of  energy.  In  1890  he 
constructed  the  compressed-air  flying-machine,  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  body  of  the  machine 
consists  of  a  tube  2  in.  in  diameter  and  48£  in.  long,  weighing  19£  oz.,  and  with  a  capacity  of 
144-6  cub.  in.  It  holds  the  compressed  air  at  a  working  pressure  of  230  Ibs.  to  the  sq.  in. 

The  engine  cylinder 
is  H  in.  diameter  and 
1£  in.  stroke,  the  total 
weight  of  the  com- 
pressed-air engine  be- 
ing 6£  oz.  The  area 
of  the  aeroplane  meas- 
ures 2,128  sq.  in.,  and 
that  of  the  wings  is 
216  sq.  in.,  thus  giv- 
ing a  total  area  of 
2,344  sq.  in.  for  a  total 
weight  of  2-53  Ibs. 
The  wings  are  made 
of  paper,  and  have  no 
feathering  motion, 
save  that  due  to  the 
elasticity  of  the  mate- 
rial of  which  they  are 
composed.  In  a  dead 
calm  the  machine  flew 
368  ft.  horizontally, 
with  an  expenditure 
of  870  foot-pounds  of 
energy.  The  engrav- 
ing shows  also  two 

forms  of  air-compressing  pumps.     (See  Engineering,  December  26,  1890 ;  also  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  vol.  xxiv.) 

Trouve  s  Mechanical  Bird,  devised  by  M.  Gustave  Trouve,  Fig.  10,  is  claimed  by  its 
inventor  to  be  the  first  machine  which  'has  risen  into  the  air  by  its  own  unaided  force. 
The  bird  consists  of  two  wings,  A  and  B,  connected  by  a  "Bourdon"  bent  tube,  such 
as  is  used  in  steam-gauges,  the  peculiarity  of  which  is  that  when  pressure  increases  within 
the  tube  its  outer  ends  move  apart,  and  return  toward  each  other  upon  diminished  press- 
ure. M.  Trouve  increases  the  efficiency  of  this  action  by  putting  a  second  tube  within 
the  first,  and  he  produces  therein  a  series  of  alternate  compressions  and  expansions,  by  ex- 
ploding twelve  cartridges  contained  in  the  revolver-barrel,  D,  which  communicates  with  the 
"Bourdon "  tube.  These  explosions  produce  a  series  of  strokes  of  the  wings,  which,  with  the 
aid  of  the  silk  sustaining-plane,  indicated  at  C,  both  support  and  propel  the  bird  in  the  air. 
I  he  manner  of  starting  it  is  represented  in  Fig.  11.  The  bird  is  suspended  from  a  frame  by 
a  thread  attached  to  the  hammer  of  the  revolver,  thus  keeping  it  up  from  the  cap.  Another 
thread  holds  the  bird  near  the  upright  post,  while  a  common  candle,  A,  and  a  blow-pipe 
flame,  B,  complete  the  preparations.  Upon  the  thread  being  burned  at  A,  the  bird  swings 
forward  from  position  1  to  position  2,  when,  the  other  thread'being  burned  by  the  flame,  the 


FIG.  9. — Hargravens  flying-machine. 


AERIAL   NAVIGATION. 


FIG.  10.— Trouv6's  mechanical  bird. 


hammer  falls  on  the  cap,  an  ex- 
plosion ensues,  the  tube  ex- 
pands, and  the  wings  strike 
downward,  while  the  bird  flies 
up,  as  shown  in  position  3. 
Then  the  gases  escape  from  the 
tube,  the  latter  resumes  its  orig- 
inal shape,  thus  raising  the 
wings  and  also  moving  a  pawl, 
which  advances  the  revolver- 
barrel,  so  that  a  new  explosion 
occurs,  and  so  on.  The  bird 
has  flown  80  yards. 

Goupil's  Aeroplane,  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  12.  was  con- 
structed in  1883.  It  measures 
about  20  ft.  across,  26  ft.  from 
back  to  rear  end,  290  sq.  ft.  in 
supporting  area,  and  weighs  110 
Ibs.  Placed  in  a  wind  varying  from  16  to  20  ft.  per  second,  at  an  angle  of  incidence  of  10°, 
it  lifted  up  two  men  in  addition  to  its  own  weight,  making  a  total  of  440  Ibs.  When  the  wind 
velocity  increased  to  over  20  ft.  per  second,  the  apparatus  became  unmanageable. 

Ader's  Flying-Machine  resembles 
a  huge  bat.  The  details  of  the  ap- 
paratus are  kept  secret.  The  motor, 
however,  actuates  a  screw  of  sail- 
cloth, which  is  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  apparatus  in  order  to  pull  instead 
of  to  push  it.  The  machine  rests  upon 
sled  runners,  on  which  it  is  caused  to 
slide  for  some  20  or  30  yards  in  order 
to  be  started.  M.  Mouillard,  of  Cairo, 
has  devised  an  apparatus  which  con- 
sists simply  in  a  light  aeroplane 
strapped  to  "the  body  and  resting  on 
the  shoulders,  but,  unfortunately, 
only  slightly  adjustable  to  conform 
to  the  various  conditions  of  flight. 
The  wind  was  almost  ml,  and  in  order 
to  test  the  carrying  capacity  of  his 
aeroplane  he  took  a  running  jump 
across  a  10- ft.  ditch,  when,  a  light 
breeze  springing  up,  he  was  actually 
picked  up  and  sailed  against  the  wind 

for  138  ft.,  his  legs  dangling  down  within  a  foot  of  the  ground,  without  being  able  to  alight. 
Experimental  Researches  on  Mechanical  Flight. — Prof.  S.  P.  Langley  has  made  a  series 
of  investigations  which  show  that,  with  motors  having  the  same  weights  as  those  actually  con- 
structed, we  possess  at  pres- 
ent the  necessary  force  for 
sustaining,  with  very  rapid 
motion,  heavy  bodies*  in  the 
air :  for  example,  inclined 
planes  more  than  a  thousand 
times  denser  than  the  me- 
dium in  which  they  move. 
Further,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  these  experiments 
and  also  of  the  theory  un- 
derlying them,  it  appears  to 
be  demonstrated  that  if,  in 
an  aerial  movement  we.  have 
a  plane  of  determined  di- 
mensions and  weight,  inclined 
at  such  angles  and  moving 
with  such  velocities  that  it  is 
always  exactly  sustained  in 
horizontal  flight,  the  more 
the  velocity  is  augmented,  the 
greater  is  the  force  necessary 

to    diminish   the   sustaining  3^   12._ooupil's  aeroplane, 

power.    It  follows  that  there 

will  be  increasing  economy  of  force  for  each  augmentation  of  velocity,  up  to  a  certain  limit 
which  the  experiments  have  not  yet  determined. 


FIG.  11.— Starting  Trouv6*s  bird. 


AERIAL  NAVIGATION. 


Prof.  Langley  says,  in  his  memoir  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  July  13,  1891 : 
"  The  experiments  which  I  have  made  during  the  last  four  years  have  been  executed  with  an 
apparatus  having  revolving  arms  about  20  metres  in  diameter,  put  in  movement  by  a  10 
horse-power  steam-engine.  They  are  chiefly  as  follows:  1.  To  compare  the  movements  of 
planes  or  systems  of  planes,  the  weights,  surface,  form,  and  variable  arrangements,  the  whole 
being  always  in  a  horizontal  position,  but  disposed  in  such  a  manner  that  it  could  fall  freely. 
2.  To  determine  the  work  necessary  to  move  such  planes  or  systems  of  planes,  when  they  are 
inclined,  and  possess  velocities  sufficient  for  them  to  be  sustained  by  the  reaction  of  the  air  in 
all  the  conditions  of  free  horizontal  flight.  3.  To  examine  the  motions  of  aerostats  provided 
with  their  own  motors,  and  various  other  analogous  questions  that  I  shall  not  mention  here. 
As  a  specific  example  of  the  first  category  of  experiments  which  have  been  carried  out,  let  us 
take  a  horizontal  plane,  loaded  (by  its  own  weight)  with  464  grammes,  having  a  length  0-914 
metre,  a  width  0-102  metre,  a  thickness  2  mm.,  and  a  density  about  1,900  times  greater  than 
that  of  the  surrounding  air,  acted  on  in  the  direction  of  its  length  by  a  horizontal  force,  but 
able  to  fall  freely.  The  first  line  below  gives  the  horizontal  velocities  in  metres  per  second  ; 
the  second,  the  time  that  the  body  took  to  fall  in  air  from  a  constant  height  of  1-22  metres, 
the  time  of  fall  in  a  vacuum  being  0-50  second : 

"  Horizontal  velocities Om.,     5  m.,     10  in.,   15  m.,   20  m. 

Time  taken  to  fall  from  a  constant  height 

of  1-22  metres 0'53  s.,  0-61  s.,  0-75  s.,  1-05  s.,  2*00  s. 

"  When  the  experiment  is  made  under  the  best  conditions,  it  is  striking,  because,  the  plane 
having  no  inclination,  there  is  no  vertical  component  of  apparent  pressure  to  prolong  the 
time  of  fall ;  and  yet,  although  the  specific  gravity  is  in  this  more  than  1,900  times  that  of 
the  air,  and  although  the  body  is  quite  free  to  fall,  it  descends  very  slowly,  as  if  its  weight 
were  diminished  a  great  number  of  times.  What  is  more,  the  increase  in  the  time  of  fall  is 
even  greater  than  the  acceleration  of  the  lateral  movement.  The  same  plane,  under  the  same 
conditions,  except  that  it  was  moved  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  gave  analogous  but  much 
more  marked  results ;  and  some  observations  of  the  same  kind  have  been  made  in  numerous 
experiments  with  other  planes,  and  under  more  varied  conditions.  From  that  which  pre- 
cedes, the  general  conclusion  may  be  deduced  that  the  time  of  fall  of  a  given  body  in  air, 
whatever  may  be  its  weight,  may  be  indefinitely  prolonged  by  lateral  motion,  and  this  result 
indicates  the  account  that  ought  to  be  taken  of  the  inertia  of  air  in  aerial  locomotion,  a  prop- 
erty which,  if  it  has  not  been  neglected  in  this  case,  has  certainly  not  received  up  to  the 
present  the  attention  that  is  due  to  it.  By  this  (and  also  in  consequence  of  that  which  fol- 
lows), we  have  established  the  necessity  of  examining  more  attentively  the  practical  possibility 
of  an  art  very  admissible  in  theory — that  of  causing  heavy  and  conveniently  disposed  bodies 
to  slide  or,  if  I  may  say  so,  to  travel  in  air.  In  order  to  indicate  by  another  specific  example 
the  nature  of  the  data  obtained  in  the  second  category  of  my  experiments,  I  will  cite  the 
results  found  with  the  same  plane,  but  carrying  a  weight  of  500  grammes — that  is  5,380 
grammes  per  square  metre,  inclined  at  different  angles,  and  moving  in  the  direction  of  its 
length.  It  is  entirely  free  to  rise  under  the  pressure  of  the  air,  as  in  the  first  example  it  was 
free  to  fall ;  but  when  it  has  left  its  support,  the  velocity  is  regulated  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  will  always  be  subjected  to  a  horizontal  motion. 

"  The  first  column  of  the  following  table  gives  the  angle  (a)  with  the  horizon  ;  the  second 
the  corresponding  velocity  (V)  olplanement — that  is,  the  velocity  which  is  exactly  sufficient 
to  sustain  the  plane  in  horizontal  movement,  when  the  reaction  of  the  air  causes  it  to  rise 
from  its  support ;  the  third  column  indicates  in  grammes  the  resistances  to  the  movement 

forward   for  the   corresponding 
velocities  —  a  resistance  that  is 
shown  by  a  dynamometer.   These 
three  columns  only  contain  the 
data  of  the    same    experiment. 
The  fourth    column   shows  the 
product  of  the  values  indicated 
in  the  second  and  third — that  is 
to  say,  the  work  T,  in  kilogram- 
metres   per    second,   which    has 
overcome  the  resistance.     Final- 
ly, the  fifth  column,  P,  designates  the  weight  in  kilogrammes  of  a  system  of  such  planes  that 
a  1  horse-power  engine  ought  to  cause  to  advance  horizontally  with  the  velocity  V,  and  at 
the  angle  of  inclination  a. 

"  As  to  the  values  given  in  the  last  column,  it  is  necessary  to  add  that  my  experiments 
demonstrate  that,  m  rapid  flight,  one  may  suppose  such  planes' to  have  very  small  interstices, 
without  diminishing  sensibly  the  power  of  support  of  any  of  them.  It  is  also  necessary  to 
remark  that  the  considerable  weights  given  here  to  the  planes  have  only  the  object  of  facilitat- 
ing the  quantitative  experiments.  I  have  found  that  surfaces  approximately  plane,  and 
weighing  ten  times  less,  are  sufficiently  strong  to  be  employed  in  flight,  such  as  has  been 
actually  obtained,  so  that  m  the  last  case  more  than  85  kilogrammes  are  disposable  for  motors 
and  other  accessories.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  complete  motors  weighing  less  than  five  kilo- 
grammes per  horse-power  have  recently  been  constructed.  Although  I  have  made  use  of 
planes  for  my  quantitative  experiments,  1  do  not  regard  this  form  of  surface  as  that  which 
gives  the  best  results.  I  think,  therefore,  that  the  weights  I  have  given  in  the  last  column 


V 

R 

rWS 

"1000 

500x 
T  x  60 

4554 
x~1000 

45 
30 
15 
10 
5 
2 

11-2 
10  6 
11-2 
12-4 
15-2 
20'0 

500 
275 
128 
88 
45 
20 

56 
2-9 
1'4 
1-1 
0-7 
04 

6-8 
13-0 
26'5 
34-8 
55'5 
95  0 

AERIAL  NAVIGATION. 


may  be  considered  as  less  than  those  that  could  be  transported  with  the  corresponding 
velocities,  if  in  free  flight  one  is  able  to  guide  the  movement  in  such  a  manner  as  to  assure 
horizontal  locomotion— an  essential  condition  to  the  economical  employment  of  the  power  at 
our  disposal.  The  execution  of  these  conditions,  as  of  those  that  impose  the  practical  neces- 
sity of  ascending  and  descending  with  safety,  belongs  more  to  the  art  of  which  I  have  spoken 
than  to  my  subject. 

"The  points  that  I  have  endeavored  to  demonstrate  in  the  memoir  in  question  are:  1. 
That  the  force  requisite  to  sustain  inclined  planes  in  horizontal  aerial  locomotion  diminishes, 
instead  of  increasing,  when  the  velocity  is  augmented ;  and  that  up  to  very  high  velocities — a 
proposition  the  complete  experimental  demonstration  of  which  will  be  given  in  my  memoir ; 
but  I  hope  that  its  apparent  improbability  will  be  diminished  by  the  examination  of  the  pre- 
ceding examples.  2.  That  the  work  necessary  to  sustain  in  high  velocity  the  weights  of  an 
apparatus  composed  of  planes  and  a  motor  may  be  produced  by  motors  so*  light  as  those  that 
have  actually  been  constructed,  provided  that  care  is  taken  to  conveniently  direct  the  appa- 
ratus in  free  flight ;  with  other  conclusions  of  an  analogous  character." 

Mr.  Hiram  S.  Maxim  publishes  in  The  Century  Magazine,  October,  1891,  a  paper  on  aerial 
navigation,  detailing  his  experiments  as  to  the  power  required.  Commenting  on  Prof. 
Langley's  statement  that  with  a  flying-machine  the  greater  the  speed  the  less  would  be  the 
power  required,  he  says :  "  In  navigating  the  air  we  may  reason  as  follows :  if  we  make  no 
allowance  for  skin  friction  and  the  resistance  of  the  wires  and  framework  passing  through  the 
air — these  factors  being  very  small  indeed  at  moderate  speeds  as  compared  to  the  resistance 
offered  by  the  aeroplane — we  may  assume  that  with  a  plane  set  at  an  angle  of  1  in  10,  and 
with  the  whole  apparatus  weighing  4,000  Ibs.,  the  push  of  the  screw  would  have  to  be  400  Ibs. 
Suppose  now  that  the  speed  should  be  30  miles  an  hour;  the  energy  required  from  the  engine 
in  useful  effect  on  the  machine  would  be  32  horse-power  (30  miles  =  2,640  feet  per  minute. 
2640  X  400 

~33000 —  =  ^*  Adding  20  per  cent  for  slip  of  screw,  it  would  be  38'4  horse-power.  Sup- 
pose now  that  we  should  increase  the  speed  of  the  machine  to  60  miles  an  hour,  we  could 
reduce  the  angle  of  the  plane  to  1  in  40  instead  of  1  in  10.  because  the  lifting  power  of  a 
plane  has  been  found  to  increase  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  its  velocity.  A  plane  travel- 
ing through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  60  miles  an  hour,  placed  at  an  angle  of  1  in  40,  will  lift  the 
same  as  when  placed  at  1  in  10,  and  traveling  at  half  this  speed.  The  push  of  the  screw 
would  therefore  have  to  be  only  100  Ibs.,  and  it  would  require  16  horse-power  in  useful  effect 
to  drive  the  plane.  Adding  10  per  cent  for  the  slip  of  the  screw,  instead  of  20,  as  for  the 
lower  speed,  would  increase  the  engine-power  required  to  17'6  horse-power.  These  figures  of 
course  make  no  allowance  for  any  loss  by  atmospheric  friction.  Suppose  10  per  cent  to  be 
consumed  in  atmospheric  resistance  when  the  complete  machine  was  moving  30  miles  an 
hour,  it  would  then  require  42'2  horse-power  to  drive  it.  Therefore,  at  30  miles  an  hour  only 
3-84  horse-power  would  be  consumed  by  atmospheric  friction,  while  with  a  speed  of  60  miles 
an  hour  the  engine-power  required  to  overcome  this  resistance  would  increase  eight-fold,  or 
SO'7  horse-power,  which,  added  to  17*6,  would  make  48'1  horse-power  for  60  miles  an  hour. 

"  It  would  therefore  stand  as  follows : 

For  30  Miles  per  Hour. 

Power  required  to  overcome  angle  of  plane 32 

Power  required  to  compensate  for  loss  in  slip  of  screw 6-4 

Power  required  to  overcome  atmospheric  friction 3 '84 

Total  horse-power 42-24 

For  60  Miles  per  Hour. 

Power  required  to  overcome  angle  of  plane 16 

Power  required  to  compensate  for  loss  in  slip  of  screw 4 

Power  required  to  overcome  atmospheric  friction 30' 7 

Total  horse- power 50 •  7 

"If.  however,  the  element  of  friction  could  be  completely  removed,  the  higher  the  speed 
the  less  would  be  the  power  required.  My  experiments  go  to  show  that  certainly  as  much  as 
133  Ibs.  can  be  carried  with  the  expenditure  of  1  horse-power,  and  under  certain  conditions 
as  much  as  250  Ibs.  Some  writers  who  have  based  their  calculations  altogether  on  mathe- 
matical formulae  are  of  the  opinion  that  as  much  as  500  Ibs.  can  be  carried  with  1  horse- 
power. From  the  foregoing  it  would  appear  that  if  a  machine  with  its  motor  complete  can 
be  made  to  generate  1  horse-power  for  every  100  Ibs..  a  machine  might  be  made  which  would 
successfully  navigate  the  air.  After  studying  the  question  of  motors  for  a  good  many  years, 
and  after  having  tried  many  experiments.  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  greatest 
amount  of  force  with  the  minimum  amount  of  weight  can  be  obtained  from  a  high-pressure 
compound  steam-engine  using  steam  at  a  pressure  of  from  200  to  350  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch, 
and  lately  I  have  constructed  two  such  engines,  each  weighing  300  Ibs." 

The  whole  subject  of  aerial  navigation  has  been  very  fully  and  ably  discussed  by  Mr.  0. 
Obturate,  C.  E.,  from  whose  lecture,  delivered  before  the  students  of  Sibley  College,'  Cornell 
University,  the  foregoing  contains  many  abstracts.  Se  also  a  series  of  articles  by  Mr.  Chanute 
in  Ihe  New  York  Railroad  and  Engineering  Journal,  1891  ;  also  recent  files  of  the  French 
scientific  weekly,  La  Nature. 


10  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY. 

Aerostat :  see  Aerial  Navigation. 

AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY.  Machinery  for  agricultural  purposes  consists  in  : 
1.  Implements  for  clearing  land  and  for  ditching.  2.  Implements  for  preparing  land  for  the 
reception  of  seed.  3.  Implements  for  planting  the  seed.  4.  Implements  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  growing  plants.  5.  Implements  for  harvesting  crops.  6.  Implements  for  preparing 
the  crops  for  use.  7.  Implements  for  miscellaneous  agricultural  purposes. 

This  classification  conforms  to  the  course  of  the  farm  history  of  the  crop. 

For  information  relating  to  farm  appliances  associated  directly  with  tillage  and  crops  see 
CULTIVATORS;  COTTON-GIN;  CARRIAGES  AND  WAGONS;  CREAMERS;  DITCHING  MACHINES; 
ELEVATORS  ;  ENSILAGE  MACHINES  ;  HAY  CARRIER  ;  HAY  LOADER  ;  HAY-RAKE  :  HORSE-POWER  ; 
HARVESTING  MACHINERY;  (TRAIN  HARVESTER;  COTTON  LOGGER ;  STEAM  MILLING-MACHINES; 
GRAIN-MOWERS;  PLOWS;  POTATO-DIGGER;  PRESSES,  HAY  AND  COTTON;  PULVERIZERS  AND 
HARROWS;  REAPERS;  SEEDERS  AND  DRILLS;  SHEEP-SHEARING  MACHINE;  STALK  CUTTERS; 
STUMP  PULLERS;  THRESHING  MACHINE;  WATER  WHEELS. 

In  genera],  late  tendencies  are  toward  the  substitution  of  metals  for  wood,  and  of  rolled 
and  malleable  irons  and  rolled  steel  in  place  of  cast-iron  parts  in  agricultural-machine  struct- 
ure—a growing  change  especially  noticeable  in  plows,  harrows,  seeders,  harvest-machines,  and 
apparatus  for  handling  the  hay  crop.  This  movement  directs  the  effort  of  iron  and  steel 
workers  to  supplying  the  mach'ine  factories  with  the  special  forms  possessing  the  qualities 
specifically  required.  It  arises  partly  from  a  sensible  natural  limit  to  available  supplies  of 
suitable  hard  woods  in  necessary  .lengths,  and  partly  from  a  preference  among  farmers  for 
metallic  machines,  especially  in  those  types  which  are  subject  to  locomotion  while  working, 
as  the  joints  can  be  made  permanently  firmer  under  the  racking  strains  of  movement  over 
rough  farm-land.  It  has  stimulated  the  introduction  of  new  processes  in  the  great  iron  and 
steel  works  for  cold-rolling  special  forms,  and  for  producing  cast  steel  in  forms  convenient  to 
cut  up  into  the  shapes  for  making  the  tools  and  dies  used  in  the  agricultural-machine  fac- 
tories. Piping  is  also  largely  supplied  for  the  framework  of  some  of  the  harvest-machines. 
Brass,  aluminum-bronze,  babbitt,  and  other  composite-metal  low-friction  bearings  are  supplied 
for  the  better  grades  of  machines.  Steel  plates  are  rolled  into  rims  for  the  light  strong  sup- 
port-wheels, with  any  requisite  ribs,  nuptions,  or  other  deviations  rolled  in  to  save  factory 
work.  The  steel  spokes  of  machine  wheels  are  rolled,  tapering,  with  elliptic  section,  in  pairs 
butt  to  butt,  and  then  sawed  in  two,  for  single  spokes.  Steel  plates,  formerly  hand-ham- 
mered, are  rolled  to  ultimate  shape  for  use.  Steel  plowshares  are  cast  in  a  "  chill  " — that  is, 
a  piece  of  cold  metal  of  proper  form  is  so  introduced  in  the  sand  mold  for  the  casting  that 
the  part  or  parts  of  the  casting  which  are  to  be  hardened  come  in  contact  with  it  when 
poured  and  instantly  set,  forming  a  hard  skin  of  about  ^  in.  in  thickness  on  the  softer  and 
tough  interior  of  the  casting.  Tempered  wire  required  for  the  machines  is,  by  a  recent  in- 
vention, automatically  tempered  to  a  reliable  uniformity  during  the  process  of  drawing. 
Wheel  rims  and  tires  are  welded  instantaneously  by  the  heat  of  an  electric  current.  Cut 
nails  are  superseded  largely  in  machines  by  the  new  wire  nails,  round  and  of  even  diameter 
throughout  the  shank,  cheaper  in  production,  tougher  in  fiber,  more  tenacious  in  the  wood, 
and  of  lighter  weight  than  cut  nails  of  like  length.  By  what  is  known  as  "the  Fitchburg 
process"  of  rolling  metals,  extraordinary  shapes  are  rolled  out  in  one  operation,  very  cheaply 
where  considerable  quantities  of  a  given  shape  are  needed.  Spiral  springs  in  great  variety 
and  cold-pressed  nuts  with  the  hole  in  are  cheaply  produced  in  high  perfection.  Reaper  cut- 
ter-bars, harvester  frame-pieces,  and  plow-beams,  formerly  forged  out  by  hand,  are  rolled 
from  the  steel,  trimmed  with  heavy  boiler-iron  shears,  and  when  straightened  in  the  hydraulic 
press  are  ready  for  use.  The  work  formerly  done  expensively  and  slowly  upon  them  by  the 
milling-machine  is  now  rapidly  and  cheaply  accomplished  by  the  means  mentioned  and  with 
satisfaction  in  results  obtained.  Largely  owing  to  these  improvements,  introduced  during 
the  last  decade  (1881-1890),  the  farmer  buys  machines  affected  by  them  for  from  25  to  50  per 
cent  lower  price  than  ten  years  ago.  Another  noticeable  tendency  is  also  seen  toward  complete 
automatic  operation,  with  consequent  economy  of  expenditure  of  skill,  time,  and  money.  The 
farmers  of  English-speaking  countries,  where  this  class  of  invention  is  rife,  are  adapting  them- 
selves with  facility  to  the  new  methods  of  farming  by  machinery.  Improved  appliances  in 
the  hands  of  a  large  portion  of  the  farming  community  force  others  to  employ  like  facilities 
in  competition.  Their  use  is  steadily  tending  to  become  compulsory,  not  only  in  enterpris- 
ing but  in  all  other  industrial  regions  of  the  world,  under  penalty  of  famine  and  kindred 
calamity — for  the  important  and  essential  effect  is  not  really  so  much  "  labor-saving  "  as 
food-saving, 

Air  Blast:  see  Furnaces,  Blast.  Air,  Compressed,  Air  Drill:  see  Coal-mining  Ma- 
chines. Air  Engine:  see  Engines,  Air.  Air  (Inn:  see  Gun,  Pneumatic.  Air  Hammer: 
see  Hammers.  Power.  Air  Ship:  see  Aerial  Navigation.  Air  Torpedo  :  see  Torpedo. 

AIR,  COMPRESSED,  UTILIZATION  OF.  Air-compressed  Power  Supply.— The  dis- 
tribution of  power  by  means  of  compressed  air  carried  in  pipes  from  a  central  station  to 
several  distant  points  of  application  has  been  chiefly  adopted  in  mining  and  tunneling,  for 
which  purposes  it  has  manifest  advantages  over  all" other  systems  of  transmission.  It  has 
also  been  introduced  to  some  extent  as  a  means  of  supplying  power  to  small  consumers  in 
cities,  as  in  Birmingham,  England,  and  in  Paris.  The  largest  installation  of  the  kind,  the 
one  m  Paris,  is  described  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  July, 
1889,  from  which  we  extract  the  following :  "  The  works  of  the  Compagnie  Parisienne  de 
1  Air  Comprime,  started  in  1881  by  M.  Victor  Popp,  and  situated  in  Rue  St.  Fargeau.  Paris, 
distribute  through  some  40  miles  of  mains  compressed  air  at  a  pressure  of  90  Ibs.  per  sq.  in., 


AIR,   COMPRESSED,   UTILIZATION   OF.  11 

which  is  utilized  to  the  extent  of  nearly  3,000  horse-power.  The  special  object  in  the  first 
instance  was  to  establish  and  maintain  a  system  of  pneumatic  clocks  in  the  streets,  and  for 
this  purpose  mains  have  been  laid  over  a  considerable  portion  of  Paris.  The  means  em- 
ployed for  working  the  large  number  of  clocks  now  in  use  are  very  simple ;  they  comprise 
a  central  station,  the  necessary  mains  and  service-pipes,  and  the  clock-dials  with  the  special 
mechanism  employed.  At  the  central  station  a  clock  giving  standard  time  actuates,  at 
intervals  of  a  minute,  a  valve  connected  with  the  reservoir  of  compressed  air ;  during  the 
first  20  seconds  of  each  minute  the  valve  allows  the  air  to  pass  from  the  reservoir  into 
the  mains,  and  during  the  succeeding  20  seconds  it  permits  the  air  to  escape  from  the 
mains  into  the  atmosphere.  The  mains  consist  of  circuits  of  pipes  laid  from  the  central 
station,  and  connected  together  at  frequent  intervals,  in  order  to  multiply  the  means  of 
supplying  any  given  point.  The  pipes  are  of  iron  or  lead,  varying  in  diameter  from  1-06 
to  0-39  in.,  and  are  fitted  at  short  intervals  with  three-way  Valves,  accessible  from  the 
street  surface,  in  order  to  divide  the  system  into  small  sections  without  interfering  with 
the  service ;  the  small  service-pipes  leading  from  the  main  into  the  houses  are  of  lead,  and 
vary  from  0'39  to  0*16  in.  diameter.  The  special  device  attached  to  each  clock  consists  of 
a-small  air-receiver  or  bellows,  which  by  its  successive  dilatations  and  contractions  imparts 
a  regular  movement  to  a  small  connecting  rod  carrying  at  one  end  a  paul  that  works  into 
a  wheel  cut  with  60  teeth,  and  fixed  to  the  minute-hand ;  a  second  paul  prevents  the 
backward  movement  of  the  wheel.  The  hour-hand  is  driven  by  a  train  of  ordinary  gearing. 
Some  of  these  clocks  are  fitted  with  a  bell  for  striking  the  hours,  the  mechanism  being 
wound  up  gradually  by  each  stroke  of  the  bellows.  The  controlling  clock  at  each  station 
thus  acts  as  the  heart  of  the  system,  of  which  the  station  is  the  center,  opening  and 
closing  at  regular  intervals  the  valve  whereby  air  impulses  are  transmitted  through  the 
pipes  to  the  various  points  of  service.  At  the  St.  Fargeau  works  are  two  horizontal  steam- 
engines  of  Corliss  type,  made  by  Messrs.  Farcot,  of  St.  Ouen,  each  of  60  horse-power, 
either  of  which  is  capable  of  supplying  the  compressed  air  necessary  for  working  the  pneu- 
matic clocks  in  Paris,  while  the  other  stands  in  reserve.  The  actual  power  at  present  required 
for  this  purpose  at  the  works  is  35  horse-power,  which  is  distributed  through  40  miles  of 
mains  to  4,000  houses  in  the  first  and  second  arrondissements  of  Paris,  and  works  about  9,000 
clocks.  As  soon  as  it  was  found  that  the  power  produced  was  in  excess  of  that  required  for 
working  the  clocks,  the  distribution  of  compressed  air  was  commenced  upon  a  much  larger 
scale  for  the  transmission  of  power  to  various  parts  of  Paris,  and  for  a  great  variety  of 
purposes,  ranging  from  the  working  of  sewing-machines  to  the  driving  of  printing  machinery, 
electric-light  apparatus,  elevators,  and  other  appliances.  The  extension  of  the  works  was 
begun  in  1886,  and  the  building  now  containing  the  engines  and  compressors  is  a  rectangular 
structure  open  from  end  to  end,  328  ft.  long  and  66ft.  wide  ;  adjoining,  but  separate  from  the 
engine-room,  is  the  boiler-house,  66  ft.  long  and  36  ft.  wide.  The  structure  is  entirely  of  iron, 
the  spaces  between  the  standards  being  filled  in  with  brickwork.  The  first  engine  erected 
was  a  beam-engine  of  350  horse-power,  and  the  works,  as  completed  in  1887,  contain  also  a 
range  of  six  horizontal  compound  engines.  The  cylinders  of  each  compound  engine  are  22 
and  35  in.  diameter,  and  4  ft.  stroke;  each  engine,  when  working  at  50  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  at  the  effective  steam  pressure  of  85  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  is  capable  of  developing  400 
horse-power,  making  a  total  of  no  less  than  2.400  horse-power.  The  air-compression  cylinders, 
one  to  each  steam-cylinder,  are  23-62  in.  diameter,  and  are  placed  on  the  same  bed-plates  and 
driven  from  the  piston-rods  of  the  engines.  For  cooling  the  compressed  air  a  jet  of  water  is 
admitted  at  each  end  of  the  compressing  cylinder,  and  the  latter  is  drained  by  a  trap  at  each 
end.  The  compressed  air  is  delivered  from  the  compressors  through  spring-loaded  valves 
into  seven  cylindrical  receivers,  6i  ft.  diameter  and  41  ft.  long,  placed  end  to  end,  and  con- 
nected together  by  pipes  with  valves  and  by-passes  in  such  a  way  that  any  one  receiver  can  be 
isolated  for  repairs.or  other  purposes.  The  connecting  pipes  are  12  in.  diameter,  and  are  so  ar- 
ranged that,  if  it  is  found  desirable,  the  compressors  can  deliver  the  air  direct  into  the  mains. 
The  cost  of  water  is  sufficiently  high  in  Paris  to  render  it  desirable  that  as  much  economy 
as  possible  should  be  effected  in"  its  use.  The  condensing  water  from  the  engines  is  accord- 
ingly collected  and  pumped  up  to  the  top  of  a  large  rectangular  structure  which  is  provided 
with  seven  stages,  having  a  total  surface  of  about  32.000  sq.  ft. ;  in  flowing  over  this  large 
surface  the  water  is  cooled  on  its  way  to  the  reservoir  upon  the  top  of  which  this  cooler  is 
placed,  whence  it  is  brought  back  to  the  engines  to  be  used  over  again  :  so  that  only  the  water 
required  to  make  up  the  loss  due  to  evaporation  has  to  be  supplied  from  the  city  mains." 
A  subway  leading  from  the  works  gives  access  to  the  great  system  of  underground  tunnels 
by  which  Paris  is  traversed,  and  in  which,  as  far  as  possible,  the  mains  are  laid.  The  pipes 
are  of  cast-iron,  about  12  in.  inside  diameter,  and  the  two  lines  of  mains  are  each  laid 
in  duplicate.  As  in  the  case  of  the  pipes  for  working  the  pneumatic  clocks,  the  two  lines 
of  mains  are  connected  at  short  intervals  by  cross-pipes,  12  in.  diameter,  so  as  to  divide  up 
the  system  into  as  many  distinct  sections  as  possible,  and  thereby  to  render  the  supply  as  free 
from  the  dangers  of  interruption  as  is  possible.  The  branch  or  service  pipes  from  the  mains 
into  the  premises  of  the  consumers  vary  from  H  to  4  in.  diameter.  In  order  to  prevent 
interruption  of  the  service  during  repairs  or  addition  of  new  branches,  a  large  number  of 
valves  are  placed  upon  the  mains,  so  as  to  isolate  any  particular  lengths,  and  to  turn  the  flow 
of  compressed  air  into  special  directions.  Although  before  leaving  the  works  the  water  con- 
tained in  the  air  is  removed  in  a  separating  reservoir,  a  certain  quantity  passes  into  the  mains; 
and  unless  means  were  taken  to  remove  it,  considerable  trouble  might  result,  especially  in  the 
smaller  service  pipes.  Accordingly,  at  intervals,  and  especially  at  the  lowest  parts  of  the  lines, 


12  AIR,   COMPRESSED,   UTILIZATION   OF. 

automatic  separating  siphons  are  introduced,  which  appear  to  be  practically  efficient.  Before 
being  conducted  to  a  motor,  or  distributed  throughout  a  building  of  branch  pipes,  the  com- 
pressed air  flows  into  a  pressure  regulator,  which  reduces  the  pressure  to  a  certain  extent,  and 
maintains  it  uniform,  so  that  none  of  the  slight  variations  in  the  mains  may  be  transmitted  to 
the  motors.  From  the  regulator  the  air  flows  through  the  metre,  which  records  the  amount 
consumed,  and  after  passing  through  a  heating  chamber  it  is  delivered  direct  to  the  motor. 
Engines  of  special  design  are  employed  for  converting  the  power  of  the  compressed  air  into 
useful  work ;  they  vary  from  motors  for  driving  a  sewing-machine  up  to  engines  of  100  horse- 
power. The  air  is  supplied  at  a  main  pressure  of  from  45  to  70  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  and  at 
the  rate  of  1-5  centime  per  cubic  metre  reduced  to  atmospheric  pressure.  The  purposes  for 
which  the  compressed  air  is  used  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  classes,  as  follows:  First, 
during  the  day,  for  the  distribution  of  motive  power,  and  for  ventilation  and  cooling,  etc.; 
second,  at  night,  for  the  production  of  electricity  for  lighting ;  third,  continuously  during  the 
twenty-four  hours,  for  driving  the  pneumatic  clocks.  The  first  service  lasts  for  about  ten  hours, 
from  eight  in  the  morning  till  six  in  the  evening;  the  second  from  six  in  the  evening  till  two 
in  the  morning  in  summer,  and  in  winter  from  four  in  the  afternoon  till  five  in  the  morning, 
and  in  some  establishments  till  daylight.  Thus,  although  the  conditions  of  supply  change 
considerably  during  each  day,  and  the  demand  upon  the  central  station,  except  for  the  pneu- 
matic clocks,  is  very  variable,  the  work  of  the  condensers  and  air-compressors  is  continuous, 
and  the  variations  and  requirements  are  sufficiently  regular  for  determining  within  compara- 
tively narrow  limits  the  quantity  of  reserve  power  it  is  necessary  to  provide.  The  principal 
uses  for  which  the  compressed  air-supply  has  already  been  employed,  besides  driving  the  pneu- 
matic clocks,  include  driving  pneumatic  motors,  for  actuating  all  kinds  of  machinery,  wind- 
ing up  the  printing  telegraph  instruments  in  the  Paris  post-offices,  shifting  wine  from  one 
cask  to  another,  raising  water  from  the  basement  to  the  top  of  a  house,  ringing  pneumatic 
bells,  blowing  whistles,  emptying  cesspools,  ventilating  and  cooling  rooms,  working  lifts,  shear- 
ing metals,  cutting  stuffs,  etc.  Prof.  A.  C.  Elliott,  in  a  paper  on  the  "Compound  Principle 
in  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Compressed  Air"  (Engineering,  August  28,  1891,  p.  238), 
points  out  that  the  heat  dissipated  in  a  compressed-air  transmission  system  is  a  waste  product, 
but  the  loss  is  a  minimum  when  the  compression  is  performed  isothermally.  Isothermal 
compression,  however,  has  never  been  successfully  carried  out.  He  therefore  proposes  the 
principle  of  intermediate  cooling,  the  compression  being  effected  in  two  or  more  successive 
stages  by  a  compressor  with  a  corresponding  number  of  properly  proportioned  cylinders  con- 
nected by  receivers,  forming  a  mechanism  analogous,  as  the  case  may  be,  with  a  compound, 
a  triple,  or  a  quadruple  expansion  steam-engine,  worked,  as  it  were,  in  the  reverse  direction. 
For  the  purposes  of  an  example  designed  to  show  the  value  of  the  compound  principle,  the 
author  has  assumed  the  pressure  of  six  atmospheres  absolute,  and  made  allowance  for  all 
losses,  on  the  scale  that  Prof.  Kennedy  found  them  to  exist  in  the  present  machinery  at 
Paris  over  a  distance  of  four  miles.  The  efficiency  of  the  system  is  taken  to  be  the  ratio  of 
the  indicated  horse-power  in  the  motor-cylinders  to  the  indicated  horse-power  in  the  steam- 
cylinders  of  the  compressor.  The  following  were  quoted  in  the  paper  as  typical  results: 

Efficiency. 

Simple  compressor  and  simple  motor 39-1  per  cent. 

Compound  compressor  and  simple  motor 44-9       " 

Compound  compressor  and  compound  motor 50-7       " 

Triple  compressor  and  triple  motor 55-3       « 

Experiments  with  Air- Compressors.— Prof.  Riedler  has  made  experiments  with  a  view 
of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  Popp  compressed  air  system  in  Paris.  His  results  are 
described  at  some  length  in  Engineering,  March  13  and  20,"  April  10,  and  May  1,  1891-,  from 
which  we  abstract  the  following :  "  The  new  installation,  called  the  Central  Station  of  the 
Quai  de  la  Gare,  is  laid  out  on  a  very  large  scale,  the  total  generating  power  provided  for 
being  no  less  than  24,000  horse-power;  of  this  it  is  intended  that  8.000  horse-power  will 
be  in  operation  in  1891,  and  an  extension  of  10,000  horse-power  in  1892.  The  power  now 
in  course  of  completion  comprises  four  engines  of  2,000  horse-power  each.  Four  batteries 
ot  boilers  will  provide  steam  for  these  engines.  All  the  principal  mains  and  steam-pipes 
are  made  in  duplicate,  not  only  for  greater  security,  but  in  order  that  each  set  of  engines 
and  boilers  may  be  connected  interchangeably  without  delay.  The  Seine  supplies  an  ample 
quantity  of  water,  but  not  in  a  condition  either  for  feeding  the  boilers,  for  condensation,  or 
for  the  air-compressors.  Special  provisions  have  therefore  to  be  made  to  filter  the  water 
efficiently  before  it  is  used.  The  engines  are  vertical  triple-expansion  engines,  and  are  being 
constructed  by  MM.  Schneider  et  Cie.,  of  Creusot,  with  a  guarantee  of  coal  consumption  not 
to  exceed  1-54  Ib.  per  horse-power  per  hour.  There  are  three  compressing  cylinders  in  each 
et  ol  engines,  one  being  above  each  steam-cylinder.  Two  of  these  are  employed  to  compress 
ie  air  to  about  30  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  after  which  it  passes  into  a  receiver  and  i's  cooled.  It  is 
then  admitted  into  the  third  or  final  compressing  cylinder  and  raised  to  the  working  pressure, 
at  which  it  flows  into  the  mains."  Prof.  Riedler's  first  experiments  in  improving  the  efficiency 
of  air-compressors  were  made  with  one  of  the  Cockerill  compressors  in  use  at  the  St.  Fargeau 
station.  Ihese  compressors  were  designed  by  MM.  Dubois  and  Francois,  of  Seraing.  Two  of 
their  leading  features  were  the  delivery  of  the  compressed  air  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  possi- 
ble and  with  the  relatively  high  piston-speed  of  about  400  ft.  a  minute.  The  former  object 
is  attained  by  the  injection  of  a  very  fine  water-spray  at  each  end  of  the  water-cylinder  and 


AIR,   COMPEESSED,  UTILIZATION   OF. 


13 


its  rapid  removal  with  each  stroke.  The  free  as  well  as  the  compressed  air  flows  through  the 
same  passages,  one  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder ;  the  inlet-valves  being  placed  at  the  side  of  these 
passages,  and  the  outlet  or  compressed-air  valves  at  the  top,  the  compressed  air  entering  a 
chamber  above  the  cylinder,  common  to  both  valves,  and  passing  thence  to  the  reservoir. 
The  compressed  air-valves,  which  are  7  in.  in  diameter,  are  brought  back  sharply  to  their  seat 
at  each  stroke  by  a  small  piston  operated  by  compressed  air  flowing  through  a"  by-pass  from 
the  chamber.  In  the  modification  made  by"  Prof.  Riedler  in  one  of  the  Cockerill  compressors 
a  receiver  was  placed  under  the  two  compressing  cylinders.  The  first  stage  is  completed  in 
the  large  cylinder,  the  air  being  compressed  to  about  30  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. ;  from  this  it  is  dis- 
charged into  the  receiver,  where  it  meets  with  a  spray  injection  that  cools  it  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water.  The  final  stage  is  then  effected  in  the  smaller  cylinder,  which,  drawing  the 
air  from  the  receiver,  compresses  it  to  about  90  Ibs.,  and  delivers  it  to  the  mains.  Prof. 
Riedler  claims  to  have  obtained  some  very  remarkable  results.  He  says  that  the  waste  spaces 
in  his  modification  were  much  smaller  than  in  the  Cockerill  compressors,  while  the  efficiency 
of  the  apparatus  was  largely  increased.  The  actual  engine  duty  per  horse-power  and  per  hour 
was  raised,  as  a  maximum,  to  384  cub.  ft.  of  air  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and  compressed  to 
90  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  a  marked  increase  on  the  duty  of  the  compressors  in  use  at  the  St. 
Fargeau  station.  The  Cockerill  compressors  experimented  on  at  the  same  time  showed  a 
maximum  duty  of  306  cub.  ft.  of  air.  The  results  thus  obtained  were  so  satisfactory  that 
the  designs  were  prepared  for  the  great  compressors  to  be  operated  at  the  new  central  station 
on  the  Quai  de  la  Gare  by  the  2,000  horse-power  engines.  The  following  table  shows  the 
results  obtained  with  these  compressors.  The  final  air  pressure  in  all  cases  was  90  Ibs.  per 
sq.  in. : 

TABLE  I. — Performances  of  Air- Compressors. 


COMPRESSORS. 

Revolutions  of 
engine  par 
minute. 

Horse»power 
absorbed  by 

Efficiency. 

Amount  of  air 
passing  through 
inlet-valve,  each 
revolution. 

Quantity  of  air 
passing  through 
valves  per  hoar. 

Cubic  feet  of  air 
per  horse-power 
and  per  hour. 

COCKERILL  COMPRESSORS. 

40 

337 

•83 

46-61 

111-864 

281  83 

Diameter  of  cylinder,  25'98 

45 

353 

•83 

46  61 

125-844 

an-M 

in.  ;  stroke,  47  '24  in. 

40 

342 

•88 

49-43 

118-632 

296-65 

46 

377 

•85 

48-02 

132-534 

298-77 

38-67 

324 

•88 

50-14 

116-434 

306-19 

38-5 

327 

•89 

50-14 

115-818 

294-18 

38'6 

329 

•91 

50-84 

117-740 

305-13 

RIEDLER  COMPRESSORS. 

Diameter  of  low-pressure 

52 

615 

•985 

77  34 

241-300 

a^s-so 

cylinder,  42'91   in.  ;    di- 

60 

709 

•985 

76-98 

277-128 

353-50 

ameter    of    high-press- 

38 

422 

•985 

77  34 

176  330 

376-12 

ure   cylinder,  26'38  in.; 

39 

424 

•985 

77  34 

181-030 

384-60 

stroke,  47'24  in. 

The  mains  leading  from  the  St.  Fargeau  station  are  11-81  in.  diameter.  Those  from  the 
new  station  are  19-16  in.  Prof.  Riedler  investigated  the  losses  in  the  former  due  to  leakage, 
and  found  that  they  varied  between  2-2  per  cent  of  air  delivered  in  a  main  600  yds.  long  to 
63  per  cen6  in  a  main  18,500  yds.  long.  Experiments  were  also  made  on  loss  of  pressure  due 
to  resistance.  From  these  experiments  it  would  appear  that,  assuming  a  speed  of  21  ft.  per 
second,  a  loss  in  pressure  of  one  atmosphere  would  correspond  to  a  distance  of  20  kilometres  ; 
that  is  to  say,  a  central  station  could  extend  its  mains  on  all  sides  with  a  radius  of  20  kilome- 
tres, and  the  motors  at  the  ends  of  the  lines  would  receive  the  air  at  a  pressure  of  15  Ibs.  less 
than  at  the  central  station.  Prof.  Riedler  states  that,  as  an  actually  measured  result,  the  ve- 
locity of  the  air  through  the  mains  of  the  St.  Fargeau  system  is  19  ft.  8  in.  per  second,  and  that 
the  loss  in  pressure  per  kilometre  is  0'07  atmosphere.  From  this  it  follows  that,  including  the 
resistance  due  to  the  four  reservoirs,  and  other  obstructions  actually  existing,  an  allowance  of 
one  atmosphere  loss  on  a  14-kilometre  radius  is  ample.  By  increasing  the  initial  pressure  of 
the  air  much  better  results  can  be  obtained.  A  very  full  account  of  the  details  of  the  com- 
pressed air-plant  at  St.  Fargeau  station  is  given  in  Engineering,  vol.  xlvii,  1889,  pp.  163.  638, 
685,  and  715. 

Efficiency  of  a  Compressed  Air  Plant. — M.  Francois  (Engineering,  June  28,  1889)  has 
made  an  investigation  based  on  an  installation  of  6,000  indicated  horse-power  available 
for  compressing  the  air.  He  points  out  that,  in  order  to  obtain  a  cube  metre  of  air  at  an 
effective  pressure  of  85*3  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  the  engines  should  develop  1.207,911  foot-pounds 
in  the  steam-cylinders.  A  cube  metre  of  air  compressed  to  85-3  Ibs.  per  in.,  and  at  a  mean 
temperature  of  53°,  weighs  18*55  Ibs.,  and  involves  the  compression  of  242  cub.  ft.  of  air. 
To  this  work,  which  represents  the  expenditure  of  power  upon  the  air  delivered  into  the 
reservoir,  has  to  be  added  that  absorbed  by  the  flow  of  the  compressed  air  through  the  mains, 
the  velocity  of  which,  to  obtain  the  most  economical  results,  ought  not,  it  is  stated,  to  exceed 
26  ft.  per  second ;  the  experience  of  the  Paris  company  appears  to  have  established  this  rate, 
and  the  mains  are  made  sufficiently  large  to  maintain  it  as  closely  as  possible.  Under  such 
favorable  conditions  the  loss,  it  is  claimed,  will  not  exceed  7'1  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  involving  an 
additional  work  of  39.781  foot-pounds,  and  bringing  the  total  expenditure  upon  the  cube 
metre  of  air.  delivered  to  the  subscriber  at  85  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  to  1.207.911  plus  39,781.  making 
a  total  of  1,247,692  foot-pounds,  which  is  the  total  amount  of  work  that  has  to  be  exerted  by 
the  steam-engine — a  duty  which  will  be  always  guaranteed  by  any  responsible  maker  of  steam- 
engines  and  air-compressors.  M.  Francois  then  passes  on  to  consider  the  amount  of  useful 


14 


AIR,   COMPRESSED,  UTILIZATION   OF. 


work  that  can  be  obtained  from  this  cube  metre  of  air  delivered  into  a  suitable  motor,  that 
being  the  main  point  at  issue,  and  upon  which  the  economy  of  the  system  depends.  To  obtain 
the  highest  amount  of  duty,  M.  Popp  introduced  the  method  of  heating  the  air  before  allow- 
ing it  to  pass  into  the  motors,  as  has  already  been  explained,  and  in  many  cases  he  has  also 
adopted  the  practice  of  injecting  a  small  spray  of  water  into  the  air  so  heated.  It  is  stated 
that  a  number  of  experiments  made  at  the  St.  Fargeau  station  of  the  Compressed  Air  Com- 
pany showed  that,  if  the  efficiency  of  the  air  before  it  is  heated  be  represented  by  1,  this 
efficiency  will  be  raised  to  1'42  by  heating  the  air  to  200°  C. ;  and  if  a  jet  of  water  be  injected 
into  this  heated  air  the  efficiency  will  be  raised  to  1'90.  Making  a  full  allowance  for  waste 
arising  from  leakage,  lost  spaces  in  the  motor,  etc.,  the  cube  meter  of  air  compressed  to 
85  3  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  would  perform  useful  work,  equal  to  578,640  foot-pounds  in  the  cylinder 
of  the  air  motor;  if  heated  at  200°,  this  efficiency  would  be  raised  to  810,000  foot-pounds,  and 
with  the  water  injection  to  1,084,900  foot-pounds.  As  the  work  done  in  the  steam-cylinder 
was  1,247,692  foot-pounds,  it  follows  that  under  these  last  and  most  favorable  conditions 
the  efficiency  of  the  air  motor  would  rise  as  high  as  8'69  per  cent.  It  is  claimed  that  this 
large  increase  in  duty  is  secured  by  a  very  small  expenditure  of  fuel  and  water,  amounting 
to  no  more  per  horse-power  and  per  hour  than  -44  Ib.  of  coke  and  6'6  Ibs.  of  water.  For 
small  motors  the  air  is  heated  by  a  gas-jet,  as  we  have  already  explained.  If  the  above  figures 
are  correct,  the  expense  incurred  for  heating  and  water  injection  does  not  exceed  one  tenth 
of  a  penny  per  horse-power  and  per  hour.  From  the  experiments  made  at  St.  Fargeau,  M. 
Francois  h'as  prepared  the  following  table  : 

TABLE  II. — Efficiency  of  Compressed  Air  under  Different  Conditions. 


Cold  air. 

Heated  air. 

Heated  and 
taturated  air. 

1.  Weight  of  air  used  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour  in  the  cylin 

109'88 

78-500 

58-600 

2.  Volume  of  air  measured  at  the  exhaust  per  indicated  horse-power 
per  hour  in  the  cylinder  of  the  air  motor  cub.  ft. 

1,363 

974 

770 

3   Temperature  of  compressed  air  delivered  to  the  motor           deg.  C. 

20 

200 

200 

-55 

—50 

•462 

•648 

'869 

This  table  shows  that  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  the  compressed  air  delivered 
to  a  motor,  even  through  a  long  length  of  main,  will  give  out  more  than  85  per  cent  of  the 
work  that  was  exerted  to  compress  it.  In  investigating  the  actual  cost,  M.  Francois  assumes, 
however,  that  in  practice  the  duty  will  not  exceed  80  per  cent.  Prof.  Riedler  considers 
that  results  as  favorable  as  those  given  by  compressed  air  can  not  be  given  by  any  other 
means  of  transmission,  and  for  the  following  reasons :  Power  transmission  of  any  kind 
involves  several  conversions,  each  of  which  is  attended  with  a  certain  percentage  of  loss ; 
these  various  stages  are,  apart  from  the  generation  of  steam,  a  primary  motor ;  mechanical 
appliances  for  the  conversion  of  the  energy  of  this  motor  into  another  form  convenient  for 
transmission;  its  transmission  through  mains,  conductors,  or  by  other  means;  and  the  re- 
ceiving-engine which  is  worked  by  the  remnant  of  energy  distributed  from  the  central 
station.  Allowing  the  smallest  percentage  of  loss  in  each  of  these  stages,  a  percentage  which 
would  certainly  never  be  obtained  in  practice,  it  will  be  found  that  the  work  done  by  the 
second  or  receiving  motor  can  not  be  more  than  65  per  cent  of  that  developed  at  the  central 
station.  But,  by  using  compressed  air  which  has  been  heated  before  admission,  it  is  claimed 
that  an  efficiency  of  80  per  cent  has  been  obtained  under  circumstances  not  at  all  favorable. 
In  the  trials  of  the  "  Journeaux"  engines,  54  per  cent  efficiency  is  recorded,  with  a  consump- 
tion of  695'7  cub.  ft.,  although  this  engine,  when  worked  by  steam,  for  which  it  was  designed, 
showed  a  loss  of  25  per  cent.  The  losses  in  the  primary  engine,  in  the  compressors,  and  in 
the  mains,  have  to  be  included  in  the  difference  between  54  per  cent  measured  and  the  75  per 
cent  of  possible  efficiency  due  to  the  Journeaux  engine. 

Utilization  of  Compressed  Air  in  Small  Motors. — The  transmission  of  the  compressed  air 
is  attended  with  loss,  which  increases  with  length  of  the  transmission,  leakage,  etc.  In  the 
Popp  system  in  Paris  there  has  been  adopted  a  cast-iron  stove  lined  with  fire-clay,  heated 
either  by  a  gas-jet  or  by  a  small  coke-fire.  The  economy  resulting  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  table : 

TABLE  III.— Efficiency  of  A  ir-Jieating  Stoves. 


j 

1 

TEMPERATURE 

VALUE  OF  HEAT   ABSORBED 

I 

OF  AIR  IN  OVEN. 

PER  HOUR. 

NATURE  OF  STOVE. 

bo 

• 

y 

Admis- 
sion. 
Deg.  C. 

Exit. 
Deg.  C. 

Total. 

Per  square 
foot  of  heat- 
ing surface. 

Per  pound 
of  coke. 

Sq.ft. 

Cub.  ft. 

Calories. 

Calories. 

Calories. 

Cast-iron  box-stoves  ' 

14 

20,342 

7 

107 

17,900 

1,278 

2.032 

Wrought-iron  coiled  tubes  

14 
46-3 

11,054 

38.428 

7 
50 

184 
175 

17.200 
39,200 

1,2S8 
830 

2.058 
2.545 

The  results  given  in  this  table  were  obtained  from  a  large  number  of  trials.     From  these 
trials  it  was  found  that  more  than  70  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  calories  in  the  fuel 


AIR-COMPRESSORS. 


15 


employed  was  absorbed  by  the  air,  and  transformed  into  useful  work.  Whether  gas  or  coal 
be  employed  as  the  fuel,  the  amount  required  is  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  worth  consideration  ; 
according  to  the  experiments  carried  out  it  does  not  exceed  '09  kilogramme  per  horse-power 
and  per  hour,  but  it  is  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  in  regular  practice  this  quantity  is  not 
largely  exceeded.  Prof.  Weyrauch  claims  that  the  efficiency  of  fuel  consumed  in  this  way  is 
six  times  greater  than  when  "burned  under  a  boiler  to  generate  steam.  According  to  Prof. 
Riedler,  from  15  to  20  per  cent  above  the  power  at  the  central  station  can  be  obtained  by 
means  at  the  disposal  of  the  power-users ;  and  it  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  the 
heating  the  air  to  250°  C.,  as  an  increased  efficiency  of  30  per  cent  can  be  obtained.  The 
utilization  of  compressed  air,  especially  as  regards  the  motors,  is  still  in  a  very  imperfect 
stage,  and  a  great  deal  remains  to  be*  done  before  the  maximum  power  available  at  the 
motor  can  be  obtained.  Investigations  in  this  direction  for  a  considerable  time  to  come  must 
be  directed,  therefore,  toward  improving  the  design  and  construction  of  the  motors,  and  the 
treatment  of  the  air  at  the  point  of  delivery  into  the  engine.  A  large  number  of  motors  in 
use  among  the  subscribers  to  the  Compressed  Air  Company  of  Paris  are  rotary-engines  devel- 
oping 1  horse-power  and  less,  and  these,  in  the  early  times  of  the  industry,  were  extravagant 
in  their  consumption  to  a  very  high  degree ;  to  some  extent  this  condition  of  things  has  been 
improved,  chiefly  by  the  addition  of  better  regulating  valves  to  control  the  air  admission. 
The  efficiency  of  this  type  of  rotary  motors,  with  air  heated  to  50%  may  now  be  assumed  at 
43  per  cent — not  a  very  economical  result,  it  is  true,  and  one  that  may  be  largely  improved ;  yet 
it  is  evident  that  with  such  an  efficiency  the  use  of  small  motors  in  many  industries  becomes 
possible,  while,  in  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  constant  supply  of  cold  air,  economy 
ceases  to  be  a  matter  of  the  first  importance.  Small  rotary-engines  working  cold  air  without 
expansion  used  as  high  as  2,330  cub.  ft.  of  air  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour,  and  with 
heated  air  1,624  cub.  ft.  Working  expansively,  a  1-horse-power  rotary-engine  used  1,469 
cub.  ft.  of  cold  air,  or  960  cub.  ft.  of  heated  air;  and  a  2-horse-power  rotary-engine  1,059 
cub.  ft.  of  cold  air,  or  847  cub.  ft.  of  air  heated  to  about  50°  C.  The  following  table  shows 
the  results  of  test  of  a  small  rotary-engine  used  for  driving  sewing-machines,  and  indica- 
ting about  a  tenth  of  a  horse-power : 

TABLE  IV. —  Trials  of  a  Small  Riedinger  Rotary-Engine. 


NUMBERS  OF  TRIALS  

1 

2 

Initial  air  pressure 

Ib  per  sq  in 

86 

71  '8 

Initial  temperature  of  air  

deg  C 

+  12 

+  170 

Foot-pounds  per  second  measured  on  the  brake 

51  63 

34  -fft 

Revolutions  per  minute  

384 

300 

Consumption  of  air  for  one  horse-power  per  hour 

1  377 

988 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  obtained  with  a  ^-horse-power  variable  expansion 
Riedinger  rotary-engine.  These  trials  represent  the  best  practice  that  has  been  obtained  up 
to  the  present  time  (1890).  The  volumes  of  air  were  in  all  cases  taken  at  atmospheric  pressure : 

TABLE  V. — Trials  of  a  Small  %- Horse- Power  Riedinger  Rotary-Engine. 


NUMBERS  OP  TRIALS 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Initial  pressure  of  air  Ib.  per  sq.  ft. 
Initial  temperature  of  air                                                deg  C 

54 
170 

69'7 
180 

85 
198 

71-8 

8 

Final  temperature  of  air  " 
Revolutions  per  minute 

25 

SS5 

20 

350 

310 

25 
243 

Foot-pounds  per  minute  measured  on  brake  

271 

477 

376 

316 

Consumption  of  air  per  horse-power  and  per  hour  

883 

791 

900 

1,148 

AIR-COMPRESSORS.  Improvements  in  apparatus  for  compressing  air  have  recently 
been  made,  chiefly  in  the  direction  of  increasing  the  speed  of  rotation,  so  as  to  lessen  the  size 
and  consequent  first  cost  of  a  machine  to  do  a  given  quantity  of  work.  The  limitation  to  the 
speed  of  an  air-compressor  has  generally  been  that  of  the  motion  of  the  air-valves,  which 
automatically  open  and  shut  with  each  reversal  of  the  position.  To  overcome  this  limitation 
positive  air- valves  have  been  introduced,  which  receive  their  motion  by  mechanical  connection 
with  some  moving  part  of  the  engine.  Some  large  blowing-engines  for  Bessemer  steel-works 
have  been  thus  constructed.  The  problem  of  a  positive  valve-movement,  as  related  to  the 
suction-valves,  is  a  simple  one,  but  as  related  to  the  discharge-valves  is  difficult  of  solu- 
tion. The  difficulty  of  the  problem  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  discharge-valves  should 
not  open  at  a  fixed  point  in  the  stroke,  but  at  a  point  depending  upon  the  pressure  of  the 
air  carried,  upon  the  altitude  above  sea-level,  the  barometric  pressure,  and  other  factors  be- 
yond control. 

The  Rand  Drill  Company's  Compressor. — Figs.  1  and  2  illustrate  the  Halsey  gear  as  made 
by  the  Rand  Drill  Company,  which  is  designed  to  meet  the  varied  requirements  imposed  by 
the  discharge-valve.  It  retains  the  poppet-valve,  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  peculiarly 
adapted  to  'the  requirements  of  air-compressors,  for  the  reason  that  such  valves  have  little 
tendency  to  wear  leaky,  and,  moreover,  any  slight  leak  that  may  develop  is  easily  repaired  by 
hand-grinding.  Fig.  1  is  a  sectional  view  of  an  air-cylinder' with  the  gear  applied.  The 
principle  of  this  gear  is  very  simple.  The  usual  form  of  valve  chatters  because  the  air 


16 


AIR-COMPRESSORS. 


tries  to  pull  it  open  while  the  spring  tries  to  pull  it  shut,  and  first  one  and  then  the  other 
prevails.    This  device  dispenses  with  the  spring,  the  valve  being  opened  in  the  usual  way  by 


FIG.  1. — Rand  compressor. 


FIG.  2.— Rand  compressor. 


the  air-pressure,  and  closed  at  the  proper  time — the  end  of  the  stroke — by  a  positive  moving 
mechanism.  This  mechanism  being  released  when  the  valve  is  open,  the  valve  is  freed  from 
any  influence  tending  to  close  it,  and  it  hence  opens  to  its  full  width  and  stays  open.  The 
chattering  being  avoided,  it  becomes  practicable  to  give  the  valve  a  full  lift,  instead  of  the 

restricted  lift  necessary 
with  the  usual  spring- 
pressed  valve.  The  in- 
creased area  thus  ob- 
tained cuts  down  the 
number  of  valves  neces- 
sary for  the  required  pas- 
sageway—a single  inlet 
and  a  single  outlet,  giv- 
ing, under  usual  condi- 
tions, considerably  more 
opening  than  the  com- 
bined opening  of  the  nest 
of  valves  previously  used. 
The  longitudinal  section 
of  the  cylinder  is  shown 
in  Fig.  l",  from  which  the 
construction  of  the  valves 
is  seen,  these  valves  being 


operated  by  levers  A  and 
.#,  mounted  upon  a  com- 
mon rock  shaft,  as  shown 


FIG.  3.— Rand  Compressor. 

*u  ?'?:  2*  r.  T1?e  movement  of  these  levers  toward  the  observer  closes"theTuction-  valves  "at 
the  bottom  by  the  lever  J5,  while  the  movement  from  the  observer  closes  the  discharge- valve 
through  the  lever  A  and  rod  D.  Lever  C  is  connected  with  a  corresponding  lever  belonging 
to  the  opposite  end  of  the  cylinder  by  means  of  a  link-rod,  the  whole  system  of  levers  being 
thus  connected  and  moving  to- 
gether. The  most  peculiar  fea- 
ture of  the  device  is  that  it  ful- 
fills perfectly  the  varied  require- 
ments of  the  discharge- valve, 
without  any  additional  mechan- 
ism whatever.  The  movement 
of  the  levers  is  so  timed  that 
the  discharge- valve  is  at  liberty 
to  open  soon  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  compression- 
stroke,  the  actual  opening  oc- 
curring whenever  the  cylinder- 
pressure  equals  the  reservoir- 
pressure,  no  matter  what  that 
pressure  may  be,  nor  in  what 
part  of  the  stroke  the  equality 
of  pressure  is  established.  Fig. 
3  represents  another  gear,  of 


FIG.  4. — Sergeant  compressor. 


similar  appearance  but  different  principle,  made  by  the  Rand  Drill  Company.     In  this  gear 
Pin      are  retad'  b"t  during  the  time  any  given  valve  is  oen  the  springs  are  pressed 


u 

th^lf.rms  a'  *•  an£  their  tendency  to  close  the  valves  and  cause  chattering  is  thus 
.  his  gear  has  the  same  advantage  as  the  last  in  reducing  the  number  of  valves  re- 
quir  ,r  a  given  area  of  opening.  A  perspective  view  of  one  of  the  largest  Rand  compress- 
ors is  given  in  one  of  the  full-page  plates. 

Sergeant's  Concentrated  Piston  Inlet  Compressor  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  4.     Referring 


AIR-COMPRESSORS. 


17 


FIG.  5. 


to  the  letters  on  the  cut,  A  is  the  cold-water  inlet ;  B,  the  cold-water  discharge ;  C.  the  jacket 
drain ;  D,  oil-hole  for  oil-cup ;  E,  air-inlet ;  F,  air-delivery ;  G,  inlet-valves ;  J7,  delivery- 
valves  ;  J,  cold-water  jacket.  The  air-inlet  valves  are  large  metallic  rings,  Fig. 
5,  which  open  and  close  by  the  natural  momentum  given  to  the  valve  by  the 
movement  of  the  piston.  A  study  of  the  cut  will  show  that  when  the  piston  is 
moving  in  one  direction,  the  ring-valve  on  that  face  of  the  piston  which  is  to- 
ward the  direction  of  movement  is  closed,  while  that  on  the  other  face  is  open. 
This  is  as  it  should  be,  in  order  to  discharge  the  compressed  air  from  one  end  of 
the  cylinder  while  taking  in  the  free  air  at  the  other.  The  position  of  each  valve 
is  almost  instantaneously  reversed  at  the  point  when  the  stroke  is  reversed.  This 
change  of  position  takes  place  without  springs  or  other  influence  than  the  nat- 
ural momentum  of  a  piece  of  metal  which  is  carried  in  one  direction,  and  is  instantly  reversed. 
The  large  ring  air-inlet  valves  admit  of  a  large  area  of  inlet  with  but  a  small  throw  of  valve, 
thus  quickly  opening  a  large  supply  port,  and  enabling  a  compressor  to  run  at  high  speed 
without  a  reduction  of  efficiency,  and  with  safety  to  the  quick-moving  parts.  There  being 
no  inlet-valves  in  the  heads  of  the  air-cylinder,  the  space  otherwise  occupied  by  these  valves 
is  filled  with  cold  water,  thus  presenting  a  cooling  surface  to  the  compressed  air  near  the  end 
of  the  stroke  when  the  air  is  hottest.  This  gives  all  the  advantages  of  cooling  by  water-in- 
jection, without  the  disadvantages  incident  upon  bad  water,  and  the  necessity  of  moving  a 

body  of  water  back  and  forth  in  the  cylinder.  The  dis- 
charge-valves on  the  Ingersoll-Sergeant  compressors  are 
shown  in  Fig.  6.  Fig.  7  illustrates  the  unloading  device  and 
regulator  as  applied  to  the  Ingersoll-Sergeant  air-compressor. 
The  purpose  of  this  unloading  device  is  to  maintain  a  uniform 
air-pressure  in  the  receiver  and  a  uniform  speed  of  engine, 
notwithstanding  the  consumption  of  the  air,  and  to  do  this 
without  waste  of  power  or  attention  on  the  part  of  the  en- 
gineer. A  weighted  valve  of  safety-valve  pattern  is  attached 
to  the  air-cylinder,  and  is  connected  with  the  air-receiver, 
and  with  a  discharge-valve  on  each  end  of  the  air-cylinder, 
also  with  a  balanced  throttle- valve  in  the  steam-pipe.  When 
the  pressure  of  the  air  gets  above  the  desired  point  in  the 
receiver,  the  valve  is  lifted  and  the  air  is  exhausted  from  be- 


Fio.  6.— Sergeant  compressor. 


hind  the  discharge-valves,  thus  letting  the  compressed  air  at  full-receiver  pressure  into  the 
cylinder  at  both  ends,  and  balancing  the  engine.  At  the  same  instant  the  compressed  air 
is  exhausted  from  the  little  piston  connected  with  the  balanced  steam-valve  and  the  steam  is 
automatically  throttled,  so  that  only  enough  steam  is  admitted  to  keep  the  engine  turning 
around,  or  to  overcome  the  friction,  no  work  being  done.  When  the  compressor  is  un- 
loaded, it  is  evident  that  the  function  of  the  air-piston  is  merely  to  force  the  compressed 
air  through  the  discharge-valves  and  passages  from  one  end  to  the  other  until  more  com- 
pressed air  is  required,  this  being  indicated  by  a  fall  in  the  receiver-pressure.  The  weighted 


:r:cn  WITH  DISCHARSE 


FIG.  7.— Sergeant  compressor. 


valve  now  closes,  and  the  small  connecting-pipes  are  instantly  filled  with  compressed  air ;  the 
steam-valve  automatically  opens,  and  the^ compression  goes  on  in  the  regular  way.  Another 
function  of  this  device  is  to  prevent  the  compressor  from  stopping  or  getting  on  the  center. 
Direct-acting  compressors  are  liable  to  center  when  doing  work  at  slow  speed. 

The  Norwalk  Compound  Air- Compressor  is  shown  in  outline  in  Fig.  8.     The  lettering  on 
the  cut  refers  to  the  several  parts  as  follows :  A,  inlet  conduit  for  cold  air ;  JB,  removable 


18 


AIR-COMPKESSOKS. 


hoods  of  wood;  C,  inlet  valve;  D,  intake  cylinder;  E,  discharge-valve;  F,  mtercooler;  #, 
compressing  cylinder  ;  H,  discharge  air-pipe;  J,  steam-cylinder;  K,  steam-pipe;  L,  exhaust 
steam-pipe-  N,  swivel  connection  for  crosshead;  0,  air  relief -valve,  to  effect  easy  starting 


FIG.  8.— Norwalk  compressor. 

after  stopping  with  all  pressure  on  the  pipes ;  .1,  cold-water  pipe  to  cooling  jacket ;  2  and 
3,  water-pipe  ;  4,  water  overflow  or  discharge ;  5,  stone  on  end  of  foundation  ;  6,  foundation  ; 
7,  space  to  get  at  underside  of  cylinder;  8,  floor-line.  Arrows  on  the  water-pipes  show  the 
direction  of  water  circulation.  When  pistons  move  as  indicated  by  the  arrow  on  the  piston- 
rod,  steam  and  air  circulate  in  direction  shown  by  arrows  in  the  cylinders.  The  air  is  admitted 
to  the  cylinder  by  valves  of  the  well-known  Corliss  steam-engine  pattern,  which  have  a  posi- 
tive movement  from  the  main  shaft.  The  port  is  large,  is  clear  of  obstructions,  and  opens  di- 
rectly into  the  cylinder.  The  action  of  the  forces  in  a  compound  air-compressor  are  described 
as  follows :  The  large  air-cylinder  on  the  left  determines  the  capacity  of  the  compressor,  and 
for  illustration  its  piston  is  taken  at  100  sq.  in.  area.  The  small  air-cylinder  in  the  center  can 
have  an  area  of  33£  sq.  in.  The  small  piston  only  encounters  the  heaviest  pressure,  and  at  100 
Ibs.  pressure  the  resistance  to  its  advance  is  3,333' Ibs.  The  resistance  against  the  large  piston 
is  its  area  multiplied  by  the  pressure  which  is  caused  by  forcing  the  air  from  the  large  cylinder 
into  the  smaller  cylinder,  which  is  in  this  case  30  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  But  as  this  30  Ibs.  pressure 
acts  on  the  back  of  the  small  piston  and  hence  assists  the  machine,  the  net  resistance  of  forc- 
ing the  air  from  the  large  into  the  small  cylinder  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  area  of  the 
two  pistons  multiplied  by  the  30  Ibs.  pressure.  This  is  66|  by  30  and  equals  1,999  Ibs.  Hence 
1,999  Ibs.  the  resistance  to  forcing  the  air  from  the  large  into  the  smaller  cylinder  plus  3,333 
Ibs.  the  resistance  in  the  smaller  cylinder  to  compressing  it  to  100  Ibs.  is  the  sum  of  all  the 
resistances  in  the  compound  cylinders  at  the  time  of  greatest  effort.  This  is  5,333  Ibs.  The 
time  of  greatest  effort  is  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  or  when  the  engine  is  passing  the  center. 
In  the  single  machine  this  resistance  would  be  10,000  Ibs.,  hence  in  the  compound  machine 
the  maximum  strains  are  less  by  over  46  per  cent,  or  nearly  one  half.  By  thus  reducing  the 
work  to  be  done  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  more  work  is  done  in  the  first  part  of  the  stroke, 
and  the  resistance  is  made  nearly  uniform  for  the  whole  stroke. 

Water  Injection. — The  practice  of  injecting  water  into  the  air-cylinders  of  compressors  is 
now  generally  discontinued  by  American  makers.  The  relative  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  this  water  injection  are  thus  summed  up  by  William  L.  Saunders,  in  his  pamphlet  on 
Com  pressed- Air  Production  (1891) :  "-Two  systems  are  in  use  by  which  the  heat  of  compression 
is  absorbed,  and  the  difference  between  one  and  the  other  is  so  distinct  that  air-compressors 
are  usually  divided  into  two  classes:  1,  wet  compressors;  2,  dry  compressors.  A  wet  com- 
pressor is  that  which  introduces  water  directly  into  the  air-cylinder  during  compression.  A 
dry  compressor  is  that  which  introduces  no  water  into  the  air  during  compression.  Wet  com- 
pressors may  be  subdivided  into  two  classes :  1,  those  which  inject  water  in  the  form  of  a 
spray  into  the  cylinder  during  compression ;  2,  those  which  use  a  water-piston  for  forcing  the 
air  into  confinement.  The  injection  of  water  into  the  cylinder  is  usually  known  as  the  Col- 
ladon  idea.  Compressors  built  on  this  system  have  shown  the  highest  isothermal  results — 
that  is,  by  means  of  a  finely  divided  spray  of  cold  water  the  heat  of  compression  has  been 
absorbed  to  a  point  where  the  compressed  air  has  been  discharged  at  a  temperature  nearly 
equal  to  that  at  which  it  was  admitted  to  the  cylinder.  The  advantages  of  water  injection 
during  compression  are  as  follows :  1.  Low  temperature  of  air  during  compression.  2.  In- 
creased volume  of  air  per  stroke,  due  to  filling  of  clearance  spaces  with  water  and  to  a 
cold-air  cylinder.  3.  Low  temperature  of  air  immediately  after  compression,  thus  condens- 
ing moisture  in  the  air-receiver.  4.  Low  temperature  of  cylinder  and  valves,  thus  main- 
taining packing,  etc.  5.  Economical  results,  due  to  compression  of  moist  air  (see  Table  III), 
The  first  advantage  is  by  far  the  most  important  one,  and  is  really  the  only  excuse  for 


AIR-COMPRESSORS.  19 


water  injection  in  air-compressors.  The  percentage  of  work  of  compression  which  is  con- 
verted into  heat  and  loss  when  no  cooling  system  is  used  is  as  follows :  Compressing  to  2 
atmospheres,  loss  9-2  per  cent ;  to  3,  15'0  per  cent ;  to  4,  19-6  per  cent ;  to  5,  21-3  per  cent ; 
to  6,  24-0  per  cent ;  to  7,  26-0  per  cent ;  to  8,  27-4  per  cent.  We  see  that  in  compressing  air  to 
five  atmospheres,  which  is  the  usual  practice,  the  heat  loss  ife  21-3  per  cent,  so  that,  if  we  keep 
down  the  temperature  of  the  air  during  compression  to  the  isothermal  line,  we  save  this  loss. 
The  best  practice  in  America  has  brought  this  heat  loss  down  to  3-6  per  cent  (old  Ingersoll 
injection  air-compressor;,  while  in  Europe  the  heat  loss  has  been  reduced  to  1/6  per  cent. 
Introducing  water  into  the  air-cylinder  in  any  other  way,  except  in  the  form  of  a  spray, 
has  but  little  effect  in  cooling  the* air  during  compression.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a  most  fal- 
lacious system,  because  it  introduces  all  the  disadvantages  of  water  injection  without  its  iso- 
thermal influence.  Water,  by  mere  surface  contact  with  the  air,  takes  up  bat  little  heat,  while 
the  air,  having  a  chance  to  increase  its  temperature,  absorbs  water  through  the  affinity  of  air 
for  moisture,  and  thus  carries  over  a  volume  of  saturated  hot  air  into  the  receiver  and  pipes, 
which  on  cooling,  as  it  always  does  in  transit,  deposits  its  moisture  and  gives  trouble  through 
water  and  freezing.  It  is  therefore  of  much  importance  to  bear  in  mind  that,  unless  water 
can  be  introduced  during  compression,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  keep  down  the  temperature  of 
the  air  in  the  cylinder,  it  had  better  not  be  introduced  at  all.  Jf  too  little  water  is  intro- 
duced into  an  a'ir-cylinder  during  compression,  the  result  is  warm,  moist  air ;  and  if  too 
much  water  is  used,  it  results  in  a  surplus  of  power  required  to  move  a  body  of  water 
which  renders  no  useful  service.  Table  II  (p.  20)  deduced  from  Zahner's  formula  gives 
the  quantity  of  water  which  should  be  injected  per  cubic  foot  of  air  compressed  in  order 
to  keep  the  temperature  down  to  104°  P.  Objections  to  water  injections  are  as  follows  : 
1.  Impurities  in  the  water,  which,  through  both  mechanical  and  chemical  action,  destroy 
exposed  metallic  surfaces.  2.  Wear  of  cylinder,  piston,  and  other  parts,  due  directly  to 
the  fact  that  water  is  a  bad  lubricant,  and,  as  the  density  of  water  is  greater  than  that 
of  oil,  the  latter  floats  on  the  water  and  has  no  chance  to  lubricate  the  moving  parts. 
3.  Wet  air  arising  from  insufficient  quantity  of  water  and  from  inefficient  means  of  ejec- 
tion. 4.  Mechanical  complications  connected  with  the  water-pump,  and  the  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  proportioning  the  volume  of  water  and  its  temperature  to  the  volume,  tempera- 
ture, and  pressure  of  the  air.  5.  Loss  of  power  required  to  overcome  the  inertia  of  the  water. 
6.  Limitations  to  the  speed  of  the  compressor,  because  of  the  liability  to  break  the  cylin- 
der head-joint  by  water  confined  in  the  clearance  spaces.  7.  Absorption  of  air  by  water." 
Mr.  John  Darlington,  of  England,  gives  the  following  particulars  of  a  modern  air-com- 
pressor of  European  type :  "  Engine,  two  vertical  cylinders,  steam  jacketed  with  Meyer's  ex- 
pansion gear.  Cylinders,  16'9  in.  diameter,  stroke  39*4  in. ;  compressor,  two  cylinders, 
diameter  of  piston.  23'0  in. ;  stroke,  39-4  in. ;  revolutions  per  minute,  30  to  40 ;  piston- 
speed,  39  to  52  in.  per  second  :  capacity  of  cylinder  per  revolution,  20  cubic  ft. ;  diameter  of 
valves,  viz.,  four  inlet  and  four  outlet,  54-  in. ;  weight  of  each  inlet  valve,  8  Ibs. ;  outlet,  10 
Ibs. ;  pressure  of  air,  4  to  5  atmospheres.  The  diagrams  taken  of  the  engine  and  compressor 
show  that  the  work  expended  in  compressing  one  cubic  metre  of  air  to  4*21  effective  atmos- 
pheres was  38,128  Ibs.  According  to  Boyle  and  Mariotte's  law  it  would  be  37,534  Ibs.,  the 
difference  being  594  Ibs.,  or  a  loss  of  1*6  per  cent.  Or  if  compressed  without  abstraction  of 
heat,  the  work  expended  would  in  that  case  have  been  48,158.  The  volume  of  air  compressed 
per  revolution  was  0*5654  cubic  metre.  For  obtaining  this  measure  of  compressed  air,  the 
work  expended  was  21.557  Ibs.  The  work  done  in  the  steam-cylinders,  from  indicator  dia- 
grams, is  shown  to  have  been  25,205  Ibs.,  the  useful  effect  being  85|  per  cent  of  the  power 
expended.  The  temperature  of  air  on  entering  the  cylinder  was  50°  F.,  on  leaving  62°F., 
or  an  increase  of  12°  F.  Without  the  water-jacket  and  water  injection  for  cooling  the  tem- 
perature, it  would  have  been  302°  F.  The  water  injected  into  the  cylinders  per  revolution 
was  0*81  gallon."  We  have  in  the  foregoing  a  remarkable  isothermal  result.  The  heat  of 
compression  is  so  thoroughly  absorbed  that  the  thermal  loss  is  only  1*6  per  cent.;  but  the  loss 
by  friction  of  the  engine  is"  14-5  per  cent,  and  the  net  economy  of  the  whole  system  is  no 
greater  than  that  of  the  best  American  dry  compressor,  which  loses  about  one  half  the  theoreti- 
cal loss  due  to  heat  of  compression,  but  which  makes  up  the  difference  by  a  low  friction  loss. 
The  wet  compressor  of  the  second  class  is  the  water-piston  compressor.  In  America,  a 
plunger  is  used  instead  of  a  piston,  and  as  it  always  moves  in  water  the  result  is  more  satis- 
factory. The  piston,  or  plunger,  moves  horizontally  in  the  lower  part  of  a  U-shaped  cylinder. 
Water  at  all  times  surrounds  the  piston,  and  fills  alternately  the  upper  chambers.  The  free 
air  is  admitted  through  a  valve  on  the  side  of  each  column  and  is  discharged  through  the  top. 
The  movement  of  the  piston  causes  the  water  to  rise  on  one  side  and  fall  on  the  other.  As  the 
water  falls  the  space  is  occupied  by  free  air,  which  is  compressed  when  the  motion  of  the  piston 
is  reversed  and  the  water  column  raised.  The  discharge-valve  is  so  proportioned  that  some 
of  the  water  is  carried  out  after  the  air  has  been  discharged.  Hence  there  are  no  clearance 
losses.  Hydraulic  piston  compressors  are  subject  to  the  laws  that  govern  piston-pumps, 
and  are  therefore  limited  to  a  piston-speed  of  about  100  ft.  per  minute.  It  is  out  of  the 
question  to  run  them  at  much  higher  speed  than  this  without  shock  to  the  engine  and 
fluctuations  of  air-pressure  due  to  agitation  of  the  water-piston.  We  have  seen  that  it  is 
possible  to  lose  21'3  per  cent  of  work  when  compressing  air  to  five  atmospheres  without 
any  cooling  arrangements.  With  the  best  compressors  of  the  dry  system  one  half  of 
this  loss  is  saved  by  water-jacket  absorption,  so  that  we  are  left  with  about  11  per  cent, 
which  the  slow-moving  compressor  seeks  to  erase,  but  in  which  the  friction  loss  alone  is 
greater  than  the  heat  loss  which  is  responsible  for  all  the  expense  in  first  cost  and  in  main- 


AIR-COMPRESSORS. 


tenance  of  such  a  compressor,  but  which  really  is  not  saved  unless  water  injection  in  the  form 
of  spray  forms  a  part  of  the  system. 

Useful  Tables.— Mr.  Saunders,  in  his  pamphlet,  gives  the  following  useful  tables  relating 
to  the  compression  of  air : 

TABLE  I.— Heat  produced  by  Compression  of  Air. 


Atmospheres. 

PRESSURE. 

Volume  in  cubic  feet. 

Temperature  of  the  air 
throughout  the  process. 

Total  increase  of 

temperature. 

Pounds  per  square 
inch  above  a  vacuum. 

Pounds  per  square 
inch  above  the  atmos- 
phere (gauge  pressure). 

Degrees. 

De-rees. 

1   00 

14'70 

o-oo 

i-oooo 

60-0 

00  0 

I'lO 

16'17 

1'47 

0  9346 

74-6 

14  6 

1'25 

18-37 

3  67 

0-8536 

94-8 

34-8 

1*60 

22'OS 

7  35 

0-7501 

124  9 

64'9 

1"75 

25'81 

ll'll 

0-6724 

151-6 

91-6 

2'00 

29-40 

14-70 

0-6117 

175-8 

115-8 

2'50 

36  "70 

22'00 

0-5221 

218-3 

158-3 

3  00 

44-10 

29-40 

0-4588 

255  1 

195-1 

3  "50 

51  40 

36-70 

0-4113 

287-8 

227-8 

4'00 

58-80 

44-10 

0-3741 

317-4 

257-4 

5'00 

73-50 

58-80 

0-3194 

369-4 

309-4 

6'00 

88'20 

73  50 

0-2806 

414-5 

354  5 

7-00 

102-90 

88-20 

0-2516 

454  5 

391  5 

8'00 

117-60 

102-90 

0-2288 

490-6 

430-6 

9-00 

132  30 

117-60 

0-2105 

523-7 

463-4 

10-00 

147-00 

132-30 

0-1953 

554-0 

494-0 

15'00 

220-50 

205-80 

0-1465 

681-0 

621-0 

20-00 

294-00 

279-30 

0  1195 

781-0 

721-0 

25-00 

367  50 

352-80 

0-1020 

864-0 

804-0 

TABLE  II. — Injection  Water  required  to  keep  Temperature  constant. 


Weight  of  water  to  he  injected  at 

Weight  of  water  to  be  injected  at 

Compression  by  atmosphere 
above  a  vacuum. 

Heat  units  developed  in  1  Ib. 
free  air  by  compression. 

68°  F.  to  keep  the  temperature 
at  104°  F.  in  pounds  of  water 
and  per  pound  of  free  air. 

68°  F.  to  keep  the  temperature 
at  104°  F.  in  pounds  of  water 
for  1  cub.  ft.  of  free  air. 

2 

3-702 

0-734 

0-056 

3 

5-867 

1-664 

0-089 

4 

7-406 

1-469 

0-113 

5 

8-598 

1-701 

0-131 

6 

9-570 

1-891 

0-145 

7 

10-398 

2-063 

0-158 

8 

11-109 

2204 

0-167 

9 

11-740 

2329 

0-179 

10 

12  301 

2-440 

0-188 

11 

12-813 

2542 

0-195 

12 

13-278 

2  634 

0-202 

13 

13-706 

2-719 

0-209 

14 

14-102 

2-798 

0-215 

15 

14  471 

2-871 

0-223 

TABLE  III. — Shoiving  the  Relative  Quantity  of  Work  required  to  compress  a  given  Volume 
and  Weight  of  Air,  both  Dry  and  Moist ;  also  Relative  Volumes  with  and  without  Increase 
of  Temperature  from  Compression. 


£ 

COMPRESSION  AT  A  CON- 
STANT TEMPERATURE. 
MARIOTTE'S  LAW. 

COMPRESSION  WITH   INCREASE   OF 
TEMPERATURE. 

Loss  of 
work  in 
compress- 
ing one 
cubic 
metre  in 
kilogram- 
metres. 

Per- 
centage 
of  work 
of  com- 
pression 
converted 
into  heat 
and  lost. 

4" 
I 

""  .2 

£  3 
2  % 
£  ~ 

2 

"3 
2 

"3 

f| 

1  * 

FOOT-POUNDS 
TO  COMPRESS 
ONE  POUND 
AIR. 

Vol- 
ume. 

Work  of  compression. 

Vol- 
ume. 

Work  of  com- 
pression.    (Dry.) 

Temperatures. 
(Dry.) 

Ratio  of 
greater 
to  less 
temper- 
ature 
Abso- 
lute. 

Dry. 

With 
suffi- 
cient 
moist- 
ure. 

Cubic 
metres  in 
kilogram- 
metres. 

Cubic  feet 
in  foot- 
pounds. 

Cubic 

metres  in 
kilogram- 
metres. 

Cubic 

feet  hi 
foot- 
pounds. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

H 

i1 

By  increase  of 
temperature  al  me. 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

1 
2 
3 
4 

5 
0 
7 
8 
9 
10 

o-i 

05 
0  333 
0-25 
0-200 
0-167 
0  143 
0-125 
O'lll 

o-ioo 

Deduced 
from  3. 

Deduc'd 
from  6. 

IMS 
2,725 
3,618 
4,326 
4,959 
5,517 
6,021 

20 
85-5 
130  4 
165-6 
195-3 
220-5 
243-2 
263  6 
282 
299 

68 
186 
267 
330 
384 
429 
470 
506-5 
539  6 
570-2 

•o 

222 

•375 
•495 
•595 

•681 
•758 
•828 
•891 
•950 

'    733 
2,004 
3,477 
4,629 

5,ass 

7,040 

8,096 

6-092 
0-150 
0-196 
0-213 
0-240 
0-260 
0  274 

Fahr. 

68 
111 
135  5 
153-5 
167 
179 
190 

3:6 
4-0 

4-8 
5'4 
6'0 
6-4 

23,500 
37,000 
48,500 
58.500 
67,000 
75,000 

22,500 

a5,ooo 

45.000 
52,500 
(JO.OOO 
66.000 

•;:::: 

7,199 
11.356 
14,260 
16,580 
18,475 
20,038 
21,422 

1,468 
2,316 
2,909 
3,383 
3,768 
4,087 
4,370 

0-612 
0-459 
0-374 
0-320 

0-281 
0-252 
0-229 
0-210 
0-195 

7,932 
13,360 
17,737 
21,209 
24,310 
27,048 
29,518 

AIR-HOIST. 


21 


AIR-HOIST.  Fig.  1  shows  a  pneumatic  hoist  that  has  recently  been  introduced  by 
Pedrick  &  Ayer,  of  Philadelphia,  as  a  substitute  for  the  commonly  used  chain  hoists  and 
blocks.  The  cylinder  is  made  of  extra  strong  wrought-iron  pipe,  which 
is  carefully  reamed  out :  to  the  upper  head  is  fastened  an  ordinary  pipe- 
cap,  to  which  there  is  attached  a  hook  by  which  the  hoists  can  be  readily 
hung  to  the  overhead  trolley,  and,  if  desired,  the  hoist  can  be  transferred 
to  different  parts  of  the  shop.  The  lower  head  is  made  of  two  castings. 
one  of  which  is  screwed  to  the  end  of  the  cylinder  and  has  a  lug  to  re- 
ceive a  screw-end  of  the  valve  which  supplies  the  air  for  lifting.  By 
this  construction  the  piston  can  not  travel  below  the  air-opening,  which 
would  interfere  with  the  proper  operation  of  the  hoist.  To  this  lower 
ring  is  attached  a  head,  which  is  held  in  place  by  four  small  studs  and 
nuts ;  this  head  also  contains  the  stuffing-box  for  packing  around  the 
piston-rod ;  by  this  construction  the  lower  head  can  be  readily  removed 
for  an  examination  of  the  piston  and  its  packing  without  in  any  way 
disturbing  the  hoist.  The  piston  is  of  simple  design,  consisting  of  a 
cast-iron  head,  follower-plate,  and  a  leather  cup-ring,  which  adjusts  it- 
self to  the  cylinder  and  prevents  leakage.  The  lower  end  of  the  piston- 
rod  has  a  swivel,  which  allows  the  ring  to  be  turned  to  any  desired  po- 
sition in  the  rod.  The  piston  acts  but  one  way,  as  it  has  been  found 
that  the  weight  of  the  load,  or  even  the  piston-rod  and  head,  is  sufficient 
to  allow  it  to  drop  when  the  pressure  from  the  lower  end  is  relieved.  FIG.  1.— Air-hoist. 
The  valve  consists  of  but  four  parts :  a  body,  valve-stem,  cap,  and  small 
spring  to  keep  the  valve-stem  in  place,  which,  with  the  air  pressure,  keeps  the  stem  in  con- 
stant pressure  against  the  body.  One  side  of  the  valve  is  provided  with  a  lug,  by  which  it 
is  attached  to  the  lower  ring  of  the  hoist.  The  power  is  supplied  by  an  air-compressor,  one 
of  which  is  6"  to  8"  in  diameter,  with  a  storage  tank  of  about  3'  in  diameter  and  5'  long, 
which  will  supply  sufficient  compressed  air  for  12  to  18  hoists  having  average  use.  For 
special  purposes,  such  as  where  the  hoist  is  used  constantly,  a  less  number  can  be  supplied  by 
a  compressor  of  the  above  size.  Hose  is  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  the  wrought-iron  pipe, 
the  length  of  the  hose  depending  upon  the  floor  area  which  it  is  desired  the  hoist  should  cover. 
About  80  Ibs.  air  pressure  is  generally  used. 

AIR-TOOL.  McCoy's  pneumatic  tool  consists  of  an  automatic  hammer  reciprocated  in  a 
cylinder  by  compressed  air,  or  by  steam,  which  delivers  a  rapid  succession  of  blows  upon  a 
tool-holder  into  which  are  inserted  suitable  bits  or  chisels  for  cutting  wood,  metal,  or  stone. 
It  embraces  in  its  details  valves  for  admitting  and  exhausting  the  air,  a  provision  for  relieving 
the  cylinder  and  piston  from  injurious  friction,  and  for  cushioning  the  piston  and  holding  the 
bit-socket  in  position,  to  facilitate  its  easy  and  steady  application  to  the  work.  It  has  been 
applied  successfully  to  the  calking  of  steam-boilers,  the  chasing  of  silverware,  repousse- 
work,  stone-dressing,  and  sculpture.  The  Committee  on  Science  and  Arts  of  the  Franklin 
Institute  made  a  report  recommending  the  award  of  a  medal  for  this  invention,  and  from 
their  report  (Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  July,  1889)  we  extract  the  following  descrip- 
tion:  "As  exhibited  to  the  committee  it  was  working  at  a  very  high  speed,  from  the  pitch 
of  the  sound  probably  more  than  5,000  strokes  per  minute.  The  instrument,  as  complete 
and  connected  ready  for  action,  appears  in  the  form  of  a  short  cylinder,  having  a  flexible  tube 
centrally  connected  to  one  end,  through  which  compressed  air  or  steam  is  supplied  at  a 

pressure  of  about  40  Jbs.  per  sq.  in.,  and 
centrally  at  the  other  end  a  guide  or 
sleeve,  in  which  the  tool-holder  recip- 
rocates ;  into  the  socket  of  the  tool- 
holder  the  cutting  bits,  chisels,  or  ham- 
mers are  inserted.  Upon  disengaging 
a  latch  by  pressing  a  button,  the  ends 
of  the  cylindrical  case  can  be  unscrewed, 
and  inside  of  the  shell  or  cover  is  found 
a  working  cylinder,  with  grooves  on  its 
outer  surface  and  passages  leading  from 
the  flexible  tube  at  the  center  of  the 
upper  cylinder-head  to  one  slotted  cham- 
ber in  the  outside  of  the  working  cylin- 
der, and  terminating  in  inlet  ports  lead- 
ing into  the  interior  of  the  working  cyl- 
inder. Another  slotted  chamber  in  the 
external  surface  of  the  working  cylin- 
der leads  from  reduction  ports  through  the  cylinder,  and  terminates  in  a  channel  leading  to 
the  atmosphere  through  the  head  of  the  cylinder.  The  piston  is  made  long  and  fits  fluid- 
tight,  but  with  a  minimum  of  friction  in  the"  cylinder.  In  the  piston,  but  working  transverse- 
ly through  it.  is  a  piston-valve,  which  is  worked  by  the  pressure  of  air  admitted  through 
the  port  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder  and  exhausted  through  other  ports  in  the  same  manner  a? 
the  piston-valves  of  some  steam-pumps,  the  proper  ports  in  the  cylinder  being  covered  and 
uncovered  by  the  motion  of  the  piston.  The  valve  consists  of  a  cylindrical  plug  having  two 
grooves  formed  therein  with  a  collar  between  them,  and  fits  in  a  cylindrical  transverse  seat  in 
the  piston,  and  covers  and  uncovers,  at  proper  intervals,  admission  and  exhaust  ports  leading 


FIG.  1.— Air-tool. 


ALARMS,   LOW-WATER. 


FIG.  2.— Air-tool. 


to  the  ends  of  the  working  cylinder.    The  piston  is  not  attached  or  connected  to  the  tool- 
holder,  but  strikes  upon  it  as  a  ram  or  hammer ;  a  spiral  spring  placed  around  the  tool-holder, 

and  resting  with  one  end  on  a  shoulder  in  the  guide,  and  with 
the  other  end  on  a  shoulder  in  the  tool-holder,  serves  to  retract 
the  tool-holder;  the  upper  end  of  the  tool-holder  has  an  ex- 
panded head,  fitting  loosely  in  the  head  of  the  working  cylin- 
der, and  receives  the  blows  or  strokes  of  the  piston.  As  the 
piston  rises  and  falls  in  the  cylinder  it  closes  the  ports  and 
incloses  a  portion  of  the  air  between  it  and  the  ends  of  the  cyl- 
inder, and  thus  forms  an  elastic  cushion  and  relieves  the  ope- 
rator of  the  shock  of  reversing  the  motion  of  the  piston.  The 
piston  is  surrounded  constantly  by  a  film  of  air  under  pressure, 
and,  while  not  leaking  appreciably,  seems  to  sustain  little  or  no 
wear,  notwithstanding  the  rapid  motion.  The  effect  of  the 
rapid  and  short  strokes  on  cutting  tools  upon  stone,  wood,  and 
metal  is  to  produce  a  smoother  surface  than  has  heretofore 
been  practicable  with  chisels,  and  with  a  celerity  unapproached 
by  other  means.  It  has  a  capacity  to  reach  into  angles  inac- 
cessible to  rotative  tools."  Fig.  1  shows  sectional  views  of 
the  machine,  and  Fig.  2  its  adaptation  as  a  repousse  machine. 
ALARMS,  LOW-WATER.  Several  new  alarms  for  steam-boilers,  to  give  a  signal  when 
the  water  goes  below  its  normal  level,  have  been  placed  on  the  market  within  a  few  years. 

Those  described  below  are  selected  to  show  the  different 
principles  on  which  they  are  based : 

The  Hardwick  Automatic  Low-  Water  Alarm,  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  is  explained  as  follows :  When  the  water  gets 
below  the  bottom  of  pipe  F,  the  steam  rushes  up  into 
copper  pipe  S,  causing  it  to  expand  and  raising  the  bell- 
crank  JJ,  blowing  the  whistle  A,  which  will  continue  to 
blow  until  the  surface  of  water  X  raises  above  the  bot- 
tom of  pipe  F.     There  is  an  opening  in  lower  casting  Z>, 
shown  in  cut  at  E,  connecting  the 
steam  space  of  boiler  with  iron  pipe 
6\  connecting  with  whistle  A.     The 
advantage  of  having  two  pipes  and 
two  separate  openings  in  castings  D, 
is  that  the  copper  pipe  B  having  no 
opening  at  top  will  not  draw  any 
scum  from  surface  of  water  X,  and 
leaving  nothing  but  clean  dry  steam 
in  iron  pipe  G.    The  sounding  of  the 
whistle  can  be  stopped  by  slacking 
the  set  screw  in  lever  H.     The  same 
result  can  be    attained  by  pouring 
cold  water  on  the  tube  JS,  which  will 
quickly  contract  the  tube  after  the 
water  has  reached  above  the  pipe  F. 
The    "  Reliable  "    Low  -   Water 
Alarm  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.     It  is  at- 
tached to  the  boiler  at  such  height 
that,    when    the    water  -  level     has       FIG.  2.— Alarm, 
reached  the  lowest  point  which  it  is 
to  be  allowed  to  fall,  the  float  G  will  be  supported  so  that  its  lever-arm  is  just  in  contact 
with  the  valve-rod  which  admits  steam  to  the  whistle. 

ALLOYS.  Prof.  Thurston's  researches  on  copper-tin  and  copper-zinc  alloys  are  referred 
to  in  Vol.  I  of  this  work.  His  later  researches,  on  the  triple  alloys  of  copper,* tin,  and  zinc, 
have  since  been  published  (see  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Board  appointed  to  test  Iron,  Steel,  and 
other  Metals,  and  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  Civ.  Engrs.,  1881).  The  following  table  is  an  abstract  of 
the  tests  in  tension  made  by  Prof.  Thurston  : 

Strength  and  Ductility  of  Triple  Alloys  of  Copper,  Tin,  and  Zinc. 


FIG.  1.— Alarm. 


PERCENTAGE  OF 

POUNDS  STRESS  PER   SQUARE 
INCH  AT 

PER  CENT   FINAL 

Copper. 

Tin. 

Zinc. 

Elastic  limit. 

Ultimate  resistance. 

Stretch. 

Contraction. 

100 

11,620 

19,872 

0-05 

10 

11.000 

12.760 

0-005 

8 

100 
90 

"w" 

14,400 
15,740 

27,800 
26,860 

0-065 
0-037 

15 
13'5 

20 

32,980 

0-004 

30 

5,585 

5.585 

62 

38 

688 

688 

48 

2,555 

2.555 

39 

61 

2,820 

2,820          1          

ALLOYS. 


23 


PERCENTAGE  OF 

POUNDS  STRESS  PER  SQUARE 
INCH  AT 

Copper. 

Tin. 

Zinc. 

Elastic  limit. 

Ultimate  resistance.               Stretch. 

Contraction. 

29 
21 

10 

71 
79 
90 
100 
100* 

loot 

10  J 

"2  3" 

...     . 

"8;75 
21-25 
23  75 
23-75 
2-30 
50 
10 
20 
10 
5 
10 
0-50 
2-50 
7-50 
12-5 
12  5 

"20 
37-5 
39  5 

1,684 
4,337 
6,450 
3,500 
2,760 
3,500 
31.000 
33.  140 
48,780 
67,600 
29,200 

'6:07' 
0-36 

.'6:36' 
4-6 
324 
31  0 
40 
75 

si-  4" 

29-2 
20-7 

r 

"o'-ie' 

0-39 
0-69 
0-36 

is" 

75 
47 
86 

46" 
29-5 
8 
16 

43" 
38 
28 
17 
11  5 

f" 

"5:4 
4 
25 
6-6 
11 

"3" 

3,500 
1,670 

2,000 
10,000 

90* 
80 

58-2 
100 
90-56 
81-91 
71-20 
60  94 
58-49 
49-66 
41-30 
32-94 
20-81 
10  30 

'76'  "  ' 
57-50 
45 
66-25 
58-22 
10 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
55 
60 
72-50 
77-50 
85 

942 
17-99 
28-54 
38-65 
41-10 
50-14 
58-12 
66-23 
77-63 
88-88 
100 
20  25 
21-25 
31-25 
10 
39-48 
40 
30 
15 
20 
20 
10 
44-50 
37-50 
2 
10 
2  50 

10.000 
9,000 
16.470 
27.240 
16,890 
3,727 
1,774 
9,000 
14.450 
4,050 
18,000  (?) 
1.300 
2J96 
3.294 
30.000  (?) 
5,000  (?) 
21,78C  (?) 

32,670 
30,510 
41.065 
50.450 
30.990 
3,727 
1,774 
9,000 
14,450 
5,400 
31,600 
1,300 
2,196 
3,294 
66,500 
9,300 
21,780 
3,765 
33,140 
34,960 
82,830 
08,900 
57,400 
88,700 
36.000 
34,500 

3-13 
07 
0  15 

6  31* 
32 
1-6 
9-4 
49 
37 
0-7 
1-3 

24,000  (?) 
12.000  (?) 
12,000  (?) 
88.000 

22.000 
11.000 
20.000 
12,000  (?) 

*  Queensland. 


t  Banca. 


J  Gun-bronze. 


The  values  of  the  elastic  limit  in  the  lower  part  of  the  table  were  not  well  defined. 

Bronzes  with  High  Tensile  Strength. — The  following  table  gives  the  analysis  of  a  number  of 
alloys  which  have  recently  come  into  extensive  use.  They  are  described  at  length  by  F.  Lyn- 
wood  Garrison  in  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  June  and  July,  1891 : 


Tobin 
bronie. 

Tobin 
bronie. 

Damascus 
bronie. 

Phosphor 
bronie. 

Deoxidized 
bronie. 

Aluminum 
bronie. 

Manganese 
bronze. 

Delta 

metal. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Copper  
Zinc  

61-20 
37-44 

59 
38-40 

77 

79-70 

82-67 
3-23 

91  26 

88-64 
1  57 

About  60 
34  to  44 

Tin  

0'91 

2'16 

10-50 

10 

12-40 

8  70 

1  to2 

Lead 

0'18 

0  31 

12-50 

9'50 

2'14 

0'57 

0'30 

Iron  

0-36 

O'll 

0  10 

0-22 

0-72 

2  to  4 

Aluminum     

7-41 

Manganese 

Silicon  

0  93 

Arsenic     

0  04 

Phosphorus  



None 

0-80 

0-005 

0-06 

Trace 

100-09 

99-98 

100 

100 

100-545 

1W49 

99-93 

Xos.  1  and  2.  Tobin  bronze,  claimed  to  have  a  tensile  strength  of  79,600  Ibs.  per  sq.  in., 
elastic  limit  54.250  Ibs.,  and  elongation  12  to  17  per  cent  with  best  rolled  bars.  Xo.  3.  Da- 
mascus bronze,  said  to  wear  slower  as  a  bearing  metal,  than  the  phosphor  bronze.  Xo.  4. 
Xo.  4.  Phosphor  bronze,  bearing  metal  used  by  the  Pa.  R.  R.  Co.  Xo  .  5.  Deoxidized 
bronze.  Is  largely  used  for  wood-pulp  digesters,  as  it  is  found  to  resist  the  action  of  sodium 
hyposulphite  and  sulphurous  acid.  Xo.  6.  Aluminum  bronze,  used  for  firing  pins,  by  the 
Colts  Fire- Arms  Co.  Xo.  7.  Manganese  bronze,  used  for  propellers,  cast  metal,  averages  35,- 
000  to  43.000  Ibs.  elastic  limit.  63.000  to  75.000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  13  to  22  per  cent  elongation 
in  5  in.  When  rolled  the  elastic  limit  is  about  80,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  tensile  strength  95.000 
to  106.000  Ibs.,  and  elongation  12  to  15  per  cent.  These  results  have  been  obtained  from 
manganese  bronze  made  by  B.  H.  Cramp  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia.  Xo  manganese  is  present 
in  the  alloy,  but  it  may  have  been  used  as  a  flux  in  casting  it.  Xo.  8.  Delta  metal,  formerly 
known  as  Sterro  metal,  and  practically  the  same  as  Aich's  metal.  When  cast  in  sand  it  has 
a  tensile  strength  of  about  45.000  Ibs/per  sq.  in.  and  about  10  per  cent  elongation.  When 
rolled  a  tensile  strength  of  60.000  to  75.000  Ibs.,  and  9  to  17  per  cent  elongation.  Prof. 
Thurston's  strongest  bronze  was  found  to  have  the  composition  :  copper  55,  tin  0'5,  zinc  44-5. 
Tobin's  alloy,  one  of  the  strongest  of  the  triple  alloys  contained :  copper  58'2,  tin  2-3,  zinc 


ALLOYS. 


39-5.  This  alloy,  like  the  strongest  bronze,  is  capable  of  being  forged  or  rolled  at  a  low  red 
heat  or  worked  cold.  Rolled  hot,  its  tenacity  rose  to  79,000  Ibs.,  and  when  moderately  and 

™™Silico™  Bronw.— This  alloy  appears  to  have  been  invented  about  the  year  1881,  by  M 
Weiller  of  Angouleme.  In  experimenting  with  phosphor-bronze  wire  for  telegraphic  and 
telephonic  use  he  found  its  conductivity  was  insufficient  for  telegraphic  purposes,  so  he  de- 
vised the  alloy  now  called  silicon  bronze.  The  silicon  copper  compound,  from  which  the 
silicon  bronze  is  produced,  is  made  by  melting,  in  a  graphite  crucible,  a  certain  amount  ol  cop- 
per with  a  mixture  of  fluor-silicate  of  potassium,  produced  glass,  chloride  of  soda,  carbonate 
of  soda  and  chloride  of  calcium.  It  is  claimed  that  the  silicon  and  sodium  in  this  mixture 
absorb  all  the  oxides  present  in  the  mass.  The  action  of  the  silicon  on  the  copper  is  similar  to 
that  of  phosphorus.  It  acts  as  deoxidizer,  and  the  silica  formed  being  an  acid,  is  a  valuable 
flux  for  any  metallic  oxides  remaining  unreduced.  Wire  made  from  this  alloy  is  said  to  have 
the  same  resistance  to  rupture  as  phosphor-bronze  wire,  but  with  a  much  higher  degree  of 
electric  conductivity  According  to  Preece,  phosphorus  has  a  most  injurious  influence  on 
the  electric  conductivity  of  bronze,  and  silicon  bronze  is  far  superior.  It  also  seems  that, 
although  wires  made  from  this  alloy  are  very  much  lighter  than  ordinary  wires,  they  are 
of  equal  strength.  According  to  E.  Van  der  Ven,  phosphor-bronze  has  about  30  per  cent, 
silicon  bronze  70  per  cent,  and  steel  10*  per  cent  of  the  electrical  conductivity  of  copper. 

Remarkable  Aluminum  Alloys.— Some  recent  experiments  at  Chalais,  in  France,  were 
made  on  alloys  of  the  composition  given  in  the  following  table.  The  alloys  were  rolled  into 
sheets  1  mm.  thick,  and  strips  5  mm.  in  width  were  cut  and  tested  : 

An  interesting  peculiarity  of  these 


Al,  per  cent. 

Cu,  per  cent. 

Sp.  gr. 
calculated. 

Sp.  gr. 
determined. 

Tensile  strength 
in  pounds  per 
•q.fn. 

100 
98 
96 
94 
92 

'2 

4 
6 

8 

2:78 
2  90 
3  02 
3-14 

2'67 
2-71 

2'77 
2'82 
2  85 

26,535 
43,563 
44,130 
54,773 
50,374 

alloys  is  the  large  divergence  between 
the  specific  gravities  calculated  from 
those  of  their  constituents  and  the  spe- 
cific gravities  directly  determined. 
Each  2  per  cent  of  copper  might  be  ex- 
pected to  raise  the  specific  gravity  by 
0-12,  whereas  the  actual  observed  in- 
crease is  only  about  0-05.  It  will  also 
be  observed  that  the  addition  of  only  2 
per  cent  of  copper  increases  the  tensile  strength  from  26,535  to  43,563  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  while 
6  per  cent  more  than  doubles  it.  Thus  it  appears  that  an  alloy  of  aluminum  having  double 
the  tensile  strength  of  aluminum  itself  can  be  made  which  is  less  than  one  twentieth  heavier. 
The  tensile  strength  and  other  properties  of  the  Cowles  aluminum  bronze  and  brass  are  shown 
in  the  following  table,  taken  from  the  official  report  of  tests  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
Engineer-in-Chief  of  the  Navy  at  the  Watertown  Arsenal : 

Tests  made  on  Specimens  of  Aluminum  Bronze  and  Brass. 


Mark  or 
number. 

APPROXIMATE  COMPOSITION. 

Diameter. 

Tensile  strength 
per  sq.  in. 

Elastic  limit 
per  sq.  in. 

Eloc  {ration 
in  15  ing. 

Reduction 
of  area 

1C 

Cu  91'5,  Al  7'75,  Si  0'75.  .  . 

nches. 

•875 

Lb«. 
60,700 

Lbs. 
18000 

Per  cent. 
23'20 

Per  cent. 
30'70 

7  C 

Cu  88'66,  Al  10  Si  T33  

'875 

66000 

27  COO 

8'80 

7'80 

9  C 

Cu91'5  Al  7'75  Si  075 

'875 

67600 

24  000 

13 

21'62 

IOC 
11  C 

Cu  90,  Al  9,  Si  1  
Cu  63,  Zn  33-33,  Al  3J  Si  0'&3  

•875 

'875 

72.830 
82200 

33,000 
60  000  to  73  000 

2'40 
2'33 

5-78 
9'88 

13  C 

Cu  92  Al  7'5  Si  0'5 

•875 

59  100 

19  000 

15"  10 

3  '592 

9D 

Cu  91'5,  Al  775,  Si  075  

•900 

53000 

19000 

6'20 

15  '50 

10  D 

Cu  90,  Al  9,  Si  1  

'890 

69930 

33000 

1  33 

3'30 

11  D 

Cu  63,  Zn  33-33.  Al  3"33,  Si  0'33  

•900 

70.400 

55.000 

0  40 

4'33 

13  D 

Cu  92  Al  7'5  Si  0'5 

1'930 

46  550 

17  000 

7'80 

19"19 

Manganese  Bronze. — Mr.  Garrison,  in  the  paper  above  mentioned,  says :  "  For  several  years 
past,  manganese  bronze  appears  to  have  been  made  in  large  quantities 'by  Mr.  P.  M.  Parsons, 
of  the  Manganese  Bronze  Company,  Deptford,  England.  Dr.  Percy  was'probably  the  first  to 
observe  the  action  of  the  manganese  in  combining  with  the  traces  of  cupreous  oxide  of  copper 
present  in  the  copper,  deoxidizing  the  same,  and  thus  making  the  metal  denser  and  stronger. 
Mr.  Parsons,  I  believe,  adds  the  manganese  in  the  form  of  ferro-manganese.  A  portion  of 
the  manganese  in  the  alloy  thus  added  is  utilized  in  the  deoxidation  above  mentioned,  while 
the  remainder,  together  with  the  iron,  becomes  permanently  combined  with  the  copper.  The 
manganese  once  alloyed  with  the  copper  is  not  driven  off  by  remelting,  but  usually  the  quality 
of  the  bronze  is  improved  by  a  subsequent  remelting.  The  Manganese  Bronze  Company  roll 
and  forge  the  alloy  hot.  According  to  Mr.  Parsons,  its  mean  tensile  strength  as  delivered 
from  the  rolls  is  about  67,200  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  with  an  elastic  limit  of  49,000  to  51,000  Ibs.  per 
sq.  in.,  and  an  elongation  of  from  23  to  25  per  cent.  In  cold  rolling  its  ultimate  tensile 
strength  rises  to  about  90,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  with  an  elastic  limit  of  67,200  to  76,000  Ibs.  per 
sq.  in.,  and  an  elongation  of  10  per  cent.  If  annealed,  the  ultimate  tensile  strength  is  very 
little  altered,  but  the  elastic  limit  is  reduced  about  half,  and  the  elongation  increased  to  30  or 
35  per  cent." 

Copper  Steel. — Messrs.  Schneider  &  Co.,  of  Creusot,  France,  have  patented  a  process  which 
consists  in  making  in  a  blast-furnace,  a  cupola  or  a  reverberatory  furnace,  castings  containing 
a  variable  amount  of  copper  with  a  less  variable  proportion  of  the  ordinary  elements.  These 


ALLOYS. 


25 


castings  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  copper  steel  for  armor-plate,  ordnance,  projectiles, 
steam  cylinders,  etc.,  these  articles  being  hardened  or  tempered  in  oil.  The  copper  ore  is 
mixed  with  the  charge  in  the  cupola,  or  else  copper  filings  can  be  mixed  with  the  coal  to 
form  a  copper  coke,  which  is  then  used  in  melting  the  iron  in  a  blast-furnace  or  cupola. 
Copper  compounds  may  also  be  melted  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  with  a  mixture  of  iron  or 
steel  under  a  layer  of  anthracite  to  prevent  oxidation.  In  a  paper  published  in  the  Journal 
of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  in  1889,  Messrs.  E.  J.  Ball  and  Arthur  Wingham  describe 
some  experiments  on  copper  steel  made  by  adding  to  a  very  pure  basic  Bessemer  steel  varying 
percentages  of  an  alloy  of  iron  and  copper.  This  alloy  was  produced  by  melting  pig-iron,  and 
then  adding  to  the  molten  metal  oxide  of  copper.  The  carbon  and  silicon  acted  as  the  reduc- 
ing agents  for  the  cupric  oxide,  and  the  copper  was  thus  introduced  into  the  iron  by  a 
"  reaction,"  and  not  by  simple  solution.  A  part  of  the  other  impurities  in  the  pig-iron  was 
also  burned  out  in  this'manner,  and  a  metal  was  obtained  which  had  the  following  composition : 

Per  cent. 

Copper 7-550 

Carbon 2-720 

Manganese -290 

Silicon -036 

Phosphorus -130 

Sulphur -190 

This  metal  was  bright,  white  in  color,  crystalline,  and  very  hard,  but  it  did  not  offer  any 
great  resistance  to  impact.  Varying  quantities  of  it  were  then  melted  down  with  the  basic 
Bessemer  steel  previously  mentioned.  The  products  of  these  fusions  were  allowed  to  cool 
very  slowly,  the  crucibles  in  which  the  fusions  had  taken  place  being  permitted  to  remain  in 
the  furnace  until  quite  cold.  Test-pieces,  1  X  i  X  -&  in.,  were  then  cut,  and  submitted  to 
tensile  tests  in  a  multiple  lever  testing  machine,  the  test-pieces  being  first  carefully  annealed. 
In  the  alloys  produced  in  this  manner,  the  percentages  of  carbon  and  of  copper  necessarily 
increased  simultaneously.  The  following  table  shows  the  percentages  of  copper  and  of 
carbon  in  the  metals  tested,  and  the  results  of  the  tensile  tests  of  the  various  specimens : 


TEST-  PIECE  NUMBER. 

Copper,  per  cent. 

Carbon,  per  cent. 

Tensile  strength, 
tons  per  sq.  in. 

1  

0  847 

0-102 

18'3 

2  

2  134 

0  217 

36  6 

3 

3'630 

0'380 

47  6 

4  

7-171 

0'712 

56 

The  total  elongation  of  the  test-pieces  was  also  noted,  but  owing  to  their  small  size  the 
results  are  not  trustworthy.  The  elongations  observed,  however,  were  as  follows :  Test-piece, 
(1)  10  per  cent ;  (2)  5  per  cent ;  (3)  5  per  cent ;  (4)  no  visible  extension,  or  the  extension  was 
but  very  slight.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  copper  steel  is  greater  than  that  of  steels  of  like 
percentage  of  carbon  which  contain  no  copper.  Copper  also  increases  the  strength  of  iron 
and  of  low  carbon  steel,  as  appears  from  the  following  results : 


DESCRIPTION. 

Copper,  per  cent. 

Carbon,  per  cent. 

Tensile  strength, 
tone  per  sq.  in. 

Original  steel    . 

0'133 

29 

Test-piece  5 

4  10 

0'183 

43  2 

Test-  piece  6  

4  44 

Trace 

34-3 

Mr.  F.  Lynwood  Garrison,  in  his  paper  read  before  the  Franklin  Institute  in  1891,  says : 
"  Copper-steel  alloys  are  almost  too  new  to  determine  for  what  particular  purposes  they  would 
be  most  useful.  It  is  stated  in  the  Schneider  patents  that  they  are  useful  for  making  ord- 
nance, armor-plate,  rifle-barrels,  and  projectiles,  and  also  for  girders  for  building  purposes, 
and  ship-plates.  In  view  of  the  remarkable  elastic  limit  of  copper  steel,  while  maintaining  at 
the  same  time  a  very  considerable  elongation,  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  its  use  became 
very  extensive  in  the" arts.  It  has  the  advantage  of  aluminum,  nickel,  and  tungsten  steels,  in 
being  cheaper  to  manufacture.  In  many  of  the  steel  alloys,  the  alloying  metals  have  to  be 
added  to  the  steel  when  they  are  combined  with  iron,  which  iron  must  necessarily  contain 
some  carbon — such  an  increase  of  carbon  in  the  alloy  is  nearly  always  undesirable.  Thus,  for 
instance,  if  the  manganese  in  manganese  steel  could  be  added  as  metallic  manganese  and  not 
as  ferro-manganese  (which  must  contain  carbon),  we  would  probably  obtain  better  results  with 
manganese  steel.  The  undesirable  increase  of  carbon  in  this  way  is  avoided  in  making 
copper  steel,  for  as  we  have  seen,  the  copper  can  be  added  in  the  metallic  state,  or  as  an  ore." 

Alloys  for  Electrical  Conductors. — Mr.  Edward  Weston  has  made  the  remarkable  dis- 
covery that  the  metal  manganese,  besides  imparting  a  very  high  electrical  resistance  to 
alloys  into  which  it  enters,  as  a  constituent,  has  the  property  of  rendering  the  electrical  resist- 
ance of  such  alloys  nearly  or  quite  constant  under  varying  conditions  of  temperature.  He 
therefore  uses  such  alloys  for  the  coils  or  conductors  of  electrical  measuring  instruments.  He 
prefers  to  use  ferro-manganese  in  the  proportion  of  copper  70  parts  and  ferro-manganese  30 
parts  or  thereabouts.  This,  however,  is  capable  of  being  rolled  and  drawn,  and  is  made  up 


26 


ALLOYS. 


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into  wire  in  the  usual  way.  He  has  also  dis- 
covered another  alloy,  the  resistance  of  which 
is  lowered  by  an  increase  of  temperature,  and 
he  utilizes  the  same  in  making  coils,  etc.,  for 
such  electrical  instruments  as  should  have  a 
constant  resistance  under  variable  temperature, 
by  making  one  part  of  the  coil  of  said  alloy  and 
the  other  portion  of  German  silver,  or.  some 
other  of  the  ordinary  metals.  In  such  case,  the 
resultant  resistance  is  constant,  provided  the 
change  in  the  two  parts  of  the  coil  be  equal  as 
well  as  opposite.  This  alloy  preferably  consists 
of  65  to  70  parts  of  copper,  25  to  30  parts  of 
ferro-manganese,  and  2|  to  10  parts  of  nickel. 

Ferro-chrome  and  Chrome  Steel. — M.  Brust- 
lein, of  Holtzer  &  Co.'s  steel  works  in  the  Loire, 
France,  read  a  paper  before  the  International 
Congress  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy,  in  Paris,  in 
1889,  on  ferro-chrome  and  chrome  steel,  from 
which  we  extract  the  following : 

"  There  may  be  introduced  into  steel  vary- 
ing proportions  of  chromium  of  which  the  effect 
is  to  increase  the  resistance  of  steel  without 
diminishing  the  tenacity  corresponding  to  its 
carbon  contents,  and  even,  it  appears,  to  slight- 
ly increase  that  tenacity.  In  consequence,  it 
is  possible  to  obtain,  with  a  resistance  given  to 
the  rupture,  a  bending  corresponding  to  that 
which  is  obtained  with  a  steel  that  is  ordinarily 
less  resisting  or  softer ;  that  is  to  say,  in  de- 
scribing it,  as  a  metal  which,  well  handled,  off- 
ers a  very  great  security.  At  the  forge,  an  in- 
got of  chrome  steel  may  be  worked  with  no 
more  difficulty  than  with  ordinary  steel  of  the 
same  hardness ;  nevertheless,  when  hot,  it  offers 
a  greater  resistance  to  deformation.  When 
an  ingot  is  cut  hot  by  a  cutter,  the  metal  is 
more  ductile ;  the  point  of  contact  between  the 
two  pieces  is  flattened  out  into  a  thin  web  be- 
fore breaking.  It  is  influenced  by  the  fire  even 
less  than  an  ordinary  steel  of  the  same  hard- 
ness. In  the  cold,  when  worked  on  a  lathe  or 
with  a  plane,  a  steel  containing,  for  instance,  2 
per  cent  of  chromium  is  always  a  little  harder 
to  cut  than  ordinary  steel ;  nevertheless,  if  it 
is  properly  reheated  the  difference  is  not  great. 
Steel  that  contains  less  chromium,  even  when 
it  has  1  per  cent  carbon,  may  be  worked  with- 
out difficulty  on  a  lathe.  Tempered  with  oil 
or  with  water,  the  temper  penetrates  more  deep- 
ly than  in  a  carbonized  steel  of  the  same  degree 
of  carbonization  without  chromium.  Chrome 
steel  offers  a  resistance  to  shock  and  to  fracture 
which,  for  the  time  being,  makes  it  preferable 
for  a  certain  number  of  uses.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  once  made  into  ingots,  it  can  be 
manipulated  like  ordinary  steel,  which  is  an  ad- 
ditional advantage.  But  it  offers  in  its  manu- 
facture difficulties  of  a  special  nature.  In 
a  state  of  fusion,  which  takes  place  at  high 
temperatures,  the  chromium  which  it  contains 
has  a  tendency  to  take  up  oxygen  from  the  air. 
In  such  case  there  is  not  formed,  as  is  the  case 
with  oxide  of  manganese,  a  liquid  and  fusible 
silicate  lighter  than  steel,  which  comes  rapidly 
to  the  surface,  but  instead  there  is  caused  the 
decarbonization  of  the  steel  and  the  oxidation 
of  the  iron,  giving  rise  to  a  creamy  layer,  of 
which  the  little  fragments  rest  readily,  not  only 
on  the  edges  of  the  casting-pot,  but  even  in  the 
mass  of  the  metal.  The  portions  thus  oxidized 
will  not  unite  under  any  working,  no  matter 
to  what  temperature  they  may  be  heated.  For 


ALLOYS. 


27 


the  same  reason,  the  layer  of  oxide  which  is 
formed  on  heating  the  ingots  or  bars  is  strong- 
er and  adheres  closer  than  in  ordinary  steel, 
and  does  not  easily  dissolve  in  borax.  Also, 
chrome  steel  only  unites  with  difficulty  or  not 
at  all,  according  to  the  amount  of  chromium 
it  contains.  For  these  reasons  chrome  steel 
will  require  most  delicate  treatment,  and  it 
will  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  use  it  in  the 
manufacture  of  sheeting." 

The  accompanying  table  (page  26),  showing 
analyses  and  physical  properties  of  several 
samples  of  chrome  steel,  is  abridged  from  a 
table  in  Howe's  Metallurgy  of  Steel : 

Nickel  Steel. — Steel  containing  a  small  per 
centage  of  nickel  has  recently  been  found  to 
possess  the  valuable  property  of  increased  ten- 
sile strength  and  hardness,  as  compared  with 
ordinary  steel  of  the  same  carbon  percentage, 
without  the  decrease  of  ductility  which  in  car- 
bon steel  accompanies  increase  of  tensile 
strength.  It  has  been  found  to  be  especially 
valuable  for  armor-plate,  as  shown  by  experi- 
ments made  at  the  Annapolis  proving-ground, 
and  also  in  Europe  in  1890  and  1891  (see  Trans. 
U.  S.  Naval  Institute,  1891).  The  manufac- 
ture and  properties  of  nickel  steel  are  thus  de- 
scribed in  a  paper  by  Mr.  James  Riiey,  of  Glas- 
gow, published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Iron  and 
Steel  Institute,  May,  1889  :  "  The  alloy  can  be 
made  in  any  good  open-hearth  furnace  work- 
ing at  a  fairly  good  heat.  The  charge  can  be 
made  in  as  short  a  time  as  an  ordinary  '  scrap ' 
charge  of  steel — say,  about  7  hours.  Its  work- 
ing demands  no  extraordinary  care ;  in  fact, 
not  so  much  as  is  required  in  working  many 
other  kinds  of  charges,  the  composition  of  the 
resulting  steel  being  easily  and  definitely  con- 
trolled. If  the  charge  is  properly  Worked 
nearly  all  the  nickel  will  be  found  in  the  steel 
— almost  none  is  lost  in  the  slag,  in  this  respect 
being  widely  different  from  charges  of  chrome 
steel.  The  steel  is  steady  in  the  mold,  it  is 
more  fluid  and  thinner  than  ordinary  steel,  it 
sets  more  rapidly,  and  appears  to  be  thorough- 
ly homogeneous".  The  ingots  are  clean  and 
smooth  in  appearance  on  the  outside,  but  those 
richest  in  nickel  are  a  little  more  '  piped '  than 
are  ingots  of  ordinary  mild  steel.  There  is  less 
liquation  of  the  metalloids  in  these  ingots, 
therefore  liability  to  serious  troubles  from  this 
cause  is  much  reduced.  Any  scrap  produced 
in  the  subsequent  operations  of  hammering, 
rolling,  shearing,  etc.,  can  be  remelted  in  mak- 
ing another  charge  without  loss  of  nickel.  No 
extraordinary  care  is  required  when  reheating 
the  ingots  for  hammering  or  rolling.  They 
will  stand  quite  as  much  heat  as  ingots  having 
equal  contents  of  carbon  but  no  nickel,  except, 
perhaps,  in  the  case  of  steel  containing  over 
25  per  cent  of  nickel,  when  the  heat  should  be 
kept  a  little  lower  and  more  care  taken  in 
forging.  If  the  steel  has  been  properly  made, 
and  is  of  correct  composition,  it  will  hammer 
and  roll  well,  whether  it  contains  little  or  much 
nickel ;  but  it  is  possible  to  make  it  of  such 
poor  quality  in  other  respects  that  it  will 
crack  badly  in  working,  as  is  the  case  with  or- 
dinary steel.  In  endeavoring  to  obtain  a  cor- 
rect idea  of  the  value  or  usefulness  of  alloys 
of  nickel  and  iron  or  steel,  we  shall  find  it  of 
use  to  consider  their  behavior  under  tensile 
and  other  mechanical  tests,  and  if  these  were 


28  ALUMINUM   OR  ALUMINIUM. 

sufficiently  numerous,  our  task  would  not  be  a  very  difficult  one.  If  it  be  remembered,  how- 
ever that  in  the  composition  of  nickel  steel  we  have  present  nickel  and  manganese  and  iron, 
with  carbon,  silicon,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  and  that  even  a  very  small  difference  in  the 
contents  of  some  of  these  has  a  considerable  influence  on  the  character  of  the  alloy,  it  will  be 
evident  that  several  series  of  tests  (involving  a  very  large  number  of  separate  experiments) 
are  necessary  to  a  full  investigation.  For  instance,  we  all  know  the  effect  of  very  small  in- 
crements of  carbon  in  steel;  hence  to  estimate  correctly,  the  influence  of  the  addition  of 
nickel,  the  carbon  (as  well  as  manganese  and  other  contents)  should  remain  constant ;  then 
that  contents  of  nickel  should  be  constant  and  the  carbon,  etc.,  varied  ;  further,  that  the  sub- 
sequent treatment  of  all  the  products  should  be  identical  in  every  particular." 

In  the  table  given  on  page  27  there  are  several  points  of  interest  which  it  is  desirable  to 

1.  In  No.  6  test  the  carbon  present  (0*22)  is  low  enough  to  enable  us  to  make  comparison 
with  ordinary  mild  steel,  which  would  give  (when  annealed)  results  about  as  follows :  E.  L.  16 
tons,  B.  S.  30  tons,  extension  23  per  cent  on  8  in.,  and  contraction  of  area  48  per  cent.    There- 
fore in  this  case  the  addition  of  4'7  per  cent  of  nickel  has  raised  E.  L.  from  16  to  28  tons, 
and  the  B.  S.  from  30  up  to  40'6  tons,  without  impairing  the  elongation  or  contraction  of 
area  to  any  noticeable  extent.     In  No.  3  test  somewhat  similar  results  are  found,  with  an 
addition  of  only  3  per  cent  of  nickel,  combined  with  an  increase  of  the  carbon  to  0'35  per  cent. 

2.  In  Nos.  2  and  5  tests  there  is  extreme  hardness,  due  in  part  to  the  large  quantity  of 
carbon  present,  but  also  to  the  presence  of  nickel  in  addition.     In  No.  9  test,  with  the  carbon 
very  much  reduced,  this  characteristic  of  hardness  is  intensified  by  the  increase  of  nickel  to 
10  per  cent.     This  quality  of  hardness  obtains  as  the  nickel  is  increased,  until  about  20  per 
cent  is  reached,  when  a  change  takes  place,  and  successive  additions  of  nickel  tend  to  make 
the  steel  softer  and  more  ductile,  and  even  to  neutralize  the  influence  of  carbon,  as  is  shown 
in  No.  11  test,  in  which  there  is  25  per  cent  of  nickel  and  0'82  per  cent  of  carbon. 

3.  In  the  25-per-cent  nickel  steel  there  are  some  peculiar  and  remarkable  properties.     In 
the  unannealed  specimen  the  B.  S.  is  high  and  the  E.  L.  moderately  so ;  but  in  the  annealed 
piece,  in  which  the  B.  S.  remains  good,  the  E.  L.  is  very  greatly  reduced,  down  to  one  third 
of  the  B.  S.     Again,  in  both  cases,  the  ductility  as  shown  by  the  extension  before  fracture 
is  marvelous,  reaching  40  per  cent  in  8  in. 

There  are  a  few  other  properties  of  these  alloys  which  may  be  noticed.  The  specific 
gravity  of  nickel  is  given  as  8*66  to  8*86 ;  that  of  ferro-nickel,  if  2*5  per  cent  nickel,  8'08 ;  that 
of  10-per-cent  nickel,  7*866 ;  that  of  5-per-cent  nickel,  7'846 ;  while  the  mean  of  results  of 
hammered  steel  is  7*84.  The  whole  of  the  series  of  nickel  steels  up  to  50  per  cent  nickel  take 
a  good  polish  and  finish,  with  a  good  surface,  the  color  being  lighter  with  the  increased 
additions  of  nickel.  The  steels  rich  in  nickel  are  practically  non-corrodible,  and  those  poor 
in  nickel  are  much  better  than  other  steels  in  this  respect.  Thus,  some  experiments  we  have 
made  show  that,  as  compared  with  mild  steel  of  0-18  carbon,  5-per-cent  nickel  steel  corrodes 
in  the  ratio  of  10  to  12,  and,  as  compared  with  steel  having  0'40  carbon,  with  1'6  chromium, 
in  that  of  10  to  15.  In  the  case  of  25-per-cent  nickel  steel,  these  ratios  are  as  10  is  to  870,  and 
10  to  1,160,  respectively.  These  results  were  obtained  by  immersion  of  samples  of  the  differ- 
ent steels  in  Abel's  corrosive  liquid,  and  the  results  confirmed  by  subsequent  immersion  in 
water  acidified  by  hydrochloric  acid.  Some  samples  of  the  richer  nickel  steels  which  have 
been  lying  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  for  several  weeks  still  show  an  untarnished  fracture. 
The  alloys  up  to  5  per  cent  of  nickel  can  be  machined  with  moderate  ease ;  beyond  th?it 
strength  they  are  more  difficult  to  machine.  The  poorer  ones  stand  punching  exceedingly 
well,  both  as  rolled  and  after  annealing.  The  punch-holes  can  be  put  as  close  together  as 
£  in.  without  the  metal  showing  any  signs  of  cracking.  The  1-per-cent  nickel  steel  welds 
fairly  well,  but  this  quality  deteriorates  with  each  addition  of  nickel.  The  poorer  alloys  do 
not  show  any  luster,  but  the  richer  ones  have  a  lustrous  appearance  when  the  scale  is  removed. 
See  ARMOR. 

ALUMINUM  or  ALUMINIUM.  Webster  and  Worcester  sanction  either  way  of  spell- 
ing— Webster  giving  "  aluminum  "  as  preferable,  Worcester  "  aluminium."  German,  alumium  ; 
French,  aluminium.  In  England,  aluminium  has  the  preference.  In  America,  aluminum  is 
most  used,  and  the  shorter  name  alium  is  being  strongly  urged  in  preference  to  either.  Chemi- 
cal symbol,  Al.  Atomic  weight,  27'02.  Aluminum  group,  aluminum,  indium,  gallium.  These 
metals  form  feebly  basic  sesquioxides,  which  act  toward  stronger  bases  as  acid-forming 
oxides. 

Occurrence  of  Aluminum  in  Nature.— Of  all  the  elements  aluminum  is  the  most  widely 
distributed  and  contained  in  the  largest  quantity  in  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  except  oxygen 
and  silicon.  Its  ores  from  which  pure  alumina  is  obtained,  from  which  the  pure  metal  is 
extracted,  are:  Bauxite  (A12H606),  soft  and  granular,  with  50  to  70  per  cent  of  oxide  of  alu- 
minum, and  with  only  a  few  per  cent  of  accidental  impurities  besides  the  water  of  hydra- 
tion.  Corundum  (A1203),  very  hard  and  crystalline,  specific  gravity  3'909,  with  93  per  cent 
alumina,  and  ordinarily  very  free  from  impurities,  but  so  hard  and  crystalline,  and  withal 
so  valuable  for  other  purposes,  as  not  to  be  at  present  used  as  an  aluminum  ore.  Diaspore 
(A1203H20),  hard  and  crystalline;  specific  gravity  3'4,  with  65  to  85  per  cent  alumina, 
and  ordinarily  very  pure.  Cryolite  (Al2Fl66NaFl),  specific  gravity  2*9,  with  40  per  cent 
aluminum  fluoride  and  60  per  cent  sodium  fluoride.  Alurninite  (A12S069H20),  specific 
gravity  1-66,  containing  some  30  per  cent  of  alumina  in  a  condition,  by  roasting,  solution,  and 
filtration,  Jto  be  cheaply  purified.  Gibbsite  (A12033H20),  stalactitic;  specific  gravity  2*4,  con- 
taining 65  per  cent  alumina.  The  oxide  of  aluminum  occurs  largely  in  combination  with 


ALUMINUM   OR  ALUMINIUM.  29 

silica,  chiefly  as  double  silicates,  of  which  orthoclase  or  potash  feldspar  (KaAlaSi08)  is  most 
important,  forming  the  chief  constituents  of  granite,  gneiss,  syenite,  porphyry,  trachyte,  etc. 
Soda  feldspars  and  lime  feldspars  also  occur  in  the  large  garnet  and  mica  groups  of  minerals, 
both  double  silicates  of  aluminum.  Weathering  of  feldspars  has  formed  the  clays  which  are 
silicates  of  aluminum.  Neither  feldspars  or  clays,  however,  are  economical  ores,  in  com- 
parison with  those  given  above,  for  the  production  of  aluminum,  on  account  of  the  difficulty 
of  separation  from  the  silica.  Aluminum  is  shown  by  the  spectroscope  as  being  present  in 
the  solar  atmosphere. 

Chemical  Properties. — Aluminum-leaf  decomposes  water  at  100°,  and,  heated  in  oxygen 
gas.  burns  with  an  intense  white  flame.  The  resulting  compound,  however,  shows  the  metal 
not  to  have  been  completely  burned  to  an  oxide,  but  to  have  been  protected  by  a  surface  coat- 
ing. The  metal  dissolves  in  aqueous  solutions  of  alkalies ;  with  the  evolution  of  hydrogen, 
deposits  lead,  silver,  and  zinc  from  alkaline  solutions,  while  neutral  or  acid  solutions*  are  not 
altered  by  it.  It  precipitates  copper  from  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  Hydrochloric  acid 
is  its  best  solvent.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  aluminum  on  heating,  with  evolu- 
tion of  sulphurous  acid,  dilute  sulphuric  acid  acting  only  very  slowly  on  the  metal.  The  pres- 
ence of  any  chlorides  in  the  solution,  however,  allows  it  to  be  rapidly  decomposed.  Nitric 
acid,  either  concentrated  or  dilute,  has  very  little  action  on  aluminum. "  Organic  acids  attack 
the  metal  only  slightly.  Sulphur  has  no  action  on  it  at  a  temperature  less  than  a  red-heat. 
Aluminum  is  not  acted  upon  by  carbonic  acid  or  carbonic  oxide  gases,  nor  sulphureted 
hydrogen,  but  it  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  metal  in  a  melted  condition  to  absorb  large  quanti- 
ties of  these  gases,  a  portion  of  which  is  again  excluded  on  the  metal  cooling,  but  enough 
being  left,  in  the  case  of  sulphureted  hydrogen,  to  continue  to  emit  a  strong  odor  for  a  long 
time  after  solidifying.  Aluminum  is  little  acted  upon  by  salt  water;  and  even  solutions  of 
salt  and  vinegar,  such  as  the  metal  is  likely  to  be  subjected  to  in  certain  culinary  operations, 
do  not  seem  to  practically  injure  the  metal.  It  is  less  acted  upon  than  tin,  copper,  or  silver 
under  similar  conditions.  Aluminum  is  found  to  withstand  the  actions  of  organic  secre- 
tions better  than  even  silver,  and  it  is  largely  used  for  surgical  and  dental  instruments.  So- 
lutions of  caustic  alkalies,  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  and  fluorine,  rapidly  corrode  aluminum. 
Ammonia  gas  has  very  little  action  upon  the  metal  except  to  turn  it  to  a  gray  color.  Strong 
aqua-ammonia  has  a  slight  solvent  action  upon  it.  Pure  aluminum  does  not  tarnish  from  the 
influence  of  the  weather,  except  very  slowly,  even  though  the  atmosphere  be  moist  or  even  salt. 
Instead  of  retaking  oxygen,  like  the  metals  of  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  with  an  en- 
ergy proportioned  to  the  extreme  difficulty  with  which  it  departs  from  its  oxygen  in  the  state 
of  oxide,  aluminum  is  almost  as  indifferent  to  oxygen  as  are  gold  and  platinum.  The  strong 
affinity  of  aluminum  and  oxygen  before  separation,  contrasted  with  their  apparent  total  indif- 
ference afterward,  may  be  explained  by  the  existence  of  a  thin  film  of  oxide,  which  almost 
immediately  forms  upon  the  exposure  of  the  metal  to  the  atmosphere,  and  protects  it  from 
further  oxidation.  The  resistance  of  aluminum  to  atmospheric  influences,  and  itsanti-corrodi- 
bility,  are  among  its  most  noted  qualities.  The  presence  of  silicon  in  aluminum  materially 
detracts  from  its  power  to  withstand  corrosion.  Aluminum  containing  sodium  is  rapidly 
acted  upon  by  hot  water,  the  sodium  being  eaten  out,  leaving  the  aluminum  spongy  and 
porous.  Aluminum  or  aluminum  compounds  do  not  impart  any  color  to  the  non-luminous 
gas-flame.  The  spark-spectrum  of  aluminum  has  been  mapped,  and  contains  a  large  number 
of  bright  lines  lying  close  together,  of  which  the  most  important  in  the  red  are  6,423  and 
6,425,  and  in  the  blue  4,661  and  4,662;  and  the  aluminum  bands  seen  in  the  ultra-violet  are 
extremely  characteristic.  Heated  in  an  atmosphere  of  chlorine  gas,  aluminum  burns  violently 
to  a  chloride.  Aluminum  melts  at  a  temperature  between  silver  and  zinc — a  temperature  of 
700°  C.  (authority,  Roscoe) ;  1,300°  F.  (authority,  Richards).  The  metal  becomes  pasty  at 
about  1,000°  F.,  and  loses  its  tensile  strength  and  very  much  of  its  rigidity  at  a  temperature 
between  400°  and  500°  F.,  although  this  rigidity  and  strength  are  almost  entirely  regained 
as  the  metal  cools.  Aluminum  does  not  volatilize  at  any  temperature  ordinarily  to  be  pro- 
duced by  the  combustion  of  carbon,  even  though  the  high  temperature  be  kept  up  for  a  con- 
siderable number  of  hours'  time.  It,  however,  absorbs  a  very  large  amount  of  occluded  gases 
by  such  treatment.  The  impurities  most  commonly  found  in  aluminum  are  silicon  and  iron ; 
and  it  may  be  said  of  the  elect rolytically  made  metal  that  these  two  impurities  are  almost  the 
only  ones  found,  considerable  amounts  of  any  others  being  accidental.  A  large  proportion  of 
the"  aluminum  being  made  by  the  newer  electrolytic  processes,  runs  over  99  per  cent  pure 
aluminum,  the  impurities  coming  simply  from  the  alumina  ore  and  the  ash  of  the  carbon  elec- 
trodes, the  impurities  in  the  reagent  solvents  for  the  alumina  being  reduced  and  alloyed  with 
the  first  metal  made.  Silicon  in  aluminum  exists  in  two  forms,  one  seemingly  combined  with 
the  aluminum  as  combined  carbon  exists  in  pig-iron,  and  the  other  in  an  allotropic  graphitoi- 
dal  modification.  These  two  forms  of  the  silicon  seem  to  exert  considerably  different  effects 
by  their  presence  in  the  aluminum,  the  combined  form  of  the  element  rendering  the  metal 
much  harder  than  the  graphitoidal  variety.  The  combined  modification  ordinarily  prepon- 
derates, and  is  usually  from  55  to  80  per  cent  of  the  total  silicon.  The  presence  of  iron  as 
an  impurity  in  aluminum  is  more  easily  avoided,  and,  by  taking  care  in  the  use  of  tools  and 
that  the  grinding  of  the  carbon  is  done  with  good  stone  wheels,  its  presence  is  very  often  a 
mere  trace.  For  many  purposes  the  purest  aluminum  can  not  be  so  advantageously  used 
as  that  containing  from  3  to  6  per  cent  impurities,  as  the  pure  metal  is  very  soft,  and  not 
so  strong  as  the  less  pure.  It  is  only  where  extreme  malleability,  ductility,  or  non-corrodi- 
bility  is  required  that  the  purest  metal  should  be  used.  For  most  purposes  small  amounts 
of  some  of  the  other  metals  than  silicon  and  iron  are  advantageously  added,  to  produce 


30  ALUMINUM   OR  ALUMINIUM. 

hardness,  rigidity,  and  strength— constituents  that  will  not  detract  from  the  non-corrodi- 
bility  of  'the  metal  as  much  as  do  these  natural  impurities  that  come  from  the  ore  and  appa- 

Physical  Properties. — Pure  aluminum  is  white  in  color,  with  a  decided  bluish  tint,  which 
becomes  very  much  more  marked  upon  exposure,  when  the  thin  film  of  white  oxide  on  its 
surface  prevents  further  tarnishing  from  the  air,  but  which  seems  to  give  it,  by  contrast  to 
the  metal  as  a  background,  an  enhanced  bluish  tint.  The  addition  of  small  percentages  of 
silver  chromium,  manganese,  tungsten,  or  titanium  changes  the  color  of  aluminum,  render- 
in°-  it  nearer  that  of  silver,  as  well  as  considerably  increasing  the  hardness  and  stiffness  of  the 
metal.  Pure  aluminum  has  no  taste  or  odor.  Under  heat,  the  coefficient  of  linear  expansion 
of  f  in.  round  aluminum  rods  of  98£  per  cent  purity  is  -0000206  per  degree  C.,  between  the 
freezing  and  boiling  points  of  water;  that  of  iron  being  -0000122;  tin,  -0000217;  copper, 
•00001718  (authorities,  Hunt,  Langley,  and  Hall).  Sound  castings  of  aluminum  can  readily  be 
made  in  dry  sand  molds,  if  the  metal  is  not  heated  much  beyond  the  melting-point,  to  prevent 
the  absorption  of  gases.  The  metal  does  not  need  any  flux.  Its  shrinkage  is  £J-  in.  to  the  foot. 
The  mean  specific  heat  of  aluminum  from  0°  to  the  melting-point  is  0-285,  water  being  taken 
as  one,  and  the  latent  heat  of  fusion  is  28*5  heat-units  (authority,  Richards).  The  coefficient 
of  thermal  conductivity  of  aluminum,  obtained  by  the  method  of  Wiederman  and  Franz,  sil- 
ver being  taken  as  100  and  copper  as  73-6,  is  for  unannealed  aluminum  37'96,  for  annealed  alu- 
minum 38-87.  Aluminum  stands  fourth,  being  preceded  only  by  silver,  copper,  and  gold,  as  a 
conductor  of  both  heat  and  electricity.  One  yard  of  annealed  aluminum  wire  of  98^  per  cent 
purity,  -0325  in.  diameter,  14°  C.,  has  -05484  of  an  ohm  resistance,  a  yard  of  pure  copper  wire 
having  a  resistance  of  -0315.  The  electrical  conductivity  of  silver  being  taken  at  100.  copper 
as  90,  pure  annealed  aluminum  has  an  electrical  conductivity  of  about  50.  Pure  aluminum 
has  no  polarity,  and  indeed  the  commercial  metal  in  the  market  is  practically  non-magnetic. 
Pure  aluminum  is  very  sonorous,  and  its  tone  seems  to  be  improved  by  alloying  with  a  few  per 
cent  of  silver  or  titanium.  Pure  aluminum  is,  when  properly  treated,  a  very  malleable  and 
ductile  metal.  It  can  readily  be  rolled  into  sheets  '0005  in.  thick,  or  be  beaten  into  leaf  nearly 
as  thin  as  gold-leaf,  or  be  drawn  into  the  finest  wire.  Pure  aluminum  stands  third  in  the  order 
of  malleability,  being  exceeded  only  by  gold  and  silver,  and  in  the  order  of  ductility  seventh, 
being  exceeded  by  gold,  silver,  platinum,  iron,  softest  steel,  and  copper.  Both  its  malleability 
and  ductility  are  greatly  impaired  by  the  presence  of  the  two  common  impurities,  silicon 
and  iron.  Aluminum  can  be  rolled  or  hammered  cold,  but  the  metal  is  most  malleable  at, 
and  should  be  heated  to,  between  200°  and  300°  P.,  for  rolling  or  breaking  down  from  the 
ingot  to  the  best  advantage.  Like  silver  and  gold,  aluminum  has  to  be  frequently  annealed, 
as  it  hardens  remarkably  upon  working.  By  reason  of  this  phenomenon  of  hardening  dur- 
ing rolling,  forging,  stamping,  or  drawing,  the  metal  may  be  turned  out  very  rigid  in  fin- 
ished shape,  so  that  it  will  answer  excellently  well  for  purposes  where  the  annealed  metal 
would  be  entirely  too  soft  or  too  weak  or  lacking  in  rigidity.  Especially  is  this  true  with 
aluminum  alloyed  with  a  few  per  cent  of  titanium,  copper,  or  silicon.  The  alloys  do  not 
show  their  increased  hardness  to  anything  like  its  maximum  extent  in  castings — not  at  all 
in  proportion  to  the  increased  brittleness.  But  when  these  castings  are  drop-forged,  rolled, 
hammered  or  drawn  down,  with  only  sufficient  annealings  to  prevent  the  metal  from  crack- 
ing, the  increased  hardness  appears  in  a  remarkable  degree.  It  can  be  safely  stated,  as  a 
general  rule,  that  the  purer  the  aluminum  the  softer  and  less  rigid  it  is.  The  fracture  of  im- 
pure aluminum  shows  ordinarily  hexagonal  crystals,  although  the  pure  metal  is  very  tough, 
and  on  breaking,  by  bending  backward  and  forward,  often  appears  distinctly  fibrous  and  silky 
iu  fracture. 

Annealing  Aluminum. — To  anneal  aluminum  a  low  and  even  temperature  should  be  main- 
tained in  the  muffle— just  such  a  temperature  as  will  show  an  even  red-heat  in  a  piece  of  iron 
or  steel  placed  in  the  muffle,  when  viewed  at  twilight  or  on  a  dark  day.  The  aluminum  itself, 
however,  should  not  appear  at  all  red  at  this  temperature.  A  ready  test  of  this  is  that  the 
metal  has  been  heated  enough  to  char  the  end  of  a  pine  stick,  which  will  leave  a  black  mark 
on  the  plate  as  it  is  drawn  across  it.  When  the  metal  has  acquired  this  temperature  it  should 
be  taken  from  the  furnace  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually.  Very  thin  sections  may  be  annealed 
by  placing  them  in  boiling  water,  and  either  allowing  them  to  cool  with  the  water  or  taking  them 
out  to  cool  gradually.  It  is  possible  to  anneal  to  any  degree,  by  lowering  the  temperature  to 
which  the  metal  is  heated  below  that  specified  by  means  of  suitable  appliances.  Aluminum  wire 
alloyed  with  a  few  per  cent  of  copper,  titanium,  or  silver,  can  be  drawn,  having  a  tensile  strength 
of  80,000  Ibs.  to  the  sq.  in.,  and  which  will  have,  weight  for  weight  with  copper  wire,  an  electri- 
cal conductivity  of  170,  that  of  copper  being  100.  When  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that 
the  copper  has  a  tensile  strength  at  a  maximum  of  30,000  Ibs.  to  the  sq.  in.,  against  80,000  Ibs. 
per  sq.  in.  for  aluminum  titanium  alloy,  and  that  iron  and  soft  steel  wire  have  each  a  con- 
ductivity of  12  in  the  same  scale,  and  at  most  a  strength  equal  to  that  of  the  aluminum- 
titanium  alloy,  a  wide  field  for  usefulness  as  electrical  conductors  seems  open  for  alumi- 
num. Aluminum  can  be  easily  welded  electrically,  and  solders  satisfactorily.  The  specific 
gravity  of  aluminum  is  one  of  its  most  striking  properties,  it  bein?  from  2-56'to  2'70;  struct- 
ural steel  being  2-95,  copper  3-60,  ordinary  high  brass  3'45,  nickel  3-50,  silver  4,  lead  4-8,  gold 
7-7,  platinum  8'6  times  heavier.  A  cub.  in.  of  aluminum  weighs  -092  Ibs.,  or  H  oz.  avoirdu- 
pois. Cast  aluminum  has  about  the  ultimate  strength  of  cast-iron  in  tension,  but  under 
compression  it  is  comparatively  weak.  The  following  is  a  table  of  average  tensile  and  com- 
pression strength  of  the  metal,  the  average  of  many  results  of  tests  of  the  metal  of  98  per 
cent  purity : 


ALUMINUM   OR  ALUMINIUM.  31 

Pounds. 

Elastic  limit  per  sq.  in.  in  tension  (castings) 6,500 

«  "        "  "        (sheet) 12,000 

(wire) 16,000-30,000 

"  "        "  "        (bars) 14.000 

Ultimate  strength  per  sq.  in.  in  tension  (castings) 15,000 

"  "  "        "       (sheet) 24,000 

"       (wire) 30,000-65,000 

"  "  "  "        "       (bars) 28,000 

Percentage  of  reduction  of  area  in  tension  (castings) 15  per  cent 

"  "  "  "       (sheet) 35       " 

*«       (wire) 60       " 

"  "  "  "       (bars) 40       " 

Elastic  limit  per  sq.  in.  under  compression  in  cylinders,  with  length  twice 

the  diameter 3,500 

Ultimate  strength  per  sq.  in.  under  compression  in  cylinders,  with  length 

twice  the  diameter 12,000 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  cast  aluminum  is  about  11,000,000. 

Under  transverse  tests  pure  aluminum  is  not  very  rigid.  A  1  in.  square  bar  of  good  cast-iron 
supported  on  knife-edges  4  ft.  6  in.  long  and  loaded  in  the  center  will  readily  stand  500  Ibs. 
without  a  deflection  of  over  2  in.  A  similar  bar  of  aluminum  would  deflect  over  2  in.  with 
a  weight  of  250  Ibs.,  although  the  aluminum  bar  would  bend  nearly  double  before  breaking, 
while  the  cast-iron  will  ordinarily  break  before  the  deflection  has  gone  very  much  beyond  2  in. 
Aluminum  and  copper  form  two  series  of  valuable  alloys,  the  aluminum  bronzes  ranging 
from  2  to  12  per  cent  of  aluminum  with  copper,  the  copp'er-hardened  aluminum  series  with 
from  2  to  perhaps  20  per  cent  of  copper  with  the  aluminum.  In  the  5  to  12  per  cent  alumi- 
num bronzes  we  obtain  some  of  the  densest,  finest-grained,  and  strongest  metals  known — 
metals  having  remarkable  ductility  as  compared  with  tensile  strength.  A  10-per-cent  bronze 
can  readily  and  uniformly  be  made  in  forged  bars,  with  100,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  tensile 
strength,  with  60,000  Ibs.  elastic  limit  per  sq.  in.,  and  with  at  least  10  per  cent  elongation  in 
8  in. ;  and  aluminum  bronzes  can  be  made  to  fill  a  specification  of  even  130,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in., 
and  5  per  cent  elongation  in  8  in.  Such  bronzes  have  a  specific  gravity  of  about  7*50,  and 
are  of  a  light-yellow  color.  The  5  to  7-£  per  cent  aluminum  bronzes  of  from  8'30  to  8  specific 
gravity,  and  a  handsome  yellow  color,  readily  give  70,000  to  80,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  tensile 
strength,  with  over  30  per  cent  elongation  in  8  in.,  and  with  an  elastic  limit  of  over 
40,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  It  will  probably  be  alloys  of  the  latter  characteristics  that  will 
be  most  used — especially  for  marine  work ;  and  the  fact  that  5  to  7  per  cent  bronzes  can 
be  rolled  or  hammered  at  a  red-heat,  proper  precautions,  which  can  readily  be  secured, 
being  taken,  will  greatly  enlarge  their  use.  Metal  of  this  character  can  be  worked  in 
almost  every  way  that  steel  can,  and  has  the  advantages  of  greater  strength  and  ductility, 
and  greater  ability  to  withstand  corrosion.  The  presence  of  silicon  makes  a  harder  bronze, 
but  one  of  much  less  comparative  ductility  and  a  less  malleable  alloy.  The  presence  of 
iron  weakens,  and  very  seriously  interferes  with  the  value  of  the  bronze.  The  presence  of 
zinc  in  aluminum  bronze  is  not  so  deleterious — in  fact,  it  makes  the  best  aluminum  brasses, 
much  better  than  those  having  tin  in  them.  Aluminum  in  bronzes  lowers  the  melting-point 
of  the  copper  at  least  100°  or  200°.  The  melting-point  of  10  per  cent  aluminum  bronze  is 
somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  1,700°  F.  Aluminum  bronze  is  among  the  hardest  of  the 
bronzes,  and  hardens  upon  cold  working  considerably.  This  hardness,  however,  can  be 
lowered  by  annealing  at  a  red-heat  and  plunging  into  cold  water.  Aluminum  bronze  can 
readily  be  tooled  in  a  lathe,  and  the  chips  being  cut  clean  and  smooth  and  long  do  not 
clog  the  tool.  Aluminum  bronze  is  a  remarkably  rigid  metal  under  transverse  strain,  being 
much  more  rigid  than  ordinary  brass  or  even  gun  bronze ;  and  under  compression  strain, 
although  rather  low  in  elastic  limit  compared  with  its  ultimate  compressive  strength,  it  is 
still  much  stronger  than  any  of  the  other  bronzes.  It  undergoes  a  long  period  of  gradual 
compression  before  it  finally  gives  way,  making  it  peculiarly  a  safe  metal  under  compressive 
strain.  Aluminum  bronze  has  special  anti-friction  qualities,  owing  to  its  fine  grain  texture 
and  peculiarly  smooth  and  unctuous  though  hard  surface,  which  resists  abrasion  remarkably. 
Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  anti-corrosive  qualities  of  aluminum  bronze,  and, 
as  its  electrical  conductivity  is  better  than  that  of  brass,  it  is  especially  well  adapted  for  parts 
of  electrical  machinery.  Aluminum  bronze  can  be  brazed  and  soldered  nearly  as  well  as 
brass.  Sound,  clean  castings  of  aluminum  bronze  can  be  safely  and  regularly  "made,  either 
in  sand  molds  or  against  chills,  if  the  proper  precautions  are  taken  to  avoid :  1.  Oxidation. 
2.  Contamination  from  scum,  or  a  cinder  composed  of  oxide  of  aluminum  with  a  little  copper 
in  it.  3.  Contraction  cracks,  caused  by  strains  due  to  shrinkage.  4.  The  shutting  in  of  gas 
into  the  castings.  The  first  trouble — oxidation — can  be  prevented  by  not  heating  the  metal 
too  hot  in  the  plumbago  crucibles.  The  second  trouble — contamination  from  scum— can  be 
avoided  by  pouring  into  a  hot  ladle  or  pouring-basin  large  enough  to  hold  all  the  metal  ne- 
cessary to  fill  the  mold,  and  permitting  the  metal  to  escape  from  the  bottom  of  this  receptacle, 
after  giving  sufficient  time  to  allow  the  scum  to  come  to  the  surface.  Proper  skim-gates 
should  also  be  provided  for  each  mold.  The  third  difficulty — contraction— is  overcome  by 
giving  plenty  of  allowance  of  metal  to  feed  the  casting  in*  cooling.  This  can  be  done  in 
several  ways,  each  best  adapted  for  varying  conditions.  The  cores  should  be  made  of  a  yield- 


32  ALUMINUM   OE  ALUMINIUM. 

ins  character  using  resin  or  other  suitable  substance,  with  coarse  sand,  that  will  yield  under 
slight  pressure  Unyielding  iron  metal  cores  should  be  dispensed  with  as  far  as  possible. 
Castings  should  have  "  risers  "  or  "  feeding-heads  "  with  flaring  openings  large  in  section- 
even  larger  than  the  castings  they  are  intended  to  feed.  The  feeding-heads  should  be  refilled 
as  often  as  they  will  take  the  metal.  In  this  way  the  castings  are  solidified  first,  drawing  the 
metal  to  supply  their  shrinkage  from  the  still  fluid  "  riser,"  having  a  level  higher  than  the 
casting  itself.  The  gates  to  the  mold  should  be  of  sufficient  number  and  so  arranged  that 
they  can  be  filled  with  metal  as  cold  as  it  will  pour  and  give  full  castings.  The  fourth  diffi- 
culty—gas in  the  castings— can  be  prevented  by  taking  the  ordinary  precautions  used  by 
founders  for  this  purpose. 

Alloys  with  Small  Percentages  of  Copper.—  Ihe  alloys  of  aluminum  with  copper  in  pro- 
portions of  from  2  to  15  per  cent  have  been  advantageously  used  to  harden  aluminum 
in  cases  where  a  more  rigid  metal  is  required  than  pure  aluminum.  Copper  is  the  most  com- 
mon metal  used  at  present  to  harden  aluminum.  A  few  per  cent  of  copper  decreases  the 
shrinkage  of  the  metal,  and  gives  alloys  that  are  especially  adapted  for  art  castings.  The 
remainder  of  the  range,  from  20  per  cent  copper  up  to  over  85  per  cent,  give  crystalline  and 
brittle  alloys  of  no  use  in  the  arts,  which  are'of  a  grayish-white  color  up  to  80  per  cent  copper, 
where  the  distinctly  yellow  color  of  the  copper  begins  to  show  itself. 

Aluminum  with  Iron  and  Steel. — Aluminum  combines  with  iron  in  all  proportions.  None 
of  the  alloys,  however,  have  proved  of  value,  except  those  of  small  percentages  of  aluminum 
with  steel,  cast-iron,  and  wrought-iron.  So  far  as  experiments  have  yet  gone,  other  elements 
can  better  be  employed  to  harden  aluminum  than  iron,  the  presence  of  which  in  metallic 
aluminum  is  regarded  as  entirely  a  deleterious  impurity,  to  be  avoided  if  possible.  It  has  been 
experimentally  proved  that  the  addition  of  aluminum  to  the  steel  just  before  "  teeming  "  causes 
the  metal  to  lie  quiet  and  give  off  no  appreciable  quantity  of  gases,  producing  ingots  with  much 
sounder  tops.  There  are  two  theories  to  account  for  this :  one,  that  the  aluminum  decom- 
poses these  gases  and  absorbs  the  oxygen  contained  in  them;  the  other  is,  that  aluminum 
greatly  increases  the  solubility  in  the  steel  of  the  gases  which  are  usually  given  off  at  the 
moment  of  setting,  thus  forming  blow-holes  and  bubbles.  This  latter  theory  is  the  one  which 
at  present  has  the  greatest  weight  of  authority.  In  all  cases  the  aluminum  should  be  thrown 
into  the  ladle  after  a  small  quantity  of  the  steel  has  already  entered  it.  There  is  danger  of 
adding  too  large  a  quantity  of  aluminum,  in  that  the  metal  will  set  very  solid  and  will  be 
liable  to  form  deep  "pipes'"  in  the  ingots.  To  add  just  the  right  proportion  of  aluminum 
requires  some  little  experience  on  the  part  of  the  steel  manufacturer,  but  successful  results 
have  been  secured  with  from  i  to  f  Ibs.  of  aluminum  to  a  ton  of  steel.  If  the  metal  be  "  wild  " 
in  the  ladle,  full  of  occluded  gases,  too  hot,  or  oxidized,  a  larger  proportion  of  aluminum 
can  be  advantageously  added.  R.  A.  Hadfield  says  that  the  influence  of  aluminum  appears 
to  be  like  that  of  silicon,  though  acting  more  powerfully.  The  same  writer,  together  with 
H.  M.  Howe  and  Osmund,  claims  that  an  addition  of  aluminum  does  not  lower  the  melting- 
point  of  the  steel.  Steel  with  an  addition  of  one  tenth  of  one  per  cent  of  aluminum  seems 
to  solidify  in  the  molds  fully  as  quickly  as  steel  without  the  addition  of  the  aluminum. 
Aluminum  seems  to  take  the  oxygen  out  of  steel  very  much  in  the  same  way  that  manganese 
does.  The  addition  of  aluminum  in  quantities  of  from  2  to  3  Ibs.  per  ton  is  of  advantage 
where  the  steel  is  to  be  cast  in  heavy  ingots  which  will  receive  only  scant  work.  Here  it 
seems  to  increase  the  ductility  as  measured  by  the  elongation  and  reduction  of  area  of  tensile 
test  specimens,  without  materially  altering  the  ultimate  strength.  In  steel  castings  the  bene- 
fit from  the  use  of  a  small  percentage  of  aluminum,  ordinarily  in  the  proportion  of  from  2 
to  3.  Ibs  per  ton,  has  become  widely  recognized,  and  it  is  being  generally  used.  The  ad- 
ditions of  aluminum  are  most  always  made  by  throwing  the  metal  in  pieces  weighing  a  few 
ounces  each  into  the  ladle  as  the  steel  is  pouring  into  it.  In  cast-iron,  from  2  to  5  Ibs.  of 
aluminum  per  ton  is  put  into  the  metal  as  it  is  being  poured  from  the  cupola  or  melting- 
furnace.  To  sott  gray  No.  1  foundry  iron  it  is  doubtful  if  the  metal  does  much  good,  except, 
perhaps,  in  the  way  of  keeping  the  iron  melted  for  a  longer  time ;  but  where  difficult  cast- 
ings are  to  be  made,  where  much  loss  is  occasioned  by  defective  castings,  or  where  the  iron 
will  not  flow  well  or  give  sound  and  strong  castings,  the  aluminum  certainly  in  many  cases 
allows  of  better  work  being  done  and  stronger  and  sounder  castings  being  made,  having  a 
closer  grain,  and  hence  much  easier  tooled.  The  tendency  of  the  aluminum  is  to  change 
combined  carbon  to  graphitic,  and  it  lessens  the  tendency  of  the  metal  to  chill.  Aluminum 
in  proportions  of  two  per  cent  and  over  materially  decreases  the  shrinkage  of  cast-iron. 
The  effect  of  aluminum  in  wrought-iron  is  not  very  marked  in  the  ordinary  puddling 
process.  It  seems  to  add  somewhat  to  the  strength  of  the  iron,  but  the  amount  is  not  of  suf- 
ficient value  to  induce  the  general  use  of  aluminum  for  this  purpose.  The  peculiar  property 
of  aluminum  in  reducing  the  long  range  of  temperature  between  that  at  which  wrought-iron 
first  softens  and  that  at  which  it  becomes  fluid,  is  taken  advantage  of  in  the  well-known  Mitis 
process  for  making  "  wrought-iron  castings."  It  is  for  this  that  aluminum  is  most  used  in 
wrought-iron  at  present. 

Aluminum  and  other  Metals. — With  the  exception  of  lead,  antimony,  and  mercury,  alumi- 
num unites  readily  with  all  metals,  and  many  useful  alloys  of  aluminum  with  other  metals 
have  been  discovered  within  the  last  few  years.  The  useful  alloys  of  aluminum  so  far  dis- 
covered are  all  in  two  groups,  the  one  of  aluminum  with  not  more  than  15  per  cent  of  other 
metals,  and  the  other  of  metals  containing  not  over  15  per  cent  of  aluminum ;  in  the  one 
case,  the  metals  imparting  hardness  and  other  useful  qualities  to  the  aluminum,  and  in  the 
other  the  aluminum  giving  useful  qualities  to  the  alloying  metals.  The  addition  of  a  few  per 


ALUMINUM   OR  ALUMINIUM.  33 

cent  of  silver  to  aluminum,  to  harden,  whiten,  and  strengthen  the  metal,  gives  an  alloy  espe- 
cially adaptable  for  many  fine  instruments,  tools,  and  electrical  apparatus,  where  the  work 
upon  the  tool  and  its  convenience  are  of  more  consequence  than  the  increased  price  due  to  the 
addition  of  the  silver.  The  silver  lowers  the  melting-point  of  the  aluminum,  and  gives  a  metal 
susceptible  of  taking  a  good  polish  and  making  fine  castings.  Titanium  and  chromium  can 
be  readily  alloyed  with  aluminum,  according  to  the  methods  devised  and  patented  by  Prof. 
John  W.  Langley,  and  will  probably  prove  to  be  the  most  valuable  means  of  hardening  alumi- 
num. A  few  per  cent  of  titanium  renders  the  metal,  under  work,  very  rigid  and  yet  elastic 
at  the  same  time.  Chromium  is  the  best  element  to  harden  aluminum  in  castings.  More  or 
less  useful  alloys  have  been  made  of  aluminum  with  zinc,  bismuth,  nickel,  cadmium,  mag- 
nesium, manganese,  and  tin.  these  alloys  all  being  harder  than  pure  aluminum ;  but  it  is  by 
combination  of  these  metals,  with  perhaps  additions  of  copper,  lead,  and  antimony,  that 
alloys  of  most  value  have  so  far  been  discovered.  Some  are  with  additions  of  only  1  to  2  per 
cent  of  aluminum.  The  additions  of  from  5  to  15  per  cent  of  aluminum  to  type-metal  com- 
posed of  20  per  cent  antimony  and  80  per  cent  lead  makes  a  metal  giving  sharper  castings 
and  a  much  more  durable  type.  To  ordinary  brass  the  addition  of  aluminum,  especially  in 
the  form  of  aluminized  zinc,  an  alloy  of  zinc  with  a  few  per  cent  of  aluminum,  gives  superior 
strength  and  better  anti-corrosive  characteristics.  Some  very  marked  and  valuable  qualities 
have  been  discovered  in  the  use  of  aluminum  with  zinc  for  various  purposes.  Additions  of 
from  ^  to  2  per  cent  of  aluminum  to  Babbitt  metal  of  a  composition  of  copper  3*7  per  cent, 
antimony  7'3  per  cent,  tin  89  per  cent,  gives  a  very  superior  bearing  metal. 

Methods  of  Aluminum  Manufacture. — Aluminum  can  not  be  reduced  from  its  oxide  by  the 
aid  of  carbon  as  a  reducing  agent  by  any  of  the  ordinary  methods,  because  the  temperature 
to  which  the  intimate  mixture  of  the  solid  carbon  and  the  alumina  has  to  be  raised  can  only 
be  attained  by  the  highest  heat  of  an  open-hearth  furnace  or  in  the  electrical  furnace — a  tem- 
perature at  which  the  alumina  reduced  can  not  itself  be  accumulated  into  a  molten  liquid 
mass,  and  can  only  be  retained  by  collecting  it  with  a  more  stable  metal,  such  as  iron  or  cop- 
per. None  of  the  other  salts  is  susceptible  of  being  reduced  by  carbon  at  much  lower  tempera- 
tures than  the  oxide,  so  far  as  yet  discovered.  The  task  of  producing  aluminum  at  a  low  cost 
has  thus  been  found  to  be  a  difficult  one,  and  many  unsuccessful  attempts  have  been  made 
and  much  money  has  been  lost  upon  it.  Debarred  from  using  carbon  as  the  reducing  agent 
under  the  ordinary  conditions  which  make  it  the  practicable  and  economical  reagent  in  most 
metallurgical  operations,  the  advantages  of  other  stronger  reducing  agents  have  been  care- 
fully tried.  So  far  only  one  has  proved  commercially  available,  although  there  are  other 
agents  capable  of  reducing  the  metal  from  its  salts.  Metallic  sodium  reduces  the  metal  from 
its  chloride  or  from  its  fluoride  salts  readily  at  a  red-heat.  Methods  based  upon  the  use  of 
sodium  as  the  reducing  agent  have  until  lately  given  not  only  the  purest  but  the  cheapest 
aluminum.  These  methods,  however,  of  late  have  been  superseded  by  the  cheaper  and  more 
direct  processes  of  electrolysis  of  some  of  the  aluminum  salts  or  of  the  pure  oxide. 

History  of  Manufacture. — Davy,  after  succeeding  in  isolating  metals  of  the  alkaline  earths, 
tried  in  vain*  to  separate  aluminum  from  its  oxide,  alumina.  In  1826  Oerstedt  formed  alumi- 
num chloride  by  passing  chlorine  over  a  mixture  of  alumina  and  charcoal  heated  to  redness 
in  a  porcelain  tube,  but  tried  in  vain  to  decompose  this  salt  with  sodium  or  potassium.  In 
1827  Wohler,  by  better  precautions  to  prevent  oxidation,  succeeded  by  the  aid  of  potassium 
in  reducing  aluminum  from  the  chloride  in  the  form  of  a  fine  gray  powder.  It  was  very  im- 
pure, and  was  only  a  metallic  curiosity.  In  1845  Wohler  obtained  the  metal  in  good-sized 
globules.  Deville*  twenty-seven  years*  after  the  first  isolation  of  the  metal,  in  1854,  was  the 
first  to  produce  the  metal  in  any  quantity  or  with  any  degree  of  purity.  It  is  curious  to 
note  that  the  first  pure  aluminum  made  was  by  electrolysis ;  both  Bunsen  and  Deville  reduced 
the  double  chloride  of  aluminum  and  sodium  by  electricity  generated  by  galvanic  batteries. 
Even  then  the  idea  of  using  electricity  was  old,  for  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  in  1810,  publicly 
described  the  successful  experiment  made  in  1807,  in  which  he  connected  the  negative  pole  of 
a  battery  of  1,000  double  plates  with  an  iron  wire  which  he  heated  to  a  white  heat  and  then 
fused  in  contact  with  moistened  alumina,  the  operation  being  performed  in  an  atmosphere  of 
hydrogen.  The  iron,  upon  analysis,  was  found  to  be  alloyed  with  aluminum.  Le  Chatelier 
obtained  English  patent  No.  1,214  in  1861,  and  Monckton.  in  1862,  English  patent  No.  264, 
for  the  reduction  of  aluminum  by  the  aid  of  electricity.  The  Monckton  patent  proposes  to 
pass  an  electric  current  through  a  reduction-chamber,  and  in  this  way  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture to  such  a  point  that  alumina  will  be  reduced  by  the  carbon  present,  this  evidently  being 
the  incipient  idea  of  the  electric  furnace.  Gaudin  in  1869,  Kagensbusch  in  1872,  Berthaut 
in  1879,  and  Gratzel  in  1883  each  brought,  out  processes  for  producing  aluminum  by  the  aid 
of  electricity.  The  newer  pure  aluminum  processes  using  electricity,  of  Hall,  Heroult,  and 
the  Bernard  Brothers,  with  the  help  of  Minet,  together  with  the  alloy  processes  of  Cowles  and 
Heroult,  are  the  only  ones  now  being  worked  upon  a  commercial  scale.  About  1857  the 
famous  works  at  Salindres  was  established,  under  the  proprietorship  of  Pechiney  &  Co.,  and 
this  establishment,  until  within  the  past  three  years,  produced  a  larger  amount  of  aluminum 
than  any  other  in  the  world.  The  care  and  skill  shown  and  the  ingenious  devices  and  precau- 
tions taken  by  the  firm  to  prevent  impurities  in  the  metal  in  the  cumbersome  and  expensive 
sodium  process  in  which  there  were  so  many  opportunities  for  their  addition,  were  worthy  of 
the  highest  praise.  In  1860  Sir  I.  Lowthian  Bell  started  to  manufacture  aluminum  at  Xew- 
castle-on-Tyne :  the  undertaking  was  abandoned  in  1874 ;  the  sodium  process  was  used.  From 
1874  until  1882  the  French  company  at  Salindres  was  the  only  concern  making  pure  aluminum. 
In  1882  Webster  organized  the  "Aluminum  Crown  Metal  Company"  at  Hollywood,  near 
3 


34  ALUMINIUM   BRONZE. 

Birmingham,  England,  and  by  cheapening  the  production  of  aluminum  chloride  soon  devel- 
oped a  successful  concern.  This  was  further  strengthened  by  the  improvement  of  H.  \ .  Cast- 
ner  an  American  chemist,  who  in  1886  patented  improvements  for  producing  a  more  inti- 
mate mixture  of  the  carbon  with  the  caustic  soda  in  a  state  of  fusion  by  means  of  carbide  of 
iron,  in  this  way  cheapening  by  more  than  one  half  the  cost  of  manufacture  of  metallic 
sodium  This  concern  was  organized  under  the  name  of  the  Aluminium  Company,  Limited,  and 
put  up'a  large  and  expensive  plant  at  Oldbury,  near  Birmingham,  England.  These  works 
were  started  at  the  end  of  June,  1888,  and  continued  manufacturing  until  1890.  In  common 
with  other  manufactures  by  the  sodium  process,  they  have  been  working  to  great  disadvan- 
tao-e  since  the  advent  of  the  more  successful  electrolytic  processes,  and  in  1891  ceased  opera- 
tions in  the  manufacture  of  aluminum.  Early  in  1888  the  Alliance  Aluminum  Company 
started  a  works  at  Wallsend-on-Tyne,  England,  using  a  process  which  was  an  innovation 
upon  the  Deville  sodium  process,  and  employing  the  fluoride  or  the  double  fluoride  of  alumi- 
num and  sodium  cryolite  as  the  compound  to  be  reduced  instead  of  the  chloride'  or  the  double 
chloride  of  the  metal.  Prof.  Netto,  the  managing  director  of  the  concern,  also  has  a  process 
for  producing  metallic  sodium  cheaply,  by  allowing  fused  caustic  soda  to  trickle  over  incandes- 
cent charcoal  in  a  vertical  retort.  Some  very  excellent  aluminum  was  produced  at  this  works. 
The  Hall  process  consists  in  electrolyzing  alumina  dissolved  in  a  fused  mixture  of  fluor- 
ides of  aluminum  and  sodium,  or,  in  fact,  as  Mr.  Hall  has  described  in  his  letters  patent  No. 
400,766  a  fused  bath  in  which  the  alumina  is  dissolved  in  the  fluorides  of  aluminum,  together 
with  the  fluoride  of  any  metal  more  electro-positive  than  aluminum.  A  volt-meter  is  attached 
to  each  pot,  showing  increased  resistance  when  the  ore  gets  out  of  the  solvent  by  electrolysis, 
and  at  this  time  the  pot-tender  stirs  in  more  ore.  The  feeding  is  thus  easily  made  continu- 
ous, and  as  the  fluoride  solvent  remains  constant  it  only  requires  tapping  the  metal  off — or, 
as  is  rather  crudely  but  very  satisfactorily  done,  dipping  the  metal  out  in  cast-iron  ladles, 
skimming  the  electrolyte  back  into  the  pots  with  carbon  rods — to  make  the  entire  opera- 
tion continuous.  The  cost  price  for  the  manufacture  of  aluminum  by  direct  electrolysis  has 
been  brought  down  very  low  as  compared  with  the  cost  of  the  more  complicated  processes 
of  a  few  years  ago,  the  items  being :  Two  Ibs.  of  alumina,  containing  52*94  per  cent  alumi- 
num. One  Ib.  of  carbon  electrodes.  A  small  expenditure  for  its  proportionate  share  of  the 
fluoride  salts  used  for  dissolving  the  alumina.  Carbon  dust,  carbon  pot-linings,  and  the  metal 
pots.  About  twenty  electric  horse-power  exerted  per  hour  per  Ib.  of  metal  made.  Labor 
and  superintendence,  general  expenses,  interest,  and  repairs.  As  the  Pittsburg  Reduction 
Company  uses  the  process,  it  places  the  mixture  of  fluoride  salts,  either  in  a  solid  condi- 
tion or  fused  by  the  aid  of  external  heat,  in  a  row  of  carbon-lined  wrought-iron  tanks  placed 
in  series.  The  pots,  together  with  their  carbon  linings  and  the  reduced  metal  in  the  bottom 
of  the  pots,  become  the  negative  electrodes  or  cathodes.  The  positive  electrodes  or  anodes 
are  a  series  of  carbon  cylinders,  3  in.  in  diameter,  attached  by  f-in.  copper  rods  to  the  cop- 
per conductors  by  the  aid  of  suitable  binding  screw  clamps.  A  current  of  large  volume  is 
turned  on  and  the  mixture,  if  solid,  is  melted  by  the  electrically  produced  heat,  when,  in 
less  than  two  hours'  time,  the  mixture  becomes  fluid,  and  alumina  is  added.  The  elec- 
trolyte then  becomes  a  much  better  conductor,  "  the  resistance  of  the  pot "  goes  down  to  a 
normal  one  of  about  eight  volts,  and  the  operation  of  electrolysis  commences.  The  alumina 
in  solution  is  decomposed ;  the  metal,  being  heavier  than  the  electrolyte,  sinks  to  the  bottom 
of  the  pot,  and  the  oxygen  goes  to  the  positive  electrode,  uniting  with  a  portion  of  the  carbon 
and  escaping  as  carbonic-acid  gas.  The  Hall  process  can  be  successfully  carried  on  entirely 
independent  of  carbon,  using  a  thick  iron  or  copper  tank  and  either  iron  or  copper  electrodes. 
The  deposition  of  the  metal  is  nearly  as  large  as  with  the  use  of  carbon  electrodes ;  but  it  is, 
of  course,  alloyed  with  copper  or  iron  from  the  metal  worn  away  from  the  positive  electrode. 
The  process  called  the  "  Minet  process,"  as  developed  and  used  at  the  works  of  the  Ber- 
nard Brothers  at  Creil,  Oise,  France,  consists  in  electrolyzing  a  mixture  of  sodium  chloride 
with  the  double  fluoride  of  sodium  and  aluminum,  their  English  patent  dating  July  18,  1887, 
No.  10,057.  This  company  has  been  doing  successful  work,  and  is  now  putting  aluminum 
of  good  quality  on  the  market.  In  both  the  Cowles  and  Heroult  processes  aluminum  is  manu- 
factured only  in  the  form  of  an  alloy.  The  principle  involved  is  the  interruption  of  a  power- 
ful electric  current  and  the  formation  of  an  immense  arc,  and  the  reduction,  at  the  high 
temperature  produced  by  this  arc,  of  alumina  by  carbon  in  the  presence  of  either  molten 
copper  or  iron.  The  Cowles  furnace  is  a  horizontal  box,  carbon-lined,  having  the  current 
carried  to  it  through  two  6.  in  round  carbon  cylinders,  which  are  arranged  so  that  they  mav 
move  forward  and  back  in  the  furnace,  which  is  filled  with  broken  pieces  of  carbon  and 
alumina  mixed  with  the  carbon  and  with  turnings  of  iron  or  copper.  The  whole  of  the 
interior  of  the  furnace  is  raised  to  a  very  high  temperature  by  the  electric  arc  formed,  and  the 
alumina  present  is  reduced  by  the  carbon  and  alloys  with  the  metal.  In  the  Heroult  process 
the  electrodes  are  vertical  instead  of  horizontal.  The  alumina  is  fused  by  the  electric  arc, 
and,  floating  on  molten  copper  or  iron,  is  then  treated  as  though  it  were  an  electrolyte :  the 
carbon  rod  dipping  into  the  molten  alumina  being  the  positive  pole,  and  the  molten  iron  or 
copper  the  negative  electrode,  which  is  in  contact  with  the  negative  pole  of  the  conductor.  It 
is  probable  that  there  is  considerable  electrolytic  action  upon  the  molten  alumina  in  the 
Heroult  furnace  for  the  reduction  of  aluminum,  as  well  as  a  direct  reduction  of  the  oxide  by 
the  carbon.  The  Aluminium  Industrie  Actien  (resell sch aft,  at  the  Falls  of  the  Rhine,  Neu- 
hausen,  in  Switzerland,  claim  to  produce  from  25  to  30  grammes  of  aluminum  per  horse- 
power per  hour,  in  the  form  of  a  10-per-cent  aluminum-copper  bronze. 

Aluminium  Bronze:  see  Alloys.    Aluminium  in  Steel:  see  Steel  Manufacture. 


ARMOR.  35 


Amalgamator :  see  Mills,  Gold,  and  Mills,  Silver. 

Ambnlance :  see  Carriages  and  Wagons. 

Ammonia  Machine :  see  Ice-making  Machine. 

ARMOR.  Early  in  the  eighties  iron  was  still  to  be  found  as  a  material  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  hulls  of  battle-ships,  and  compound  armor  was  in  use  by  all  the  leading 
powers ;  the  complete  belt  and  armor  had  not  yet  begun  its  reaction  toward  special  gun- 
position  protection,  and  deck-protecting  the  ends  had  only  just  become  a  prominent  feature. 
The  French  in  the  Marceau  and  Hoche  and  the  Russians  in  the  Dmitri  Doushoi  still  held  to 
the  complete  water-line  belt.  A  change  in  gun-protection,  however,  is  noted  in  the  Hoche,  a 
sister  ship  of  the  Marceau,  in  which  the  barbette  with  its  light  shield  is  changed  to  a  com- 
pletely covered  barbette  or  modified  turret.  Each  of  the  four  heavy  guns  is  carried  in  a 
separate  armored  redoubt — an  arrangement  of  the  primary  battery  rather  costly  in  weight  of 
armor. 

The  Italians,  in  the  Lauria  class,  revert  to  the  partial  belt,  with  armored  decks  for  water- 
line  protection,  and  a  strong  central  redoubt,  carrying  the  heavy  guns  in  barbette.  In  this 
vessel  of  11,000  tons  displacement,  the  armor  is  steel,  19'7  in.  in  thickness,  and  the  hull  is  also 
of  steel ;  the  ends  are  not  armored.  In  this  same  year,  1881,  the  English,  in  the  Imperieuse 
and  Warspite,  show  French  influence  by  the  battery  distribution  and  its  protection.  The 
heavy  guns  are  in  separate  positions  in  barbette ;  a  heavy  protective  deck  runs  fore  and  aft, 
the  midship  portion  being  protected  by  a  compound  armored  belt,  10  in.  thick,  about  one 
third  the  length  of  the  vessel. 

The  English  started  in  this  decade  by  building  barbette  ships  with  armored  ammunition- 
tubes,  but  provided  no  protection  immediately  below  the  barbettes  (see  Fig.  1).  There  is  a  pro- 
tective deck,  but  the  armor 
belt  for  water  -  line  defense, 
though  thick,  is  very  short.  ^ 
This  typical  ship,  the  Colling-  M 
wood,  was  followed  by  five  of 
the  same  class,  all  of  which 

carry  a  secondary  battery  of  /"7[-ili-hlK^^  C 

C-in.  guns.     In  these  vessels 
the  armored  barbettes  are  car- 

ried  at  a  considerable  height  ^TT^uT^Tf  barbette  ship, 

above  the  armored  portion  of 
the  hull.  In  the  strength  of  the  protective  armor  on  the  tubes  and  in  the  general  protection 
of  the  loading  arrangements  and  gun-mountings,  the  belting  of  these  vessels  has  been  con- 
sidered far  superior  to  those  found  in  most  foreign  war-ships.  It  was  decided,  however,  in  view 
of  the  great  development  of  high  explosives,  that  in  any  new  designs  for  barbette  ships  the 
proportion  of  the  length  at  the  water-line  protected  by  the  belt  of  armor  should  be  greater  in 
new  vessels  of  this  same  general  type ;  and,  further,  that  the  armored  barbette  towers  should 
be  carried  down  to  the  top  of  the  belt,  in  order  that  there  should  be  no  possibility  of  the  burst- 
ing of  shells,  containing  large  explosive  charges,  under  the  floors  of  the  barbettes  upon  which 
the  revolving  gun-platforms  are  carried. 

In  1883  the  Russians,  in  the  Tchesma,  follow  closely  the  then  prevalent  Italian  idea 
of  a  central  citadel,  and  have  a  heavily  armored  central  "redoubt.  The  complete  water-line 
belt  is  given  up,  the  ends  being  protected  by  a  3-in.  armored  deck.  The  six  heavy  guns, 
still  in  barbette,  are  mounted  on  disappearing  carriages.  The  hull  of  this  vessel  is  of  iron 
and  steel,  the  armor  being  composed  of  18  in.  thickness  in  the  heaviest  portions.  The 
first  Re  Umberto,  13.300  tons,  proposed  in  1884,  was  the  heaviest  vessel  designed  up  to 
that  time.  The  heavy  guns  were  in  barbettes  at  either  end  of  the  vessel,  being  protected 
by  steel  armor  18-87  in.  thick,  the  ammunition-tubes  had  14'11  in.  of  armor,  while  the  pro- 
tective deck  was  4*72  in.  at  its  thickest  parts,  over  the  machinery,  tapering  and  running  to 
the  extreme  ends  of  the  vessel.  The  auxiliary  battery  was  in  an  unarmored  casemate  be- 
tween the  positions  of  the  large  guns. 

In  the  Russian  Alexander  II  the  isolated  armor  on  gun  positions  is  reduced  in  thickness 
and  spread  over  a  larger  and  continuous  area:  the  barbette  is  forward  and  protected  by  10  in. 
of  compound  armor.  The  spur  is  also  heavily  armored ;  the  auxiliary  battery  is  carried  in 
recessed  ports  having  6  in.  of  protection.  Iii  1885  the  English  produced  the  Victoria,  in 
which  a  departure  was  made  from  their  former  types  of  battle-ships.  There  is  an  armored 
belt  amidships,  18  in.  in  thickness,  and  covering  about  one  half  the  length  of  the  vessel;  then 
there  is  another  belt,  6  in.  thick,  to  protect  that  portion  of  the  upper  deck  abaft  the  turret, 
and  forming  a  casemate.  The  barbette  mounts  for  the  large  guns  are  abandoned  for  a  turret 
having  16  in.  of  armor,  and  placed  on  top  of  a  supporting  base  also  carrying  armor  16  in.  in 
thickness ;  a  3-in.  protective  deck  runs  fore  and  aft. 

The  Collingwood  class  is  continued,  though  by  vessels  of  a  larger  displacement,  a  some- 
what superior  type  of  battle-ship  being  presented  by  the  Trafalgar  and  Nile  in  1886.  Most 
demands  are  well  met  in  this  class,  but  the  secondary  battery  is  somewhat  weak.  It  was 
originally  designed  to  be  composed  of  eisrht  5-in.  guns  in  broadside,  without  any  protection, 
but  was  changed  to  six  4'72-in.  rapid-fire  guns  behind  4  in.  of  armor.  The  irresistible 
logic  of  events  had  at  this  time  forced  the  displacement  above  14.000  tons;  the  water-line  de- 
fense continued  about  the  same.  Few,  if  any,  armored  vessels  with  complete  or  partial  water- 
line  belts  have  these  of  sufficient  depth  to  give  proper  protection  when  rolling.  This  defect 
is  minimized,  of  course,  in  the  large  ships  of  from  13,000  to  15,000  tons  displacement,  which 


36 


ARMOR. 


were  not  found  to  roll  appreciably  in  any  sea-way  that  permitted  ordinary  vessels  to  work 
their  guns. 

In  the  barbette  ships  there  was  greater  freeboard  at  the  ends,  four  heavy  guns  placed  high 
above  water  in  two  separate  barbettes,  and  a  central  battery,  containing  an  auxiliary  arma- 
ment identical  with  that  provided  for  in  the  turret  ships.  In  the  strength  of  the  protective 
armor  are  the  ammunition-tubes,  and  in  the  general  protection  of  the  loading  arrangements 


I 


o 
oo  h 

CO 


• 


and  gun-mountings  the  English  type  of  barbette  (Fig.  2)  is  held  to  be  far  superior  to  that  to  be 
L  most  foreign  war-ships.     It  was  decided,  however,  in  view  of  the  great  development 


ARMOR. 


37 


of  high  explosives,  that  in  any  new  designs  for  barbette  ships  the  proportion  of  the  length  at 
the  water-line  protected  by  the  belt  of  armor  should  be  increased,  and  that  the  armored  bar- 
bette towers  should  be  carried  down  far  enough  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  bursting  of 
shells  under  the  revolving  gun-platforms. 

Before  proceeding  to  build  new  ships  a  most  animated  and  prolonged  discussion  arose  in 
1888  in  England,  in  which  the  leading  naval  architects  participated,  and  which  brought  forth 
a  great  number  of  new  features  that  are  to  be  found  in  the  battle-ships  at  present  under  con- 
struction. The  adoption  of  the  redoubt  system,  when  it  is  associated  with  a  long  central 
battery  containing  a  powerful  auxiliary  armament,  enables  a  very  appreciable  increase  to  be 
made  in  the  defense  of  the  turret  base,  the  turret  guns,  and  all  the  loading  appliances,  as 
compared  with  what  is  possible  when  the  continuous  citadel  is  adopted.  The  defense  afforded 
by  the  side  armor  fitted  above  the  belt  is  re-enforced  by  continuous  coal-bunkers  which,  when 
filled,  contribute  to  the  defense,  and,  when  empty,  form  cellular  compartments  in  rear  of  the 
armor.  During  the  first  half  of  this  past  decade  it  was  but  rarely  that  the  projectile  energy 
was  entirely  expended  in  making  a  clean  hole  through  either  compound  or  steel  plates,  the 
results  usually  obtained  being  a  fractured  plate  and  broken  projectile.  In  conseqence,  except 
in  competitive  trials  of  different  plates  of  the  same  dimensions  under  exactly  similar  circum- 
stances, all  calculations  or  comparisons  were  too  unreliable  to  be  of  value,  the  outcome  being 
to  leave  the  question  of  the  relative  merits  of  compound  and  steel  armor  an  open  one.  Such 
have  been  the  improvements  in  the  quality  of  metal  and  in  the  processes  of  manufacture,  and 
the  conditions  have  varied  so  much  from  preceding  ones,  that  the  entire  subject  of  armor 
must  now  be  somewhat  differently  treated,  and  the  outcome  of  trials  that  occurred  before  the 
middle  of  the  decade  set  aside  as  hardly  pertinent  to  the  question. 

The  improvements  in  the  quality  and  in  the  manufacture  of  projectiles  have  been  relatively 
much  greater  than  in  that  of  plates,  and  armor-piercing  projectiles  are  now  produced  which,  so 
far  as  compound  and  steel  plates  are  concerned,  can  from  their  perfection  of  quality,  toughness, 
and  temper,  be  fairly  dominated  as  unbreakable  and  undeformable.  As  soon  as  such  projectiles 
were  obtained,  a  fairly  approximate  method  of  comparing,  under  certain  fixed  conditions,  the 
resisting  powers  of  different  plates  to  penetration  was  arrived  at.  Armor  trials  have  thus  far 
been  conducted  under  conditions  exceedingly  unfavorable  to  the  plate,  more  so  than  would 
probably  ever  occur  in  actual  warfare.  The  gun  has  every  advantage :  a  steady  platform  and 
a  normal  impact  at  a  short  range  on  an  immovable  target,  so  rigidly  braced  as  to  receive  the 
full  effect  of  the  energy  stored  up  in  the  projectile. 

In  1888  a  Cammel  compound  plate,  8  ft.  by  6  ft.  by  10|  ft.  thick,  was  tested  in  competition 
with  a  number  of  English-made  compound  and  steel  plates,  and  not  only  proved  superior  to 
all  its  competitors,  but  gave  better  results  than  had 
ever  before  been  obtained  from  a  compound  plate 
under  similar  conditions.  The  most  important  point 
brought  out  in  regard  to  this  plate  was  the  decided 
uniformity  of  the  metal  of  which  it  was  composed, 
this  being  evidenced  by  the  nearly  equal  penetration 
of  the  three  Holtzer  100  Ib.  armor-piercing  projec- 
tiles, having  a  striking  energy  of  2,723  foot-tons,  and 
the  similar  amount  of  work  done  on  each,  they  all 
breaking  in  about  the  same  manner.  The  chilled- 
iron  Palliser  projectiles  broke  up  against  the  hard 
steel  face  with  but  slight  penetration. 

In  November,  1889,  off  Helder,  North  Holland, 
there  were  competitive  tests  of  compound  armor- 
plates,  each  weighing  12'4  tons  and  being  11-02  in. 
thick.  Three  of  the  plates  were  manufactured  on 
the  Wilson  system  by  Cammel,  St.  Chamoud,  and 
Marrel,  respectively,  and  the  fourth  on  the  Ellis  sys- 
tem by  Brown.  The  gun  used  was  a  Krupp,  11-02 
in.  caliber,  and  firing  forged  steel  projectiles  weigh- 
ing 556  Ibs.  The  test  was  a  severe  one  ;  the  St.  Cha- 
moud and  Marrel  plates  were  so  badly  treated  that 
they  were  out  of  the  contest  after  the  first  shot  at 
each ;  the  Cammel  plate  was  perforated  with  ease, 
much  of  the  hard  steel  face  separating  from  the  soft  M 
back.  The  Brown  plate  stopped  the  first  two  projec-  | 
tiles,  but  not  the  third,  and  is  considered  to  have  be-  » 
haved  excellently.  (See  Fig.  3.) 

In  1890  there  was  another  test  given  a  Cammel  5 
plate,  8  ft.  by  6  ft.  by  10^  in.  thick,  the  projectiles  ? 
for  the  1st,  2d,  and  5th  shots  being  100  Ibs.  Holtzer, 
and  for  the  3d  and  4th  shots  98  Ibs.  Palliser.     This 

plate  was  greatly  outmatched  by  the  projectiles  :  not 

only  was  the  penetration  very  deep,  but  the  hard  steel  FIG.  3.— Tests  of  compound  armor-plates,  1889. 
face  suffered  much  more.  From  this  it  was  judged 

that  the  improvement  in  the  Cammel  compound  steel-faced  armor-plates  had  about  reached 
their  limit.  The  lack  of  uniformity  in  results  obtained  under  similar  conditions,  and  the  fre- 
quent scaling  off  of  the  hard  steel  faces  in  these  and  many  other  trials  were  thought  to  be  sure 


Plate* 


Broicn.  Plaifs 


38  ARMOR. 


indications  of  imperfect  welding.  Against  brittle  projectiles  like  the  Palliser  the  compound 
plates  acted  to  greatest  advantage. 

Of  a  number  of  English-made  steel  plates  which  were  tested  m  1888  but  two  gave  results 
at  all  comparable  with  those  obtained  from  the  competing  compound  plates,  a  decided  lack 
of  uniformity  in  the  metal  being  very  apparent.  A  steel  plate  made  by  Yickers  gave  better 
results.  The  equal  penetration  and  the  very  similar  effects  on  the  armor-piercing  projectiles 
gave  evidence  of  great  homogeneity  of  the  plate.  The  elasticity  of  the  metal  was  well  exem- 
plified bv  the  rebounding  of  the  projectiles,  and  its  comparative  softness  by  the  effect  on  the 
back  of  'the  plate.  A  large  order  from  the  English  Government  followed  the  satisfactory 
showing  of  the  Vickers  plate. 

In  1888  the  French  fired  chilled  cast-iron  projectiles  of  83-8  Ibs.  against  Schneider  steel 
plates  5i  in.  thick.  Each  of  the  projectiles  was  broken  in  about  the  same  manner,  and  their 
penetrations  not  being  in  proportion  to  the  projectile's  energies,  it  was  concluded  that  the 
metal  lacked  uniformity.  Later,  the  same  year,  a  heavier  plate,  9-6  in.  thick,  was  fired  at 
with  chilled  cast-iron  projectiles  weighing  99-2  Ibs.  with  most  excellent  results,  homogeneity 
of  the  plate  being  clearly  demonstrated.  The  plate,  however,  greatly  outmatched  the  projec- 
tiles. In  May,  1890,  a  Schneider  plate  was  again  fired  at,  and  behaved  much  better  than  in 
either  of  the  preceding  trials.  In  July  of  the  same  year  plates  of  the  same  make  were  fired 
at  with  Finspong  armor-piercing  cast  steel.  The  similar  effects  on  plate  and  projectiles  indi- 
cated satisfactory  uniformity,  and  the  plate  was  considered  superior  in  resisting  power  to  any 
Schneider  plate  'previously  tried.  It  also  demonstrated  the  practicability  of  forming  steel 
into  curved  plates  without  detracting  from  the  resisting  power  of  the  metal. 

We  now  come  to  what  were  considered  the  most  important  and  conclusive  armor  trials 
ever  undertaken  by  governmental  officials.  These  are  interesting,  not  only  on  account  of  the 
definiteness  of  the  results  obtained,  but  also  from  the  fact  that  in  each  case  the  plate  which 
fairly  carried  off  the  honors  was  neither  one  of  the  old-time  rivals — English  compound  and 
Schneider  steel— but  was  an  alloy  of  nickel  with  steel.  In  addition,  the  projectiles  used  were 
so  little  damaged  on  impact  that  the  effects  on  the  competing  plates  can  be  fairly  compared, 
a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty  in  earlier  trials.  The  trials  at  Ochta  are  given  first,  as  the 
nickel-steel  plate  tested  there  was  made  a  year  previous  to  that  used  in  the  Annapolis  test  in 
this  country. 

The  trial  took  place  at  the  Ochta  naval  battery,  in  Russia,  and  three  plates  were  submitted. 
A  Brown  (Ellis  patent)  compound  plate,  a  Schneider  nickel-steel  plate,  and  a  Vickers  all-steel 
plate,  each  8  ft.  square,  about  10  in.  thick,  and  11-7  tons  weight.  The  gun  was  a  6-in.  85- 
caliber,  firing  a  Holtzer  89-38  Ibs.  Five  shots  were  fired  at  each  plate ;  the  first  two  were  not 
so  well  tempered  as  the  remaining  three.  Here  the  Brown  plate  was  completely  outmatched ; 
in  addition  to  an  unexpected  degree  of  penetration,  it  was  also  badly  fractured,  an  unusual 
occurrence  when  a  compound  plate  of  such  thickness  is  attacked  by  small  projectiles,  but  the 
slight  scaling  off  of  the  hard  steel  face  showed  that  the  welding  was  excellent.  Its  performance 
proved  that  it  did  not  merit  classing  with  its  competitors. 

The  Vickers  plate  did  comparatively  well,  but  its  resisting  power  was  far  below  that  of 
the  Schneider  plate,  this  being  clearly  shown  by  the  greater  penetration,  and  by  the  less 
amount  of  work  done  on  the  projectiles.  Being  much  softer  than  the  Schneider  plate,  it  was 
much  less  shattered.  Its  back  was  bulged  out  considerably  by  the  first  shot,  enough  to  have 
badly  bent  any  framing  behind  it.  The  remaining  shot  did  not  cause  any  great  bulging  at 
the  back,  but,  instead,  the  metal  was  clipped  out  around  the  shot-holes.  After  the  trial, 
although  considerably  cracked,  it  was  removed  from  its  backing  without  having  the  cracked 
parts  separate.  Its  lack  of  homogeneity  was  shown  by  the  difference  in  penetration  of  the  last 
three  projectiles— 17-21  and  14  in.,  respectively — all  of  which  remained  unbroken. 

The  Schneider  nickel-steel  plate  did  not  show  up  as  well  as  was  expected,  cracking  more  than 
Vickers,  but  it  proved  best  of  all  for  armor  protection.  Only  two  of  the  projectiles  got  their 
points  beyond  the  back  of  the  plate.  When  removed  from  the  backing,  this  and  the  compound 
plate  had  to  be  banded  to  keep  their  fractured  parts  from  separating.  The  rebounding  of  the 
projectiles  from  this  plate  showed  it  to  be  more  elastic  than  the  all-steel,  the  latter  acting 
more  like  good  wrought  iron  when  attacked  by  projectiles  of  excellent  quality.  One  especially 
noticeable  feature  was  the  little  effect  of  its  many  cracks  on  the  penetration  of  succeeding 
projectiles.  As  a  result  of  this  trial,  Schneider  obtained  a  contract  for  2.100  tons  of  armor  for 
the  Russian  battle-ship  Georgy  Pobedonetz,  and  Vickers  an  order  for  300  tons  of  steel  plates, 
from  3  to  5  in.  thick,  for  two  Russian  gunboats. 

The  first  most  important  trials  in  this  country  were  held  at  Annapolis  in  September,  1890, 
at  which  three  plates  were  presented,  one  of  steel  and  one  of  nickel  steel,  by  Schneider  &  Co., 
Le  Creusot,  France,  and  one  compound  plate  by  Caramel  &  Co.,  Sheffield,  England.  The 
plates  weighed  about  20,800  lbsM  and  were  arranged  on  chords  of  a  circle,  with  the  gun-pivot 
as  the  center,  and  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  28  ft.  distant  from  the  center  of  the  plate  toward 
which  it  was  pointed.  The  gun  used  on  the  first  day  was  a  6-in.  breech-loading  rifle,  35 
calibers  long.  The  charge  used  was  44|  Ibs.  for  each  round  ;  the  striking  velocity  2,075  ft. 
per  second.  The  projectiles  were  Holtzer  6-in.  armor-piercing  shell,  weighing  100  Ibs.  After 
four  rounds  had  been  fired  at  each  plate,  further  firing  was  deferred  until  an  8-in.  gun  had 
been  mounted  in  place  of  the  6-in.  The  charge  was  85  Ibs.  of  brown  prismatic  powder,  the 
striking  velocity  being  1,850  ft.  per  second.  The  projectiles  were  Firth  armor-piercing  shell, 
weighing  210  Ibs. 

The  compound  plate  was  perforated  by  all  projectiles,  and  its  steel  face  was  destroyed. 
Two  of  the  shells  passed  completely  through  both  plate  and  backing.  Both  steel  plates  kept 


ARMOR. 


39 


out  all  projectiles,  the  all-steel  plate  showing  slightly  greater  resistance  than  the  nickel-steel 
plate  ;  bat  the  former  was  badly  cracked  by  the  8-in.  shell,  while  the  latter  remained  uncracked. 
The  hard  face  of  the  compound  plate  was  not  only  easily  overcome  by  the  projectiles,  but  was 
also  nearly  all  scaled  off  from  the  soft  wrought-iron*  back.  The 'ease  with  which  all  the 
projectiles  perforated  was  taken  as  proof  that  the  plate  fell  far  short  of  having  50  per  cent 
greater  resisting  power  than  a  wrought-iron  plate  of  the  same  thickness.  The  soft  wrought- 
iron  back  was,  however,  uncracked  at  the  end  of  the  trial.  The  effect  of  the  larger  projectile 
was  out  of  all  proportion  to  that  of  the  6-in.,  its  recovery  undeformed  proving  that  all  the 
work  was  done  on  the  plate.  No  such  great  difference,  at  the  corresponding  shots,  was  found 
with  either  of  the  two  other  plates.  A  decided  disintegration  of  the  metal  at  each  shot  was 
noticed,  on  account  of  which  successive  shots  encountered  less  resistance,  as  evidenced  by  the 
successive  greater  penetrations. 

At  the  end  of  the  fourth  shot  at  each  plate  a  choice  between  the  steel  and  nickel  steel 
would  have  been  in  favor  of  the  former,  on  account  of  the  less  amount  of  penetration.  Up  to 
this  point  the  steel  had  proved  itself  the 
superior  in  resistance  to  penetration  and 
fracture  of  any  plate  ever  previously 
tested.  Three  of  the  four  projectiles  fired 
at  it  remained  unbroken,  which,  with  the 
equal  amount  of  penetration  in  each  case, 
gave  unmistakable  proof  of  the  homo- 
geneous character  of  the  metal  of  the 
plate.  Its  great  elasticity  was  evidenced 
by  the  rebounding  of  the  projectiles,  and 
the  manner  in  which  the  metal  came  to 
the  front  and  heaped  up  in  .regular 
fringes  about  the  shot-holes. 

But  the  nickel-steel  plate  gained  the 
day  at  the  fifth  round,  when  the  8-in. 
projectile  was  broken  in  many  pieces, 
after  having  forced  its  point  but  1(H  in. 
beyond  the  back,  and  that  without  de- 
veloping the  sign  of  a  crack.  This  plate 
showed  the  same  amount  of  homogeneity 
as  the  steel  one,  but  was  tougher  and 
more  tenacious,  as  was  shown  by  the  grip- 
ping of  the  projectiles.  The  metal  did 
not  come  to  the  front  in.  fringes,  but 
clipped  off  about  the  edges  of  the  shot- 
holes.  Much  of  the  energy  was  expended 
in  breaking  up  the  projectiles,  the  locali- 
zation of  effect  was  very  remarkable.  At 
the  last  shot  at  the  all-s'teel  plate  the  8-in. 
projectile  succeeded  in  getting  its  point 
only  5'2  in.  beyond  the  back.  The  plate, 
though,  cracked  in  two  cross-lines,  which 
were  so  serrated  that,  when  the  plate  was 
removed  from  its  backing,  the  parts  re- 
mained firmly  in  place.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

The  principle  upon  which  compound 
armor  is  based  is  generally  thought  to  be 
a  good  one,  a  hard  projectile-breaking 
face  and  a  graduated  resisting  back. 
Great  efforts  will  probably  continue  to  be 
made  to  harden  the  face  of  plates  until 
the  getting  through  of  the  projectiles  is 
no  longer  a  possibility.  Several  methods 
for  applying  this  principle  to  armor- 
plates  by  processes  resulting  in  superfi- 
cial carbonization  have  been  devised,  and 
among  them  is  that  now  known  as  the 
Harvey  process.  Each  plate  is  treated 
with  the  design  of  transforming  its  sur- 
face into  a  high  grade  of  steel,  without 
causing  its  back  to  lose  any  of  its  original 
toughness,  and  without  producing  a 
pronounced  plane  of  demarkation  be- 
tween the  two  qualities  of  metal.  Plates  treated  by  this  process  were  subjected  to  trials  at 
Annapolis,  twenty-one  shots  from  a  Hotchkiss  6-poiinder  being  fired  at  a  3-in.  plate  of  nickel 
steel.  Only  three  penetrated  more  than  half  an  inch,  and  all  projectiles  were  smashed. 

By  far  the  most  momentous  question  which  the  Xavy  Department  in  this  country  has  had 
to  consider  in  connection  with  the  construction  of  the  new  navy  is  that  of  armor:  first,  to  se- 
cure a  supply  of  American  manufacture ;  and,  secondly,  to  determine  what  kind  of  armor 


Fia.  4. — Annapolis  tests  of  armor-plate. 


40  ARMOR. 


should  be  adopted,  having  reference  both  to  its  composition  and  mode  of  treatment.  The 
series  of  tests  already  referred  to  resulted  in  the  decision  to  adopt  nickel  steel.  It  remained, 
however,  to  give  a  thorough  trial  to  the  first  armor  of  domestic  manufacture  before  beginning 
to  place  it  upon  the  vessels,  and  for  this  purpose  it  was  decided  to  order  typical  plates  to  test 
(1)  whether  our  domestic  manufacturers  could  produce  an  armor  that  would  stand  competition 
with  foreign  material,  and  (2)  which  of  the  various  modes  of  treatment  would  give  the  best 

Six'plates  were  furnished  and  set  up  at  Indian  Head  (1891),  and  they  were  subjected  to  tests 
more  severe  than  had  ever  been  applied  to  foreign  government  trials.  Four  shots  were  fired 
at  each  plate  with  a  0-in.  gun,  with  an  impact  velocity  of  2,075  ft.  per  second,  using  the 
Holizer  projectile  of  100  Ibs.  One  shot  was  then  fired  at  the  center  of  each  plate  from  an  8- 
in.  gun,  with  an  impact  of  4,988  foot-tons,  or  2,000  in  excess  of  the  6-in.,  using  Firminy  and 
Carpenter  projectiles  of  210  and  250  Ibs.  weight,  respectively,  the  plates  being  normal  to  the 
line  of  fire.  Three  of  the  plates  were  furnished  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.  and  three  by  Car- 
negie, Phipps  &  Co.,  some  being  rolled,  others  forged,  and  several  being  treated  by  the  Harvey 
process. 

The  results  of  the  trial  were  in  the  highest  degree  satisfactory.  Each  of  the  six  plates 
manufactured  in  this  country  was  superior  to  the  English  compound  plate,  while  the  nickel 
Harveyed  plate  and  the  high-carbon  nickel  plate  were  superior  to  all  the  foreign  plates  of  the 
Annapolis  trial.  They  may,  therefore,  be  pronounced  in  advance  of  the  best  armor  hitherto 
manufactured  in  Europe.  Further  light  was  thrown  upon  the  question  of  the  relative  merits 
of  all-steel  and  nickel-steel  armor,  and  any  doubt  which  may  have  remained  upon  that  subject 
was  finally  set  at  rest.  Of  the  three  plates  made  at  Bethlehem  two  were  of  nickel  steel,  one 
treated  by  the  Harvey  process,  the  other  not,  and  the  third  was  of  all  steel,  Harveyed.  Both 
the  nickel  plates  proved  to  be  far  superior  to  the  all-steel  Harveyed  plate,  notwithstanding 
the  advantages  which  it  may  have  derived  from  the  special  treatment ;  and  both  proved  supe- 
rior to  the  French  all-steel  plate  tried  at  Annapolis.  A  third  nickel  plate,  manufactured  by 
Carnegie,  under  the  rolling  process,  also  showed  a  marked  superiority  over  the  all-steel  plate 
of  this  year,  and  both  it  and  the  corresponding  Bethlehem  plate  manufactured  under  the 
hammer  showed  a  capacity  of  resistance  to  perforation  fully  10  per  cent  greater  than  that  of 
the  French  all-steel  plate.  In  this  respect  the  results  furnished  by  the  two  American  plates 
manufactured  by  the  different  processes  (forging  and  rolling)  proved  to  be  remarkably  uni- 
form, the  6-in.  shots  that  were  fired  at  them  differing  in  penetration  but  an  inappreciable 
amount.  The  trial  thus  definitely  establishes  the  fact  that  armor  of  excellent  quality  may  be 
produced  by  the  rolling  process,  and  that  forging  by  means  of  the  hammer,  the  greatest  source 
hitherto  of  expense  in  manufacture,  is  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  an  absolute  necessity.  The 
importance  of  this  fact  can  hardly  be  overestimated,  for  it  raises  a  probability  that  within  a 
year  or  two  the  armor-producing  capacity  of  the  United  States  may  be  quadrupled  in  case  of 
necessity,  and  that  if  we  had  10,000  tons  to  let,  and  could  give  eighteen  months  from  date  of 
contract  to  commence  delivery,  the  cost  of  manufacture  would  be  reduced  from  25  to  33  per 
cent,  while  the  work  hitherto  confined  to  two  firms  would  be  thrown  open  to  a  large  number 
of  competitors.  Finally,  the  trial  shows  that  the  high-carbon  nickel  Harveyed  plate  is  un- 
doubtedly the  best  armor-plate  ever  subjected  to  ballistic  test. 

As  a  result  of  these  trials  orders  have  been  placed  with  the  firms  mentioned  for  armor  suf- 
ficient to  cover  the  battle-ships,  monitors,  and  armored  cruisers  now  in  course  of  construction 
in  this  country,  and  foreign  governments  that  had  not  already  ordered  armor  for  new  vessels 
have  quite  generally  adopted  the  newer  type.  Other  experiments  are  in  progress  to  still 
further  develop  the  qualities  of  nickel  steel,  as  well  as  the  process  by  which  additional  hard- 
ness is  given  to  its  surface. 

The  most  powerful  armored  vessels  of  the  United  States  at  present  (1892)  being  built  are 
the  Indiana  (see  full-page  plate),  the  Massachusetts,  and  the  Oregon.  Each  of  these  vessels 
has  a  water-line  armor-belt  7£  ft.  wide  and  18  in.  thick.  Armored  redoubts  17  in.  thick  at 
each  end  of  the  belt  extend  B\  ft.  above  the  main  deck,  and  thus  give  an  armored  free-board 
of  15  ft.  2  in.  These  redoubts  protect  the  turning-gear  of  the  turrets,  and  all  operations  of 
loading.  The  turrets  have  17-in.  inclined  armor.  The  8-in.  guns  have  barbettes  of  10  in., 
inclined  turrets  of  8£  in.,  and  loading  tubes  of  3  in.  The  side  armor  is  backed  by  6  in.  of 
wood,  two  f  in.  plates,  and  a  10-ft.  belt  of  coal.  Above  the  belt  armor  the  side  is  protected 
by  5  in.  of  steel.  The  protective  deck  is  from  2f  to  3  in.  thick. 

It  is  not  alone  to  ships  that  armor  is  being  applied :  its  use  has  been  extended  to  the  pro- 
tection of  guns  on  shore,  particularly  by  France  and  Germany.  Of  late  years  great  revolu- 
tions have  taken  place  in  the  principles  upon  which  such  forts  are  constructed,  and  in  the 
Gruson  system  is  seen  one  of  the  most  approved  types  of  armored  fortifications.  In  this  sys- 
tem the  conditions  kept  in  view  are  that  the  protection  must  insure  the  most  perfect  freedom 
of  action  to  the  gun;  the  necessary  men  must  be  kept  as  low  as  possible,  the  construction 
must  be  light  and  easily  movable,  and  there  must  be  the  utmost  reduction  of  the  interior 
space. 

The  Canet  system  differs  in  details  from  the  above,  although  the  conditions  to  be  fulfilled 
are  practically  the  same.  In  both  there  is  heavy  armor,  for  offering  an  efficient  resistance  to 
heavy  projectiles,  even  when  charged  with  melinite  or  other  high  explosive,  sufficiently  heavy 
not  to  be  injured  by  the  recoil  energy  set  up  by  the  firing  of  the  guns.  The  latter  are  to  be 
as  far  as  possible  independent  of  the  turrets,  and  are  mounted  upon  disappearing  carriages, 
so  that  their  crews  are  protected  during  the  operation  of  loading.  The  plan  is  circular,  and 
a  masonry-lined  pit  is  sunk  as  a  basement  for  the  gun-platform.  A  shield  of  steel  or  wrought 


BALANCE,  THE   TORSION. 


41 


FIG.  1.— Torsion  balance. 


iron  protects  the  pit,  a  metal  roof  covering  the  whole.  All  the  joints  are  made  with  mortises 
and  dovetails,  and  are  filled  in  with  molten  lead,  the  use  of  bolts  being  avoided.  In  addition 
to  forts  for  permanent  defenses,  there  are  others  made  for  use  of  rapid-fire  guns  in  the  field, 
which  are  transported  from  place  to  place  by  horses.  See  Tempering  and  Hardening,  also 
Publications  of  Office  of  Naval  Intelligence,  tfnited  States  Navy  Department,  1892,  and  pre- 
ceding years. 

Bag'ger :  see  Thrashing  Machines. 

BALANCE,  THE  TORSION.  The  first  successful  attempt  to  make  an  even  balance  or 
other  weighing  machine  with  beams  oscillating  on  pivots,  which  should  dispense  with  knife- 
edges,  and  thereby  avoid  their  well-known  defects  of  liability  to  damage  by  wear,  rust,  and 
overloading,  was  made  by  Frederick  A.  Roeder  and 
Alfred  Springer,  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1882.  They 
used  as  a  pivot  a  steel  wire  stretched  tightly  be- 
tween abutments.  The  balance-beam  being  firmly 
attached  to  the  wire,  its  oscillation  caused  the  wire 
to  twist  slightly,  hence  the  name  "  torsion  balance." 
The  simplest  form  of  torsion  balance  is  a  very  light 
beam  supported  at  its  middle  point,  which  is  also  its 
center  of  gravity,  by  a  stretched  wire,  the  wire  being 
firmly  fastened  to  the  beam.  A  weight  placed  at  one 
end  of  the  beam  will  exactly  balance  a  weight  at  the 
other  end.  The  sensitiveness  of  such  a  balance  de- 
pends upon  having  the  torsional  resistance  of  the 
wire  almost  infinitely  small.  This  requires  a  very 
thin  wire,  and  as  thin  wires,  when  stretched  horizon- 
tally, are  not  strong,  the  balance  can  be  used  only 

for  "very  small  weights.  Such  a  balance  was  Ritchie's,  mentioned  in  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  and  it  was  a  total  failure  for  large  weights.  If  the  wire  is  made  large  enough  to 
have  an  appreciable  strength,  its  torsional  resistance  prevents  the  balance  being  sensitive.  To 
get  rid  of  the  effect  of  the  torsional  resistance  in  diminishing  the  sensitiveness  of  the  balance 
was  one  of  the  chief  ends  of  Messrs.  Roeder  and  Springer's  efforts.  They  accomplished  it  in 
a  number  of  different  ways,  but  the  simplest,  and  the  one  which  is  adopted  in  practice,  is  the 
placing  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  beam  above  its  point  of  support.  In  knife-edge 
balances  such  a  placing  of  the  center  of  gravity  would  make  the  beam  top-heavy,  or  in 
unstable  equilibrium  ;  the  center  of  gravity  would  always  tend  to  reach  its  lowest  point,  and  tip 
the  beam.  In  the  torsion  balance,  however,  this  top-heaviness  acts  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  the  torsional  resistance  of  the  wire,  and  may  be  made  to  entirely  neutralize  it.  WTe  thus 
have  the  torsional  resistance  exerted  to  keep  the  beam  horizontal,  while  the  high  center  of 
gravity  tends  to  tip  it  out  of  the  horizontal.  The  adjustment  of  the  position  of  the  center  of 
gravity  so  as  to  neutralize  the  torsional  resistance  is  most  easily  made  by  having  a  poise 

placed  immediately  above  the  center  of  the  torsional  wire, 
and  making  it  adjustable  vertically  by  means  of  a  screw 
and  nut.  When  the  torsional  resistance  is  entirely  neu- 
tralized, the  balance  becomes  infinitely  sensitive,  and  any 
smaller  degree  of  sensitiveness  that  may  be  desired  may 
be  obtained  by  simply  lowering  the  poise.  The  torsion 
balance  is  made  in  many  forms,  but  in  general  the  wires 
are  shaped  like  a  thin  "flat  band  in  section;  instead  of 
being  round,  the  two  ends  of  a  strip  are  brazed  together 
so  as  to  make  a  ring,  and  this  is  tightly  stretched  over  a 
frame  or  truss  of  steel  or  other  metal,  of  the  shape  shown 
in  Figs.  1  and  2.  In  an  even-balance  scale  three  of  these  frames  are  used,  and  two  beams,  an 
upper  and  a  lower.  The  end  wires  are  -25  in.  wide  by  -010  in.  thick.  The  practical  sensitive- 
ness of  this  scale,  when  vibrating  at  the  rate  of  10  oscillations  per  minute,  is  about  2  grains. 
Fig.  2  shows  a  druggist's  prescription  balance 
sensitive  to  £$  grain  in  actual  use.  It  has  a 
capacity  of  8  oz.  in  each  pan.  The  wires  are 
about  '04  in.  by  *004  in.  Their  torsional  resist- 
ance is  overcome  by  the  small  round  weight 
seen  in  the  cut  attached  to  studs  on  the  lower 
beam.  See  Trans.  A.  S.  Mininq  E..  vol.  xii,  p. 
560:  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  vi.  p.  651. 

BALANCING  WAY.  A  device  for  bal- 
ancing mechanism  to  be  rotated,  such  as  cut- 
ter-heads, pulleys,  armatures,  etc.,  consisting 


FIG.  2.— Torsion  balance. 


FIG.  1. — Balancing  way. 


of  a  frame,  with  two  planed  ways,  on  which  are  mounted  two  standards,  one  fixed,  and  the 
other  movable.  The  top  edges  of  the  standards  are  planed  true  and  form  the  "  ways,"  on 
which  the  work  is  rested  while  being  tested  for  "  balance." 

Bale  Breaker:  see  Cotton-spinning  Machine. 

Balling  Machine  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machine. 

Balloon  :  see  Aerial  Navigation. 

Band  Cntter:  see  Thrashing  Machines. 

Band  Saw :  see  Saws,  Metal  Working  and  Saws,  Wood. 


BARREL-MAKING   MACHINES. 


BARREL-MAKING  MACHINES.  In  the  manufacture  of  both  tight  and  slack  barrels, 
and  more  especially  in  the  latter,  machinery  is  used  to  an  extent  which  is  increasing  year  by 
year-  and  the  indications  are  that  even  in  tight  barrel-making  at  least  where  the  barrels  are 
not  to  contain  very  expensive  liquids,  hand-work  will  be  superseded  by  better  and  cheaper  work 
lone  bv  machinery  In  this  line  there  are  but  few  manufacturers,  and  among  these  not  more 
than  one  or  two  who  make  a  full  line,  enabling  a  cooperage  establishment  to  be  started  with 
facilities  for  making  every  part  of  every  kind  of  a  barrel,  to  be  both  made  and  put  together 
bv  machinery  From  the  multiplicity  of  machines  for  making  parts  of  barrels  or  for  assem- 
bling them  into  complete  wholes,  ready  for  shipment,  we  can  make,  but  a  limited  selection. 

Stave-Jointer  —In  the  ordinary  stave-jointer  there  is  employed  a  knife  at  least  as  long  as 
the  stave  is  to  be,  and  having  its  edge  ground  to  a  double  slope—  that  is,  the  blade  has  a 
straight  back,  but  is  widest  in  the  middle,  its  edge  being  composed  of  two  straight  lines  meet- 
ing at  an  obtuse  angle.  This  gives  a  draw  cut  both  ways  from  the  center.  The  knife  is  also 
bent  to  a  degree  corresponding  to  the  amount  of  bilge  ;  and  the  shook  being  clamped  in 
place,  the  knife,  which  slides  guillotine-like,  is  brought  down  by  foot-power  and  returned  by 


c-  Cutter.—  The  power  lock-cutter  is  used  for  cutting  locks  on  wood  barrel-hoops  of 
different  lengths  and  widths  in  their  proper  position,  without  changing  the  machine  for  hoops 
of  different  sizes,  and  chamfering  the  ends  of  the  hoops.  There  is  a  rotary  cutter-head  bearing 

cutters  which  are  nearly  straight  on  their 
edges.  This  cutter-head  is  so  formed  that  the 
hoop  can  be  and  is  pressed  against  it  without 
danger  of  drawing  the  hoop  into  it.  The 
clamp  that  holds  the  hoop  while  being  cut  is 
adjustable  horizontally  and  vertically,  giving 
capacity  for  changing  the  form  of  the'lock  and 
of  the  hook. 

An  Automatic  H  'oop-  Coiling  Machine  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  serves  for  coiling  slack 
barrel  and  keg  hoops  of  various  sizes  and 
lengths.  There  is  a  circular  head  about  which 
the  hoops  are  coiled,  which  is  driven  by  an  in- 
ternal friction  gear  attached  to  the  back  end 
of  the  head  spindle,  and  is  operated  by  a  tar- 
board  friction-pulley  running  in  lever-boxes, 
and  which  are  connected  to  a  foot-lever.  Ore 
end  of  the  hoop  to  be  coiled  is  inserted  in  an 
open  slot  in  the  rotating  head  while  the  ma- 
chine is  in  motion,  firmly  securing  the  end  of 
the  hoop  to  the  head  while  coiling  around  the 
disk.  Each  succeeding  hoop  is  fed  into  the 
machine  at  the  proper  time  to  allow  the  pre- 
ceding loop  to  form  a  lap.  A  steel  spring  is 
used  in  binding  the  coil  firmly  together.  The 
end  of  the  last  hoop  is  secured  to  the  coil  by 
a  single  nail.  The  cone-shaped  rollers  shown 
in  the  figure  in  front  of  the  face-plate  serve 
as  guides  in  keeping  the  hoops  snug  against  the  face-plate.  These  rollers  are  attached  to  a 
sliding  carriage  which  has  an  adjustable  weight  for  giving  proper  tension  to  the  rollers  from 
the  face-plate.  A  three-armed  spider  back  of  the  face-plate,  with  the  arms  projecting  through 
it,  slides  in  a  horizontal  plane  with  the  rolls.  After  the  coil  is  finished  the  weight  of  the 
operator's  foot  upon  the  lever  simultaneously  carries  the  rolls  and  the  spider  forward  enough 
to  have  the  coil  clear  the  disk,  when  the  coil  is  automatically  discharged  from  the  machine 
without  stopping.  The  capacity  of  the  machine  is  from  1,500  to  1,800  hoops  per  hour. 

A  Compound  Hoop-Guide  and  Wood  Hoop-Driving  Machine,  for  guiding  wood  hoops  on 
to  barrels  in  process  of  manufacture,  is  formed  by  coned  sections  attached  to  and  controlled 
by  slides  and  springs,  and  moves  in  and  out  by  turning  a  hand-wheel.  It  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  hoop-driving  machine  of  the  same  firm,  which  is  driven  by  a  combination  of 
friction  and  screw  power,  which  moves  the  driving  arms  and  drivers  upland  down,  the  up- 
ward motion  being  more  rapid  than  the  downward,  and  the  sectional  drivers  which  move  the 
hoop  nearly  surround  the  barrel,  being  circular  in  form.  In  using  this  machine  in  connection 
with  the  hoop-guide,  the  guide  is  placed  on  the  head  of  the  barrel,  and  a  hand-wheel  is  turned, 
which  moves  out  the  cone  sections  a  little  beyond  the  edge  of  the  end  of  the  barrel.  The 
wood  hoops  are  then  placed  on  the  cone,  and  the  hoop-drivers  receive  them  and  drive  them 
to  their  proper  position.  In  driving  the  small  hoops,  the  cone-sections  recede  to  the  size  of 
the  hoop  and  guide  it  on  to  the  barrel.  Both  the  hoop-guide  and  the  hoop-driver  are  adjust- 
able for  different  sized  barrels.  This  machine  and  the  guide  fill  a  place  in  the  line  of  labor- 
saving  machines  for  making  wood-bound  barrels  for  liquors. 
Basic  Process  :  see  Steel  Manufacture. 
Bean  Harvester  :  see  Harvesting  Machines,  Grain. 

BEARINGS.     ROLLER  AND  BALL  BEARINGS.  —  The  use  of  rollers  and  balls  in  bearings 
for  the  purpose  of  converting  sliding  into  rolling  friction  is  meeting  with  success  in  numerous 


FIG.  1.— Hoop-coiling  machine. 


BEARINGS. 


43 


special  cases.  The  most  general  application  of  ball-bearings  is  in  bicycles  (see  BICYCLE). 
They  have  also  been  used  to  some  extent  for  axles  of  mining-cars.  An  application  of  roller- 
bearings  in  the  main  journal  of  the  great  Lick  telescope  is  thus  described  by  W.  R.  Warner 
(Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E..,  vol.  Ix,  p.  330).  The  tube  is  56  ft,  long,  and  weighs  4fc  tous.  It  is 
supported  on  a  bearing  near  the  center  and  at  one  side.  It  seemed  almost 
impossible  to  make  it  move  easily  enough  in  the  ordinary  way  by  using 
friction-rolls ;  so,  instead  of  that,  the  method  was  adopted  of  surrounding 
the  axis  close  to  the  tube  with  a  series  of  rolls  2$  in.  in  diameter  and  3  in. 
long,  with  a  result  which  seemed  very  satisfactory.  The  tube  when  bal- 
anced on  these  rolls  would  turn  by  a  pressure  of  4  Ibs.  at  the  end — one 
finger  would  move  it  very  easily — so  that  the  problem  was  as  completely 
solved  as  could  be  asked.  Another  effort  to  solve  a  similar  problem  in  a 
different  position,  where  the  rollers  hardly  would  do,  was  accomplished  by 
using  hardened  steel  balls  running  in  circular  concave  tracks,  which  is 
the  same  principle  used  in  bicycle-wheels.  In  this  problem,  simply  to 
test  its  working,  a  weight  of  2|  tons  was  placed  on  40  1-in.  balls  in  the 
two  circular  tracks,  and  this  2$  tons  was  turned  by  a  pressure  of  1  Ib.  at  a 
radius  of  3  ft.  The  groove  in  which  the  balls  run  had  a  diameter  of  1^ 
in.,  so  that  it  was  practically  a  plane  surface,  bearing  only  on  the  top  and 
lower  edge,  and  the  balls  worked  together  so  that  the  whole  ring,  when 
they  were  pressed  together,  left  only  ^  in.  between  the  last  two  balls. 
In  the  case  of  the  rolls,  they  were  not  together,  but  had  their  axis  run  on 
little  steel  balls  -^  in.  in  diameter.  There  was  no  lubricant.  It  was  found 
safe  to  put  on  the  balls  something  less  than  1,000  Ibs.  to  each  ball,  while 
on  a  roll  having  its  bearing  surface  its  full  length — 3  in. — a  much  larger  FIG.  1.— Ball  bearing, 
weight  could  be  placed. 

In  the  ordinary  form  of  ball-bearings  the  track  or  tracks  in  which  the  balls  roll  soon 
becomes  worn  if  the  bearing  is  subjected  to  any  considerable  pressure,  this  seeming  to  l»e  a 
necessary  consequence  of  the  fact  that  only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  actual  surface  within 
such  a  bearing  can  be  used  by  the  balls.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  bearing  does  better 
without  grooves  for  the  balls  to  run  in  than  with  them,  the  plain  surfaces  being  not  only 
more  easily  produced,  especially  when  hardened  and  ground  as  they  should  be,  but  actually 
working  better  in  nearly  every  respect.  This  being  the  case,  it  became  a  problem  to  so 
arrange  the  balls  that  all  the  surface  within  a  bearing,  both  on  the  shaft  and  with- 
in the  box,  should  be  made  use  of  by  the  balls,  thus  preventing  wearing  in  grooves, 
as  is  the  case  where  they  are  arranged  in  rings,  separated  from  each  other  by  col- 
lars. Figs.  1  and  2  show  forms  of  bearings  in  which  the  balls  are  held  in  what  is 
virtually  a  shell  that  can  be  removed  from  the  bearing,  handled  and  put  in  again 
without  a  single  ball  being  displaced.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  balls  are  arranged 
between  the  coils  of  a  helix  which  holds  them  loosely,  so  that  they  are  free  to 
turn,  the  ends  of  the  helix  being  partially  closed  to  prevent  their  running  out  at 
BaHbJarine  tne  ends.  The  sides  of  the  strip  from  which  the  helix  is  formed  are  made  con- 
cave,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  object  of  this  being  obvious.  The  shell  or  helix  is  not 
held  in  the  bearing  in  any  way,  except  that  collars  prevent  it  being  displaced  endwise,  and  it 
turns  freely  with  the  balls  as  they  rotate.  Though  arranged  in  a  helical  line,  the  balls  do 
not  rotate  in  this  line,  but  in  a  direct  annular  direction  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  cen- 
ter line  of  the  journal,  the  pitch  of  the  helix  being  so  proportioned  to  the  diameter  of  the 
balls  that  each  succeeding  ball  rotates  in  a  track  which  is  slightly  at  one  side  of  that  of  the 
preceding  one  (usually  about  ^4  in.),  the  end  play  which  is  in  most  bear- 
ings allowing  for  enough  movement  to  cover  the  intervening  spaces,  so 
that  the  entire  surface  is  made  nse  of,  both  the  shaft  and  the  box  be- 
coming planished  brightly  and  uniformly  over  their  entire  surface.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  this  results  in  decrease  of  wear.  Fig.  3  shows 
another  form  of  bearing,  which  embodies  the  same  principle,  90  far  as 
the  distribution  of  the  balls  is  concerned,  they  being  in  this  case  inclosed 
in  a  shell  of  brass,  which  is  drilled,  as  shown,  for  the  reception  of  the 
balls,  a  shoulder  being  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  holes,  and  the  tops  being 
partially  closed  after  the  balls  are  in  place,  so  that  they  are  held  loose- 
ly, as  in  the  helical  shell.  One  of  the  advantages  of  "this  form  is  that 
more  balls  can  be  put  into  a  bearing  of  given  size,  and  the  shell  can  be 
made  in  two  parts,  joined  together  as  shown,  so  that  they  can  be  put 
over  a  shaft  or  taken  from  it  at  any  point  in  its  length  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  going  to  the  ends.  The  two  parts  are  joined  at  the  irregular 
line  shown,  and  are  held  together  by  the  spring  hooks  seen  at  the  sides. 
It  will  be  understood,  of  course,  that  not  much  force  acts  to  separate  the  two  parts  of  the  shell 
when  it  is  in  use,  since  its  only  office  is  to  keep  the  balls  properly  separated. 
Bearingrs:  see  Drilling  Machines,  Metal;  also  Cycle. 
Belt  Lacina: :  see  Belts. 

BELTS.  Recent  experiments  on  belting  (see  Trans.  A.  S.  31.  E.,  ii,  91  and  224;  vii,  347 
and  549 ;  viii,  529 ;  and  x.  765)  all  tend  to  confirm  the  statement  made  in  Vol.  I  of  this  work, 
that  "experiments  on  the  amount  of  power  that  can  be  transmitted  by  a  belt  of  given  size 
show  many  discrepancies,  which  seem  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  belts  of  different  quality 
were  experimented  upon ;  and  it  is  pretty  well  settled  that,  while  rules  can  be  constructed 


FTG.  2. 


FIG.  3.— Ball  bearing. 


44  BELTS. 


that  will  show  what  power  a  good  belt  may  transmit  under  given  conditions,  they  can  not  be 
implicitly  relied  upon  to  show  how  much  power  a  particular  belt  does  transmit." 

An  elaborate  set  of  experiments  on  belts  was  made  in  1885  by  William  Sellers  &  Co.,  and 
reported  by  Mr.  Wilfred  Lewis  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  vii,  p.  549).  These  experiments 
seemed  to  show  that  the  principal  resistance  to  straight  belts  was  journal-friction,  except 
at  very  high  speeds,  when  the  resistance  of  the  air  began  to  be  felt.  The  resistance  from 
stiffness  of  belt  was  not  apparent,  and  no  marked  difference  could  be  detected  in  the  power 
required  to  run  a  wide  double  belt  or  a  narrow  light  one  for  the  same  tension  at  moderate 
speeds.  With  crossed  and  quarter-twist  belts,  the  friction  of  the  belt  upon  itself  or  upon 


in  section  and  92  in.  long  was  found  by  experiment  to  elongate  £  in.  when  the  load  was 
increased  from  100  to  150  Ibs.,  and  only  £  in.  when  the  load  was  increased  from  450  to  500 
Ibs.  The  total  elongation  from  50  to  500  Ibs.  was  l-,^  in.,  but  this  would  vary  with  the  time 
of  suspension,  and  the  measurements  here  given  were  taken  as  soon  as  possible  after  apply- 
ing the  loads.  In  all  cases  the  coefficient  of  friction  was  shown  to  increase  with  the  per- 
centage of  slip.  An  interesting  feature  of  these  experiments  is  the  progressive  increase  in 
the  sum  of  the  belt  tensions  during  an  increase  in  load.  This  is  contrary  to  the  generally 
accepted  theory  that  the  sum  of  the  tensions  is  constant.  The  highest  coefficient  obtained 
was  1-67,  but.  of  course,  this  was  temporary.  The  diameter  of  the  pulley  also  appears  to 
affect  the  coefficient  of  friction  to  some  extent.  This  is  especially  to  be  noticed  at  the  very 
slow  speed  of  18  revolutions  per  minute  on  10-in.  and  20-in.  pulleys,  where  the  adhesion  on  the 
20-in.  pulleys  is  decidedly  greater;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  at  160  revolutions  per  minute,  the 
adhesion  on  the  10-in.  pulleys  is  often  as  good  as,  and  sometimes  better  than,  appears  for  the 
20  in.  at  the  same  velocity  of  sliding.  It  might  be  possible  to  determine  the  effect  of  pulley 
diameter  upon  adhesions  for  a  perfectly  dry  belt,  where  the  condition  of  its  surface  remains 
uniform ;  but  for  belts  as  ordinarily  used  it  would  be  very  difficult,  on  account  of  the  ever- 
changing  condition  of  surface  produced  by  slip  and  temperature.  It  is  generally  admitted 
that  the  larger  the  diameter  the  greater  the  adhesion  for  any  given  tension,  but  no  definite 
relation  has  ever  been  established,  nor,  indeed,  does  it  seem  possible  to  do  so,  except  by  the 
most  elaborate  and  extensive  experiments.  Theoretical  formulae  hitherto  used  in  calcula- 
tions of  belt-power  have  assumed  the  coefficient  of  friction  as  uniform  around  the  arc  of  con- 
tact, but  this  can  no  longer  be  correct  if  the  coefficient  varies  with  the  pressure.  Mr.  Lewis 
says  the  driving-power  of  a  leather  belt  depends  upon  such  a  variety  of  conditions  that  it 
would  be  manifestly  impracticable,  if  not  impossible,  to  correlate  them  all ;  and  it  is  thought 
better  to  admit  the  difficulties  at  once  than  to  involve  the  subject  in  a  labyrinth  of  formulae 
which  life  is  too  short  to  solve.  Mr.  Lewis  estimates  that  under  good  working  conditions  the 
efficiency  of  belt  transmission  may  be  assumed  to  be  97  per  cent.  When  a  belt  is  too  tight 
there  is  a  constant  waste  in  journal-friction,  and  when  too  loose  there  may  be  a  much  greater 
loss  in  efficiency  from  slip.  The  indications  and  conclusions  drawn  from 'his  experiments  are 
as  follows :  1.  That  the  coefficient  of  friction  may  vary  under  practical  working  conditions 
from  25  to  100  per  cent.  2.  That  its  value  depends  upon  the  nature  and  condition  of  the 
leather,  the  velocity  of  sliding,  temperature,  and  pressure.  3.  That  an  excessive  amount  of 
slip  has  a  tendency  to  become  greater  and  greater,  until  the  belt  finally  leaves  the  pulley. 
4.  That  a  belt  will  seldom  remain  upon  the  pulley  when  the  slip  exceeds  20  per  cent.  5.  That 
excessive  slipping  dries  out  the  leather,  and  leads  toward  the  condition  of  minimum  adhesion. 
6.  That  rawhide  has  much  greater  adhesion  than  tanned  leather,  giving  a  coefficient  of  100 
per  cent,  at  the  moderate  slip  of  5  ft.  per  minute.  7.  That  a  velocity  of  sliding  equal  to  '01 
of  the  belt-speed  is  not  excessive.  8.  That  the  coefficients  in  general  use  are  rather  below  the 
average  results  obtained.  9.  That,  when  suddenly  forced  to  slip,  the  coefficient  of  friction 
becomes  momentarily  very  high,  but  that  it  gradually  decreases  as  the  slip  continues.  10. 
That  the  sum  of  the  tensions  is  not  constant,  but  increases  with  the  load  to  the  maximum 
extent  of  about  33  per  cent  With  vertical  belts.  11.  That,  with  horizontal  belts,  the  sum  of 
the  tensions  may  increase  indefinitely  as  far  as  the  breaking  strength  of  the  belt.  12.  That 
the  economy  of  belt  transmission  depends  principally  upon  journal-friction  and  slip.  13.  That 
it  is  important  on  this  account  to  make  the  belt-speed  as  high  as  possible  within  the  limits  of 
5,000  or  6,000  ft.  per  minute.  14.  That  quarter-twist  belts  should  be  avoided.  15.  That  it  is 
preferable  in  all  cases,  from  considerations  of  economy  in  wear  on  belt  and  power  consumed, 
to  use  an  intermediate  guide-pulley,  so  placed  that  the  belt  may  be  run  in  either  direction. 
16.  That  the  introduction  of  guide  and  carrying  pulleys  adds  to  the  internal  resistances  an 
amount  proportional  to  the  friction  of  their  journals. "  17.  That  there  is  still  need  of  more 
light  on  the  subject. 

Mr.  Samuel  Webber  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E..  vol.  viii,  p.  537)  proposes  the  following  formulae 
for  leather  belting,  where  the  tension  with  which  the  belt  is  put  on  is  known  or  assumed : 

Width  in  inches  =-      ^ No.  HP.  X  33,000  X  180° 

velocity  in  ft.  per  minute  X  strain  in  Ibs.  per  in.  width  X  arc  of  contact 
and 

-rrp  velocity  in  ft.  X  strain  per  in.  X  width  X  arc  of  contact 

33,000  X  180°  "T^ 

Mr.  Scott  A.  Smith  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  x,  p.  765)  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  best 
belts  are  made  from  all  oak-tanned  leather,  and  curried  with  the  use  of  cod-oil  and  tallow,  all 


BELTS.  45 


to  be  of  superior  quality.  Such  belts  have  continued  in  use  thirty  to  forty  years,  when  used 
as  simple  driving-belts,  driving  a  proper  amount  of  power,  and  having  had  suitable  care. 
The  flesh  side  should  not  be  run  to  the  pulley  face,  for  the  reason  that  the  wear  from  con- 
tact with  the  pulley  should  come  on  the  grain  side,  as  that  surface  of  the  belt  is  much  weaker 
in  its  tensile  strength  than  the  flesh  side ;  also,  as  the  grain  is  hard,  it  is  more  enduring  for 
the  wear  of  attrition ;  further,  if  the  grain  is  actually  worn  off,  then  the  belt  may  not  suffer 
in  its  integrity  from  a  ready  tendency  of  the  hard-grain  side  to  crack.  The  most  intimate 
contact  of  a  belt  with  a  pulley  comes,  first,  in  the  smoothness  of  a  pulley  face,  including  free- 
dom from  ridges  and  hollows  left  by  turning-tools ;  second,  in  the  smoothness  of  the  surface 
and  evenness  in  the  texture  or  body  of  the  belt ;  third,  in  having  the  crown  of  the  driving 
and  receiving  pulleys  exactly  alike — as  nearly  so  as  is  practicable  in  a  commercial  sense ; 
fourth,  in  having  the  crown  of  pulleys  not  over  £  in.  for  a  24-in.  face — that  is  to  say,  that  the 
pulley  is  not  to  be  over  J  in.  larger  in  diameter  in  its  center ;  fifth,  in  having  the  crown  other 
than  two  planes  meeting  in  the  center ;  sixth,  the  use  of  any  material  on  or  in  a  belt,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  necessarily  used  in  the  currying  process  to  keep  them  pliable  or  increase  their 
tractive  quality,  should  wholly  depend  upon  the  exigencies  arising  in  the  use  of  belts,  and 
the  use  of  such  material  may  justly  be  governed  by  this  idea — that  it  is  safer  to  sin  in  non- 
use  than  in  overuse ;  seventh,  with  reference  to  the  lacing  of  belts,  it  seems  to  be  a  good 
practice  to  cut  the  ends  to  a  convex  shape  by  using  a  former,  so  that  there  may  be  a  nearly 
uniform  stress  on  the  lacing  through  the  center  as  compared  with  the  edges.  For  a  belt  10 
in.  wide,  the  center  of  each  end  should  recede  *fo  in.  As  friction  is  due  largely  to  the  uneven- 
ness  of  two  surfaces  in  contact  under  motion,  and  as  the  best  tractive  quality  of  belts  comes 
from  the  evenness  and  smoothness  of  the  two  surfaces  of  belt  and  pulley-face,  it  easily  fol- 
lows that  the  value  of  the  tractive  force  of  a  belt  on  a  pulley  face  is  due,  first,  to  atmospheric 
pressure ;  second,  to  the  attractive  adhesion  of  the  leather  fibers  and  the  oxidized  oil  of  the 
currying  process.  The  practical  effect  of  a  belief  in  atmospheric  aid  is  to  induce  the  running 
of  belts  very  or  comparatively  slack,  thus  avoiding  unnecessary  stress  on  bearings,  and  main- 
taining the  integrity  of  belts.  A  total  disregard  of  this  belief  has  resulted  in  the  destruction 
of  belts  in  a  few  weeks  or  a  few  months,  when  they  might  have  served  well  on  toward  the 
full  life  of  the  best-made  belts,  which,  as  stated,  is  from  thirty  to  forty  years. 

Coefficients  of  Friction  in  Belting.— In  1882  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  A., "vol.  vii,  p.  349)  Prof. 
S.  W.  Holman  undertook  a  set  of  experiments  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  the 
enormous  discrepancy  in  the  results  of  different  experimenters.  He  caused  the  pulley  to  slide 
under  the  belt,  hanging  weights  on  the  loose  side  of  the  belt  and  attaching  the  other  end  to 
a  spring  balance.  He  found  that,  with  a  low  speed  of  slip,  he  obtained  a  coefficient  of  fric- 
tion as  low  as  (H2.  while  with  a  speed  of  200  ft.  per  minute  he  obtained  about  0-58,  and  inter- 
mediate values  with  intermediate  speeds  of  slip ;  hence,  that  the  coefficient  of  friction  varies 
with  the  speed  of  the  slip.  It  also  appears  to  vary  with  the  pressure,  according  to  the  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Lewis,  quoted  above.  Prof.  Gaetano  Lanza,  in  1884  (vol.  vii,  p.  350),  found  the 
average  value  of  this  coefficient  under  a  speed  of  slip  of  3  ft.  per  minute  to  be  about  0*27. 
corresponding  (if  the  admissible  stress  per  in.  of  width  be  taken  at  66£  Ibs.)  to  the  rule  that 
a  belt  1  in.  wide  must  travel  1,000  ft.  per  minute  to  transmit  1  horse-power.  Mr.  H.  R. 
Towne,  in  1867.  with  a  slip  of  200  ft.  per  minute,  obtained  a  coefficient  of  0'58 ;  but  he  and 
Mr.  Briggs  recommended  for  use  two  thirds  of  this,  or  0-42.  In  discussion  of  Prof.  Lanza's 
paper,  however,  Mr.  Towne  said  (vol.  vii,  p.  359)  that  his  own  experiments  must  now  be  set 
aside  in  favor  of  those  of  Prof.  Lanza. 

Cotton  Belts. — Belts  made  of  cotton-duck  or  canvas  are  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  the 
United  States.  A  belt  of  this  kind,  tested  by  Mr.  Webber,  is  described  as  follows :  It  was 
made  from  cotton-duck  folded  to  make  four  plies,  and  then  fastened  longitudinally  with  rows 
of  stitches  £  in.  apart,  the  belt  then  being  filled  with  a  composition  of  boiled  linseed-oil  and 
red  lead.  Another  cotton  belt  (four  ply)  was  made  of  solid  woven  cotton,  and  a  mixture  of 
linseed-oil  and  plumbago  worked  in  and  dried  under  pressure.  Powdered  soapstone  is  then 
used  over  the  surface  of  the  belt  on  both  sides,  to  prevent  its  sticking  while  standing  in  the 
roll  or  coil.  It  drives  well  for  a  time,  but  stretches  a  great  deal. 

"  Cotton-Leather""  Belts. — A  belt  known  as  the  cotton-leather  belt  is  made  by  the  Under- 
wood Manufacturing  Company.  This  belt  consists  of  a  firmly  woven  duck  or  canvas,  which 
is  first  stretched  by  running  it  at  a  high  speed  over  pulleys,  which  are  adjustable  by  means 
of  screws  to  any  required  tension,  and,  after  the  stretch  seems  to  be  thoroughly  taken  out  of 
it,  a  thin  and  soft  leather  lining  is  cemented  on  to  one  side,  under  heavy  pressure,  so  as  to 
make  a  holding  surface  to  be  run  next  the  pulleys.  The  canvas  is  woven  two,  three,  four,  or 
more  "plies"  in  thickness,  and  of  any  desired  width. 

Hair  Belting. — A  belt  made  of  woven  hair  has  recently  come  into  use,  the  claims  made 
for  it  being  that  it  is  stronger  and  more  durable  than  " 
leather;   that  it  will  work  in  water  without  injury  or 
softening,  and  is  little  affected  by  heat,  steam,  or  acids, 
and  is  more  economical  in  first  cost  than  leather,  and  can 
be  pieced  with  or  without  the  use  of  laces.     The  Rosen- 
dale  hair  belt,  shown  in   Fig.  1,  has  what  is  called  an 
anti-friction  edge,  which  enables  the  belting  to  resist  the 

action  of  strap-forks,  and  prevents,  in  a  remarkable  man-  FIG.  1.— Hair  belt, 

ner,  the  edges  from  fraying.     It  is  claimed  that  with  hair 
belts  the  bite  on  the  drums  is  by  friction ;  the  consequent  suction  between  the  belt  and  the 
drum  is  thereby  dispensed  with; 'hence  these  hair  belts  come  straight  off  the  drum,  and  do 


46 


BELTS. 


not  follow  and  adhere  to  it,  as  in  the  case  of  leather.     The  motion  is,  therefore,  quite  steady 

Bristol's  'steel  Belt  Lacing.— Fig.  2  shows  a  belt  fastening  made  by  punching  and  bending 
sheet-steel  into  the  form  shown.     The  cut  represents  the  lacing  ready  for  application,  and 

also  shows  a  finished  joint.     The  lacing  con- 
sists of  a  continuous  zigzag  strip  of  steel,  so 
proportioned  as  to  give   maximum   strength 
with  a  minimum  amount  of  material.     The 
wedge-shaped  points  when  driven  through  the 
belt  force  the  fibers  aside  without  cutting  them ; 
hence  the  ends  of  the  belt  are  not  weakened,  as 
when  holes  are  punched.     Bristol's  steel  lac- 
ing,  for  single-thickness  belting,  is  made  in 
lengths  from  1  to  3  in. ;  for  belts  wider  than  3 
in.,  two  or  more  lacings  are  used. 
Wire  Beltinq  —A  belt  made  of  steel  wire  woven  into  a  flexible  web  and  covered  with  rub- 
ber is  made  by  the  Midgely  Wire  Belt  Company,  Beaver  Falls,  Pa.     It  is  claimed  to  be  nine 
times  as  strong  as  a  leather  belt,  and  more  flexible.  t 

Leather-Link  Belts.— The  construction  of  leather-link  belts  is  shown  m  Figs.  3  and  4. 
They  consist  of  small  pieces  of  leather  of  the  oblong  shapes  shown  in  Fig.  4,  with  holes  near 
the  ends,  by  which  they  are  connected.  These  belts 
are  valuable  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  and  especially 
for  damp  places.  They  are  water-proof,  there  being 
no  cemented  joints  to  give  way  by  contact  with  damp- 
ness. By  virtue  of  their  weight  they  are  capable  of 
transmitting  a  considerable  amount  of  power  without 
great  width  of  belt  and  pulleys.  When  made  with  a 
center-hinge  joint  they  fit  laterally  to  the  pulley 


READY  TO  APPLY        FINISHED  JOINT 

FIG.  2.— Steel  belt  lacing. 


FIG.  3.— Leather-link  belt. 


FIG.  4.— Leather-link  belt. 


more  completely  than  solid  leather  belts,  and  this  quality  assists  them  in  the  transmission  of 
power.  The  proper  manner  of  running  a  link-belt  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  3.  Here  the  belt  is 
drawn  taut  upon  the  under  side,  allowing  the  upper  side  to  sag  and  climb  the  driven  pulley, 
so  as  to  bring  the  belt  in  contact  with  a  large  proportion  of  its  circumference.  This  large 
arc  of  circumference  in  contact,  and  the  weight  of  the  belt,  result  in  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  power  transmitted.  Fig.  5  represents  a  cross-section  of  the  Acme  Link-belt,  the 
dotted  lines  showing  the  three  bolts  by  which  the  links  are  held  together  transversely ;  the 
three  center  links,  placed  upon  the  highest  part  of  the  pulley,  as  shown,  are  made 


FIG.  5.— Link-belt, 

These  form  the  center  hinge,  giving  flexibility  and  adjustability  to  the  belt.  At  the  lines  A  A 
are  shown  the  heads  of  the  two  bolts,  which  extend  from  this  hinge-joint  to  the  outer  edge  of 
the  belt. 

Iron-Link  Belts. — Detachable  malleable  iron  links  are  largely  used  in  bulk-elevating  and 
conveying,  and  in  the  transmission  of  power  under  suitable  conditions.  The  sizes  in  common 
use  are  designated  by  numbers — the  first  or  first  two  figures  giving  approximately  the  diame- 
ter in  sixteenths  of  an  inch  of  the  end  and  side  bars  of  the  link,  the  final  figure  indicating 
sequence  of  the  link  among  those  cf  like  strength ;  thus,  No.  44  has  side  and  end  bars  f^  in.  in 


BELTS. 


47 


diameter,  and  is  intermediate  in  other  dimensions  between  No.  42  and  Xo.  45,  which  are  of 
the  same  gauge;  No.  103  has  end-bar  j£  in.  diameter,  and  is  intermediate  in  pitch  and  other 
measurements  between  No.  101  and  No.  105.  The  range  of  regular  sizes  is  from  No.  25, 
-j%  in.  pitch  length  and  H  in-  wide,  with  working  strength  of  75  Ibs.,  to  No.  160,  10£  in.  long 
by  9£  in.  wide,  with  working  strength  of  two  tons.  Tables  of  "working  strains"  are  pub- 
lished by  the  manufacturers,  and  all  links  are  subjected  to  static  test  of  from  two  and  a 

t  the 
when 


half  to  three  times  these  published  strains.     For  power  transmission,  particularly  at 
higher  speeds,  a  larger  factor  of  safety  should  be  used,  as  high  as  six  being  desirable 
power  and  speed  require  use  of  the  heavier  links.     The  following  is  a  list  of  usual  sizes  and 
working  strains  published  by  manufacturers  : 


Number. 

Links  per  foot. 

Working 

strain. 

Approximate  iu 
leather  belting. 

Number. 

Links  per  foot 

Working 
strain. 

Approximate  in 
leather  belting. 

25 

10  '3 

75 

1  in.  s  ngle. 

78... 

4'6 

1.000 

10  in.  single 

32 

10'5 

150 

83  

3 

1,200 

12 

as  

8-6 

200 

2*         ' 

85  

3 

1,300 

9  in.  double. 

34 

8'6 

225 

** 

88 

4'6 

1  500 

35 

7'4 

250 

£i 

95  

3 

1,600 

10        " 

42 

8'8 

300 

3           ' 

103 

4 

1  800 

12         " 

45 

7*4 

350 

31         ' 

105 

2 

1  500 

10         " 

51 

10  '5 

375 

3         ' 

106  

2 

1  700 

11         " 

5-3 

8 

500 

4           ' 

107 

2 

1  600 

10         " 

55  

7'4 

450 

4 

108  

2-55 

2,000 

13         " 

E7 

5'2 

600 

6           ' 

109  

2 

1,900 

12         " 

62 

7'3 

650 

C*        " 

114 

3'66 

2000 

13         " 

06  

6 

700 

7          " 

122  

2 

2,200 

15         " 

67        ...     . 

5'2 

700 

124  

3 

2500 

17 

4-6 
5'2 

750 
800 

I*   - 

146  
160  

2 

1 

2,800 
4,000 

19 

The  speed  consistent  with  economy  and  safety  is  of  course  largely  dependent  on  varying 
conditions.  Assuming  these  to  be  favorable,  it  has  been  found  that  about  300  revolutions  of 
a  wheel  whose  diameter  is  five  times  the  pitch  length  of  the  links  should  not  be  greatly  ex- 
ceeded. At  low  speeds  much  smaller  wheels  may  be  employed,  but  in  no  case  should  a  link- 
belt  be  run  on  a  wheel  of  less  than  six  teeth. 

Applications  of  link-belting  to  other  purposes  than  the  transmission  of  power  have  led  to 
the  designing  of  various  attachment  forms.  These  are  inserted  in  the  belts  at  required  inter- 
vals, and  are  employed  in  elevators,  for  carrying  cups,  or  buckets,  barrel  and  package  arms ; 
in  conveyers,  for  bolting  on  scrapers  or  slats ;  in  complete  machines,  for  timed  movements ; 
and  in  numberless  other  devices  for  handling 
materials.  Fig.  6  shows  one  form  of  standard 
link  and  the  manner  of  coupling. 

Hope  Belting,  commonly  called  Rope  Driv- 
ing.— Transmission  of  power  by  ropes  has  re- 
cently become  quite  extensively  adopted  -as  a 
substitute  for  leather  belting  or  line  shafting. 
The  necessity  for  economy  of  space  in  factory- 
work,  the  growing  tendency  toward  high  speeds 
in  steam-engines,  and  the  employment  of  elec- 
tric motors,  have  created  a  demand  which  rope 
transmission,  when  intelligently  designed  and 
applied,  appears  to  meet  more  completely  than 
any  other  connection  between  the  source  of 
power  and  its  application  to  the  work  to  be  done. 
The  special  claims  for  this  system,  or  method,  are:  That  it  is  positive — no  allowances  for 
slip  have  therefore  to  be  made ;  cheap — costing  much  less  than  leather  belling  or  line  shaft- 
ing, if  either  the  power  to  be  transmitted  or  the  distance  between  shafts  is  considerable ;  noise- 
less— even  at  the  highest  economical  speeds ;  that  it  does  not  require  rigidly  exact  alignment 
of  shafts,  and  is  therefore  not  sensitive  to  slight  settling  of  buildings ;  and  that  it  permits 
changes  of  direction  at  will,  so  that  power  may  be  readily  carried  to  any  part  of  the  building 
or  plant,  and  be  subdivided  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  various  machines  to 
be  operated.  There  are  two  methods  of  putting  ropes  on  the  pulleys:  one,  in  which  the  ropes 
are  single  and  spliced  on,  being  made  very  taut  at  first  and  less  so  as  the  rope  lengthens, 
stretching  until  it  slips,  when  it  is  respliced ;  the  other  method  is  to  wind  a  single  rope  over 
the  pulley  as  many  turns  as  needed  to  obtain  the  necessary  horse-power,  and  put  a  tension 
pulley  to"  give  the  "necessary  adhesion  and  also  take  up  the  wear.  The  essential  parts  of  a 
continuous  rope  transmission  are  the  sheaves,  the  rope,  and  the  tension  device.  The  sheaves, 
or  grooved  wheels,  are  of  two  forms:  one  used  only  for  idlers,  having  a  rounded  groove,  pref- 
erably of  radius  but  little  greater  than  that  of  the  rope  employed:  the  other  having  the 
V-grooved  rim  required  for  driving  sheaves.  Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  best  angle  for  the  sides  of  the  grooves  in  a  driving-sheave ;  and  practice  still 
lacks  uniformity  in  this  respect,  but  the  most  general  practice  at  the  present  time  employs 
45°.  •  The  bottom  of  the  grooves  should  be  round,  and  the  sides,  of  course,  smooth  or  pol- 
ished, to  prevent  abrasion  of  the  rope.  In  multiple  grooved  sheaves  it  is  of  vital  importance 
that  all  the  grooves  be  of  exactly  equal  diameters  and  angle.  If  there  be  any  inequality, 
the  rope  will  travel  in  the  groove  of  larger  diameter  at  an  increased  speed,  thus  causing  the 


FIG.  6. -Iron-link  belt. 


48 


BELTS. 


several  ropes  to  pull  against  each  other,  and  throwing  the  strain  of  the  transmission  on  less 
than  the  whole  number  of  ropes.  Nothing  has  so  militated  against  the  general  employment 
of  rope  driving  in  this  country  as  the  use  of  imperfect  multiple  grooved  sheaves,  those  con- 
structed of  wood  having  proved  specially  faulty.  The  unequal  density  of  wood  permits  un- 
equal wear  of  grooves,  and  the  sheave  soon  becomes  of  differential  diameters.  The  rope  gen- 
erally employed  in  this  country  is  manilla.  Cotton  is  largely  used  in  England,  for  transmis- 
sion work,  but  has  not  seemed*  to  meet  special  favor  here.  Manilla  transmission  rope  should 
be  of  long  fiber,  and  be  laid  in  tallow,  to  reduce  the  fiber  friction  caused  by  the  bending  of 
the  strands  in  passing  round  the  sheaves.  Such  rope  tests  about  as  below : 


Diameter.  Breaking  strain. 

A  in..  4,000  Ibs. 

fin 5,000   « 

4  in 7,400    " 

1  in..  9,000    " 


Diameter.  Breaking  strain1. 

Hin 12,000  Ibs. 

Hin 14,000   « 

If  in 18,000    " 

Hin 20,200   " 


The  above  table  is  based  on  tests  of  best  long-fiber  pure  manilla,  made  specially  for  trans- 
mission purposes.  The  best  practice  employs  in  rope  driving  but  3  per  cent  of  the  ultimate 
strength,  though  as  high  as  6  per  cent  is  figured  when  conditions  are  exceptionally  favorable. 
A  large  margin  of  safety  is  required  to  provide  against  imperfect  splicing. 

The  tension  device  —  necessary  where  the  continuous  wrap  system  is  employed—  consists  of 
a  movable  tension-carriage  traveling  in  suitably  constructed  ways  and  carrying  an  idler 
sheave,  the  tension  required  by  the  traveling  ropes  being  given  by  a  suspended  weight  conven- 
iently attached  to  the  carriage.  The  rope  having  been  wrapped  round  the  driving  and 
driven  sheaves  the  proper  number  of  times  for  the  required  driving  force,  the  last  strand  on 
the  slack  side  should  pass  over  the  tension-wheel  (which  is  deflected  to  lead  the  two  ends  of 
the  rope  together),  and  should  not  become  a  direct  driving  strand  until  it  has  passed  over  the 
driven  wheel.  Before  reaching  the  driven  wheel  this  strand  may  have  to  pass  over  idlers  or 
over  a  groove  in  the  driven  wheel  itself,  but  in  such  cases  the  groove  receiving  it  should  be 
loose,  that  the  sag  may  be  quickly  taken  up.  As  large  an  amount  of  the  rope  as  possible 
should  be  under  the  direct  influence  of  the  tension-carriage.  From  18  to  25  per  cent  is  de- 
sirable, though  as  low  as  5  per  cent  has  been  found  sufficient  under  certain  conditions.  The 
number  of  driving  sheaves  over  which  the  rope  passes  enters  into  the  problem  as  well  as  the 
length  of  the  rope  itself.  Where  the  rope  passes  over  four  or  five  sheaves  (as  in  transmitting 
power  to  several  floors  of  a  building)  it  is  often  desirable  to  employ  more  than  one  tension- 
carriage.  The  best  practice  is  to  use  one  for  every  1,200  ft.  of  rope,  and  put  not  less  than  10 
per  cent  of  the  rope  under  direct  influence  of  the  tension.  In  direct  drives  the  number  of  feet 
of  rope  may  be  slightly  increased. 

The  speed  of  a  transmission  rope  should  not  exceed  5,000  ft.  per  minute,  as  from  this  point 
centrifugal  force  gains  so  rapidly  on  the  power  derived  from  the  increased  rope  speed  that  at 
about  5,500  ft.  per  minute  the  power  will  begin  decreasing  in  the  same  proportion  as  its  pre- 
vious rise.  Taking  C,  centrifugal  force  in  Ibs.  ;  #,  gravity  ;  W.  weight  of  rope  per  running 
foot  ;  Sj  speed  of  rope  in  ft.  per  second,  the  centrifugal  force  may  be  found  as  follows  : 


The  wear  of  rope  increases  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  speed  :  consequently,  a  velocity 
of  from  2,500  to  3,500  ft.  per  minute  is  most  efficient  and  economical.  On  the  size  of  the 
sheaves  employed  depends  very  directly  the  life  and  efficiency  of  a  rope  transmission.  The 
diameters  should  never  be  less  than  thirty  times  the  diameter  of  the  rope,  and  best  results  are 
obtained  when  the  sheaves  and  idlers  on  the  driving  side  are  forty  times,  and  those  on  the 
loose  side  thirty  times,  the  rope  diameter.  With  smaller  sheaves  the  internal  friction  of  the 
rope  fibers  is  considerable,  naturally  increasing  the  wear,  and  the  rope  itself,  through  its  stiff- 
ness, can  not  hug  the  sheaves  closely,  thus  increasing  the  loss  of  power  due  to  centrifugal 
force.  Idlers  used  merely  to  support  a  long  horizontal  span  may,  if  not  too  far  apart,  be  as 
small  as  eighteen  diameters  without  perceptibly  injuring  the  rope.  This  exception  to  the 
rule  given  above  is  based  on  practice,  however,  and  is  not  theoretically  correct.  The  coeffi- 
cient of  friction  of  a  rope  in  a  45°  grooved  sheave  has  been  considered  as  variable,  but  several 
tests  recently  made  where  the  power  transmitted  was  determined  accurately  by  brake-test, 
and,  all  conditions  taken  into  consideration,  showed  this  coefficient  to  vary  only  from  -33  to 
•25.  Fig.  7  represents  a  rope  drive  recently  constructed.  The  number  of  wraps  of  rope  de- 
pend on  the  power  to  be  transmitted,  are  laid  in  the  sheaves  of  pulleys  a  and  b.  The  rope 
is  led  from  the  last  sheave  on  driven  pulley  b,  to  and  over  the  "idlers"  k  and  /,  to  the  first 
sheave  on  engine  pulley  a.  The  "  idler  "  I  is  the  tension-carriage.  The  best  practice  wraps 
on  the  rope  so  that  the  neighboring  ropes  are  half  the  length  of  the  rope  apart.  This  is 
accomplished  by  starting  from  the  second  sheave  on  a  to  second  sheave  on  b,  thence  to  fourth 
on  a,  etc.  ;  from  the  last  sheave  on  b  to  the  idlers  and  back  to  first  sheave  on  a,  continuing  to 
fill  the  vacant  sheaves  to  starting-point,  where  a  long  splice  is  made.  Fig.  7  shows  the  method 
ot  taking  off  power  at  an  angle. 

C.  W.  Hunt  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  xii)  gives  a  calculation  of  the  horse-power  of  rope 
drives,  from  which  the  following  is  condensed  :  C  =  circumference  of  rope  in  inches.  '  D  = 
sag  of  the  rope  in  inches.  F  =  centrifugal  force  in  pounds,  g  =  gravity.  H=  horse- 
power. L  =  distance  between  pulleys  in  feet.  P  —  pounds  per  foot  of  rope.  Average  value 


BELTS. 


49 


=  -032  <72.  R  =  force  in  pounds  doing  useful  work.  S  =  strain  in  pounds  on  the  rope  at 
the  pulley.  T=  tension  in  pounds  on  driving  side  of  the  rope,  t  =  tension  in  pounds  on 
slack  side  of  the  rope,  v  =  velocity  of  the  rope  in  feet  per  second,  w  =  working  strain  in 
pounds.  Average  value  =  '20  (72.  W  =  ultimate  breaking  strain  in  pounds.  Average  value 
=  -720  <72.  This  makes  the  normal  working  strain  equal  to  one  thirty-sixth  of  the  breaking 
strength,  and  about  one  twenty-fifth  of  the  strength  at  the  splice.  The  actual  strains  are  or- 
dinarily much  greater,  owing  to  the  vibrations  in  running,  as  well  as  from  imperfectly  adjusted 
tension  mechanism.  Assuming  that  the  strain  on  the  driving  side  of  a  rope  is  equal  to  200  Ibs. 
on  a  rope  1  in.  in  diameter,  and  that  the  rope  is  in  motion  at  various  velocities  of  from  10  to 


FIG.  7.— Rope-driving. 

140  ft.  per  seeond.  Under  this  assumption,  we  will  have  in  all  cases  a  fiber  strain  of  200  Ibs. 
on  the  driving  side  of  a  1-in.  rope,  and  an  equivalent  strain  for  other  sizes.  The  centrifugal 
force  of  the  rope  in  running  over  the  pulley  will  reduce  the  amount  of  force  available  for  the 
transmission  of  power.  The  centrifugal  force  of  the  rope  is  computed  by  the  formula — 


F  = 


Pv 
9 


(1). 


At  a  speed  of  about  80  ft.  per  second,  the  centrifugal  force  increases  faster  than  the  power 
from  increased  velocity  of  the  rope,  and  about  140  ft.  per  second  equals  the  assumed  allowable 
tension  of  the  rope.  Computing  this  force  at  various  speeds  and  then  subtracting  it  from  the 
assumed  maximum  tension,  we  have  the  force  available  for  the  transmission  of  power.  The 
tension,  /,  required  to  transmit  the  normal  horse-power  for  the  ordinary  speeds  and  sizes  of 
rope  is  computed  by  formula  (4).  The  total  tension.  T,  on  the  driving  side  of  the  rope  is  as- 
sumed to  be  the  same  at  all  speeds.  The  centrifugal  force,  as  well  as  an  amount  equal  to  the 
tension  for  adhesion  on  the  slack  side  of  the  rope,  must  be  taken  from  the  total  tension,  T,  to 
ascertain  the  amount  of  force  available  for  the  transmission  of  power.  The  tension  on  the 
slack  side  necessary  for  giving  adhesion  is  taken  as  equal  to  one  half  the  force  doing  useful 
work  on  the  driving  side  of  the  rope ;  hence  the  force  for  useful  work  is : 

n   f  rp  ZT\ 

.        .        .        .        (2), 
(3). 


3 

and  the  tension  on  the  slack  side  to  give  the  required  adhesion  is 

(T—  F) 
3 


50 


BELTS. 


Hence, 


(4). 


The  sum  of  the  tensions,  T  and  t,  is  not  the  same  at  different  speeds,  as  the  equation  (4)  indi- 
cates.   As  F  varies  as  the  square  of  the  velocity,  there  is,  with  an  increasing  speed  of  the 


ROPE  DRIVING. 

Horse  power  of  manilla 
rope  at  various  speeds. 

^ 

~«^ 

*N^ 

/ 

s 

^ 

7 

^s 

s 

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f 

^ 

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e*~- 

. 

p»s 

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£ 

li 

VELOCITY  OF  DRIVING  ROPE  IN  FEET  PER  SECOND. 
FIG.  8. 

rope,  a  decreasing  useful  force,  and  an  increasing  total  tension,  £,  on  the  slack  side.    With  these 
assumptions  of  allowable  strains,  the  horse-power  will  be  : 

2V(T-F) 
3X550 

Transmission  ropes  are  usually  from  1  to  If 
in.  in  diameter.     A  computation  of  the  horse- 
power for  four  sizes  at  various  speeds  and  under 
ordinary  conditions,  based  on  a  maximum  strain 
equivalent  to  200  Ibs.  for  a  rope  1  in.  in  diame- 
ter. is  given  in  Fig.  8.     The   horse-power  of 
other  sizes  is  readily  obtained  from  these.    The 
maximum  power  is  transmitted,  under  the  as- 
sumed conditions,  at  a  speed  of  about  80  ft.  per 
second.     The  first  cost  of  the  rope  will  be  small- 
est when  the  power  transmitted  by  it  is  great- 
est, and  under  the  assumed  conditions  will  be  a 
minimum  for  a  given  power  when  the  velocity 
of  the  rope  is  about  80  ft.  per  second.     The  de- 
_  flection  of  the  rope  between  the  pulleys  on  the 
JJ  S  slack  side  varies  with  each  change  of  'the  load 
as  5  or  change  of  the  speed,  as  the  tension  equation 
*  £  (4)  indicates.     The  curves  in  Fig.  9,  giving  the 
"  deflection  of  the  rope,  were  computed  for  the 
assumed  value  of  T  and  t  by  the  parabolic  for- 
mula: 


ro 
ar 
at 
bi 
sa 
fo 
se 

ROPE  Dl 

The  curves  show 
DCS  when  traosmi 
nount  of  power 
all  speeds  for  t 
t  variable  for  the 
g  for  the  slack  p 
r  speeds  of  40-6 
cond 

RIVING. 
the  sag  c 
Ung  the  o 
It  is  the 

Je   driving 
slack  part 
art  Is  com 
0  and  80 

f  tl 
orm 
sarr 
pa 
T> 
put 
Ftp 

141 
138 
135 
123 

ia» 

128 
123 
120 
117 
114 
ill 
108 
106 
10? 
M 
96 
S3 
80 
87 
84  3 
81  o 

l\ 

k 

M 

61 
48 
* 

tt 

39 
38 
83 
30 
87 
U 

a 

is 

18 
13 
9 

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IU 

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£ 

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/ 

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DISTANCE  BETWEEN  POLLIE8  IN  FEET 

J.  9. 


S  being  the  assumed  strain,  T,  on  the  driving 
side,  and  t,  calculated  by  equation  (4),  on  the 
slack  side.  The  tension,  t.  varies  with  the 
speed,  and  the  curves,  showing  the  sag  of  the 
rope  in  inches,  are  calculated  for  speeds  of  40, 
60,  and  80  ft.  per  second,  and  for  spans  com- 
monly used  in  rope  driving.  The  following 
table  of  the  horse-power  of  transmission  rope 
is  calculated  by  formula  (5),  which  makes  the 
total  strain  on  the  driving  side  of  the  rope, 
when  transmitting  the  normal  power,  the  same 
at  all  speeds,  and  takes  into  consideration  the 
effect  of  the  centrifugal  force  in  reducing  the 
driving  power  of  the  rope  : 


BENDING  MACHINERY. 


51 


Dime- 
ter of 

S 

p«edofthe 

rope  in  feet 

per  minab 

i. 

Diameter  of 

im»Ue*t 
pulley  or 

rope. 

1  500 

2000 

2  500 

3  000 

3  500 

4  000 

4  500 

5  000 

6  000 

7  000 

8  400 

inches. 

1 

1-45 
2'3 
3'3 
45 
5-8 
9-2 
13'1 
18 
23-2 

1-9 
3-2 
43 
5-9 
7-7 
12-1 
17-4 
23'7 
30-8 

2'3 
3-6 
5'2 

9-2 
14-3 
20-7 

28'2 
36-8 

2'7 
4-2 
5-8 
8-2 
10-7 
16-8 
23-1 
32-8 
42-8 

3 
4-6 
6-7 
9-1 
11-9 
18-6 
26-8 
36-4 
47-6 

3-2 
5 
7-2 

9-8 
12-8 
20 
28-8 
39-2 
51-2 

3'4 
5-3 
7-7 
10-8 
13-6 
21-2 
30-6 
41-5 
54'4 

3-4 
5-3 

7-7 
10-7 
13-7 
21-4 
30-8 
41-8 
54-8 

3-1 
4-9 
7-1 
9'3 
12  5 
19-5 
28-2 
37-4 
50 

2'2 
3-4 
4-9 
6'9 
8-8 
13-8 
19-8 
27-6 
35-2 

'• 

20 
24 

SO 
36 
42 
54 
60 
72 
84 

The  English  rule  for  diameters  of  pulleys  with  cotton  rope  is  from  30  to  36  times  the 
diameter  of  the  rope.  For  comparison  with  Mr.  Hunt's  table,  given  above,  Mr.  Webber  gives 
the  following  figures,  taken  from  an  English  table,  of  the  power  transmissible  by  a  cotton 
rope  at  50  ft.  per  second,  or  3,000  ft.  per  minute  : 

Manilla.  Cotton. 


1-in.  rope  .................................  10-75 

1±      '*       .................................  17-50 

H      "       ..................................  24 

If      "      ..................................  32-50 


10-50 
19-50 
30 
42 


In  England,  hemp  and  manilla  ropes  have  been  largely  superseded  by  ropes  of  cotton,  the 
reason  assigned  being  that  dry  manilla  ropes  wear  out  too  fast,  while  the  lubricated  ones  give 
too  low  a  coefficient  of  friction. 

Rending;  Machine:  see  Presses,  Forging. 

BENDING  MACHINERY.  It  may  be  taken  as  a  proof  of  advance  in  matters  mechani- 
cal when  bent  construction  is  substituted  for  cut,  as,  for  example,  in  the  making  of  crank- 
shafts, in  bent-wood  furniture,  and  in  machines  for  making  shafts  and  poles  from  bent 
wood.  The  shaft  and  pole  bending  machine  shown  is  for  bending  double  and  single  bent 
express  shafts  and  poles,  and  carriage  shafts  and  poles  ;  forming  the  heel  end  of  express  or 
carriage  shafts  and  poles,  and  the  body  and  tip  end  of  shafts  complete  at  the  same  time.  The 
principle  involved  is  the  bending  of  the  material  over  iron  forms  which  are  heated  with  live 
or  exhaust  steam,  drying  and  seasoning  the  material  while  under  process  of  bending.  Green 
stock  is  bent  and  seasoned  at  the  same  time.  The  machines  are  furnished  in  sections.  That 


Bending  machine. 

shown  in  the  cut  has  two  sections  complete  for  bending  shafts  in  10-pair  lots,  or  18  poles  at 
once :  and  they  can  be  filled  four  times  per  day.  The  forms  are  cast  with  cored  chambers  at 
the  points  of  bending,  with  2-in.-pipe  connections,  through  which  steam  is  received  and 
discharged  to  heat  the  forms.  Body-forms  are  mounted  upon  rollers  with  a  horizontal  at- 
tachment for  bending  shafts  of  different  lengths,  and  are  supplied  with  adjustable  top  forms 
to  produce  any  desired  bend  on  shaft  ends.  When  used  for  bending  poles  the  rollers  under 
the  body-forms  are  removed  and  the  forms  lowered  If  in.,  allowing  the  body  of  the  poles 
when  bent  down  upon  the  form  to  rest  upon  the  top  of  the  ribs,  which  are  used  only  forgiving 
the  side  bend  to  shafts.  In  operation,  the  forms  are  well  heated  before  bending,  and  the  mate- 
rial to  be  bent  is  covered  with  a  steel  strap  which  is  stretched  over  the  surface  of  the  portion 
to  be  bent  (by  a  hand-clamp,  as  shown  by  the  second  shaft  in  the  engraving),  to  prevent  the 
material  being  broken  while  bending.  A  loop  is  fitted  to  the  end  of  each  strap,  which  hooks 
over  a  lug  cast  to  the  form,  and  the  material  is  then  bent  down  over  the  forms  and  locked  by 
the  hand-lever,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  For  bending  double  bends,  the  loop  is  held  to  the  lug 
upon  the  outside  form. 


BLOCKS. 


Machines  for  shop  and  pole  rounding  and  heel  tapering  will  be  found  described  under 
molding  machinery. 
Bicycle :  see  Cycle. 

Il^nchrrdSief  see^aThS,  Wood-Working,  and  Hat  Machines. 
Blast-Furnaces :  see  Furnaces,  Blast.    Stores :  see  Stoves,  Hot-Blast. 

BLOC^I '  S(£atl?s  Differential  Pulley- Block,  made  by  the  Boston  &  Lockport  Block  Co., 
is  shown  in  Fi"  1.  The  disk-pulley  carrying  the  hand-chain  has  cast  upon  its  side  a  scroll 
or  spiral  groove  which  meshes  into  the  teeth  of  a  wheel  placed  at  right  angles  to  it  which 
carries  upon  its  side  the  sprocket-wheel  for  the  load  chain.  The  angle  of  the  spiral  groove 
being  low,  it  exerts  a  powerful  purchase  on  the  hoisting  wheel.  The  friction  is  sufficient  to 

SUStAlfredGB°ol  &  Co.'s  Double-Screw  Hoist  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  power  is  applied  through 
the  chain  a  on  the  large  sprocket-wheel  E,  seen  at  the  left  of  the  cut,  which  drives  a  double 
worm  C  D  geared  right  and  left  into  two  worm-wheels,  A  B,  which  also  are  geared  into 
each  other.'  One  of  these  carries  the  sprocket-wheel  for  the  hoisting  chain  /.  Both  chains 
are  alwavs  kept  in  place  by  the  guides. 

The  Detroit  Sure-Grip  Tackle-Block  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  brake  which  will  hold  the 
load  at  any  point  is  simply  a  wedge  that  drops  by  gravity  between  the  upper  sheaves.  The 
face  of  the  wedge  is  fluted  to  the  curve  of  the  rope.  The  block  is  made  of  steel.  The  arrows 
in  the  cut  show  the  direction  of  the  rope  through  the  blocks.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  two 
center  ropes  that  come  in  contact  with  the  wedge  both  travel  in  the  same  direction  at  the 
same  time. 


FIG.  1.— Differential 
pulley-block. 


FIG.  2.— Double-screw  hoist. 


FIG.  3.— "  Sure-grip  tackle-block. 


Weston's  Triplex  Spur-Gear  Block,  made  by  the  Yale  &  Towne  Mfg.  Co.,  is  shown  in 
Figs.  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  Figs.  4  and  5  are  external  views  of  the  block  suspended  as  for  use ; 
Fig.  6  is  a  transverse  view,  the  lower  half  being  shown  in  section,  and  Fig.  7  a  section  show- 
ing the  hoisting  mechanism.  All  of  the  mechanism  is  symmetrically  grouped  upon  a  single 
horizontal  axis,  and  is  so  arranged  as  to  occupy  as  little  vertical  space  as  possible.  Power  is 
applied  to  an  endless  hand-chain  passing  over  the  pocketed  chain-wheel  on  one  end  of  the 
central  shaft,  and  is  transmitted  thereby  to  the  train  or  spur-gearing  contained  in  the  hous- 
ing on  the  other  side  of  the  block.  The  main  or  load  chain  passes  over  a  pocketed  chain- 
sheave  in  the  center  of  the  block,  one  of  its  ends  being  provided  with  a  suitable  hook  for 
receiving  the  load,  and  the  other  being  looped  up  and  permanently  secured  to  the  frame  of 
the  block.  Referring  to  Fig.  6,  the  hand-wheel  at  the  left  transmits  power  through  the  cen- 
tral shaft  to  the  steel  pinion  on  its  opposite  end  (seen  best  in  Fig.  7),  which  in  turn  engages 
with  the  three  planet-wheels  surrounding  it.  These  latter  are  of  hard  bronze,  and  have  cast 
with  them  a  smaller  series  of  pinions,  shown  in  Fig.  6,  which  latter  engage  with  the  annular 
gear  cast  in  the  stationary  frame  of  the  block,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The  three  double  planet 
wheels  are  carried  in  a  frame  or  cage  which  supports  both  ends  of  each  of  the  pins  forming  the 
axis  of  the  wheels.  As  the  central  shaft  is  turned,  the  whole  cage  and  its  three  pinions  thus 
rotate  slowly  within  the  housing  of  the  block.  The  inner  side  of  the  pinion  cage  consists  of 
a  disk  keyed  to  one  end  of  the  steel  sleeve  forming  part  of  and  carrying  the  hoisting-chain 
sheave,  so  that  the  rotary  motion  of  the  pinion  cage  is  thus  transmitted  to  the  chain-sheave. 
The  two  hubs  of  the  latter  are  prolonged  to  form  bearings  on  each  side  in  the  frame  of  the 
block,  and  are  bored  through  the  center  to  permit  the  shaft  of  the  hand-chain  wheel  to  pass 


BLOCKS. 


53 


through  the  sleeve  just  formed.  The  mechanism  thus  described  constitutes  the  entire  gear- 
ing by  which  the  load  is  hoisted,  and  is  obviously  not  self-sustaining.  The  sustaining 
mechanism  is  placed  at  the  hand-chain  end  of  the  block  (the  left  of  Fig.  6),  and  consists  of  a 
set  of  brass  friction  disks,  the  disks  being  alternately  attached  to  the  central  axis  and  to  a 
ratchet  check  wheel.  The  hand-chain  wheel  is  screwed  upon  the  central  spindle,  as  shown, 
and  the  construction  is  such  that  it  is  clamped  tightly  by  the  friction  disks  to  the  shaft  either 
if  it  is  rotated  in  the  direction  for  hoisting,  or  if  the  shaft  attempts  to  revolve  in  the  opposite 
direction  under  the  pull  of  the  load.  The  parts  being  thus  clamped  together  act  as  one,  and 
the  ratchets  offer  no  resistance  to  the  effort  of  the  operator  in  hoisting.  When  the  direction 
of  the  hand-chain  is  reversed,  the  alternate  disks  are  released,  and  the  others  being  held  by  the 
ratchets,  the  load  is  lowered  against  their  friction  at  a  rate  entirely  controlled  by  the  move- 


FIG.  6.— Triplex  spur-gear. 


FIG.  7. — Triplex  spur-gear. 


FIG.  4.— Triplex  spur-gear. 


FIG.  5.— Triplex  spur-gear. 


ment  of  the  hand-chain,  while  the  stoppage  of  the  hand-chain  movement  causes  the  disks  to 
tighten  at  once  and  sustain  the  load.  In  another  form  of  this  tackle  a  double  suspension  is 
employed,  two  hooks  being  used,  one  to  sustain  the  triplex  block  and  the  other  to  carry 
the  chain-tackle.  This  form  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  connection  with  trolleys  for  overhead 
tramrail,  or  for  permanent  suspension  from  fixed  eye-bolts,  and  in  some  cases  its  use  en- 
ables an  increase  in  the  available  height  of  hoist  to  be  obtained.  In  case  a  powerful  block  is 
needed  for  use  on  a  single  occasion,  such  as  the  erection  of  a  large  engine  or  other  heavy 
machine,  it  possesses  the  advantage  that  it  may  be  taken  apart  after  the  performance  of  the 
heavy  duty,  and  the  triplex  block  used  alone  for  subsequent  and  lighter  service. 

Efficiency  of  Chain- Blocks. — Chain-blocks  other  than  the  Weston  triplex  depend  upon 
the  friction  of  the  working  parts  to  sustain  the  load,  and  for  this  reason  their  mechanical 
efficiency  is  very  low.  In  the  Weston  triplex  block,  as  above  described,  the  mechanism  is 
especially  constructed  so  as  to  reduce  friction  to  a  minimum,  and  therefore  it  requires  a 
separate  attachment  for^sustaining  the  load.  The  following  is  a  record  of  tests  made  by 
Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston,  of  the  efficiency  of  different  forms  of  chain-block  found  in  the  market 
as  compared  with  the  Weston  triplex  and  the  old  Weston  differential : 


54 


BLOWERS. 


Comparative  Efficiency  of  Blocks,  both  in  Hoisting  and  Lowering. 


WORK   OF  LOWERING  (LOAD  OF 

WORK  OF  HOISTING 

2,000  LBS.   LOWERED  7  FT.   IN- 

(LOAD  OF  2,000  LBS.). 

NUMBER  OF  BLOCK. 
ALL  BLOCKS  OF  1-TON 

EACH  CASE),  INCLUSIVE  OF  TIME. 

Actual  efficiency. 

Relative  efficiency. 

Velocity  ratio. 

CAPACITY. 

Time  in  minute*. 

Relative  efficiency. 

Per  cent. 

79-50 

i-oo 

32-50 

1 

(Weston's  triplex.) 

0-75 

i-ooo 

32 

0-40 
01  an 

62-44 
30 

2 
3 

1-20 
1-50 

0*186 
0-050 

(Weston's  differential.) 

0"36 

28 

4 

2  50 

0'035 

(Weston's  imported.) 

0'33 

48 

5 

2-80 

0'380 

0"31 

53 

6 

1-80 

0-036 

23 

18-97 

0-29 
0-24 

44-30 
61 

7 
8 

2'75 
3-75 

0-029 
0018 

BLOWERS.  (See  Air  Compressors,  Boilers,  Steam,  and  Engines,  Blowing.)  Fan-Blow- 
ers— Fig.  1  shows  a  type  of  fan  which  has  come  into  extensive  use  for  ventilating,  dry- 
inff  and  similar  purposes  where  a  large  volume  of  air  is  to  be  moved  at  a  slight  press- 
ure. The  shapes  of  the  blades 
vary  in  the  fans  made  by  dif- 
ferent makers.  The  accompany- 
ing table  gives  the  speed,  horse- 
power used,  and  cubic  feet  of  air 
exhausted  per  minute  when  there 
is  no  obstruction,  according  to  the 
catalogue  of  the  L.  J.  Wing  Co., 
makers  of  the  fan  shown  in  the 
cut: 

The  Smith  Double- Discharge 
Fan-Blower. — Fig.  2  is  a  diagram 
showing  the  principle  of  the  doub- 
le-discharge fan -blower  in  con- 
trast with  that  of  the  ordinary  fan 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  To  secure  the  double  discharge  the  case  is  extended  on  the  rear  and  a  second 
outlet  provided,  which  is  led  around  under  the  first  to  the  front,  to  the  two  outlets  uniting  in 
one  at  the  discharge.  The  construction  is  common  to  both  pressure  and  exhaust  fans.  The 
principle  is  thus  described  by  the  makers :  It  is  experimentally  demonstrated  that  the  vane  of 
a  fan,  operating  normally,  becomes  loaded  with  air  in  one  third  of  a  revolution.  In  Fig.  3, 
representing  the  ordinary  single-discharge  blower,  the  compartment  a  is  partly  loaded,  b  near- 
ly so,  and  c  fully  loaded.  This  air  it  seeks  to  deliver ;  but,  as  there  is  no  outlet,  the  wheel 
must  drag  the  accumulated  pressure  with  its  accompanying  friction  around  half  the  circum- 
ference of  the  shell  before  it  can  be  relieved  at  A.  The  double-discharge  blower  is  claimed 
to  unload  the  air  at  A  as  soon  as  the  full  pressure  is  accumulated,  and  immediately  picks  up 
and  discharges  another  full  load  at  B  in  the  same  revolution. 


Size. 

Revolutions  per  minute. 

Horse-power  used. 

Exhaust  cubic  feet  of 
air  per  minute. 

12  in. 

1,000  to  2,000 

A  to  i 

1,500  to   3,000 

18  in. 
24  in. 

700  to  1,500 
600  to  1,200 

1  to  1 
ito  i 

3,000  to    6,000 
4,500  to   9,000 

30  in. 

500  to  1,000 

itol 

7,000  to  15,000 

36  in. 
42  in. 

400  to     900 
400  to     800 

*to2* 
1     to3i 

12,000  to  26,000 
18,000  to  36,000 

48  in. 

400  to     700 

1&  to  5 

26,000  to  45,500 

54  in. 

400  to     600 

2     to  5* 

32.000  to  48,000 

60  in. 

400  to     550 

2*   to  6 

42,800  to  60,000 

72  in. 

300  to     450 

Si    to6» 

45,000  to  67,500 

84  in. 

250  to     400 

3     to  10 

56,000  to  89,600 

96  in. 

200  to     300 

3*   to  10 

63,000  to  95,500 

FIG.  1.— Fan-blower. 


FIG.  2.— Double-discharge 
blower. 


FIG.  3.— Single-dis- 
charge blower. 


Tilghmarfs  Steam- Jet  Exhauster. — The  ordinary  steam- jet  exhauster  is  such  a  simple  and 
convenient  apparatus  that  it  would  be  used  much  more  largely  than  it  is — were  it  not  for  its 
wastefulness  of  steam.  It  has,  however,  been  noticed  that  sin  all  jets  are  more  efficient  than 
large  ones,  showing  that  the  surface  of  contact  of  the  jet  with  the  air  is  of  importance  rather 
than  the  cross-section  of  the  jet.  With  the  object  of  increasing  this  surface  of  contact,  in  a 
new  steam-jet  exhauster  the  steam  issues  radially  between  two  disks  fixed  at  the  end  of  the 
steam-pipe.  Openings  through  these  disks  lead"  into  branches  connected  with  the  suction- 
pipe  through  which  the  air  is  drawn.  The  thin,  radial  stream  of  steam  in  flowing  over  these 
openings  takes  up  its  full  quota  of  air,  and  the  manufacturers  claim  that  a  very  considerable 
saving  of  steam  is  effected.  The  thickness  of  the  jet  is  regulated  by  the  hand-wheel,  the 
spindle  of  which  is  attached  to  the  lower  disk.  The  best  distance  between  these  disks  is 
found  to  be  yfoj-  in.  to  -fa  in.  The  exhauster  works  with  a  complete  absence  of  noise.  Though 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


55 


primarily  designed  for  exhausting  air  for  sand-blast  purposes,  the  apparatus  is  evidently 
applicable  elsewhere. 

Boats,  Fire :  see  Engines,  Steam  Fire. 

Bobbin-Holder :  see  Cotton-Spinning  Machinery. 

BOILERS,  STEAM.  During  the  last  ten  years  "no  special  improvements  have  been  made 
in  the  construction  of  steam-boilers  in  the  direction  of  improving  their  economy  of  fuel ;  in 
fact,  further  progress  in  this  direction  is  scarcely  possible  in  boilers  fired  with  anthracite  coal, 
since  many  years  ago  boilers  were  made  which  have  given  results  equal  to  about  80  per  cent 
of  the  theo'retical  efficiency  of  the  fuel.  As  the  chimney  gases  carry  off  as  a  minimum  about 
15  per  cent  of  the  heat  of  the  fuel,  and  losses  due  are  generally  not  less  than  5  per  cent,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  the  margin  left  for  further  saving  is  extremely  slight.  As  a  Ib.  of  pure 
carbon  is  capable  of  generating  14,500  thermal  units,  equivalent  to  an  evaporation  of  15  Ibs. 
of  water  from  and  at  212°  per  Ib.  of  carbon,  an  efficiency  of  80  per  cent  is  equal  to  an  evapo- 
ration of  12  Ibs.  of  water  from  and  at  212°  per  Ib.  of  combustible.  How  nearly  this  result  has 
been  reached  in  actual  test  is  shown  by  the  results  of  the  boilers  tested  at  the  Centennial  Ex- 
hibition at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  Out  of  fourteen  boilers  tested,  the  five  highest  in  the  list, 
in  order  of  economy,  gave  results  as  follows  (Reports  of  the  Judges  of  Group  XX.  Centennial 
Exhibition  Reports) : 


NAME  OF  BOILER. 

Root. 

Firmenich. 

Lowe. 

Smith. 

Babcock  & 
Wilcoi. 

Galloway. 

Coal  burned  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  per  hour  
Water  evaporated  per  sq.  ft.  of  heating  sur- 
face per  hour  

9  76 
2  25 

12-94 
1-68 

7-25 
1-87 

12-96 
2-42 

10-67 
1-87 

10-25 
3'63 

Temperature  of  flue  gases 

393 

415 

332 

411 

296 

303 

Water  evaporated   per  Ib.   of   combustible 
from  and  at  212°  

12-09 

1199 

11-92 

11'91 

11-82 

H'58 

These  boilers  were  of  different  types,  as  shown  in  Vol.  I  of  this  work. 

The  Firmenich,  Root,  and  Babcock  &  Wilcox  boilers  were  of  the  water-tube  type.  The 
Lowe  boiler  was  an  externally  fired,  horizontal  tubular  boiler  of  peculiar  design.  The  Smith 
boiler  was  a  horizontal  tubular  boiler  with  a  set  of  water-tube  appendages  in  the  furnace,  and 
the  Galloway  boiler  was  an  internally  fired  shell-boiler  with  conical-shaped  water-tubes  cross- 
ing the  large  internal  flue.  Results  with  anthracite  coal  exceeding  12  Ibs.  evaporation  from 
and  at  2i2°  per  Ib.  of  combustible  have  been  frequently  reported,  but  they  are  scarcely  credi- 
ble, since  they  would  require  an  efficiency  of  over  80  per  cent,  and  an  allowance  for  the  heat 
carried  off  in  the  chimney  gases  less  than  the  actual  and  necessary  loss.  With  serai-bitumi- 
nous coal,  however,  containing  less  than  20  per  cent  volatile  matter,  the  theoretical  heating 
value  being  greater  than  14,500  heat  units,  an  evaporation  of  even  13  Ibs.  from  and  at  212°  is 
not  impossible ;  but  this  assumes  a  perfect  combustion  of  the  coal  in  the  furnace,  which  can 
scarcely  be  reached  in  practice  with  ordinary  boiler-furnaces  on  account  of  some  of  the  gases 
evolved  from  the  coal  being  chilled  by  the  iron  surfaces  of  the  boiler,  and  therefore  escaping 
unburned.  A  result  of  12'5  Ibs.  with  Cumberland  coal  is,  however,  frequently  obtained,  and 
this  with  quite  a  variety  of  types  of  boiler.  It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  proposition  that 
any  boiler,  of  whatever  'type  (1),  in  the  furnace  of  which  the  coal  is  thoroughly  burned  with 
no  greater  excess  of  air  than  is  necessary  to  effect  complete  combustion,  giving  consequently 
the  highest  practically  attainable  temperature  in  the  furnace  (2),  which  has  its  heating  sur- 
face in  a  clean  condition,  so  placed  as  to  be  completely  and  uniformly  passed  over  by  the 
currents  of  heated  gases,  and  (3)  sufficient  extent  of  heating  surface  so  that  it  will  absorb  all 
the  available  heat  in  the  gases  above  the  temperature  of  the  steam,  is  capable  of  giving  the 
maximum  economical  result  which  can  be  obtained  in  the  best  type  of  boiler. 

This  conclusion  is  also  derived. from  the  results  of  numerous  practical  tests,  as  shown  in 
the  tests  reported  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Barrus,  hereafter  referred  to.  Nevertheless,  the  average  steam- 
boiler  usually  gives  an  economical  result  far  below  the  maximum,  so  that  possibly  60  per  cent 
of  the  theoretical  efficiency  is  nearer  the  average  result  than  80.  This  is  accounted  for  by  im- 
proper construction  of  the  boiler  or  setting,  by  unclean  surfaces  inside  and  out,  by  insufficient 
obstruction  in  the  boiler-tubes  and  flues  to  the  passages  of  gas,  whereby  the  latter  is  "  short- 
circuited,"  or  selects  some  passages  rather  than  others,  as  in  the  horizontal  tubular  boiler,  in 
which  the  tendency  of  the  gases  is  to  flow  through  the  upper  rows  of  tubes  rather  than  through 
the  lower,  by  improper  proportions  of  grate  and  heating  surface  for  the  character  of  the  coal 
used  and  for  the  draft  pressure  by  improper  firing,  or  by  leaks  of  air  through  the  setting. 
With  bituminous  coal  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  maximum  economy  is  greatly  increased,  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  the  right  kind  of  furnace  for  burning  such  coal  under  a  steam-boiler 
has  not  yet  been  invented.  In  all  parts  of  the  United  States  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains 
there  is  an  enormous  waste  of  fuel  constantly  going  on  for  this  reason.  Economy  of  fuel 
therefore  being  independent  of  the  type  of  boiler,  the  desirable  qualities  of  boiler  which  are 
to  be  sought  for,  and  which  depend  largely  upon  the  type,  are  :  safety,  low  first  cost,  low  cost 
of  maintenance,  accessibility  for  cleaning'  and  for  repairs,  non-liability  to  destruction  from 
expansion  and  contraction  and  from  external  corrosion,  simplicity  of  construction,  and  small 
space  occupied.  It  is  not  possible  to  combine  all  these  desirable'  qualities  in  a  single  boiler; 
for  instance,  the  boiler  of  lowest  first  cost  is  generally  high  in  cost  of  maintenance  and 
repairs,  and  unsafe.  In  many  boilers  several  desirable  qualities  are  sacrificed  to  one  pre- 
requisite, as  portability.  A  locomotive-boiler  is  one  of  the  worst  possible  forms  where  the 


56  BOILERS,   STEAM. 


water  is 
as  many  as 


is  impure  but  no  other  boiler  can  be  used  on  a  locomotive.  In  the  attempt  to  combine 
tts  many  as  possible  of  these  good  qualities  in  a  single  boiler,  and  in  the  fallacious  hope  of  im- 
proving on  the  economy  of  established  types,  hundreds  of  new  boilers  have  been  invented 
during-  the  last  ten  years,  and  many  put  on  the  market,  in  which  the  first  principles  of  good 
construction  are  violated.  These  new  boilers,  however,  generally  disappear  from  the  market  in 
a  few  vears  and  they  do  not  prevent  the  course  of  progress  toward  the  use  of  a  few  standard 
types  only  'each  adapted  to  certain  locations.  In  these  types  there  is  nothing  new  in  general 
nrinciples  of  construction,  and  such  improvements  as  have  been  made  are  confined  to  details. 

The  common  vertical  tubular  boiler  still  holds  a  prominent  position,  on  account  of  its 
qualities  of  economy  of  floor-space  and  the  first  cost.  It  still  also  holds  its  bad  pre-eminence 
as  first  in  the  list  of  dangerous  boilers— more  explosions  of  this  type  being  recorded  than  of 
any  other  Improvements  in  details  in  this  boiler  have  been  introduced  by  some  makers 
which  tend  to  render  it  less  dangerous,  by  providing  for  complete  circulation  of  the  water 
and  giving  greater  facilities  for  cleaning. 

The  common  horizontal  tubular  boiler  has  not  been  improved  in  the  last  ten  years,  except 
in  proportions  used  by  some  makers.  It  remains  as  the  most  extensively  used  boiler  in  the 
United  States,  especially  for  moderate-sized  plants,  while  in  Europe  it  has  never  obtained 
much  of  a  footing,  being  there  considered  a  highly  dangerous  boiler.  In  this  country  its 
great  success  has  been  chiefly  due  to  its  low  first  cost;  but  it  is  now  becoming  less  of  a  favor- 
ite, as  the  water-tube  boiler  is  coming  more  extensively  into  use. 

The  water-tube  type  of  boiler  for  land  purposes  has  achieved  an  extraordinary  growth 
during  the  past  ten  years,  and  it  gives  promise  of  soon  being  the  most  common  form  of  boiler. 
In  Europe  its  use  is  still  more  common  than  in  this  country,  and  the  principal  boiler  exhibits 
at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1889  were  of  that  type.  Numerous  modifications  of  the  type  have 
been  brought  out  by  different  makers,  but  the  most  approved  form  which  is  now  adopted  by 
several  makers  in  this  country  consists  of  a  bank  of  4-in.  water-tubes,  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
about  15°,  with  the  horizontal"  surmounted  by  one  or  more  horizontal  water  and  steam  drums 
about  36  in.  in  diameter.  At  the  Philadelphia  Exhibition  in  1876  several  water-tube  boilers 
were  shown,  but  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  was  the  only  one  of  the  particular  variety  above  de- 
scribed. This  variety,  however,  has  shown  the  strongest  power  of  survival,  and  it  is  now 
adopted,  as  above  said,  by  many  makers. 

In  marine  boilers  the  tendency  has  been  to  abandon  a  great  variety  of  types  hitherto  used, 
and  to  bring  into  almost  universal  use  the  "  Scotch  "  form  of  boiler,  a  plain  cylindrical  shell 
of  large  diameter,  with  two  or  more  furnaces,  leading  by  a  vertical  passage  into  numerous 
horizontal  tubes.  For  large  boilers  of  this  type  the  use  of  the  corrugated  furnace-flues  has 
become  almost  universal.  The  water-tube  boi'ler  of  the  general  pattern  used  on  land  has  not 
yet  come  into  any  general  use  at  sea,  although  the  Belleville  boiler,  made  in  France,  has  met 
success  in  this  direction.  There  has,  however,  come  into  use  a  different  type  of  marine  water- 
tube  boiler,  in  which  small  tubes  about  1  or  1-J  in.  in  diameter  are  used  with  small  water- 
drums  or  reservoirs,  or  none  at  all.  The  latter  form,  without  drums,  is  known  as  the  coil 
boiler.  Its  sole  reason  for  existence  is  that  it  affords  the  largest  amount  of  heating  surface 
for  a  given  bulk  and  weight,  and  is  therefore  used  for  torpedo-boats  and  high-speed  steam- 
launches.  The  other  form  with  water-drums  approaches  more  nearly  to  the  land  type  of 
water-tube  boiler,  and  in  it  efforts  are  made  to  combine  the  desirable  features  of  the  coil  boiler 
with  the  steady  water-level,  accessibility  for  repairs,  and  general  durability  of  the  ordinary 
form  of  water-tube  boiler.  Several  such  boilers  are  now  in  use  on  steam-yachts,  and  it  is  pro- 
posed to  use  them  on  large  ocean-going  vessels,  but  it  is  too  early  yet  to  say  whether  any  of 
the  forms  will  prove  permanently  successful.  The  increase  in  steam  pressures  carried  in  ocean 
vessels  in  recent  years,  up  to  160  Ibs.  or  more,  makes  it  necessary  that  the  Scotch  form  of 
boiler  shall  be  built  of  steel  plates  over  1  in.  in  thickness.  This,  with  its  great  diameter, 
makes  it  an  exceedingly  heavy,  bulky,  and  costly  boiler  for  the  power  it  develops;  and  there  is 
great  need  for  the  introduction  of  a  new  type  of  boiler  which  shall  admit  of  the  still  higher 
pressures  now  desired,  and  be  lighter  and  more  economical  of  room  than  the  present  form. 
It  is  probable  that  some  form  of  water-tube  boiler  will  soon  be  introduced  to  meet  these  re- 
quirements. 

The  most  important  general  change  in  the  construction  of  boilers  in  recent  years  has  been 
the  almost  complete  substitution  of  soft  steel  plates  for  the  wrought-iron  plates  formerly  used. 
The  use  of  steel  for  steam-boilers  dates  back  to  1856  in  England  and  1862  in  the  United 
States,  but  it  required  many  years  to  bring  it  into  general  employment.  The  objections  to  it 
when  first  introduced  were  that  it  was  made  too  high  in  carbon  and  phosphorus,  the  necessity 
for  making  the  steel  very  soft  then  not  being  understood,  consequently  cracked  sheets  were  very 
common,  and  also  that  it  was  high-priced.  With  the  introduction  of  the  open-hearth  process 
in  France  about  1867  and  in  the  United  States  in  1869,  a  softer  grade  of  steel  was  made,  which, 
after  it  was  learned  that  low  phosphorus  as  well  as  low  carbon  was  necessary  for  good  boiler- 
plate, became  entirely  successful,  and  better  in  quality  than  the  best  boiler-iron.  The  im- 
provements in  steel  furnaces  and  plant  have  recently  greatly  cheapened  the  cost  of  steel  boiler- 
plate, so  that  it  can  be  made  at  a  much  lower  cost  than  even  ordinary  grades  of  boiler-iron, 
and  it  has  therefore  practically  driven  the  latter  out  of  the  market.  The  quality  of  steel  de- 
sired for  boiler  and  fire-box  plates  may  be  seen  from  the  following  specifications  given  by  dif- 
ferent authorities : 

United  States  Navy.— Shell :  Tensile,  58,000  to  67,000  Ibs. ;  elongation,  22  per  cent  in  8 
in.  transverse  section,  25  per  cent  in  8  in.  longitudinal  section.  Flange :  Tensile,  50,000  to 
58,000  Ibs. ;  elongation,  25  per  cent  in  8  in.  Chemical  requirements :  Phosphorus,  not  over 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


57 


•035  per  cent ;  sulphur,  not  over  -040  per  cent.  Cold-bending  test :  Specimen  to  stand  being 
bent  flat  on  itself.  Quenching  test :  Steel  heated  to  cherry  red,  plunged  in  water  82°  F.,  and 
to  be  bent  around  curve  one  and  a  half  times  thickness  of  the  plate. 

British  Admiralty —Tensile,  58,240  to  67.200  Ibs. ;  elongation  in  8  in.,  20  per  cent.    Same 
cold- bending  and  quenching  tests  as  Ujaited  States  Navy. 

Bureau  Veritas. — Shell :  Tensile,  not  less  than  60,- 
480  Ibs. ;  elongation  in  8  in.,  20  per  cent ;  must  with- 
stand after  heating  to  dull  red,  and  being  plunged  into 
water  of  80°  F.,  being  bent  until  opening  between 
ends  is  three  times  thickness  of  plate. 

United  States  Revenue  Marine. — Tensile,  not  less 
than  60,000  Ibs. ;  reduction  of  area,  50  per  cent. 

American  Boiler  -  Makers'  Association.  —  Tensile, 
55,000  to  65,000  Ibs. ;  elongation  in  8  in.,  20  per  cent 
for  plates  £  in.  thick  and  under ;  22  per  cent  for  plates 
f  in.  to  f  in. ;  25  per  cent  for  plates  f  in.  and  over.  Cold- 
bending  test :  For  plates  j  in.  thick  and  under,  speci- 
men must  bend  back  on  itself  without  fracture ;  for 
plates  over  |  in.  thick,  specimen  must  withstand  bending 
180°  around  a  mandril  one  and  a  half  times  the  thickness 
of  the  plate.  Chemical  requirements :  Phosphorus,  not 
over  -040  per  cent ;  sulphur,  not  over  -030  per  cent. 
FIRE-TUBE  BOILERS.— The  Reynolds  Vertical  Tubu- 


Yo%Fo>o°< 


Fi ,.  1.— Reynolds  boiler.  FIG.  2.— Reynolds  boiler. 

lar  Boiler,  made  by  the  E.  P.  Allis  Co.,  of  Milwaukee,  is  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  The  tubes 
are  set  in  rows  radiating  from  a  large  man-hole  located  over  the  fire-door  and  bottom  tube- 
sheet,  consequently  every  flue  and  all  parts  of  both  tube-sheets  can  be  inspected  and  cleaned 
when  the  man-ho'le  cover  is  removed.  Hand-holes  are  located  near  the  man-hole  for  ad- 
mitting light  for  inspecting  and  inserting  a  hose-nozzle  for  washing  the  tubes  and  crown- 
sheet.  Hand-holes  are  placed  at  intervals  around  the  base,  where 
sediment  collected  in  the  water-legs  may  be  removed.  The  feed- 
water  is  pumped  into  the  internal  reservoir  through  the  feed-pipe ; 
this  reservoir  being  closed  at  the  bottom.  The  discharge  into  the 
boiler  is  over  the  top,  and  it  being  so  much  larger  than  the  feed-pipe, 
the  current  upward  is  very  slow,  consequently  the  feed-water  gains 
the  same  temperature  as  "the  water  in  the  boiler  before  it  is  dis- 
charged into  the  boiler.  This  action  is  effective  in  precipitating 
nearly  all  of  the  heavy  impurities  carried  in  with  the  feed-water, 
which  can  be  blown  out  of  the  reservoir  by  a  blow-off  arranged  for 
this  purpose.  By  carrying  the  water  in  the  boiler  slightly  above  the 
top  of  the  reservoir,  it  can  then  be  utilized  as  a  surface  blow-off  to 
free  the  boiler  of  scum  or  light  impurities  collected  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  The  smoke-hood  on  top  of  the  boiler  is  furnished  with 
a  revolving  top  having  a  removable  cover.  For  the  purpose  of  clean- 
ing the  flues  this  cover  is  removed,  and  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
total  number  of  flues  are  exposed  at  one  time ;  this  arrangement  en- 
ables the  fireman  to  clean  the  flues  while  the  boilers  are  in  operation. 
This  type  of  boiler  is  especially  adapted  to  locations  where  floor- 
space  is  valuable,  as  from  300  to  400  horse-power  of  vertical  boilers 
can  be  located  in  the  space  required  by  an  ordinary  horizontal  tubu- 
lar boiler  of  100  horse-power  capacity.* 
Vertical  Boiler  with  Submerged  Tubes. — Fig.  3  represents  a  vertical  tubular  boiler,  built 
by  the  Morrisville  Machine  Works,  Baldwinsville,  X.  Y.  The  upper  ends  of  the  tubes  are 
submerged  in  water,  and  are  thereby  prevented  from  burning  out,  obviating  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal defects  of  the  ordinary  vertical  boiler. 

Payne's  Vertical  Tubular  Boiler.— The  boiler  shown  in  Fig.  4,  built  by  B.  W.  Payne  & 
Sons,  Elmira.  X.  Y.,  is  also  designed  to  prevent  the  burning  out  of  the  upper  ends  of  the 
tubes.  Midway  between  the  outer  tubes  and  the  shell  of  the  boiler  is  suspended  a  cylindrical 
baffle-plate — concentric  with  the  boiler-shell.  "This  baffle-plate,  or  apron,  extends  from  about 


FIG.  3. 


58 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


1£  in.  below  the  upper  head  to  "Within  about  10  in.  of  the  bottom  of  the  water-leg  of  the 

boiler,  and  completely  surrounding  the  tubes.  Midway  between  this  apron  and  the  boiler-shell 
is  suspended  from,  and  joined  to,  the  upper  head  a  perforated  plate, 
which  extends  downward  about  20  in.,  encircling  the  apron.  The  effect 
produced  by  the  apron  and  perforated  plate  is  that  when  the  boiler  is 
subjected  to  heat  from  its  furnace,  the  water  surrounding  the  tubes  as- 
cends and  is  replaced  by  the  cold  water  from  the  space  between  the  apron 
and  the  boiler-shell.  As  the  heat  increases,  the  circulation  around  the 
upron  becomes  more  rapid,  the  water  within  the  apron  and  around  the 
tubes  being  forced  to  and  over  the  top  of  the  apron  where  the  separation 
of  water  and  steam  takes  place ;  the  latter  passing  through  the  perfo- 
rated plate  to  the  space  between  the  boiler-shell  and  that  plate,  and  the 
former  descending  to  the  water  contained  between  the  apron  and  boiler- 
shell.  The  steam  is  drawn  from  the  boiler  through  an  opening  in  the 
shell  near  the  upper  head.  The  separation  of  the  water  and  steam  is 
thorough,  as  the  water  after  passing  over  the  apron  has  a  downward, 
tendency,  which,  with  its  greater  weight,  causes  it  to  descend  ;  while  the 
steam  readily  passes  through  the  perforated  plate,  and  is  found  in  the 
outer  space  free  from  entrained  water. 

Marine  Boilers  with  Corrugated  Flues. — Nearly  all  ocean-going  steam- 
ers are  now  fitted  with  boilers  of  the  Scotch  type.  Two  of  these  boilers 
are  shown  in  Figs.  5  and  6.  These  boilers  were  made  by  Messrs.  J.  &  G. 
Rennie,  of  London.  The  use  of  corrugated  furnace-flues,  or  of  some 
substitute  for  them,  as  flues  with  stiffening  ribs,  has  become  almost  uni- 
versal since  the  use  of  high  pressures  of  steam  100  Ibs.  and  upward.  The 
marine  boilers  used  in  the  United  States  gun-boats  Yorktown,  Concord,  and 
Bennington,  have  each  three  corrugated  furnace-flues  leading  into  one 

Fia.  4.— Payne's  boiler,  common  back  connection.  From  here  the  products  pass  along  through 
the  nest  of  tubes  to  the  chimney.  The  British  Board  of  Trade  in  1891 

adopted  a  new  formula  for  the  working  pressure  allowable  on  corrugated  furnaces,  as  follows: 
14000  X  T 

WP  = ,  in  which  W P  is  the  working  pressure  in  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  T  thickness  in 


FIG.  5.— The  Rennie  boiler. 


in.,  and  D  mean  diameter  in  in.     Lloyd's  Registry  have  also  adopted  a  new  formula,  as  fol- 
lows: WP= — ,  in  which  T  is  the  thickness  in  sixteenths  of  an  in.,  and  D  the 

greatest  diameter  in  in. 


FIG.  G.— The  Rennie  boiler. 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


59 


SEMI-PORTABLE  BOILERS. — The  "Economic"  Boiler.     The  boiler  shown  in  Fig.  7  is  made 
by  the  Erie  City  Iron  Works,  Erie,  Pa.    It  has  been  given  the  trade  name  of  the  "  Economic." 


FIG.  7.— The  economic  boiler. 

The  front  end  of  the  boiler  is  cylindrical  in  form  and  extends  over  the  furnace,  forming  the 
crown-sheet.  The  rear  end  is  oval,  the  lower  portion  extending  below  far  enough  to  hold  the 
short  tubes  leading  from  the  furnace  to  the  back  connection.  The  furnace  is  brick-lined,  and 
can  be  detached  when  desired.  The  fire-brick  are  held  in  place  by  iron  rods,  which  are  pro- 
tected from  the  fire  and  can  be  removed  and  replaced  when  necessary.  The  cylindrical 
crown-sheet  gives  a  large  effective  heating  surface,  and  is  always  fully  protected  by  water. 
There  are  no  water  sides  to  fill  with  sediment,  and  the  fire-brick  lining  of  the  furnace  insures 
a  very  high  degree  of  temperature  and  combustion  of  the  gases,  and  consequent  economy  in 
fuel. 

The  "  Economizer  "  Boiler. — Another  semi-portable  boiler,  known  as  the  "  Economizer," 
made  by  the  Porter  Mfg.  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.     It  is  largely  used  for 


Section  fhtffitfli  CD  Tig.l 


LarjeFite  Tult 

<:~H  HQ~ 


FIG.  8. — The  economizer  boiler. 

agricultural  purposes,  with  wood  or  straw  for  fuel.  The  large  fire-flue  answers  the  purpose 
of  an  enlargement  of  the  fire-box.  The  flame  passes  into  it  bodily,  thus  enabling  the  gases  to 
become  ignited  before  passing  into  the  small  return  tubes.  The  fire  is  entirely  surrounded 
by  water,  even  the  front  itself  being  heating  surface.  The  combustion  chamber  is  surrounded 
by  a  water-jacket.  It  emits  very  few  sparks  ;  the  returning  of  the  flames  through  the  small 
tubes  compels  the  deposit  of  the  great,  body  of  sparks  in  the  chamber  at  the  rear. 

WATER-TUBE  BOILERS. — The  Heine  Water- Tube  Boiler  (Fig.  9). — The  distinguishing 
features  of  the  Heine  boiler  as  compared  to  other  water-tube  boilers  are  briefly  these  :  1.  It 
is  an  entirely  riveted  construction,  with  no  bolted  joints  to  work  loose.  2.  While  it  has  the 
same  principle  of  action  as  other  water-tube  boilers,  viz.,  a  rising  current  of  steam  and  water 
mixed  in  front,  and  a  falling  current  of  solid  water  in  the  rear,  it  differs  from  them  in  having 
the  throat  opening  from  65  to  90  per  cent  of  the  total  cross-sectional  tube  area.  3.  The  travel 
of  the  gases  is  horizontal  with  a  gradual  upward  trend,  as  distinguished  from  the  up  and 
down  travel  of  the  gases  in  the  older  types  of  water-tube  boilers.  4.  The  water-legs  being 
the  strongest  parts  of  the  boiler,  form  its  natural  supports,  the  front  one  resting  on  a  fixed 
fire  front,  the  rear  one  on  expansion  rollers  on  the  rear  wall.  5.  The  internal  mud-drum 


60 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


(inclosed  inside  of  the  steam  and  water  drum)  forms  a  receptacle  in  which  the  feed- water  is 
Gradually  heated  to  approximately  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  as  it  issues 
from  the  front  top  of  the  same  'in  a  thin  current,  it  mixes  with  the  main  current  flowing 
backward  in  the  shell,  and  the  expansion  strains  from  changes  in  temperature  are  practically 
eliminated  6  Access  is  given  to  the  outside  of  the  tubes  through  hollow  stay-bolts  in  the 


FIG.  <J.— The  Heine  boiler. 


water-legs  at. all  times,  so  that  the  tube-heating  surfaces  can  be  inspected,  cleaned,  and 
watched  while  the  boiler  is  under  steam.  7.  All  the  hand-hole  plates  opposite  ends  of  tubes 
have  internal  joints,  thus  doing  away  with  the  danger  resulting  in  other  types  from  broken 
bolts  in  the  headers.  8.  The  mode  of  setting  practically  prevents  the  flame  or  hot  gases 
from  striking  the  riveted  work  of  the  shell,  until  their  temperature  has  been  reduced  to  about 
900°  F.,  or  less. 

Gill's  Water-Tube  Boiler. — The  Gill  boiler,  Pig.  10,  is  a  representative  of  a  number  of  new 
water-tube  boilers  that  have  come  into  use  during  the  past  ten  years,  of  the  general  type 
which  has  become  standard,  and  apparently  permanent,  having  a  horizontal  drum  in  which 


FIG.  10.— The  Gill  boiler. 


the  water-level  is  carried  at  or  near  the  middle,  and  a  bank  of  inclined  tubes  connected  with 
headers,  which  latter  are  connected  by  circulating  pipes  to  the  drum.  The  Gill  boiler  differs 
from  other  boilers  of  this  standard  type  merely  in  the  details  of  construction  of  the  headers, 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


61 


and  in  its  method  of  connecting  the  headers  to  the  drum.  These  details  are  shown  in  Figs.  9 
and  10.  The  water-tubes,  4  in.  in  diameter  and  spaced  about  3  in.  apart,  are  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  about  15°  from  the  horizontal.  Each  nest  of  4  or  5 
tubes  is  expanded  into  a  cast-iron  box  or  header  at  each  end 
in  such  a  way  that  the  tubes  are  staggered  instead  of  being 
placed  one  above  the  other.  67  thus  making  these  boxes 
short,  and  by  connecting  them  by  slightly  flexible  tubes,  the 
danger  of  breakage  is  entirely  avoided,  which  is  of  common 
occurrence  where  the  headers  are  made  in  one  long  cast-iron 
box.  The  connection  between  the  headers  and  the  steam  and 
water  drum  overhead  is  exceedingly  simple,  consisting  of 
short  tubes  which  are  expanded  into  the  top  of  the  headers 
and  into  the  drum  entering  the  latter  radially,  for  which  pur- 
pose they  are  curved  to  the  proper  form.  Fig.  11  shows  a 
bank  of  headers  and  a  steam-drum  with  their  connections. 

Yarrow's  Water-Tube  Boiler. — Fig.  12  shows  a  type  of  water-tube  boiler  which  has 
been  lately  introduced  by  Messrs.  Yarrow  &  Co.,  for  use  in  the  torpedo-boats  built  by  this 
firm.  There  is  a  horizontal  upper  chamber  or  receiver  and  two  lower  chambers,  each  of 
the  latter  occupying  the  space  at  the  sides  of  the  fire-grate.  The  receiver  is  connected  to 
the  lower  chambers  by  numerous  straight  lengths  of  pipe,  composed  of  weldless-steel  tube. 
The  parts  of  the  chambers  into  which  these  tubes  are  inserted  are  flattened  so  that  several 
rows  of  the  tubes  are  possible.  The  tubes  are  expanded  into  the  chambers  in  the  ordinary 
way.  Each  chamber  is  made  in  two  parts,  which  are  flanged  out  and  joined  by  nuts  and 
bolts,  a  copper  wire  serving  as  packing  to  make  a  steam-tight  joint.  The  water-gauge  glasses 
and  other  fittings  are  attached  to  the  upper  cylinder.  The  whole  is  inclosed  by  a  smoke- 
jacket,  and  the  products  of  combustion  pass  upward  among  the  tubes  to  the  uptake  on  the 
top  of  the  boiler.  The  length  of  the  cylinders  is  about  6  ft.,  and  the  diameter  of  the  top 


FIG.  11.— G.ll  boiler  tubes. 


FIG.  12.— The  Yarrow  torpedo  boat  boiler. 

receiver  is  20  in.  The  tubes  are  galvanized,  and  arrangements  have  been  made  whereby  the 
whole  of  the  boiler  can  be  galvanized  complete.  When  running,  the  water-level  is  kept  about 
half-way  up  the  receiver.  The  advantages  claimed  for  the  boiler  are  that  it  is  free  from  com- 
plicated" and  intricate  parts,  there  being  neither  bends,  elbows,  nor  intermediate  obstruction  to 
the  free  flow  of  steam  and  water  through  the  tubes. 

The  Cowles  Water-Tube  Boiler. — The  Cowles  boiler  (Fig.  13)  is  one  of  a  numerous  class  of 
boilers  recently  designed  to  combine  great  steaming  capacity,  at  the  highest  steam  pressures, 
with  the  minimum  weight  of  structure  and  water  contained,  and  minimum  space  occupied. 
Obviously  this  combination  can  be  obtained  to  the  highest  degree  in  what  is  known  as  a  coil- 
boiler,  which  consists  of  simply  a  mass  of  coils  of  iron  or  copper  tubes  of  small  diameter,  and 
a  furnace  underneath  them.  *  Such  coil  boilers,  however,  are  usually  defective  in  durability, 
and  are  apt  to  produce  steam  of  varying  quality,  sometimes  wet  and  sometimes  superheated 
to  a  higher  degree  than  is  desirable.  The  coil  boiler  has  therefore  been  modified  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  water-tube  boiler,  supplying  it  with  one  or  more  water  and  steam  drums;  and  while 
retaining  the  small  diameter  of  tubes,  they  are  not  made  into  continuous  coils,  but  are  made  in 
separate  short  lengths,  each  of  which  is  connected  with  the  water-drums,  and  is  easily  replace- 
able in  case  of  burning  out.  The  chief  field  for  boilers  of  this  kind  is  in  marine  work,  where 
high  speeds  and  light  weight  are  required,  especially  in  torpedo-boats  and  in  racing  yachts. 
Several  varieties  of  "this  type  of  boiler  have  been  built,  as  the  Thornycroft,  Herreshoff/Ward, 


62 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


Mosher,  and  Cowles.  Detail  drawings  of  some  of  them,  and  records  of  tests  made  by  engineers 
of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  are  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Steam-Engineering 
for  1890.  The  Cowles  boiler  is  selected  here  as  a  representative  of  the  general  type.  It  is  de- 
scribed as  follows  by  its  patentee,  Mr.  William  Cowles,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y..  and  consists  of  a 
rectangular  grate  and  ash-pan,  over  which  is  set  horizontally  a  cylindrical  shell  for  steam  and 


water;  from  the  back  part  of  this  shell  a  steam-drum  projects  back  horizontally;  from  its 
front  end  large  "  downcast "  pipes  extend  down  to  large  side  pipes  at  each  side  and  below  the 
furnace 5  these  side  pipes  connect  at  their  back  ends  with  the  water-drums  Iving  horizontally 
back  ot  the  furnace  and  below  or  at  its  level ;  numerous  bent  water-tubes,  with  ends  expanded 
in,  extend  vertically  and  connect  between  the  water  and  steam  drums  and  between  the  side 
pipes  and  shell.  Ihe  whole  is  inclosed  in  a  suitably  lined  casing  for  marine  use  and  in 
masonry  for  stationary  work. 

Mosher's  Water-Tube  toiler.— Figs.  14,  15,  16,  and  17  illustrate  the  boiler  designed  by 
Mr.  0.  D.  Mosher  for  the  fast  steam-launch  Norwood,  owned  by  N.  L.  Munro,  of  New  York 
city.  It  has  several  novel  features.  For  the  power  the  boiler  has  to  furnish,  it  occupies  but 
a  very  small  space,  and  its  center  of  gravity  is  very  low.  It  has  26  sq.  ft.  of  grate  surface,  and 
about  1,000  sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface.  The  tubes  are  made  of  steel,  1  in.  diameter,  solid  drawn. 
Ihe  weight  of  the  boiler  and  water  is  2|  tons;  its  length  is  7  ft.  3  in. ;  breadth,  6  ft. ;  total 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


63 


height,  3  ft.  6  in.  Fig.  14  represents  an  end  elevation  of  the  boiler ;  a  portion  of  the  casing 
is  removed  to  show  the  interior.  Fig.  15  represents  a  horizontal  section  taken  on  line  2,  2, 
Fig.  16.  Fig.  16  represents  a  transverse  section  on  line  3,  3,  Fig.  14.  Fig.  16  represents  a 
vertical  section  on  line  4,  4,  Fig.  16.  The  same  letters  of  reference  indicate  the  same  parts  in 
all  the  figures.  In  these  illustrations  a  a  represent  two  horizontal  water-drams,  which  are 
arranged  parallel  with  each  other  at  opposite  sides  of  the  furnace  b ;  these  drums  are  placed 
just  above  the  grates  c.  The  furnace,  as 
will  be  seen  by  referring  to  Figs.  14  and  15, 
is  divided  into  two  sections  by  an  interme- 
diate water-drum  a',  and  a  row  of  tubes,  /2, 
extending  upwardly  from  the  drum  a',  and 
arranged  so  that  above  their  bent  ends  they 
form  a  close  wall  extending  lengthwise  of 
the  furnace ;  the  upper  portions  of  the  tubes 
/*  are  curved  outwardly ;  every  alternate 
tube  extends  over  to  the  steam-drum  at  the 
one  side  of  the  furnace,  and  the  remaining 
tubes  over  to  the  steam-drum  at  the  other 
side  of  the  furnace.  The  intermediate  drum 
a'  is  connected  by  transverse  pipes  a"  with 
the  outside  wrater-drum  a  a,  so  that  water 
from  the  drums  a  a  enters  the  drum  a',  and 
passes  upwardly  therefrom  through  the 
tuebs  f'2.  The  tubes/3  are  connected  with 
the  transverse  tubes  a";  they  extend  up- 
ward, and  are  bent  at  their  upper  ends,  and 
joined  to  the  steam-drums  d  d.  These 
tubes,  /3,  spring  from  the  pipes  a"  in  two 
rows.  Those  of  the  outer  row  are  bent  in- 


FIG.  14.— The  Mosher  boiler. 


wardly,  as  shown  at  14,  Fig.  17,  so  that  the  tubes  /»  constitute  closed  vertical  end-walls,  the 
front  one  being  interrupted  by  the  spaces  for  the  fire-doors.  The  steam-drums  d  d  are 
placed  above  the  water-drums  a  a,  and  are  practically  outside  the  space  which  constitutes  the 
furnace,  They  are  arranged  to  bring  their  outer  sides  in  a  vertical  plane  with  the  outer  sides 
of  the  water-drums  to  accommodate  the  casing  e,  which  incloses  the  whole  apparatus.  Each 
water-drum  is  connected  with  the  steam-drum  by  a  series  of  bent  steam-generating  tubes, 
/f  /» /4»  /5-  From  the  points  of  connection  with  the  water-drums,  these  tubes  are  bent  in- 
wardly and  upwardly  toward  the  center  and  upper  portion  of  the  furnace.  They  are  then  bent 
outwardly  until  they  join  the  inner  sides  of  the  steam-drums. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  tubes  /,  /,  f\  /5,  are  formed  and  arranged  to  expose  their  contents 
in  a  favorable  manner  to  the  heat  of  the  furnace,  and  at  the  same  time  enable  the  steam- 
drums  d  to  be  located  at  a  minimum  height  above  the  water-drums  a,  thus  giving  the  gener- 
ator a  low  center  of  gravity,  and 
making  it  in  this  respect  desira- 
ble for  steam  launches  and  yachts, 
in  which  economy  of  vertical 
space  is  desirable.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  inner  tubes  /  is  such 
that  these  tubes  along  the  for- 
ward portion  of  the  furnace,  or 
fire-door  end.  nearly  to  the  oppo- 
site end,  constitute  a  practically 
closed  wall,  made  up  of  the  in- 
clined portions  of  the  tubes.  The 
lower  end  of  every  alternate  tube 
/  is  bent,  as  shown  at  8,  Fig.  16, 
so  that  the  whole  form  two  inner 
rows  at  the  points  where  they  join 
the  water-drums,  and  come  in 
close  contact  with  each  other  just 
above  the  bend  9.  The  object  of 
arranging  the  tubes  to  form  a 
close  wall,  as  described,  is  to  cause 
the  heated  products  of  combus- 
tion to  pass  from  the  front  toward 
the  rear  end  of  the  furnace  be- 
fore passing  to  the  outside  of 
these  tubes.  To  enable  the  pro- 
ducts of  combustion  to  pass  to 

the  outside  of  the  tubes,  a  number  of  these  tubes  at  the  rear  end  of  the  furnace  are  made 
straight  as  shown  at/',  in  Figs.  14,  16,  and  17,  creating  the  spaces  10  between  the  tubes/' 
and  the  intermediate  tubes  f.  The  spaces  10  permit  the  products  of  combustion  to  pass  out- 
wardly, as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  17,  into  the  rear  portion  of  the  space  between  the 
walls  "composed  of  the  tubes  /and  an  outer  wall  composed  of  the  tubes  f4,  placed  next  to 


FIG.  15.— The  Mosher  boiler. 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


FIG.  16.— The  Mosher  boiler. 


the  inner  casing  h  The  lower  ends  of  the  tubes  /'are  marked  12,  18  m  Fig.  16  The  wall 
composed  of  thl  tubes/4  extends  the  entire  length  of  the  furnace  The  spaces  between  the 
inner  and  outer  walls  of  tubes  contain  the  tubes/5,  which  are  of  the  same  general  form  as 
the  tubes  f  and  f4  but  are  separated,  so  that  the  products  of  combustion  pass  freely  around 
each  tube  With 'this  arrangement  the  steam-drums  are  protected  from  the  direct  action  of 
the  fire  by  the  interposed  tubes,  and  can  be  affected  only  by  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
*  hot  gases  that  pass  through  the  spaces 

10  at  the  rear  portion  of  the  fire-box ; 
hence,  the  liability  of  burning  or  injur- 
ing the  drums  by  overheating  is  re- 
duced to  a  minimum.  As  an  addition- 
al protection  to  the  steam-drums,  the 
partitions  k  k,  previously  referred  to, 
are  interposed  between  the  lower  por- 
tions of  the  steam-drums  and  the  fur- 
nace; these  partitions  lie  close  to  the 
wall  formed  by  the  tubes  /4,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  16. 

The  smoke-stack  g  is  placed  over 
the  forward  end  of  the  furnace,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  17,  causing  the  products 
of  combustion,  after  passing  through 
the  spaces  10,  to  travel  in  the  opposite 
direction  toward  the  forward  end  of 
the  furnace,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
arrows  in  Fig.  17,  the  tubes  being  thus 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  heat.  This 
arrangement  is  another  important  feature  of  the  invention.  A  baffle-plate  or  deflector,  h,  is 
placed  across  the  upper  portion  of  the  furnace,  just  in  the  rear  of  the  smoke-stack,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  17,  which  causes  the  products  of  combustion  to  take  a  downward  course,  as  indicated 
by  the  dotted  arrows,  before  reaching  the  smoke-stack,  and  prevents  the  too  direct  escape 
of  the  products  of  combustion,  and  causing  the  same  to  act  more  fully  upon  the  water  in  the 
tubes.  The  products  of  combustion  pass  to  the  stack  through  the  openings  formed  between 
the  tubes  /and  /Q,  the  latter 
being  raised  above  the  tubes 
/  forward  of  the  deflector 
h,  as  shown  in  Fig.  17,  leav- 
ing spaces  between  the  hor- 
izontal portions  of  the  tubes 
/  and  /2  of  sufficient  width 
to  permit  the  passage  of  the 
smoke  and  gases  to  the 
stack.  The  ends  of  the 
steam-drums  are  connected 
with  the  ends  of  the  water- 
drums  by  the  pipes  i  for  the 
return  of  water  from  the 
steam-drums  to  the  water- 
drums.  These  return  pipes 
are  located  outside  of  the 
casing  e,  as  is  shown  in  Fig. 

15,  and  are  not  subjected  to 
the  heat  within  the  casing ; 
hence  the  descent  of  water 

through  the  return  pipes  to  the  water-drums  is  facilitated.     Baffle-plates  &4,  &4.  shown  in  Fig. 

16,  are  attached  to  the  upper  portions  of  the  steam-drums  at  opposite  sides  of  the  perforated 
dry-pipes  jo4,  which  extend  through  the  drums,  and  are  connected  outside  of  the  drums  with 
pipes  which  conduct  the  steam  to  the  engine.     The  water-drums  are  protected  from  contact 
with  the  fuel  by  the  fire-brick  linings  m,  and  the  transverse  connecting  pipes  a"  are  protected 
by  similar  linings,  m'.    The  water-drums  act  also  as  mud-drums,  and  have  suitable  blow-off 
cocks  and  hand-holes  to  allow  the  removal  of  the  deposits.     The  tubes  /,  /',  /*,  /',  /4,  /5,  are 
expanded  in  the  drums  and  pipes  by  special  tools  devised  for  this  purpose.     The  adoption 
of  two  steam-drums,  d,  not  only  makes  the  boiler  symmetrical,  but  it  gives  a  greater  height 
of  furnace  in  proportion  to  the  total  height  of  boiler  than  could  be  obtained  with  one  drum ; 
and  the  water  capacity  is  increased  so  that  a  sudden  lowering  of  water-level  in  the  boiler  when 
the  supply  of  feed-water  is  interrupted  is  prevented. 

Non-conducting  Coverings  for  toilers,  etc. — W.  Hepworth  Collins,  in  Engineering,  Sept. 
4,  1891,  describes  some  experiments  he  made  on  different  non-conducting  coverings  for  steam- 
boilers.  A  mass  of  each  material  to  be  experimented  upon,  1  in.  thick,  was  carefully  prepared 
and  placed  on  a  perfectly  flat  iron  plate  or  tray,  which  was  then  carefully  maintained  at  a 
constant  temperature  of  310°  F.  The  heat  transmitted  through  each  non-conducting  mass 
was  calculated  in  pounds  of  water  heated  10°  F.  per  hour.  The  following  table  gives  the 
results  : 


FIG.  17.— The  Mosher  boiler. 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


65 


SUBSTANCE,  1  IN.  THICK  (IN  MASS); 
HEAT  APPLIED,  310°  F. 

Pounds  of  water 
heated  10°  F.  per 
hour  through  1  sq.  ft. 

Solid  matter  in 
1  sq.  it.  1  in.  thick. 
Parts,  1,000. 

Air  included. 
Parts,  1,000. 

1    Hair  felt                                                        

1T4 

189 

957 

2    Cotton  felt                                                                        •   •  • 

10'6 

75 

930 

3   Jute  felt              

13*2 

162 

921 

4    Linen  felt                                     

11-7 

64 

753 

5    Loose  cotton  felt                                      

93 

17 

990 

8-l 

16 

987 

43 

912 

8   Poultry  feathers             

6-2 

44 

976 

13'6 

66 

931 

14'2 

141 

793 

11    Asbestus  powder  

47'9 

67 

961 

12   Fossil  meal                        .                 ....        

52'1 

78 

910 

13    Plaster-of  -Paris 

36  2 

371 

598 

14*7 

24 

979 

15   Compressed  calcined  magnesia  

53'4 

291 

711 

66'3 

533 

473 

TJie  following  table  shows  the  results  of  practically  treating  the  several  non-conducting 
mixtures  on  a  5-in.  steam-pipe  : 


PREPARED  MIXTURES  FOR  COVERING  STEAM-PIPES,  ETC. 

Pounds  of  water  heated 
10°  F.  per  hour  by  1  sq.  ft. 

1    Clav,  dung,  and  vegetable-fiber  paste  

39'6 

2   Fossil  meal  and  hair  paste  ....               

10'4 

3   Fossil  meal  and  asbestus  powder 

26'3 

4   Paper  pulp,  clay,  and  vegetable  fiber  

44  6 

5   Paper  pulp  alone  

14'7 

6   Stag-wood  hair  and  clay  paste 

10 

7   Asbestus  fiber,  wrapped  tightly  

17'9 

8   Coal-ashes  and  clay  paste  wrapped  with  straw  

gg-g 

Horse-Power  of  Boilers. — The  committee  on  standard  boiler  trials  of  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers,  in  their  report  made  in  1884,  adopted  as  the  unit  of  boiler  horse- 
power the  same  that  had  been  previously  adopted  by  the  Committee  of  Judges  of  Steam-Boilers 
at  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  in  1876,  viz.,  an  evaporation  30  Ibs.  of  water  per  hour  from  a 
feed-water  temperature  of  100°  F.  into  steam  at  70  Ibs.  gauge  pressure,  "  which  shall  be  con- 
sidered to  be  equal  to  34J  units  of  evaporation — that  is,  to  34£  Ibs.  of  water  evaporated  from 
a  feed-water  temperature  of  212°  F.  into  steam  at  the  same  temperature.  This  standard  is 
equal  to  33,305  thermal  units  per  hour." 

Code  of  Rules  for  Boiler-Tests. — In  1884  a  committee  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechan- 
ical Engineers,  consisting  of  Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston  and  Messrs.  J.  C.  Hoadley,  Charles  T.  Por- 
ter, Charles  E.  Emery,  and  William  Kent,  presented  an  elaborate  report  on  a 'Standard  Method 
of  Steam-Boiler  Trials,  in  which  they  included  the  following  code  of  rules  and  system  of  re- 
porting the  results  of  a  trial,  which  have  met  with  general  acceptance  among  engineers  in  the 
United  States : 

"  PRELIMINARIES  TO  A  TEST. — I.  In  preparing  for  and  conducting  trials  of  steam-boilers, 
the  specific  object  of  the  proposed  trial  should  be  clearly  defined  and  steadily  kept  in  view. 

•'II.  ^Measure  and  record  the  dimensions,  position,  etc.,  of  grate  and  heating  surfaces,  flues 
and  chimneys,  proportion  of  air  space  in  the  grate-surface,  kind  of  draft,  natural  or  forced. 

"  III.  Put  the  Boiler  in  Good  Condition. — Have  heating  surface  clean  inside  and  out,  grate- 
bars  and  sides  of  furnace  free  from  clinkers,  dust  and  ashes  removed  from  back  connections, 
leaks  in  masonry  stopped,  and  all  obstructions  to  draft  removed.  See  that  the  damper  will 
open  to  full  extent,  and  that  it  may  be  closed  when  desired.  Test  for  leaks  in  masonry  by 
firing  a  little  smoky  fuel  and  immediately  closing  damper.  The  smoke  will  then  escape 
through  the  leaks. 

"  IV.  Have  an  understanding  with  the  parties  in  whose  interest  the  test  is  to  be  made  as  to 
the  character  of  the  coal  to  be  used.  The  coal  must  be  dry,  or,  if  wet,  a  sample  must  be  dried 
carefully  and  a  determination  of  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  coal  made,  and  the  calculation 
of  the  results  of  the  test  corrected  accordingly.  Wherever  possible,  the  test  should  be  made 
with  standard  coal  of  a  known  quality.  -For  that  portion  of  the  country  east  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  good  anthracite  egg  coal  or  Cumberland  semi-bituminous  coal  may  be  taken  as  the 
standard  for  making  tests.  West  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  east  of  the  Missouri  River, 
Pittsburg  lump  coal  may  be  used.* 

"  V.  In  all  important  tests  a  sample  of  coal  should  be  selected  for  chemical  analysis. 

'•  VI.  Establish  the  correctness  of  all  apparatus  used  in  the  test  for  weighing  and  measur- 
ing. These  are :  1.  Scales  for  weighing  coal,  ashes,  and  water.  2.  Tanks,  or  water-metres 
for  measuring  water.  Water-metres  as  a  rule  should  only  be  used  as  a  check  on  other  meas- 
urements. For  accurate  work,  the  water  should  be  weighed  or  measured  in  a  tank.  3.  Ther- 
mometers and  pyrometers  for  taking  temperatures  of  air,  steam,  feed-water,  waste  gases,  etc. 
4.  Pressure-gauges,  draft-gauges,  etc. 

*  These  coals  are  selected  because  they  are  about  the  only  coals  which  contain  the  essentials  of  excel- 
lence of  quality,  adaptability  to  various  kinds  of  furnaces,  grates,  boilers,  and  methods  of  firing,  and  wide 
distribution  and  general  accessibility  in  the  markets. 


66  BOILERS,   STEAM. 


"  VII  Before  beginning  a  test  the  boiler  and  chimney  should  be  thoroughly  heated  to  their 
usual  working  temperature.  If  the  boiler  is  new,  it  should  be  in  continuous  use  at  least  a 
week  before  testing,  so  as  to  dry  the  mortar  thoroughly  and  heat  the  walls. 

"  VIII.  Before  beginning  a 'test  the  boiler  and  connections  should  be  free  from  leaks,  and 
all  water  connections,  including  blow  and  extra  feed-pipes,  should  be  disconnected  or  stopped 
with  blank  flanges,  except  the  particular  pipe  through  which  water  is  to  be  fed  to  the  boiler 
during  the  trial.  In  locations  where  the  reliability  of  the  power  is  so  important  that  an  extra 
feed-pipe  must  be  kept  in  position,  and  in  general  when  for  any  other  reason  water-pipes 
other  than  the  feed-pipes  can  riot  be  disconnected,  such  pipes  may  be  drilled  so  as  to  leave 
openings  in  their  lower  sides,  which  should  be  kept  open  throughout  the  test  as  a  means  of 
detecting  leaks  or  accidental  or  unauthorized  opening  of  valves.  During  the  test  the  blow- 
off  pipe  should  remain  exposed.  If  an  injector  is  used  it  must  receive  steam  directly  from 
the  boiler  being  tested,  and  not  from  a  steam-pipe,  or  from  any  other  boiler.  See  that  the 
steam-pipe  is  so  arranged  that  water  of  condensation  can  riot  run  back  into  the  boiler.  If  the 
steam-pipe  has  such  an  inclination  that  the  water  of  condensation  from  any  portion  of  the 
steam-pipe  system  may  run  back  into  the  boiler,  it  must  be  trapped  so  as  to  prevent  this  water 
getting  into  the  boiler  without  being  measured. 

"  STARTING  AND  STOPPING  A  TEST. — IX.  A  test  should  last  at  least  ten  hours  of  continuous 
running  and  twenty-four  hours  whenever  practicable.  The  conditions  of  the  boiler  and  fur- 
nace in 'all  respects  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  same  at  the  end  as  at  the  beginning 
of  the  test.  The  steam  pressure  should  be  the  same,  the  water-level  the  same,  the  fire  upon 
the  grates  'should  be  the  same  in  quantity  and  condition,  and  the  walls,  flues,  etc.,  should  be 
of  the  same  temperature.  To  secure  as  near  an  approximation  to  exact  uniformity  as  possible 
in  conditions  of  the  fire  and  in  temperatures  of  the  walls  and  flues,  the  following  method  of 
starting  and  stopping  a  test  should  be  adopted : 

"  X.  Standard  Method.— Steam  being  raised  to  the  working  pressure,  remove  rapidly  all 
the  fire  from  the  grate,  close  the  damper,  clean  the  ash-pit,  and  as  quickly  as  possible  start  a 
new  fire  with  weighed  wood  and  coal,  noting  the  time  of  starting  the  test  and  the  height  of 
the  water-level  while  the  water  is  in  a  quiescent  state,  just  before  lighting  the  fire.  At  the 
end  of  the  test,  remove  the  whole  fire,  clean  the  grates  and  ash-pit,  and  note  the  water-level 
when  the  water  is  in  a  quiescent  state;  record  the  time  of  hauling  the  fire  as  the  end  of  the 
test.  The  water-level  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  test. 
If  it  is  not  the  same,  a  correction  should  be  made  by  computation,  and  not  by  operating  pump 
after  test  is  completed.  It  will  generally  be  necessary  to  regulate  the  discharge  of  steam  from 
the  boiler  tested  by  means  of  the  stop- valve  for  a  time  while  fires  are  being  hauled  at  the  be- 
ginning and  at  the  end  of  the  test,  in  order  to  keep  the  steam  pressure  in  the  boiler  at  those 
times  up  to  the  average  during  the  test. 

"  XI.  Alternate  Method. — Instead  of  the  standard  method  above  described,  the  following 
may  be  employed  where  local  conditions  render  it  necessary :  At  the  regular  time  for  slicing 
and  cleaning  fires,  have  them  burned  rather  low,  as  is  usual  before  cleaning,  and  then  thor- 
oughly cleaned ;  note  the  amount  of  coal  left  on  the  grate  as  nearly  as  it  can  be  estimated ; 
note  the  pressure  of  steam  and  the  height  of  the  water-level — which  should  be  at  the  medium 
height  to  be  carried  throughout  the  test — at  the  same  time ;  and  note  this  time  as  the  time  of 
starting  the  test.  Fresh  coal,  which  has  been  weighed,  should  now  be  fired.  The  ash-pits 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  at  once  after  starting.  Before  the  end  of  the  test  the  fires  should 
be  burned  low,  just  as  before  the  start,  and  the  fires  cleaned  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  the 
same  amount  of  fire,  and  in  the  same  condition,  on  the  grates  as  at  the  start.  The  water-level 
and  steam  pressure  should  be  brought  to  the  same  point  as  at  the  start,  and  the  time  of  the 
ending  of  the  test  should  be  noted  just  before  fresh  coal  is  fired. 

"DURING  THE  TEST.— XII.  Keep  the  Conditions  uniform. — The  boiler  should  be  run  con- 
tinuously, without  stopping  for  meal-times  or  for  rise  or  fall  of  pressure  of  steam  due  to 
change  of  demand  for  steam.  The  draft  being  adjusted  to  the  rate  of  evaporation  or  com- 
bustion desired  before  the  test  is  begun,  it  should  be  retained  constant  during  the  test  by 
means  of  the  damper.  If  the  boiler  is  not  connected  to  the  same  steam-pipe  with  other  boilers, 
an  extra  outlet  for  steam  with  valve  in  same  should'  be  provided,  so  that  in  case  the  pressure 
should  rise  to  that  at  which  the  safety-valve  is  set  it  may  be  reduced  to  the  desired  point  by 
opening  the  extra  outlet  without  checking  the  fires.  If  the  boiler  is  connected  to  a  main 
steam-pipe  with  other  boilers,  the  safety-valve  on  the  boiler  being  tested  should  be  set  a  few 
pounds  higher  than  those  of  the  other  boilers,  so  that  in  case  of  a  rise  in  pressure  the  other 
boilers  may  blow  off,  and  the  pressure  be  reduced  by  closing  their  dampers,  allowing  the 
damper  of  the  boiler  being  tested  to  remain  open,  and  firing  as  usual.  All  the  conditions 
should  be  kept  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible,  such  as  force  of  draft,  pressure  of  steam,  and 
height  of  water.  The  time  of  cleaning  the  fires  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  fuel, 
the  rapidity  of  combustion,  and  the  kind  of  grates.  When  very  good  coal  is  used,  and  the 
combustion  not  too  rapid,  a  ten-hour  test  may  be  run  without  any  cleaning  of  the  grates, 
other  than  just  before  the  beginning  and  just  before  the  end  of  the  test.  But  in  case  the 
grates  have  to  be  cleaned  during  the  test,  the  intervals  between  one  cleaning  and  another 
should  be  uniform. 

"  XIII.  Keeping  the  Records. — The  coal  should  be  weighed  and  delivered  to  the  firemen 
in  equal  portions,  each  sufficient  for  about  one  hour's  run,  and  a  fresh  portion  should  not  be 
delivered  until  the  previous  one  has  all  been  fired.  The  time  required  to  consume  each 
portion  should  be  noted,  the  time  being  recorded  at  the  instant  of  firing  the  first  of  each  new 
portion.  It  is  desirable  that  at  the  same  time  the  amount  of  water  fed  into  the  boiler  should 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


67 


be  accurately  noted  and  recorded,  including  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  the 
average  pressure  of  steam  and  temperature  of  feed  during  the  time.  By  thus  recording  the 
amount  of  water  evaporated  by  successive  portions  of  coal,  the  record  of  the  test  may  be 
divided  into  several  divisions,  if  desired,  at  the  end  of  the  test,  to  discover  the  degree  of  uni- 
formity of  combustion,  evaporation,  and  economy  at  different  stages  of  the  test. 

"  XIV.  Priming  Tests. — In  all  tests  in  which  accuracy  of  results  is  important,  calorimeter 
tests  should  be  made  of  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  steam,  or  of  the  degree  of  super- 
heating. At  least  ten  such  tests  should  be  made  during  the  trial  of  the  boiler,  or  so  many  as 
to  reduce  the  probable  average  error  to  less  than  1  per  cent,  and  the  final  records  of 'the 
boiler-tests  corrected  according  to  the  average  results  of  the  calorimeter  tests.  On  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  securing  accuracy  in  these  tests,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  the 
measurements  of  weights  and  temperatures.  The  thermometers  should  be  accurate  to  within 
a  tenth  of  a  degree,  and  the  scales  on  which  the  water  is  weighed  to  within  one-hundredth 
of  a  pound. 

"ANALYSES  OF  GASES. — MEASUREMENT  OF  AlR-SUPPLY,  ETC. — XV.    In  tests  for  purposes  of 

scientific  research,  in  which  the  determination  of  all  the  variables  entering  into  the  test  is 
desired,  certain  observations  should  be  made  which  are  in  general  not  necessary  in  tests  for 
commercial  purposes.  These  are  the  measurement  of  the  air-supply,  the  determination  of  its 
contained  moisture,  the  measurement  and  analysis  of  the  flue  gases,  the  determination  of  the 
amount  of  heat  lost  by  radiation,  of  the  amount  of  infiltration  of  air  through  the  setting,  the 
direct  determination  by  calorimeter  experiments  of  the  absolute  heating  value  of  the  fuel, 
and  (by  condensation  of  all  the  steam  made  by  the  boiler)  of  the  total  heat  imparted  to  the 
water.  The  analysis  of  the  flue  gases  is  an  especially  valuable  method  of  determining  the 
relative  value  of  different  methods  of  firing,  or  of  different  kinds  of  furnaces.  In  making 
these  analyses  great  care  should  be  taken  to  procure  average  samples — since  the  composition 
is  apt  to  vary  at  different  points  of  the  flue — and  the  analyses  should  be  intrusted  only  to  a 
thoroughly  competent  chemist,  who  is  provided  with  complete  and  accurate  apparatus.  As 
the  determinations  of  the  other  variables  mentioned  above  are  not  likely  to  be  undertaken 
except  by  engineers  of  high  scientific  attainments,  and  as  apparatus  for  making  them  is  likely 
to  be  improved  in  the  course  of  scientific  research,  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to  include  in 
this  code  any  specific  directions  for  making  them." 

Results  of  Boiler- Tests. — Mr.  George  Barrus,  in  his  book  on  Boiler-Tests  (1891),  gives  the 
account  of  tests  made  by  him  on  71  steam-boilers  of  different  types,  most  of  them  located  in 
factories  in  New  England  and  running  under  ordinary  conditions.  From  a  table  summa- 
rizing the  results  of  all  the  tests  we  have  made  the  following  extract,  selecting  only  those 
tests  which  gave  an  economic  result  of  over  11-25  Ibs.  of  water  evaporated  from  and  at  212° 
per  Ib.  of  combustible : 

Selected  Best  Remits  from  Tests  of  Seventy-one  Different  Boilers  tested  by  Geo.  S.  Barrus. 


KIND  OF  BOILER. 

Ratio  of  water- 
heating  to 
grate  fur  face. 

Ratio  of  steam- 
heating  surface 
to  grate  turface. 

Kind  of  coal. 

Per  cent 
of  ash. 

Copper 
&q.  ft.  of 
grate  per 
hour. 

Tempera- 
ture of 
escaping 
gases. 

Water  per  Ib. 
combustible 
from  and  at 
212°  F. 

Horizontal  return  tubular  .... 

32  '2  to  1 

Cumberland. 

in 

10-1 

435 

H'52 

"             "            «       * 

33  5  to  1 
42     to  1 

4'ltol 

Anth.  broken. 
Cum  berl  and 

12'5 
6'6 

8-7 
14 

340 
381 

11-63 
11'37 

37      to  1 

6-6 

9'1 

387 

11-78 

37     to  1 

Pea  and  dust.  2 

11'4 

10'7 

387 

11'60 

U                          11                        I. 

41  '6  to  1 

parts,  Cumb.,  1. 
Cumberland. 

6'6 

7 

431 

12-07 

11                                          tk            4. 

40     tol 
57  9  to  1 



Anth.  broken. 

6-5 
10-3 

11-1 

11  9 

408 
321 

11-98 
11-33 

U                                                         Ik 

57  9  tol 

Cumberland  . 

8-3 

12'  1 

397 

H'99 

It                                 I. 

57  '  9  to  1 

A.nth  scr'gs,  6 

8'7 

12  2 

367 

11  30 

It                                 tt 

53'  1  to  1 

parts.  Cumb..  4. 
Cumberland. 

7'5 

13  6 

413 

12-47 

"                                 "          § 

61     to  1 

7 

7'96 

322 

11'81 

tt                                >t 

65     to  1 

M 

6'7 

10-97 

389 

12'42 

"                           "        § 

62'1  to  1 

K 

9'7 

9'3 

375 

12-03 

Vertical  tubular 

58     to  1 
35  '  1  to  1 

4     tol 
4     to  1 

Clear-field 

9'3 

12-5 
10"3 

423 

11  78 
12'29 

Vertical  fire-box  

44'5  to  1 

15'7  to  1 

Cumberland. 

7'7 

13'1 

427 

12'29 

Water-tube 

40     to  1 

\nthracite  pea 

17'4 

12'2 

353 

11-44 

62"5  to  1 

Pea  and  dust 

9 

16'7 

402 

13  '01 

1  part.  Powel- 
ton,  3  parts. 

*  With  double  passage  of  gases.       t  With  water-leg  front.        *  Detached  furnace.       §  Double  deck. 

This  table  shows  the  best  results  which  may  be  expected  in  ordinary  practice.  That 
ordinary  or  average  practice  falls  much  below  the  best  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  out  of  71 
boilers  tested  only  16  gave  an  evaporation  equal  or  greater  than  11-25  Ibs.,  and  of  these  only 
C  gave  over  12  Ibs.,  15  between  9  and  10  Ibs.,  and  7  below  9  Ibs.  The  poorest  results  were 
given  by  plain  cylinder  boiler  having  a  ratio  of  water-heating  to  grate  surface  of  only  10*9  to 
1,  and  a  temperature  of  escaping  gases  of  over  600°.  The  best  results  were  reached  with 
several  forms  of  boiler,  including  the  ordinary  return  tubular  boiler,  by  the  vertical  tubular 
boiler,  and  by  the  water-tube  boiler.  The  following  table  shows  the  principal  results  ob- 
tained from  tests  of  16  horizontal  tubular  boilers : 


68 


BOILERS,   STEAM. 


Results  of  Tests  of  Horizontal  Tubular  Boilers  with  Anthracite  Coal. 


Ratio  of  heating 
to  grate  surface. 

Per  cent 
of  ash. 

Coal  per  hour 
per  sq.  ft  grate. 

Temperature 
of  escaping  gas. 

Water  per  Ib. 
combustible  from 
and  at  212°  F. 

44'7  to  1 
35'6  to  1 
26'5  to  1 

12-2 
13-4 
10  1 

Lbs. 

11 
6'7 
12-9 

Deg.  F. 

3»7-9 

321 
455 

IG'76 

11-37 
9'75 

Lowest  economy  

In  general,  the  highest  results  are  produced  where  the  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases 
is  the  least.  An  examination  of  this  question  is  made  by  Mr.  Barrus,  by  selecting  those  tests 
made  by  him,  six  in  number,  in  which  the  temperature  exceeds  the  average,  that  is  375°,  and 
comparing  with  five  tests  in  which  the  temperature  is  less  than  375°.  The  boilers  are  all  of  the 
common  horizontal  tubular  type,  and  all  use  anthracite  coal  of  either  egg  or  broken  size. 
The  average  flue  temperature  in  the  two  series  are  444°  and  343°,  respectively,  and  the  differ- 
ence is  101°.  The  average  evaporations  are  10-40  Ibs.  and  11-02  Ibs.,  respectively,  and  the 
lowest  result  corresponds  to  the  case  of  the  highest  flue  temperature.  In  these  tests  it  ap- 
pears, therefore,  that  a  reduction  of  101°  in  the  temperature  of  the  waste  gases  secured  an 
increase  in  the  evaporation  of  6  per  cent.  This  result  corresponds  quite  closely  to  the  effect 
of  lowering  the  temperature  of  the  gases  by  means  of  a  flue-heater  in  another  test,  where  a 
reduction  of  107°  was  attended  by  an  increase  of  7  per  cent  in  the  evaporation  per  Ib.  of  coal. 
A  similar  comparison  was  made  on  ten  horizontal  tubular  boilers  using  Cumberland  coal. 
The  average  flue  temperature  of  the  ten  boilers  was  415°.  Four  of  them  had  temperatures 
exceeding  415°,  their  average  temperature  being  450°,  and  average  evaporation  11-34  Ibs. 
The  other  six  had  temperatures  below  415°,  averaging  383°,  and  their  average  evaporation  was 
11-75  Ibs.  With  67°  less  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases,  the  evaporation  is  higher  by 
about  4  per  cent.  The  difference  here  is  less  marked  than  in  the  anthracite  tests,  both  in 
range  of  temperature  and  in  economy,  but  it  is  in  the  same  direction  ;  that  is,  the  highest 
evaporation  is  produced  where  the  waste  at  the  flue  is  the  least.  The  wasteful  effect  of  a 
high  flue  temperature  is  exhibited  by  other  boilers  than  those  of  the  horizontal  tubular  class. 
This  source  of  waste  was  shown  to  be  the  main  cause  of  the  low  economy  produced  in  those 
vertical  boilers  which  are  deficient  in  heating  surface.  As  to  the  proper  ratio  of  heating  to 
grate  surface,  Mr.  Barrus  concludes  that  a  ratio  of  36  to  1  provides  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
heating  surface  to  secure  the  full  efficiency  of  anthracite  coal  where  the  rate  of  combustion  is 
not  more  than  12  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  per  hoar,  and  a  ratio  of  45  to  50  to  1  for  bituminous 
coal.  As  to  tube  area  he  concludes  that  the  highest  efficiency  with  anthracite  coal  is  obtained 
when  the  tube  opening  is  from  one  ninth  to  one  tenth  of  the  grate  surface ;  but  a  large  tube 
opening  is  required  with  bituminous  coal,  the  best  results  being  obtained  where  the  tube 
opening  was  from  one  fourth  to  one  seventh  of  the  grate  area.  The  general  conclusion  drawn 
from  all  these  comparisons  is  that  the  economy  with  which  different  types  of  boilers  operate 
depends  much  upon  their  proportions  and  the  conditions  nnder  which  they  work,  than  upon 
their  type  ;  and,  moreover,  that  when  these  proportions  are  suitably  carried  out,  and  when  the 
conditions  are  favorable,  the  various  types  of  boilers  give  substantially  the  same  result. 

Prevention  of  Corrosion  of  Marine  Boilers. — Mr.  H.  J.  Bakewell,  in  Proc.  Inst.  Mech.  Eng., 
August,  1884,  p.  352,  writes,  concerning  the  British  Admiralty  practice  on  the  treatment  of 
marine  boilers,  as  follows: 

"  The  investigations  of  the  Committee  on  Boilers  served  to  show  that  the  internal  corro- 
sion of  boilers  is  greatly  due  to  the  combined  action  of  air  and  sea-water  when  under  steam, 
and  when  not  under  steam  to  the  combined  action  of  air  and  moisture,  upon  the  unprotected 
surfaces  of  the  metal.  There  are  other  deleterious  influences  at  work,  such  as  the  corrosive 
action  of  fatty  acids,  the  galvanic  action  of  copper  and  brass,  and  the  inequalities  of  temper- 
ature ;  these  latter,  however,  are  considered  to  be  of  minor  importance. 

"Of  the  several  methods  recommended  for  protecting  the  internal  surfaces  of  the  boilers, 
the  three  found  most  effectual  are :  firstly,  the  formation  of  a  thin  layer  of  hard  scale 
deposited  by  working  the  boiler  with  sea-water ;  secondly,  the  coating  of  the  surfaces  with  a 
thin  wash  of  Portland  cement,  particularly  wherever  there  are  any  signs  of  decay;  thirdly, 
the  use  of  zinc  slabs  suspended  in  the  water  and  steam  spaces.  As  to  general  treatment  for 
the  preservation  of  boilers  in  store  or  when  laid  up  in  the  reserve,  either  of  the  two  following 
methods  is  adopted,  as  may  be  found  most  suitable  in  particular  cases :  Firstly,  the  boilers 
are  dried  as  much  as  possible  by  airing  stoves,  after  which  2  to  3  cwt.  of  quicklime,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  boiler,  is  placed  on  suitable  trays  at  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  and  on  the 
tubes.  The  boiler  is  then  closed  and  made  as  air-tight  as  possible.  Periodical  inspection  is 
made  every  six  months,  when  if  the  lime  be  found  slacked  it  is  renewed.  Secondly,  the  other 
method  is  to  run  the  boilers  up  with  sea  or  fresh  water,  having  soda  added  to  it ;  'if  ordinary 
crystal  soda  be  used,  the  proportion  is  1  Ib.  of  soda  to  every  100  or  120  Ibs.  of  water.  The 
sufficiency  of  the  saturation  can  be  tested  by  introducing  a  piece  of  clean  new  iron,  and  leav- 
ing it  in  the  boiler  for  ten  or  twelve  hours ;  'if  it  shows  signs  of  rusting,  more  soda  should  be 
added.  It  is  essential  that  the  boilers  be  entirely  filled,  to  the  complete  exclusion  of  air. 
The  working  density  of  the  water  used  in  boilers'  is  from  24-  to  4  times  the  saltness  of  sea- 
water  ;  a  high  density  has  been  found  beneficial  in  point  of  cleanliness.  It  is  considered 
advantageous  to  retain  the  water  in  boilers  without  change  as  long  as  possible,  whether  the 
fires  are  alight  or  not,  and  to  remove  it  only  when  dirty,  or  when  necessary  for  cleaning  and 
examination,  the  boilers  being  filled  up  quite  full  when  not  required  for  steaming. 


BOILERS,   STEAM.  69 


"  With  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  condition  of  the  water  in  boilers  in  respect  of  its  acidity, 
neutrality,  or  alkalinity,  it  is  the  practice  to  test  the  water  in  each  boiler  with  litmus-paper 
once  in  24  hours  when  the  fires  are  alight,  and  once  in  7  days  when  they  are  not.  Should 
the  water  be  found  in  an  acid  condition,  a  small  quantity  o'f  carbonate  of  soda  is  intro- 
duced with  the  feed-water  to  neutralize  the  acidity.  The  state  of  the  water  at  each  test  is 
recorded. 

'•  Great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  sudden  changes  of  temperature  in  boilers.  Directions  are 
given  that  steam  shall  not  be  raised  rapidly,  and  that  care  shall  be  taken  to  avoid  a  rush  of 
cold  air  through  the  tubes  by  too  suddenly  opening  the  smoke-box  doors.  The  practice  of 
emptying  boilers  by  blowing  out  is  also  prohibited,  except  in  cases  of  extreme  urgency.  As 
a  rule,  the  water  is  allowed  to  remain  until  it  becomes  cool  before  the  boilers  are  emptied. 
Mineral  oil  has  for  many  years  been  exclusively  used  for  internal  lubrication,  with  the  view 
of  avoiding  the  effects  of  fatty  acid,  as  this  oil  does  not  readily  decompose,  and  possesses  no 
acid  properties. 

•'  Of  all  the  preservative  methods  adopted  in  her  Majesty's  service  the  use  of  zinc  properly 
distributed  and  fixed  has  been  found  the  most  effectual  in  saving  the  iron  and  steel  surfaces 
from  corrosion  ;  and  also  in  neutralizing  by  its  own  deterioration  the  hurtful  influences  met 
with  in  water  as  ordinarily  supplied  to  boilers.  The  zinc  slabs  now  used  in  the  navy  boilers 
are  12  in.  long,  6  in.  wideband  \  in.  thick,  this  size  being  found  convenient  for  general  appli- 
cation. The  amount  of  zinc  used  in  new  boilers  at  present  is  one  slab  of  the  above  size  for 
every  20  indicated  horse-power,  or  about  1  sq.  ft.  of  zinc  surface  to  2  sq.  ft.  of  grate  surface. 
Consideration  is  now  being  given  to  the  subject  to  see  if  this  proportion  of  zinc  can  be 
reduced  without  detriment.  Rolled  zinc  is  found  the  most  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and  is 
now  always  issued  for  use.  To  make  the  zinc  properly  efficient  as  a  protector,  special  care 
must  be  taken  to  insure  perfect  metallic  contact  between  the  slabs  and  the  stays  or  plates  to 
which  they  are  attached.  The  slabs  should  be  placed  in  such  positions  that  ail  the  surfaces 
in  the  boiler  shall  be  protected.  Each  slab  should  be  periodically  examined  to  see  that  its 
connection  remains  perfect,  and  to  renew  any  that  may  have  decayed ;  this  examination  is 
usually  made  at  intervals  not  exceeding  three  months.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  of  work- 
ing, these  zinc  slabs  may  be  expected  to  last  in  fit  condition  from  60  to  90  days,  immersed  in 
hot  sea-water ;  but  in  new  boilers  they  at  first  decay  more  rapidly.  The  slabs  are  generally 
secured  by  means  of  iron  straps,  2  in.  wide  and  £  in.  thick,  and  long  enough  to  reach  the 
nearest  stay,  to  which  the  strap  is  firmly  attached  by  screw-bolts.  Great  attention  is  paid  to 
the  cleanliness  of  boilers,  and  special  instructions  are  in  force  for  their  periodical  and 
thorough  examination.  The  usual  interval  is  three  months,  but  other  examinations  are  made 
within  this  time  as  opportunity  offers,  and  according  to  the  circumstances  of  working,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  engineer  in  'charge.  With  regard  to  the  results  of  the  present  practice 
founded  on  the  recommendations  of  the  Boiler  Committees,  it  may  be  said  in  general  terms 
that,  with  proper  observance  of  the  regulations  laid  down  for  the  guidance  of  engineer  officers, 
corrosion  in  the  boilers  of  the  Royal  Xavy  could  hardly  take  place.  At  the  present  time 
reports  of  serious  corrosion  in  boilers  are  of  very  rare  occurrence." 

Determination  of  Moisture  in  Steam  (see  also  CALORIMETER). — In  measuring  the  perform- 
ance of  a  boiler,  the  essential  determination  is  the  quantity  of  heat  utilized  by  the  generation 
of  steam.  If  the  steam  generated  at  say  90  Ibs.  pressure  is  dry  steam,  then  for  each  pound  of 
feed-water  the  boiler  is  to  be  credited  with  utilizing  120  heat-units,  due  to  the  temperature  of 
the  steam  if  the  feed-water  is  at  200°  F.,  and  808  heat-units  due  to  its  latent  heat,  or  a  total 
of  928  heat-units.  If,  however,  10  per  cent  of  the  steam  is  liquid  water  mechanically  mixed 
with  90  per  cent  of  dry  steam,  then  for  each  pound  of  feed-water  the  boiler  is  to  be  credited 
with  1-10  X  120  heat-units,  due  to  temperature,  and  0-90  X  808  heat-units,  due  to  latent 
heat,  or  a  total  of  859  heat-units,  which  is  92  per  cent  of  the  dry  steam  total.  Unless,  there- 
fore, allowance  for  the  presence  of  moisture  is  made,  the  efficiency  of  a  boiler  at  ordinary 
steam  pressures  is  made  too  great  at  the  rate  of  -£,  per  cent  for  each  1  per  cent  of  water 
in  the  steam.  Again,  if  steam  at  90  Ibs.  pressure  is  superheated  10°  F.,  so  that  its  tem- 
perature is  330°  F.,  then  for  each  pound  of  feed-water  at  200°  F.  we  must  credit  the  boiler 
with  the  heat  due  to  dry  steam  plus  0*48  X  10°  =  4-8  heat-units,  so  that  failure  to  allow 
for  superheating  makes  the  efficiency  of  a  boiler,  at  ordinary  pressures,  too  low  by  about 
0'05  per  cent  for  each  degree  F.  of  superheating.  It  is  customary  among  experts  to  make 
these  allowances  in  reporting  the  performances  of  boilers,  and  hence  arises  the  necessity  of 
determining  to  what  extent  "the  steam  generated  by  a  given  boiler  differs  from  exactly  "dry 
steam.  If  the  steam  is  superheated,  the  simple  observance  of  its  temperature  by  a  proper 
thermometer  affords  the  desired  data.  If.  however,  the  steam  is  shown  by  a  thermometer  to 
be  at  exactly  the  temperature  due  to  saturation,  it  may  contain  any  amount  of  water  in  sus- 
pension, and  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  the  latter  can  in  general  only  be  accurately 
known  by  a  measurement  of  either  the  latent  heat  or  density  of  a  known  weight  of  the  mixt- 
ure. The  determination  of  the  density  is  an  operation  too  delicate  to  have  been  yet  attempted 
with  portable  apparatus.  The  determination  of  latent  heat  involves  simply  the  condensation 
or  mixture  of  a  known  weight  of  steam  in  or  with  a  known  weight  of  some  other  substance 
of  known  specific  heat,  and  the  operations  to  be  performed  are  such  as  can  be  carried  out  with 
apparatus  of  a  conveniently  portable  nature. 

Prof.  James  E.  Denton,  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  has  made  an  investigation 
into  the  appearance  of  jets  of  steam  containing  various  degrees  of  moisture,  which  lead  to  the 
following  conclusions  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E..  vol.  x,  p.  349) : 

I.  It  appears  that  jets  of  steam  show  unmistakable  change  of  appearance  to  the  eye  when 


70 


BOILER-TUBE   CLEANER. 


steam  varies  less  than  1  per  cent  from  the  condition  of  saturation  either  in  the  direction  of 
wetness  or  superheating. 

II.  If  a  jet  of  steam  flow  from  a  boiler  into  the  atmosphere  under  circumstances  such 
that  very  little  loss  of  heat  occurs  through  radiation,  etc.,  and  the  jet  be  transparent  close  to 
the  orifice,  or  be  even  a  grayish-white  color,  the  steam  may  be  assumed  to  be  so  nearly  dry 
that  no  portable  condensing  calorimeter  will  be  capable  of  measuring  the  amount  of  water  in 
steam.  If  the  jet  be  strongly  white,  the  amount  of  water  may  be  roughly  judged  up 

to  about  2  per  cent, 
but  beyond  this  a  cal- 
orimeter only  can  de- 
termine the  exact 
amount  of  moisture. 

III.  A  common  brass 
pet  cock  may  be  used 
as  an  orifice,  but  it 
should,  if  possible,  be 
set  into  the  steam- 
drum  of  the  boiler,  and 
never  be  placed  farther 
away  from  the  latter 
than  4  ft.,  and  then 
only  when  the  interme- 
diate reservoir  or  pipe 
is  we]l  covered. 

The  McClave  Grate 
and  Furnace  -  Blower. 

— Fig.  18  shows  a  new  form  of  shaking  grate  recently  devised  for  burning  anthracite  buck- 
wheat and  culm,  together  with  a  steam-blower  used  under  the  grate  for  the  purpose  of  crea- 
ting a  forced  blast  without  a  great  excess  of  steam.  This  grate  operates  on  the  pocket 
principle — i.  e.,  when  the  grate-bars  are  thrown  wide  open,  a  series  of  pockets  are  formed  by 
them  to  receive  the  clinkers  and  ashes,  but  which  can  not  pass  through  into  the  ash-pit  until 
the  bars  are  thrown  back  into  their  normal  position,  thus  mowing  a  certain  quantity  of 
clinkers  and  ashes  from  the  under  side  of  the  fire  instantly  and  uniformly  at  each  cut. 
The  Argand  steam-blower,  shown  in  Fig.  10,  is  used  in  connection  with  the  McClave  grate 
to  furnish  a  forced  draft.  It  furnishes  a  large  volume  of  air  with  a  small  amount  of 
steam ;  and  the  air  and  steam  are  thoroughly  mixed  in  the  shell  or  case  of  the  blower  before 
the  blast  is  delivered  into  the  ash-pit.  It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  a  blast  furnished  by 
under-grate  blowers  is  better  adapted  to  burn  small  fuels',  such  as  buckwheat,  birdseye,  culm, 
slack,  etc.,  than  either  a  strong  natural  draft, 
or  yet  a  draft  produced  by  a  jet  or  jets  in  the 
stack.  The  idea  of  a  combined  air  and  steam 
blast  has  gradually  grown  into  favor  on  account 
of  the  effect  of  the  steam  on  the  fire.  It  is  a 
well-established  fact,  however,  that  while  a  small 
quantity  of  steam  is  a  valuable  constituent  in 
blast,  yet  an  excess  of  steam  defeats  the  very 
purpose  for  which  it  was  intended,  by  over- tax- 
ing the  decomposing  power  of  the  fire  with  too 
large  a  quantity  of  steam,  which  passes  through 
the  fire  simply  as  steam,  thereby  losing  the  value 
of  the  oxygen  it  contains,  nearly  the  entire  pro- 
duct of  the  fire  being  in  such  case  carbonic 


Fin.  19.— McClave  Argand  blower. 


oxide,  with  no  available  oxygen  present  to  combine  with  it.  The  mechanical  effect  of  the 
steam  is  that  it  keeps  the  clinkers  soft  and  porous,  so  that  the  blast  will  readily  pass  up 
through  the  entire  bed  of  fuel  uniformly,  instead  of  being  forced  to  pass  between  solid  clink- 
ers wherever  it  can  find  an  opening,  thus  producing  what  is  gener- 
ally termed  forge  flames  under  the  boiler,  as  is  usually  the  case 
with  a  fan-blast ;  for  with  an  all-air  blast  the  clinkers  generally 
form  into  compact  slabs,  through  which  the  air  can  not  pass, 
iherefore,  while  heat  is  absorbed  in  the  decomposition  of  steam, 
yet  the  heat  thus  absorbed  is  more  than  compensated  for  by  the 
beneficial  nature  of  the  general  result  thus  obtained.  See  also 
Engines,  Steam  Fire,  Locomotive,  Ice-Making  Machines,  and  Drill- 
ing Machines,  Metal. 

BOILER-TUBE  CLEANER.  Baldwins  Boiler- Tube  Clean- 
er is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  cleaner  differs  from  the  ordinary  tube- 
cleaner  in  that  the  deposits,  instead  of  being  blown  out  of  the  tubes 
into  the  back  connection,  are  drawn  by  a  partial  vacuum  from  the 
rear  end  to  the  front,  and  discharged  into  the  chimney,  or  other 
convenient  place,  without  admitting  steam  into  the  tubes.  This  is 
accomplished  by  an  apparatus  working  upon  the  injector  principle. 
Steam  is  admitted  through  the  small  apertures  shown.  A  strong  suction  is  produced  in  the 
direction  of  the  arrows.  The  larger  end  is  held  into  the  boiler-tube,  a  packing  securing  tight 


FIG.  1. — Tube  cleaner. 


BOLT-CUTTER. 


71 


connection,  and  the  deposit  from  the  tube  is  drawn  through  the  unobstructed  passage  and 
discharged  from  the  mouth  of  the  apparatus  with  a  velocity  sufficient  to  clean  the  tube  to 
which  it  is  applied,  discharging  the  contents  out  of  the  chimney-top. 

BOLT-CUTTER.     The  Merriman  Bolt-Cutter,  or  Threading  Machine,  is  shown  in  Figs. 
1  and  2.    The  vital  portion  of  the  machine  is  the  head  or  chuck,  which  consists  of  four 


Fio.  1.— Bolt-cutter. 

principal  parts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  1.  The  die-box,  which  is  made  of  steel  and  contains  the 
four  die-slots,  in  which  the  dies  are  accurately  fitted  and  firmly  held.  2.  The  ring,  which 
surrounds  the  die-box  and  receives  the  thrust  or  bearing  of  the  dies  when  in  operation.  3. 
The  flange,  which  slides  longitudinally  upon  the  spindle,  or  shaft,  in  the  rear  of  the  ring,  to 
which  it  is  attached  by  two  screws  that  pass  through  the  two  long  slots  into  holes  in  the  rear 
of  the  ring  (not  shown  in  the  cut).  4.  The  cap,  which  is  secured  to  the  die-box  by  four  screws 
that  pass  through  the  four  holes  in  its  face.  In  the  rear  of  the  die-slots  are  the  four  small 
levers,  or  "  dogs,"  that  serve  to  lift  the  dies  from  the  bolt  when  the  thread  has  been  cut.  As 
the  flange  and  ring  are  fastened  together  by  the  slot-screws,  when  these  parts  are  drawn  back 
by  means  of  the  lever  (see  cut  of  the  machine),  the  rear  ends  of  the  "  dogs  "  are  depressed,  and 
the  front  ends,  engaging  under  the  projection  or  "nib"  of  the  dies,  lift  the  dies  and  release 
the  bolt.  When  the  ring  is  brought  forward  it  strikes  the  inclines  on  the  dies,  which  are 
then  forced  down  in  their  slots  and  are  again  ready  for  service.  Inside  the  ring  are  three 


FIG.  2.— Bolt-cutting  head. 

sets,  or  series,  of  hardened  steel  eccentrics,  on  the  outer  one  of  which  the  dies  have  their 
thrust,  or  bearing,  when  in  working  position.  By  loosening  the  two  slot-screws  the  ring  may 
be  rotated  independently  upon  the  die-box,  a  distance  governed  by  the  length  of  the  die-slots, 
thus  causing  the  eccentrics  to  operate  upon  the  dies  for  their  adjustment  to  such  a  degree  as 
may  be  desired.  By  this  means  the  dies  may  be  made  to  cut  the  bolt  to  the  size  needful  to 
make  a  tight  or  loose  fit  in  the  nut.  The  Merriman  die  is  made  of  a  plain  piece  of  steel,  milled 
or  planed  so  as  to  leave  a  short  "  nib"  or  projection,  under  which  the  %idog?'  engages  and  lifts 
the  die  from  its  work.  These  dies  can  be  recut  several  times  for  their  original  size  of  bolt ; 
and  after  that  capability  has  been  exhausted,  they  can  be  recut  for  use  on  larger  sizes  of  bolts 


72 


BOOK-BINDING   MACHINES. 


FIG.  1. — Star  paper-cutter. 


that  do  not  require  so  long  dies.  In  operating  the  machine  the  thread  is  cut  with  four  dies, 
which  are  fixed  in  the  head  upon  a  hollow  shaft,  and  revolve  around  the  bolt,  which  is  held 
stationary  in  a  vise  operated  by  a  right  and  left  screw  on  the  shaft  of  the  small  hand- wheel. 
The  dies  cut  the  thread  by  passing  over  the  bolt  but  once.  When  the  thread  has  been  cut 
as  far  as  desired,  the  dies  are  opened  by  moving  the  lever,  and  the  bolt  is  withdrawn,  while 
the  machine  still  continues  in  motion. 

BOOK-BINDING  MACHINES.     The  art  of  book-binding  has  witnessed  few  changes  so 
far  as  theory  is  concerned  during  the  past  decade,  and  consequently  the  efforts  of  inventors  in 

this  trade  have  been  mainly  directed  to- 
ward perfecting  and  improving  the  ma- 
chinery and  appliances  used  in  the  work, 
the  changes  being  notably  in  cutters,  edge- 
trimmers,  folders,  presses,  wire  and  thread 
sewing  machines,  rounders  and  backers, 
and  inking  attachments  for  embossing- 
presses. 

Cutters.— The  so-called  "  Star  "  ma- 
chine is  represented  in  Fig.  1.  It  is  so 
constructed  that  the  operator  can  stop  the 
knife  instantaneously  at  any  point,  when 
it  will  run  back  automatically  to  the  start- 
ing-point. The  cut  is  made  and  the  knife 
returned  at  four  turns  of  the  fly-wheel, 
and  the  gearing  is  such  that  only'a  slight 
effort  is  necessary  to  work  it  by  hand.  By 
the  use  of  the  long-toothed  end-lever, 
working  in  a  curved  rack,  the  power  is 
largely  increased,  and  this  suits  the  cutter 
for  exceptionally  heavy  work,  such  as  the 
continuous  cutting  of  all  kinds  of  mill  and 
pulp  board,  glazed  or  enameled  cardboard 
and  paper,  and  other  tough  materials.  In 
another  type  of  paper-cutter,  known  as  the  "  Criterion,"  the  knife  is  operated  by  a  center 
crank-movement  located  below  the  cutting-table,  so  that  the  strain  of  cutting  is  applied  where 
the  frame  is  the  strongest.  The  clamping  device  combines  a  hand-screw  clamp  with  an  auto- 
matic power-clamp,  so  that  in  operating  the  same  the  pressure  can  be  applied  to  the  hand- 
wheel  to  any  degree,  after  which  the  power-clamp  will  duplicate  the  given  pressure  exactly. 

In  the  "'Inland"  cutter  a  power 
screw  -  clamp,  with  a  power  knife- 
mechanism,  make  a  combination  of 
an  automatic  self -clamping  device 
and  an  independent  power-clamp  in 
one  machine.  The  clamp  is  set  in 
motion,  and  its  up-and-down  move- 
ment to  any  required  pressure  is  con- 
trolled by  a  treadle.  The  knife  is 
started  by  a  hand-lever,  which  ena- 
bles the  operator  to  stop  or  reverse 
instantly  at  any  point.  Only  one 
screw  is  required  to  be  adjusted  in 
regulating  the  depth  of  the  knife. 

Book- Trimmers. — The  main  feat- 
ures of  a  novel  form  of  trimmer  are 
the  clamp  operated  up  and  down  by 
means  of  an  oscillating  treadle,  allow- 
ing the  operator  to  use  both  hands  to 
handle  the  bunches.  After  the  clamp 
is  applied,  the  machine  is  started  by 
means  of  a  hand-lever,  and  then  oper- 
ates to  make  four  consecutive  cuts 
and  turns  of  the  table,  after  which  it 
stops  automatically,  and  a  reverse  movement  of  the  treadle  raises  the  clamp  and  allows  the 
trimmed  bunches  to  be  removed  and  fresh  ones  inserted.  The  vertically  movable  knife-bed 
and  knife  are  mounted  in  a  travel  ing  carriage,  and  means  are  provided  to  cause  them  to  auto- 
matically approach  the  form-plate  of  the  clamp,  to  make  each  cut,  and  then  recede  while  other 
automatic  means  cause  the  table  to  rotate  a  partial  revolution.  The  device  for  thus  auto- 
matically moving  the  knife-carriage  back  and  forth  on  the  bed-plate  at  these  determinate  in- 
tervals consist  of  a  disk  having  a  toothed  segment,  and  keyed  upon  a  horizontal  auxiliary 
shaft,  said  segment  meshing  with  a  pinion  upon  the  end  of  a  short  vertical  shaft;  and  by 
means  of  a  loose  pinion  at  the  upper  end  of  this  vertical  shaft  working  in  a  rack  running  in 
the  bed-plate,  the  knife-frame  is  operated  at  the  proper  time.  The  shearing  action  of  the 
knife  is  produced  through  a  lever  having  a  roller  at  its  upper  end,  and  bearing  upon  the  edge 
of  the  knife-bed ;  a  roller  on  the  lower  end  of  this  lever  bears  against  a  cam  upon  the  shaft, 


FIG.  2.— Star  book-trimmer. 


BOOK-BINDING   MACHINES. 


73 


and,  the  lever  being  pivoted  centrally  in  the  framing,  oscillates  at  intervals  and  effects  the 
movement  of  the  knife. 

The  "Star  Book- Trimmer"  manufactured  by  George  H.  San  born  &  Sons,  of  New  York,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  rotation  of  the  table  is  effected  by  hand,  and  the  clamp  is  operated  by 
the  large  hand-wheel  shown.  The  hand-wheel  in  front  regulates  the  movable  bed  for  large 
and  small  books.  After  the  knife  has  come  down,  the  turn-table  unlocks  itself,  and  again 
automatically  locks  before  the  next  cut  is  made,  thus  doing  away  with  the  old-fashioned 
lock  which  required  the  operator  to  push  in  a  key  in  front  before  making  a  cut.  This 
improvement  saves  time  and  hard  work,  and  in  connection  with  the  rapidly  moving  knife 
makes  this  type  of  machine  one  of  the  fastest  trimmers  in  the  market.  Reverse  motion  of 
the  gearing  is  stopped  by  an  improved  friction-brake.  The  knife-bar  slides  diagonally  in 
heavy  frames,  and  a  true  and  smooth  cut  is  insured  at  each  descent  of  the  knife.  The  small 
hand-wheels  under  the  front  of  the  bed  are  for  the  purpose  of  instantly  adjusting  the  work 
whenever  there  is  any 
tendency  of  heavy  work 
crowding  the  knife  :  this 
keeps  the  latter  from  cut- 
ting "  in  "  or  "  out "  from 
a  true  plane,  and  is  a 
valuable  feature  of  the 
machine.  The  rise  of  the 
knife  is  adjustable  for  the 
thinnest  or  thickest  piles. 

Book  -  Folding  Ma- 
chines.— The  machine  il- 
lustrated by  Fig.  3  em- 
bodies the  latest  im- 
provements made  by  the 
Chambers  Brothers  Co., 
of  Philadelphia.  It  is 
what  may  be  termed  a 
"  side  -  registering  drop- 
roller  machine."  Instead 
of  feeding  the  sheets  to 
register-pins,  as  in  the 
older  style  of  book-fold- 
ing machines,  the  sheet  is 
fed  to  a  side  guide  and  to 
a  drop-roller.  The  drop- 
roller,  running  at  a  high 
velocity,  carries  the  sheet 
into  th'e  folding-machine 
very  quickly,  and  enables 
the  speed  of  a  hand-fed 
machine  to  be  increased 
from  about  1,000  sheets 
per  hour  to  from  2,000  to 
2,400  per  hour.  In  feed- 
ing, the  same  guide  and 
nipper-edges  are  used  as 
in  the  press-feeder  when 
printing  the  sheet,  and 
after  the  sheet  enters  the 
folding-machine,  an  au- 
tomatic device — working 
to  the  same  position  on 
the  margin  as  was  used 
when  feeding  the  sheet 
on  the  printing-press — 
pulls  the  sheet  into  exact 
position,  so  that  the  in- 
tended line  of  the  fold  is 
immediately  under  the 
first  fold-blade.  Thus,  if 
the  margins  of  the  printed  sheets  are  uniform — so  that  when  the  device  is  once  adjusted  to 
suit  any  particular  distance  it  is  right  for  all  the  sheets — then  the  register  obtained  in  fold- 
ing will  be  equal  to  that  obtained  in  printing.  This  side  guiding,  as  it  is  termed,  is  accom- 
plished automatically  within  the  folding-machine,  so  that  the  register  is  not  dependent  upon 
the  accuracy  with  which  the  operator  may  feed  the  sheet.  He  may  fail  to  place  the  sheet 
within  |  of  an  in.  of  the  intended  position*  and  still  the  machine  will  automatically  bring  it  to 
the  required  position  before  the  fold  is  made.  This  is  the  main  feature  that  is  new  in  this 
machine.  The  machine  is  so  designed  that  an  automatic  feeding  attachment,  known  as  the 
Sedgwick  feeder,  can  be  connected  with  the  folding-machine,  and  the  combined  mechanism 


74  BOOK-BINDING   MACHINES. 

work  for  two  or  three  hours  at  a  time  without  any  attention  other  than  to  take  away  the  folded 
sheets.  Such  a  combination  is  in  successful  use.  It  is  built  either  as  a  plain  folder  or  folder 
and  paster,  with  or  without  covering  attachment.  It  is  intended  for  working  "  whole  sheets  " 
as  printed  on  the  press,  so  that  the  same  guide  and  nipper-edge  may  be  used  on  the  folder  as 
were  used  in  feeding  on  the  press.  The  sheet  is  thus  folded  accurately  by  the  edge,  and  the 
register  is  as  good  as  that  obtained  in  printing.  It  has  a  capacity  of  2.000  sheets  per  hour. 

Point-fed  Registering  Book-Folders  have  not  been  materially  altered  during  several  years, 
and  any  advance  made  in  this  type  of  machine  has  been  confined  to  minor  improvements  in 
construction  and  detail  to  suit  special  demands  of  publishers. 

Combination  Folding,  Pasting,  and  Covering  Machines  are  coming  more  largely  into  use 
for  periodical  and  pamphlet  work.  These  machines,  as  their  name  indicates,  perform  all  the 
operations  of  folding,  pasting,  and  covering  a  pamphlet  of  12,  16,  24,  32,  or  36  pages,  and 
produce  at  each  revolution  a  complete  pamphlet,  covered,  ready  to  trim.  A  paster  and 
coverer  will  do  all  that  a  plain  folding-machine  will  do :  folding  to  register  without  either 
pasting  or  covering ;  fold  and  paste  without  covering ;  fold,  paste,  and  cover  with  different 
color  or  quality  of  paper;  or  4  additional  pages  may  be  added  to  a  periodical  when  an 
increase  of  pages  is  desired.  Machines  are  also  built  for  putting  on  covers  of  either  4  or  8 
pages — whereby  an  advertising  sheet  may  be  added  to  a  periodical — or  the  number  of  pages 
increased  by  4  or  8,  as  desired,  or  by  an  independant  sheet  of  8  pages  folded  and  pasted. 
These  machines,  when  covering,  require  two  operators,  one  for  the  main  sheet  and  one  for  the 
cover.  There  is  also  in  course  of  construction  a  new  machine  that  will  not  only  fold  and  cover 
the  main  sheet  with  4  or  8  pages,  but  will  also  work  an  "  insert "  of  either  4  or  8  pages,  thus 
enabling  the  publisher  to  issue  a  paper  or  magazine  of  32,  36,  40,  44,  or  48  pages  at  will. 

Pamphlet- Binding  Machine. — In  binding  pamphlets  with  paper,  or  other  soft  covers,  a 
beneficial  forward  step  in  the  art  has  been  made  by  the  introduction  of  the  Clague  &  Randall 
pamphlet-binding  machine.  This  is  made  up  of  automatic  devices  for  laying  the  paste  upon 
the  covers,  for  feeding  the  stitched  books  forward  to  the  covers,  for  folding  the  pasted  covers 
in  proper  position  upon  the  stitched  bodies,  and  for  pressing  and  finishing  the  bound  pam- 
phlets. In  the  rear  of  the  machine  there  is  a  vertically  and  intermittently  moving  shelf  or  plat- 
form, upon  which  the  stitched  pamphlets  are  piled  backs  inward,  and  at  the  upper  rear  part 
of  the  machine  proper  is  situated  a  reciprocating  feeding-rake  which  "  stabs  "  or  rakes  the 
top  pamphlet  from  the  "bank"  and  deposits  it  upon  one  or  more  carrying  belts,  by  which  it 
is  taken  forward.  The  rear  movement  of  the  feeding-rake  causes  the  platform  to  rise,  leaving 
the  next  pamphlet  in  position  to  be  caught  at  the  proper  time.  When  the  pamphlet  has  been 
carried  forward  by  the  belts  to  their  forward  drum,  it  drops  with  its  back  downward  upon  a 
horizontal  stop-plate  upon  which  it  rests  momentarily  till  the  stop  is  withdrawn  to  the  rear 
by  the  action  of  a  cam  and  connecting  levers.  Then  it  drops  between  feeding-rollers,  being 
assisted  by  vertically  moving  belts  having  a  guide-roller,  against  which  it  is  forced  by  a  fric- 
tion-roller actuated  by  levers  operated  from  the  cam.  The  friction-roller  has  a  resilient  axis, 
so  as  to  accommodate  differing  thicknesses  of  pamphlet.  The  pamphlet  has  now  closely 
approached  the  point  where  the  cover  is  to  be  applied.  The  cover  is  fed  into  the  machine 
from  a  table  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  pamphlet  shelf — i.  e.,  at  one  side  of  the  machine, 
and  is  automatically  carried  to  its  position  under  the  entering  pamphlet  by  means  of  revolv- 
ing belts.  Previously,  however,  to  reaching  its  destination  it  is  stopped  by  a  gauge  while 
paste  is  applied  in  a  line  across  the  center  of  the  cover-blank  by  a  paster  fed  from  a  paste- 
trough.  To  prevent  the  paste  from  drying  before  meeting  the  pamphlet,  the  under  side  of 
the  central  part  of  the  cover-blank  is  dampened  by  a  roller  revolving  in  water  contained  in  a 
small  trough.  As  the  pamphlet  passes  between  and  is  forced  along  by  the  feeding-rollers,  it 
meets  the  cover  lying  upon  the  belts  with  its  pasted  side  uppermost,  which  is  thus,  by  the 
advance  of  the  pamphlet,  folded  over  the  latter  (the  paste  line  meeting  the  back  of  the  pam- 
phlet), and  both  are  pushed  between  and  grasped  by  a  second  pair  of  compression  rolls  which 
complete  the  folding  and  press  the  two  firmly  together.  One  of  each  pair  of  rollers  has  yield- 
ing bearings  so  as  to  provide  for  different  thicknesses  of  pamphlets.  They  are  driven  through 
gears  from  the  mam  driving-shaft  of  the  machine.  Between  the  above-mentioned  sets  of 
rollers  and  parallel  therewith,  are  two  extra  sets  of  smaller  rollers,  one  pair  to  guide  the 
pamphlet  and  insure  its  squarely  meeting  the  pasted  cover,  and  the  other  set  to  draw  the 
cover  tight  before  it  meets  the  second  pair  of  compressors.  From  the  latter  the  pamphlet 
falls  upon  a  chute,  down  which  it  slides  to  a  finishing  press  consisting  of  two  jaws,  one  mov- 
able ;  a  sliding  stop  supports  the  book  until  the  jaws  are  closed  by'the  action  of  a  cam  and 
levers.  After  this  press  has  closed  and  the  stop  retired,  a  backing  roller  of  yielding  material 
and  oscillating  upon  a  center  sweeps  around  and  squares  up  the  bick  (which  otherwise  would 
remain  rounded,  owing  to  the  drawing  action  of  the  rollers),  pressing  the  cover  into  close  con- 
tact at  the  back,  while  the  press  does  the  same  at  the  sides  of  the  pamphlet.  The  backing 
roller  automatically  retires,  the  press  opens  and  the  finished  pamphlet  drops  upon  a  fixed  plat- 
form when  a  follower  is  pushed  forward  (toward  the  rear  of  the  machine),  pressing  the  pam- 
phlet against  a  rest  attached  to  an  extensible  apron.  When  the  number  of  books  exceeds  the 
length  pi  the  platform  upon  which  they  are  meanwhile  drying,  an  attendant  removes  them 
m  a  finished  state. 

Embossing-Presses.— Inventors  have  given  considerable  attention  to  embossing-presses, 
their  objective  point  being  to  so  construct  the  press  that  no  amount  of  wear  will  render  the 
impression  unequal  or  irregular.  The  principle  of  the  sector  has  been  found  well  adapted  to 
obtain  this  desired  result,  as  to  give  ample  time  to  "dwell"  upon  the  impression.  A  late 
type  of  embossing-press  is  fitted  with  steam-head  and  improved  stamp-clamps.  The  bed  is 


BOOK-BINDING  MACHINES.  75 

adjustable.  The  impression  is  given  by  the  use  of  a  plain  crank  and  sectors,  a  mechanical 
device  by  which  almost  any  amount  of  pressure  can  be  obtained.  Any  varying  motion,  with 
rests  or  dwells  at  either  end  of  the  stroke,  may  be  made,  thus  enabling  one  crank  to  produce 
all  the  desirable  movements. 

Chambers' -Automatic  Board-Cutter  (Fig.  4).— This  machine  makes  50  cuts  per  minute,  and 
the  boards  may  vary  in  size  from  3  in.  X  5  in.  to  9£  X  12i  in.,  one  cut  being  made  in  each  revo- 
lution. It  has  an  iron  feed-table  and  an  automatic  feeding  device  working  in  slots  through  the 
table.  By  this  device  the  strips  are  fed  positively  and  squarely,  thus  preventing  cutting  out  of 


FIG.  4.— Chambers's  board-cutter. 

square.  When  feeding  whole  boards  or  strips  by  hand,  the  feeding  fingers  are  dropped  below 
the  table,  out  of  the  way.  The  table  is  also  furnished  with  adjustable  side  guides  and  hand- 
feeding  device.  The  feeding-table  is  stationary,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  framing  of  the  ma- 
chine. A  deliveiy-table,  upon  which  the  cut  boards  pile  automatically,  is  attached,  thus 
making  the  machine  complete  within  itself. 

Book-Sewing  Machines. — The  "  Brehmer  "  wire-sewing  machine  sews  together  the  sections 
of  books  on  tapes  or  crash.  It  is  used  for  both  printed  and  blank  work,  and  the  manufact- 
urers claim  that  it  makes  a  strong  book,  which  can  be  opened  flat  more  easily  than  books 
sewed  by  hand.  A  machine  which  has  proved  to  be  of  great  advantage  to  binders  is  the 
"Smyth'"  thread-sewing  machine,  described  in  a  former  volume  of  this  work.  As  the  ma- 
chine is  now  built,  the  sheets  are  placed  one  at  a  time  on  radial  arms  which  project  from  a 
vertical  rod.  These  arms  rotate,  rise  and  adjust  the  signature,  so  as  to  bring  it  in  its  proper 
position  under  the  needles.  One  needle  of  each  pair  enters  the  back  of  the  sheet,  and  the  eye 
carrying  the  thread  comes  up  through  the  fold,  just  touching  the  "loopers."  The  loopers 
are  then  tilted  and  thrown  back,  leaving  loops  around  the  point  of  the  needles.  By  a  simple 
device  the  threads  are  drawn  tight;  the  loopers  then  move  forward,  taking  the  thread  from 
the  needles  on  the  inside,  near  the  eye,  and  as  the  needles  withdraw,  they  interlock  their 
thread  through  the  loops  of  the  stitches  of  the  previous  sheet.  Long  horizontal  wires  or 
"needles"  are  laid  directly  in  the  path  of  the  saw-cut,  and  the  stitches  made  over  them. 
The  sewed  work  is  pushed  back  automatically  along  these  needles,  which  are  threaded  with 
the  cords  or  bands  on  which  the  books  are  sewed.  The  sewed  volumes  are  then  separated  by 
cutting  certain  threads,  and  drawn  over  the  cords.  These  cords  (or  "  bands  ")  are  cut  off  at 
lengths  to  suit  the  requirements  of  each  book.  The  first  and  last  two  sheets  of  each  book  are 
pasted  together  to  facilitate  cutting  the  books  apart  and  to  prevent  the  cut  thread,  at  these 
points,  from  being  drawn  into  the  center  of  the  sheet  by  the  subsequent  process  of  binding. 
The  pasting  is  done  by  a  simple  device  consisting  of  two  small  rolls — one  of  which  carries 
paste  on  its  rim,  while  the  other  holds  sheets  in  place.  It  is  done  before  the  sheet  is  sewed. 
By  thus  pasting  these  two  signatures,  no  extra  care  is  necessary  in  the  further  handling  of 
the  books  to  preserve  the  stitches  in  first  and  last  sheets,  and  the  same  are  made  more  secure 
by  reason  of  the  pasting.  One,  two,  three,  or  four  "  band "  work  can  be  done  as  may  be 
required,  irrespective  of  thickness.  Each  pair  of  stitches  being  entirely  independent  of  all 
the  others,  a  book  of  blank  pages  may  be  cut  into  as  many  smaller  volumes  as  there  are  pairs. 
Thus,  on  a  machine  with  three  pairs  of  needles,  diaries  or  other  small  blank-books  may  be 
sewed  three  at  a  time,  and  afterward  cut  apart.  Some  of  its  advantages  are  stated  as  follows : 
Unlike  hand-sewing,  each  and  every  sheet  is  sewed  to  the  preceding  one.  The  stitches  in 


76  BOEING-MACHINES,   METAL. 

center  of  the  sheet  are  the  same  as  at  either  end— practically  "  kettle-stitches  " ;  these  stitches 
are  shorter  (about  1  in.)  and  more  numerous.  Each  sheet  receives  the  same  number  of 
stitches,  and  forms  practically  what  is  termed  "all  along"  or  "one  sheet  on"  sewing;  it  is 


stitch  ^ 

backing  the  book,  no  strain  is  brought  to  bear  on  any  one  stitch  or  thread,  as  is  the  case 
with  "  kettle  "-stitches  by  hand-work,  as  every  stitch,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  practically  a 
"  kettle  "-stitch ;  but  each  sheet  is  brought  closer  together,  the  center  tightening  same  as 
at  each  end,  and  all  bearing  the  strain  alike.  The  process  is  likened  to  the  lacing  of  a  shoe. 
This  gives  the  book  a  firmness  and  strength  in  the  center  not  found  in  ordinary  sewing.  The 
thread  enters  the  book  with  all  its  original  strength ;  it  is  not  "  frayed "  away  by  continual 
use,  and  has  in  comparison  no  knots.  The  stitches  alternate  in  every  sheet,  so  that  no  unusual 
amount  of  "swell  "  results.  As  will  be  understood,  the  sheets  are  placed  on  the  rotary  arms. 
These  are  four  in  number,  which  carry  the  signature  from  the  operator  to  the  needles.  One  is 
always  presented  to  the  operator,  and  rests  while  the  preceding  arm  holds  its  sheet  for  opera- 
tion of  needles.  Working  from  left  to  right,  the  sheet  is  always  in  sight  of  the  operator,  and 
always  under  control.  The  machine  runs  easily  at  a  speed  of  45  sheets  per  minute.  The  latest 
improvement  made  upon  this  machine  is  the  substitution  of  automatically  operated  knives 
for  making  the  incisions  in  the  fold,  for  the  punches  used  in  connection  with  the  first  ma- 
chines. These  knives  lie  normally  within  the  radial  arms,  which  are  made  hollow.  As 
any  arm  is  brought  into  line  with  the  row  of  needles,  and  has  risen  to  a  point  just  short 
of  contact  therewith,  the  end  of  a  spring-bar,  to  which  the  knives  are  connected  inside  the 
radial  arm,  comes  in  contact  with  a  moving  device  at  the  side  of  the  machine,  which  presses 
such  spring-bar  inward,  and  thus  causes  the  connected  knives  to  protrude  from  the  upper 
edge  of  the  arm  through  properly  spaced  apertures.  The  knives  thus  make  the  necessary 
incisions  in  the  sheets,  through  which  the  needles  work  when  the  knives  are  automatically 
withdrawn. 

Stabbing- Machines. — In  a  new  form  of  power  stabbing-machine  the  main  feature  is  that 
the  awls  revolve.  While  going  into  and  coming  out  of  the  work,  they  turn,  thus  operating 
much  easier,  especially  in  thick  books  and  making  a  smoother  and  smaller  hole  than  when 
the  stabbing  is  done  in  the  usual  way.  A  pinion  on  the  driving-shaft  meshes  with  a  gear 
upon  the  eccentric  shaft,  and  the  eccentric,  through  a  vertical  yoke  and  cross-bar  connected 
to  vertical  slide  rods  passing  through  the  table,  and  terminating  in  the  awl  cross-head,  causes 
the  latter  to  move  up  and  down  at  proper  intervals  for  piercing  the  work.  The  cross-head 
travels  upon  stationary  guide-bars  which  have  their  own  fixed  head,  containing  threaded 
boxes  which  receive  the  correspondingly  threaded  upper  ends  of  the  awls,  in  this  way  impart- 
ing rotary  motion  in  reversed  directions  to  the  awls  as  their  cross-head  is  moved  up  and  down 
by  the  eccentric.  In  forming  backs  for  blank-books,  and  for  small  job-work,  a  simple  ma- 
chine is  employed  which  has  two  pairs  of  rolls,  of  different  sizes,  journaled  in  a  plain  upright 
frame  which  is  fixed  to  a  table.  One  of  each  pair  of  rolls  has  self-adjusting  spring  bearings, 
and  each  pair  is  geared  together.  A  key-crank  turns  either  pair  of  rolls  at  the  will  of  the 
operator,  according  to  the  size  of  back  he  is  making.  The  rolls  are  heated  by  gas,  by  gas- 
pipes  placed  back  of  the  rolls,  and  both  pairs  can  be  heated  at  once  or  separately.  Each  roll 
has  an  apron  attached  to  it.  The  book  back  is  formed  by  wetting  it  on  one  side  with  a 
sponge,  and  feeding  it  in  dry  side  next  to  the  roll.  The  roll  is  stopped  for  a  moment  just 
before  the  back  passes  out,  so  as  to  give  it  a  chance  to  take  shape  and  harden  ;  then  it  is 
released.  Bands  are  formed  in  the  same  way  by  setting  them  in  a  band  board  and  feeding 
them  to  the  roll.  Among  the  advantages  are  the  facilities  for  forming  different  sizes  and 
thicknesses  of  backs  in  the  same  machine — and  a  dozen  or  more  bands  at  the  same  time  as 
one— while  producing  harder  and  better  work  than  can  be  done  by  hand,  and  saving  time 
and  labor. 

Boring-Machine :  see  Boring  Machines,  Metal ;  Boring  Machines,  Wood ;  Lathe  Tools, 
Milling  Machines,  Mortising  Machines,  and  Wheel-Making  Machines. 

BORING-MACHINES,  METAL.  These  are  classified  under:  I.  Horizontal  Boring- 
Machines  ;  II.  Vertical  Boring-Machines. 

I.  HORIZONTAL  BORING-MACHINES.— The  Niles  Horizontal  Boring,  Drilling,  and  Milling 
Machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  machine  consists  of  a  heavy  column  10  ft,  6  in.  high, 
mounted  on  a  bed-plate  of  any  length  to  suit  requirements.  The  column  is  31  in.  wide  on 
the  face,  and  is  fitted  with  a  heavy  saddle,  40  in.  square,  carrying  the  spindle.  The  saddle 
has  a  vertical  traverse  on  the  column  of  6  ft.,  and  is  raised  and  lowered  by  a  heavy  screw.  It 
is  balanced  by  a  counter-weight  hung  in  the  column.  The  boring  and  milling  spindle  is  of 
hammered  steel  5£  in.  in  diameter.  It  slides  in  a  heavy  revolving  sleeve,  and  has  a  traverse 
of  4  ft.  It  revolves  in  either  direction,  right  or  left  hand,  reversing  by  lever  conveniently 
located,  and  has  8  power-feeds,  ranging  from  -fa  to  £  in.  per  revolution  of  spindle.  It  is  also 
provided  with  hand-feed  and  quick  return.  The  milling-feeds  are  six  in  number,  ranging  from 
ft  to  ft  m.  per  revolution  of  spindle.  These  feeds  are  applied  only  to  the  column  and  saddle, 
and  are  by  power  only.  Any  of  these  feeds  for  the  quick  motion  may  be  utilized  to  set  a 
drill  boring-bar,  or  milling-cutter  to  work  anywhere  on  the  surface  which  the  machine  will 
reach.  At  one  end  of  the  bed-plate  is  placed  the  driving-gear,  milling-feed,  and  quick- travers- 
ing mechanism  for  the  column.  The  quick  power  traverse  of  the  column  has  a  speed  of  5  ft, 
per  minute.  The  driving-cone  has  six  steps  for  a  4-in.  belt,  and  is  strongly  back-geared, 
giving  twelve  changes  of  speed,  ranging  from  2  to  200  revolutions  per  minute,  and  has  ample 


BORING-MACHINES,  METAL. 


77 


power  for  boring  up  to  24  in.  diameter.  A  platen  is  placed  in  front  of  the  column,  con- 
venient to  the  spindle,  for  the  operator  to  stand  on. 

A  horizontal  boring  and  drilling  machine  made  by  the  Newark  Machine-Tool  Works  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  work  is  bolted  to  the  compound  carriages  which  are  shown  directly 
under  the  boring-bar,  the 
work  being  set  square  by 
the  top  surface  and  the 
edges  of  the  carriage. 
The  carriages  can  be 
moved  either  across  or 
along  the  movable  table, 
which  is  shown  sup- 
ported by  the  two  large 
screws.  The  table  can 
be  lowered  or  raised  from 
the  side  or  at  the  end.  as 
desired.  A  yoke  of  great 
strength  braces  the  table, 
and  serves  as  a  bearing 
for  the  bar,  or  boring- 
arbor.  The  boring-bar 
is  fed  by  a  rack  and  pin- 
ion ;  and  it  is  held  by  a 
friction-clamp,  so  that, 
by  easing  the  clamp  and 
taking  another  grip,  a 
very  long  feed  can  be 
obtained.  There  is  a 
quick  and  slow  hand- 
motion  for  the  bar.  The 
power-lift  for  the  table 

is  a  feature  peculiar   to  F^   ^_^nes  horizontal  boring-machine, 

these    machines.       The 

lower  ends  of  the  table  lifting-screws  are  carried  by  worm-gears  threaded  to  serve  as  nuts. 
These  gears  take  their  motion  from  the  worm-shaft,  which  is  driven  from  the  feed-shaft  by 
means  of  the  chain-gearing.  In  this  way,  the  power  from  the  driving-cone  is  used  to  lift  the 
table,  and  this  arrangement  enables  the  "workman  to  move  the  table  without  leaving  his  posi- 
tion, and,  when  the  work  is  nearly  set,  he  can  throw  the  power-lift  out  of  gear  and  make  the 
delicate  final  adjustment  by  hand,  using  the  slow-feed  hand- wheel.  The  machine  has  self- 
acting  feeds  in  both  directions,  without  reversing  the  directions  of  the  motion  of  the  cone, 
and  a  range  of  feed  from  to  -  in. 


_.!_  :; 

FIG.  2. — Newark  Tool  Works  boring-machine. 

The  Nicholson  Boring-Machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  It  uses  for  a  tool  a  cutter  on  a  fixed 
bar,  and  passes  the  work  by  the  cutting  point ;  or,  for  large  and  heavy  work,  a  traveling-head 
on  a  rotating  bar  with  the  work  held  stationary.  To  secure  economy  of  time  in  setting,  and 
to  reduce  the  requirements  for  skill  in  the  workman,  the  machine  is  provided  with  a  broad 
flat  table  upon  which  to  bolt  the  work.  This  table  has  a  cross-feed,  which  secures  the  setting 
in  the  horizontal  direction,  and  an  up-and-down  adjustment  of  the  spindle  locates  the  vertical. 
The  heads  are  powerfully  geared,  the  40  and  50  in.  sizes  have  eight  and  the  72  and  76  in. 
machines  ten  ranges  of  speed.  Power  applied  to  the  cross-feed  of  the  table  admits  of  this 
machine  being  used  for  milling. 


78 


BOEING-MACHINES,   METAL. 


FIG.  3.— Nicholson  boring-machine. 

Cylinder  Boring  and  Facing  Machine. — Fig.  4  shows  a  machine  built  by  Pedrick  &  Ayer, 
of  Philadelphia,  for  boring  cylinders  up  to  25  in.  diameter.  The  boring-bar  is  solid  forged 
si-eel,  the  screw  is  of  steel  with  bronze  thrust- bearings.  The  bar  can  be  slipped  through  the 
bearing  and  gearing,  o*  left  standing,  while  the  tail-bearing  or  back  pedestal  is  taken  away 
and  the  cylinder  is  placed  in  position  over  the  bar.  The  feed-casing  is  made  to  feed  either 
way,  and  has  two  changes,  to  operate  which  it  is  only  necessary  to  push  in  or  pull  out  a  pin 
in  center  of  the  hand-wheel.  The  facing-head  can  be  readily  placed  on  the  bar  as  desired, 
and,  if  necessary,  can  be  operated  at  same  time  the  cylinder  is  being  bored.  The  cutter-heads 
have  a  long  bearing  on  the  bar.  and  are  arranged  for  four  tools,  that  number  being  found  by 


FIG.  4.— Pedrick  &  Ayer  cylinder  boring-machine. 

experience  the  most  desirable,  as  it  distributes  the  stress  or  strain  on  the  bar.  The  bed  is 
movable  on  the  shears,  and  is  easily  set  in  position  by  the  hand-wheel  at  the  forward  end  of 
the  machine. 

Duplex  Boring-Machine.— Fig.  5  shows  a  machine  built  by  Pedrick  &  Ayer  for  boring  the 
two  cylinders  of  a  duplex  pump  at  one  time.  The  centers  are  made  a  fixed 'distance  apart,  to 
suit  the  centers  of  the  pump-cylinders.  The  machine  is  therefore  a  special  one,  designed  to 
be  used  upon  but  one  size  of  pump.  The  platen  is  fed  by  a  nut  and  screw  driven  by  a  2i-in. 
fee  tl- be  It. 

Portable  Cylinder  Boring-Machines.— Fig.  6  shows  a  portable  machine  built  by  Pedrick  & 
Ayer,  of  Philadelphia,  especially  adapted  to  boring  out  locomotive-cylinders  in  their  places, 
by  removing  only  one  or  both  heads  and  piston.  The  back-head,  cross-head,  or  slides  need 
not  be  removed,  unless  so  desired.  On  removing  the  piston  and  leaving  the  front  head  and 
stuffing-box,  a  small  cone  takes  the  place  of  the  stuffing-box,  and  with  proper  adjustment  at 
the  front  head  the  machine  is  ready  for  work ;  it  is  fed  with  a  constant  feed  of  cut-gears.  The 
clamps  or  cross-heads  are  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  used  conveniently  on  locomotive-cylin- 
ders of  all  sizes.  The  same  bolts  or  studs  that  fasten  the  cylinder-head  on  are  used  to' bolt 


BORING-MACHINES,   METAL. 


79 


the  bar  supports  also.  Two  rods  are  fastened  to  the  ends  of  the  cross-head  that  supports  the 
bar  in  the  cylinder  and  to  an  adjustable  swivel  cross-head  on  the  end  of  the  screw ;  these  take 
the  whole  of  the  thrust  and  tor- 
sion strain  of  the  bar.  It  makes 
no  difference  which  position  the 
bar  is  in,  the  end  thrust  is  always 
in  line  with  it,  causing  it  to  cut 
steady,  smooth,  and  true.  The 
feed  can  be  thrown  out  of  gear  at 
any  time,  and  the  machine  will 
also  feed  automatically.  An- 
other portable  boring-machine, 
built  by  Fed  rick  &  Ayer,  is  de- 
signed for  reboring,  in  present 
positions,  all  makes  and  sizes  of 
steam-engine  cylinders.  It  is  so 
constructed  that  the  piece  being 
bored  serves  as  the  bed  or  sup- 
port of  the  bar.  The  cutter- 
heads  are  fed  by  a  screw  in  one 
side  of  the  bar,  and  are  operated 
by  the  feed-casing  on  the  end 
that  contains  the  gearing,  by 
changing  position  of  which  two 
changes  can  be  made,  slow  feed 
for  roughing  out,  and  fast  for 
finishing  cuts.  The  feed  is  au- 
tomatic and  constant,  or  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  operator.  The 
bar  is  driven  by  a  train  of  cut- 
gears  either  with  a  crank  or  belt 
for  power 

II.  VERTICAL  BORING  -  MA- 
CHINES.— Brown  &  Sharpens  Ver- 
tical Chucking  -  Machine. — The 
term  "  chucking-machine  "  is  commonly  applied  to  a  turret-lathe  in  which  the  revolving  head 
contains  a  chuck  for  holding  the  pieces  to  be  operated  upon.  It  is  also,  however,  sometimes 
applied,  to  a  vertical  machine  similar  to  a  vertical  boring-machine  with  a  chuck  rotating  in  a 
horizontal  plane,  and  the  vertical  sliding  head  carrying  a  turret  for  holding  a  variety  of  tools. 
Such  a  machine  is  the  Brown  &  Sharpe  vertical  chucking-machine  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The 
different  tools  in  the  turret-head  are  easily  brought  into  operation,  and,  from  their  perpen- 
dicular position,  allow  the  chips  to  fall  through  the  center  of  the  spindle  of  the  revolving 
table  to  the  floor,  and  thus  avoid  danger  of  trouble  from  the  clogging  of  reamers,  etc.  The 


FIG.  5.— Duplex  boring-machine. 


FIG.  6.— Cylinder  boring- machine. 


machine  has  the  capacity  to  bore  a  4-in.  hole,  and  receive  a  pulley  36  in.  in  diameter,  144-in. 
face,  with  hub  12  in.  in  length,  It  makes  three  cuts,  and  finishes  by  reaming  without"  the 
removal  of  the  tools  or  work.  The  revolving  table  is  driven  by  a  five-step  cone  for  a  3-in. 
belt,  and  is  geared  6  to  1.  The  steps  of  the  cone  are  so  graded  as  to  make  the  cutting  speed 
uniform  for  5  different  diameters  of  holes.  The  turret  has  four  holes  If  in.  in  diameter,  and 
is  securely  clamped  in  position.  An  adjustable  dog  allows  the  locking-pin  to  be  withdrawn 
at  any  part  of  its  upward  motion.  The  turret-slide  has  a  movement  of  21  in.,  and  an  auto- 
matic feed  which  can  be  easily  and  quickly  changed  from  the  finest  to  the  coarsest  required  ; 
it  has  quick  return  by  hand,  and  is  counter-balanced  by  a  weight  inside  of  column. 

BuUard's  Boring  and  Turning  Mill. — Fig.  8  shows  a  boring  and  turning  mill  made  by 
the  Bridgeport  (Conn.)  Machine-Tool  Works.     It  is  provided  with  a  turret-head.     Its  capacity 


80 


BORING-MACHINES,   METAL. 


is  38  in.  in  diameter  and  27  in.  in  height.     The  table  is  36£  in.  in  diameter  and  has  twenty 
changes  of  speed.     The  feed  is  by  belt  and  has  4  changes.     The  turret-head  is  square  in  form, 

10  in.  in  diameter,  with  four  2^-in.  holes.  It  will 
unlock  automatically  at  any  point,  and  is  re- 
volved by  hand.  The  turret-slide  can  be  set  to 
bore  or  turn  at  any  angle,  and  has  a  movement 
of  16  in.,  with  trip  at  any  point.  Another  form 
of  mill  by  the  same  makers  has  two  sliding 
heads.  Its  capacity  is  37  in.  in  diameter  and  29 
in.  in  height.  The  table  is  3(>i  in.  in  diameter, 
and  has  twenty  changes  of  speed.  The  feeds  are 
automatic,  and  range  from  g^-  to  £  of  an  in.  in 
angular  and  vertical  directions.  Each  head 
feeds  independent  of  the  other.  The  heads  can 
be  set  at  any  angle,  and  carry  the  tool-bars, 
which  have  a  movement  of  18  in. 

Chord  Boring- Machine. — Fig.  9  shows  a  ma- 
chine made  by  the  Niles  Tool  Works  for  boring 
the  holes  in  bridge-chords  and  I-beams.  The 
machine  is  arranged  with  two  independent  heads 
on  one  bed,  adjustable  on  the  bed  for  varying 
lengths.  The  bed  may  be  made  of  any  length 
to  suit.  The  two  heads  are  complete  in  them- 
selves, driven  independently,  and  with  all  attach- 
ments, feeds,  etc.,  for  a  complete  boring-ma- 
chine. The  power  is  ample  for  boring  four  holes, 
punched  4  to  8  in.  diameter,  at  one  time,  and 
the  range  of  speed  is  such  as  to  adapt  the  ma- 
chine for  drilling  down  to  H-in.  holes.  The 
two  columns  have  both  power  and  hand  move- 
ment for  adjustment  on  the  bed.  The  heads 
have  18  in.  reach,  boring  to  the  center  of  36  in. 
They  will  take  in  under  the  cutter  work  36  in. 


Fio.  7.— Brown  &  Sharpens  chucking-machine. 


high.    The  spindle  has  24  in.  traverse.     The  range  of  work  in  length  is  from  5  to  50  ft.  be- 
tween centers.    The  feeds  are  by  power,  and  are  reversible  up  or  down,  and  range  from  ^  to 


FIG.  8.— Bullard's  boring-machine. 


BORING-MACHINES,   METAL. 


81 


sV  in.  for  heavy  work,  and  coarser  feeds  for  light  work.  The  bed  is  formed  of  wrought-iron 
'•  I  "-beams  15  in.  deep.  Two  independent  carriages  for  supporting  work  on  the  bed  are  pro- 
vided. 


FIG.  9.— Chord  boring-machine. 


Fig.  10  shows  a  horizontal  boring-mill  built  by  the  E.  W.  Bliss  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  This 
machine  is  especially  designed  for  heavy  work,  though  convenient  for  general  shop  use.  By 
its  use  holes  may  be  bored  parallel  to  each  other  without  resetting  the  work  or  traveling  same 


FIG.  10.— Bliss  boring-machine. 

during  the  process  of  boring.  The  table  is  moved  to  bring  the  work  in  position  by  a  rack  and 
pinion  driven  by  power.  The  spindle  carrying  the  boring-bar  is  of  steel,  34  in.  in  diameter, 
and  has  a  longitudinal  feed  of  30  in.  It  is  carried  by  a  head  with  60  in.  vertical  adjustment 
upon  a  strong  upright  securely  attached  to  the  bed,"  and  the  cutter-end  of  bar  is  supported 
through  a  bush  carried  by  the  tail-block  upon  a  similar  upright  on  the  left  side  of  the 
machine.  The  head  and  tail  blocks  are  raised  and  lowered  together  by  means  of  screws 
shown,  which  are  driven  by  power.  To  compensate  for  any  possible  variation  in  the  two 
6 


BORING-MACHINES,   WOOD. 


vertical  adjusting  screws,  a  slight  independent  adjustment  is  provided  in  the  tail-block,  so  as 
to  bring  the  boring-bar  perfectly  true  with  the  bed.  The  driving-cone  pulley  has  four  steps, 
and  a  heavy  back-gear  is  attached  to  the  spindle,  giving  eight  speeds  for  the  bar.  The  spindle 
is  fed  forward  by  a  rack  and  pinion  having  four  changes  of  speed,  is  driven  by  a  worm-gear, 
and  may  be  run  back  quickly  by  hand.  The  main  spindle  is  driven  directly  by  a  belt  from 
the  floor-shaft,  and  the  head  may  be  raised  or  lowered  without  changing  the  length  of  the 
belt.  The  principal  dimensions  of  the  machine  are  as  follows :  Length  of  table,  7  ft. ;  width 
of  table,  3  ft. ;  extreme  width  in  clear  between  head  and  tail  blocks,  8  ft. ;  vertical  adjust- 
ment of  heads,  5  ft. ;  floor  space,  10  X  15  ft. ;  total  height,  9  ft.  The  weight  of  the  machine 
is  about  26,000  Ibs. 

BORING-MACHINES,  WOOD.  From  the  primitive  auger  to  the  high-speed  multiple 
gong  boring-machine  of  the  present  day  is  a  far  cry  ;  each  year  sees  more  advance  either  in 
the  speed  of  work,  in  the  quality  of  the  work  done,  or  in  its  range  of  dimensions  and  position, 
etc.,  until  the  catalogue  of  boring-machines  alone  would  comprise  quite  a  list,  and  a  complete 
description  of  each  kind  made  would  fill  a  volume  of  no  mean  size.  Suffice  it  if  we  select 
from  a  long  list  a  few  of  the  most  typical  or  most  ingenious  and  special  for  mere  mention, 
in  addition  to  the  descriptions  of  construction  and  operation  given  in  the  former  volumes  of 
this  Cyclopaedia.  In  some  boring-machines  the  spindles  are  run  by  gearing,  and  in  others  by 
belting.  The  latter  permits  higher  speed  of  the  spindles  and  smoother  running.  For  certain 
classes  of  long  boring,  as  in  wooden  pump-tube  work  and  the  making  of  porch  columns,  the 
cutter  is  carried  on  the  end  of  a  hollow  pipe  which  has  a  worm  rotating  therein  to  carry  out 
the  chips;  this  being  necessary  in  a  horizontal  machine,  while  a  vertical  machine  would  be 
undesirable  by  reason  of  the  great  length  of  work  required  to  be  done.  Even  such  a  simple 
operation  as  boring  holes  for  pins,  as  in  sash  and  door  work,  is  now  performed  by  an  attach- 
ment to  the  double-arm  sand-papering  machine ;  the  work  being  done  by  simply  pressing  the 
liand  on  the  string,  which  drives  the  bit  into  the  work,  and  on  removing  the  hand  the  spring 
withdraws  the  bit  from  the  hole.  A  very  convenient  machine  for  use  in  small  shops,  or  where 
much  large  boring  does  not  require  to  be  done,  is  a  portable  boring-machine,  Fig.  1,  which  is 

entirely  self-contained,  and  may  be  fastened  to 
a  post* and  belted  directly  from  the  line  shaft. 
There  is  a  vertical  spindle  bearing  the  boring- 
tool  and  driven  by  a  mitre  gear,  inclosed  in  a 
box  housing  which  carries  the  bar  for  starting 
and  stopping,  also  a  counterbalanced  lever  for 
bringing  the  auger  to  the  work.  The  boring 
spindle  passes  through  one  of  the  mitre  wheels, 
so  that  it  may  be  raised  and  lowered  while  ro- 
tating. A  machine  intended  to  meet  the  de- 
mand for  boring  to  the  center  of  large  pieces  is 
built  by  C.  B.  Rogers  &  Co.,  and  differs  from 
the  usual  types  of  small  single-spindle  boring- 
machines  in  having  its  spindle  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  vertical  post,  so  that  holes  may 
be  bored  in  the  center  of  the  large  piece.  There 
is  a  stop-rod  to  regulate  the  depth  of  the  hole 
bored,  and  also  one  to  control  the  length  of 
FIG.  1.— Portable  boring-machine.  throw,  thus  doing  away  with  the  common  ad- 

justable collar  of  the  spindle.     The  spindle  is 

balanced.  The  table  tilts  for  bevel  work,  and  may  be  raised  and  lowered  by  a  screw  and  hand- 
wheel  in  front.  The  guide  may  be  reversed  to  the  front  of  the  table.  A  cabinet-maker's  bor- 
mg-machme  for  two  or  three  spindles,  made  by  C.  B.  Rogers  &  Co.,  has  a  square  column  like 
table  cast  in  one  piece,  and  upon  which  there  is  a  plate  which  bears  the  front  boring  spindle- 
box,  which,  when  they  show  two  in  number,  are  adjustable  to  and  from  each  other  by  a  right 
and  left  hand-screw.  Where  there  are  three,  the  center  box  is  stationary  and  the  others  are 
adjusted  to  and  from  it  by  the  screw  and  crank.  The  rear  spindle-boxes  have  a  swiveling 
motion  on  the  table  to  accommodate  the  changes  in  distance  between  the  front  boxes ;  and 
they  are  driven  by  an  endless  belt  which,  passing  from  the  main  driving  pulley  at  the  lower 
part  ot  the  machine,  goes  over  one  boring-spindle  pulley,  down  under  an  idle  pulley  (which 
has  vertical  adjustment  to  take  up  the  slack  of  the  belt  as  it  stretches),  up  over  the  other  bor- 
ing-bar pulley,  and  down  under  the  main  pulley.  Thus  both  the  spindles  run  in  the  same 
direction  and  their  adjustment  practically  makes  no  difference  in  the  tightness  of  the  belt, 
.bach  of  the  mandrels  to  which  the  boring-bars  are  attached  has  a  universal  joint  between  it 
and  the  spindle.  The  table  upon  which  the  work  is  placed,  and  which  bears  a  fence,  is 
adjustable  vertically  in  slides  on  the  front  of  the  machine,  being  controlled  by  a  screw  and 
hand-wheel  The  table  also  has  a  horizontal  movement  to  and  from  the  bits.  One  very  use- 
ful type  ot  boring-machines,  especially  for  car- work,  has  three  or  more  vertical  spindles,  each 
bearing  a  different-sized  bit,  and  each  having  a  counterbalanced  lever  by  which  it  may  be 
drawn  down  to  the  work  without  much  effort,  and  may  be  retired  when  the  hand  is  taken 
irom  the  lever.  In  such  machines,  there  is  little  or  no  necessity  for  any  lateral  adjustment 
)f  t^6  distance  be^ween  the  spindles,  as  only  one  is  used  at  a  time  ;  but  an  important  feature 
TOU  u  °nes  whlch  bear  the  adjusting  bits  are  driven  at  slower  speeds  than  the  others. 
Where  they  are  for  heavy  work,  the  table  upon  which  the  lumber  rests  is  furnished  with  four 
rollers,  and  m  improved  machines  of  this  type  the  timber  may  be  pushed  along  on  the  rollers 


BOEING-MACHINES,   WOOD. 


83 


by  hand,  if  not  very  heavy,  or  the  rollers  may  be  operated  by  a  hand-wheel  in  front  of  the 
machine,  thus  giving  also  a  fine  adjustment.  The  feed-rollers  may  also  be  turned  by  a  fric- 
tion-power attachment  from  the  countershaft.  The  belt  is  best  endless,  passing  over  the 
main  driving  pulley  below  on  a  horizontal  shaft,  then  up  over  a  horizontal  pulley  on  a  line 
with  the  spindle  pulleys  and  at  right  angles  with  the  main  pulley,  then  over  one  spindle 
pulley,  making  a  quarter  twist  to  get  there,  then  back  and  forth  over  idle  pulleys  and  the 
other  spindle  pulleys,  and  down  over  another  guide  pulley  to  the  main  pulley  below. 

Universal  Vertical  Boring-Machine. — What  is  known  as  a  universal  vertical  boring-ma- 
chine, Fig.  2,  is  in  some  sense  a  misnomer,  although  it  is  a  very  useful  tool.  It  is  intended  to 
bore  both  vertical  holes  and  those  which  are  inclined  in  a  vertical  plane.  In  one  of  the  best 


FIG.  2. — Universal  vertical  boring-machine. 


forms,  made  by  the  Berry  &  Orton  Co.,  there  are  three  boring  spindles,  each  of  which  has  a 
movement  of  24  in.  back  and  forth  in  a  horizontal  plane  and  one  in  a  vertical  one  of  18  in., 
and  which  can  be  set  at  an  angle  of  45°  or  less  with  the  vertical.  Each  spindle,  or  any  com- 
bination of  two  or  of  three,  can  be  moved  at  once  back  and  forth  across  the  table  by  a  hand- 
wheel  in  front  of  the  horizontal  bracket  which  carries  them,  and  which  is  borne  by  a  vertical 
clamp  back  of  the  table.  Each  of  the  boring  spindles  has  a  quick  return,  and  is  advanced  to 
the  work  by  a  counterbalanced  lever.  The  table  to  which  the  work  is  attached  is  made  of 
glued-up  strips  of  wood,  veneered  top  and  bottom  with  hard  Southern  pine,  and  may  be  of 
any  desired  length.  It  has  on  its  edge  a  number  of  stops  for  duplicating  work  without  the 
expense  of  laying  out :  and  on  the  top  a  system  of  bolsters  and  clamps  that  take  in  24  in.  in 
width,  to  receive  and  fasten  the  timber  that  is  to  be  bored.  The  table  is  mounted  on  a  system 
of  rolls  12  in.  in  diameter,  and  about  6  ft.  apart,  borne  on  uprights  fastened  to  the  floor.  The 
motion  of  the  table  is  by  hand  or  power,  through  a  feed-stand  and  shifting  bar ;  the  rate  of 
feed  by  power  being  about  200  ft,  per  minute. 

An  Eight-Spindle  Vertical  Gang  Boring- Machine,  made  by  Fay  &  Co..  of  Cincinnati, 
has  largely  revolutionized  the  system  of  boring  in  car-shops.  Originally  in  boring  truck 
timbers  it  was  necessary,  where  there  were  eight  holes  to  be  bored  through  a  timber  at  one 
operation,  to  put  it  on  a  machine  that  would  bore  only  three  to  four  holes  at  a  time,  and  as 
the  timbers  were  about  14  in.  thick,  the  holes  could  only  be  bored  straight  through  by  first 
boring  half  through  the  timber  from  one  side,  then  reversing  the  stick  and  boring  holes  from 
the  opposite  side,  to  meet  the  others.  The  eight-spindle  machine,  which  has  an  automatically 
raising  table,  enables  the  operator  to  bore  the  holes  entirely  through  a  timber  of  this  thickness 
in  a  perfectly  straight  line.  The  operators  place  a  stick  upon  the  table  and  bore  the  necessary 
holes  all  at  one  time,  thus  effecting  a  great  saving  in  handling  the  timber  and  in  the  time 
taken  up. 

The  "multiple  gang  boring-machine,  designed  for  the  special  work  of  boring  a  large 


84 


BRAIDING   AND   COVERING   MACHINES. 


number  of  holes  at  one  operation  without  the  necessity  of  laying  them  out,  has  a  table,  back  pi 
which  there  are  ranged  eight  arbors,  each  carrying  a  boring  tool.  These  spindles  run  in 
frames,  which  are  gibbed  to  a  connected  gateway,  and  are  vertically  adjustable  by  a  screw  to 
each.  The  arbors  have  lateral  adjustment  also.  Beneath  the  table  and  parallel  with  its 
length  there  is  a  horizontal  drum,  and  the  belt  which  drives  all  the  boring-arbors  runs  from 
this  over  one  driven  pulley,  then  down  under  the  drum,  up  over  the  second  driven  spindle, 
and  so  on  until  it  has  passed  over  all  the  pulleys  ;  then  it  passes  back  lengthwise  of  the  table 
by  guide  pulleys,  so  that  there  is  but  one  belt  to  be  laced,  and  no  difficulty  as  in  maintaining 
eight  separate  belt  tensions.  The  spindles  being  set  at  the  proper  distance  apart  and  at  the 

5 roper  heights,  no  adjustment  is  necessary.     Eccentric  clamps  on  the  table  hold  the  work, 
'he  table  has  lengthwise  traverse  on  V-slides  by  a  hand-lever. 

The,  Bentel  and  Margedant  Rake-Head  Boring  and  Routing  Machine  has  20  spindles,  which 
can  be  adjusted  laterally  to  the  required  distance  apart.  The  work  is  clamped  to  the  table 
by  four  eccentric  clamps,  the  handles  of  which  are  in  the  front  of  table,  standing  straight  up. 
These  clamp  the  work  against  a  fence,  which  is  bolted  to  the  top  of  the  table  by  T-slots.  The 
face  of  this  fence  is  lined  with  wood,  so  as  to  protect  the  points  of  the  bits  when  cutting  through. 
The  table  is  balanced,  and  has  a  continuous  vertical  reciprocating  motion  given  by  a 
crank  and  double  levers  in  front  of  the  machine.  The  crank  has  an  adjustable  throw  to  vary 
the  length  of  mortise,  and  is  driven  by  means  of  the  pulley  shown  at  the  extreme  right  of  the 
machine.  The  connecting  rod  also  has  an  adjustment  to  bring  the  mortises  into  any  position 
on  the  stick.  The  feed  is  operated  by  means  of  double  lever  and  two  vertical  rods.  These 
rods  connect  with  two  right  and  left  ratchet-pawls,  thus  producing  a  continuous  feed,  which 
may  be  varied  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  work.  The  table  is  fed  in  by  racks  and  pinions, 
and  is  geared  at  four  points  to  get  a  parallel  movement. 

In  operation,  the  work  is  clamped  to  the  table,  which  keeps  up  its  vertical  reciprocating 
movement,  and  is  not  stopped  to  place  the  work.  The  feed  is  then  thrown  in  by  lifting  a 
hand-wheel  in  front;  this  engages  a  worm  and  gear  which  feed  the  table  forward  automat- 
ically, until  it  has  traveled  in  against  an  adjustable  stop,  when  the  feed  is  tripped  off  and 
the  table  returns  automatically  by  means  of  a  weight,  and  is  ready  for  another  piece.  The 
machine  is  claimed  to  make  1,200  mortises  1£  in.  long  through  1  in.  hard  wood  in  an  hour, 
leaving  the  mortise  smooth  and  free  from  chips.  It  can  be  arranged  for  making  a  tapering 
mortise  or  to  mortise  lengthwise  of  the  material.  The  makers  state  that  it  has  mortised 
150,000  holes  through  3-in.  sugar  lumber  without  breaking  a  bit.  For  use  as  a  multiple 
boring-machine,  augers  are  substituted  for  the  routing  bits;  the  feed-belt  at  the  right  is 
stopped,  and  the  one  at  the  left  which  drives  the  cone  is  started,  and  the  work  clamped  to  the 
table,  the  same  as  for  routing.  The  table  is  fed  forward  by  pressing  a  foot-treadle ;  this  is 
accomplished  by  a  pair  of  driven  friction-rolls,  which  grasp  the  slack  belt  which  is  wound 
around  a  pulley  in  front.  When 
the  pressure  is  removed,  the  table 
returns  by  means  of  the  weight 
formerly  described,  which  comes 
below  the  floor.  The  machine, 
when  once  adjusted  for  any  par- 
ticular piece,  will  turn  out  any 
number,  all  alike,  without  laying 
off. 

Boxing-  Machine :  see  Wheel- 
Making  Machines. 

Box  Tool :  see  Screw  Machines. 

BRAIDING  AND  COVER- 
ING MACHINES.  Braiding  ma- 
chinery is  employed  for  making 
plaited  fabrics,  either  flat  or  round, 
such  as  are  used  for  braids  and 
other  trimmings,  wicks,  fish-lines, 
shoe  and  corset  laces,  curtain- 
cords,  etc.  It  has  also  of  late  years 
found  a  very  important  employ- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  the 
covering  for  electrical  wire.  The 
general  principle  of  braiding-ma- 
chines follows  closely  the  idea  of 
the  old  May-pole  dance,  in  which 
each  of  the  dancers,  holding  a  rib- 
bon attached  to  the  top  of  the 
pole,  moved  around  one  another, 
in  and  out,  until  the  ribbons  were 
braided  or  plaited  up  and  down 
the  length  of  the  pole.  The  vari- 
ous strands  of  the  braid  or  cover- 
in 
movement  of  the  dancers. 


braided  insulating  envelope  of  electric  conductors 


FIG.  1. — Braiding-machine. 

as  a  central  core  bJ  mechanism,  which  imitates  substantially  the 
Covering  or  armoring  machines  are  used  on  applying  the 'non- 


BRAIDING    AND   COVERING   MACHINES. 


85 


Braiding- Machine. — We  illustrate  in  Fig.  1  a  machine  intended  for  the  manufacture 
of  flat  braids,  and  in  Fig.  2  the  carrier  of  that  machine,  manufactured  by  the  New 
England  Butt  Co.,  of  Providence,  R.  I.  The  mechanism  of  Fig.  1  consists  of  a  series 
of  gears  meshing  into  one  another,  and  provided  with  horns  or  lugs  on  their 
upper  surfaces.  These  gears  are  mounted  on  a  circular  bottom  plate.  Above 
the  bottom  plate  is  a  top  plate,  having  openings  or  recesses  in  form  correspond- 
ing with  the  periphery  of  the  gears,  and  through  this  plate  extend  the  carriers. 
Lugs  on  the  bottom  of  the  carriers  extend  down  through  the  plate,  and  be- 
tween the  lugs  on  the  gears,  which  in  their  rotary  motion  propel  the  carrier 
along  the  groove  of  the  top  plate  which  directs  its  course  from  the  outer  to  the 
inner  curve,  a  corresponding  carrier  on  the  other  side  of  the  curve  going  in 
the  opposite  direction,  and  at  the  intersection  of  each  run  crossing  each  other, 
thus  forming  the  stitch.  The  carrier  or  bobbin-holder  (Fig.  2)  is  provided  with 
a  spindle.  A,  for  holding  the  bobbin,  and  a  stem,  B,  for  the  weight  and  latch. 
The  thread  from  the  bobbin  passes  through  a  hole  in  the  stem,  and  under  a 
weight,  C,  which  slides  on  the  stem,  then  through  a  hole  in  the  top  of  stem,  and 
thence  to  the  braiding-point.  The  weight  acts  in  a  fourfold  capacity.  It  takes 
up  the  slack  thread  produced  by  the  carrier,  passing  from  the  outer  to  the  inner 
run.  It  makes  a  tension  on  the  thread  to  braid  tightly  or  loosely  as  may  be 
required.  It  automatically  stops  the  machine.  The  thread  passing  under  the 
weight  holds  it  suspended  on  the  stem,  and  the  breaking  of  the  thread,  or  the 
running  out  of  a  bobbin,  allows  it  to  drop  to  the  bottom  of  the  stem,  where  it 
comes  in  contact  with  a  point  of  the  stop-rim,  the  contact  operating  a  lever, 
which  throws  out  the  clutch  and  stops  the  machine.  It  regulates  the  supply 
of  thread  from  the  bobbins.  As  the  thread  is  taken  up  in  the  process  of  braiding,  it  raises 
the  weight  until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  latch  on  the  top  of  carrier;  the  latch  being  pro- 
vided with  a  nose-piece  engaging  with  a  ratchet  on  the  top  of  the  bobbin,  the  weight  raises 
the  latch,  disengaging  the  nose-piece  and  allowing  the  bobbin  to  let  off  thread ;  this  act 
releases  the  weight,  which  falls  to  its  natural  position,  the  nose  of  the  latch  again  engaging  with 
ratchet  in  the  bobbin,  and  holding  it  until  the  motion  is  repeated.  These  carriers,  provided 

with  bobbins  of  thread  as 
described,  two  to  each  gear, 
in  their  continuous  move- 
ment in  and  out  and  past 
each  other  at  the  intersect- 
ing points,  form  at  the  cen- 
ter of  the  machine,  and  at  a 
proper  angle  above  it,  the 
plaiting  or  braid.  A  pair 
of  rolls,  driven  by  gears  and 
shaft  connection  with  the 
main  driving  device,  forms 
the  feed,  or  take-up  of  the 
braid,  from  which  it  is  led 
into  a  receptacle,  or  wound 
on  to  a  reel.  When  made 
for  tabular  braids,  or  for 
round  fabrics,  it  will  be  seen 
that  any  article  inserted  in- 
to the  center  of  the  ma- 
chine and  into  the  tubular 
fabric  thus  formed  will  be 
covered  with  it.  The  size 
of  the  braid  depends  upon 
the  size  and  number  of 
threads,  and  can  be  carried 
out  indefinitely,  a  machine 
of  300  carriers  having  been 
built  and  operated  success- 
fully. 

Six  -  spindle  Covering- 
Machine. —  Fig.  3  repre- 
sents a  six-spindle  wind- 
er, designed  more  particu- 
larly for  covering  electrical 
wires.  The  bare  wire  on 
the  commercial  spool  or  on 
a  reel  is  placed  on  the  stand- 
ards under  the  machine  (a  tension  regulated  by  the  adjustment  of  the  weight  being  applied); 
it  then  passes  around  a  small  sheave-wheel,  which  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  lowered 
down  into  the  pan  for  holding  a  solution  of  white  lead  or  other  insulating  compound,  if  used, 
and  to  raise  it  out  of  the  solution  when  the  machine  is  not  in  operation.  It  then  passes  up 
through  the  spindle,  which  is  driven  by  a  quarter-turn  belt  on  to  a  tight  and  loose  pulley,  the 


FIG.  3.— Six-spindle  winding-machine. 


86  BRAKES. 


loose  pulley  being  chambered  and  filled  with  wool  to  retain  the  oil  for  lubricating.  The  wire 
then  passes  up  through  the  disk  on  which  the  flier  is  fastened,  with  a  counterbalance  oppo- 
site. The  spool  is  placed  on  the  spindle,  and  the  thread  carried  from  it  to  the  flier  and  under 
the 'drop-wire  of  the  stop-motion,  then  up  through  the  eye  of  flier  to  the  winding-point,  where 
it  is  fastened  to  the  wire  coining  up  through  the  spindle,  in  the  top  of  which  is  the  grooved 
guide  and  support  for  the  wire  when  being  wound.  The  guide  can  be  finely  adjusted  for  more 
or  less  tension  and  for  the  lay  of  the  thread.  The  revolutions  of  the  spindle  which  carries 
the  spool  and  the  flier  around  the  wire  at  a  high  speed  cover  it  uniformly  and  with  the 
smallest  fraction  of  insulation.  Hanging  over  the  thread  and  in  the  bottom  of  the  flier  is 
the  drop-wire,  which,  when  the  thread  breaks,  or  a  spool  runs  out,  drops,  and  extending 
through  the  disk,  in  its  revolutions  comes  in  contact  with  a  latch  holding  up  the  starting 
lever,  releasing  it,  when  it  falls,  changing  the  belt  to  the  loose  pulley  and  stopping  the 
spindle  each  spindle  being  independent.  The  spool  is  slotted,  and  when  it  runs  out  of 
thread  is  raised  just  above  the  spindle  and  taken  off  sidewise ;  the  wire  passing  through  the 
slot,  a  full  spool  is  taken  down  from  the  spool-holder  above  and  placed  on  the  spindle  and 
threaded  up,  when  the  spindle  is  ready  to  go  on  again.  The  wire  passing  up  through  the  tube 
or  spool-holder  passes  around  the  feed-wheel  and  over  the  sheave  down  on  to  the  reel.  The 
feed-wheel  is  driven  by  connections  of  shaft  and  gearing  with  the  spindle,  making  it  positive ; 
a  variety  of  changes  of  speed  being  obtained  by  change-gears,  which  is  made  by  a  simple  and 
quick  arrangement.  The  hand-nut  at  the  left  of  the  feed-wheel  is  loosened,  the  wheel  is 
raised  up,  throwing  the  gears  out  of  mesh,  and,  after  the  change  is  made,  the  wheel  is  dropped 
back  to  engage  with  the  gears.  The  hand-nut  on  the  right  of  feed-wheel,  when  loosened,  re- 
leases the  wheel  from  the  gear,  and  allows  it  to  turn  back  to  repair  the  wire  or  to  mend  a 
break. 

BRAKES.  The  Westinghouse  Quick- Act  ion  Automatic  Brake. — In  1886  a  practical  test 
was  made  upon  a  train  of  50  freight  cars,  to  determine  the  applicability  of  existing  brake  ap- 
paratus to  such  a  train  service.  This  test  was  made  upon  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 
Railroad,  under  the  direction  of  the  Master  Car-Builders'  Association.  It  established  the 
fact  that,  when  the  brakes  were  applied  from  the  locomotive  with  full  force,  the  reduction  of 
air  pressure  in  the  train  brake-pipe  progressed  gradually  from  the  forward  to  the  rear  part  of 
the  train,  causing  the  application  of  the  brake  upon  the  fiftieth  car  seventeen  seconds  later 
than  that  upon  the  first  car.  The  retarding  effect  of  the  brakes  applied  to  the  forward  cars, 
accumulating  as  it  passed  backward  toward  the  unretarded  rear  of  the  train,  was  to  close  up 
the  space  between  consecutive  cars  (due  to  lost  motion  in  the  couplings  and  compression  of 
the  draw-springs),  and  to  produce  severe  and  injurious  shocks  upon  the  rear  cars  and  their 
lading. 

It  became  evident  that,  to  avoid  such  shocks  and  to  give  satisfactory  results  in  this  class 
of  railway  service,  the  application  of  the  brakes  upon  successive  cars  must  occur  at  such  a 
rapid  rate  that  no  considerable  retarding  effect  of  the  brakes  shall  be  produced  upon  the  for- 
ward part  of  the  train  before  the  brakes  are  in  action  at  the  rear  end  of  the  train.  Experi- 
ments made  by  the  Westinghouse  Air-Brake  Co.,  in  the  development  of  the  quick-action  brake, 
demonstrated  that,  with  the  closed  coupling  between  cars  and  springs  of  such  elasticity  as 
those  commonly  employed  in  the  draft-gear  of  freight-cars,  shocks  at  the  rear  end  of  the  train, 
of  such  magnitude  as  to  injure  cattle,  could  not  be  prevented,  if  the  interval  of  time  between 
the  applications  of  succeeding  brakes  exceeded  '05  second ;  or  the  brake  upon  the  fiftieth  car 
must  be  applied  not  later  than  about  2'5  seconds  after  the  application  of  that  upon  the  first 
car.  These  conditions  are  fulfilled  by  the  quick-action  automatic  brake,  by  the  use  of  which 
the  brakes  upon  50  freight-cars  may  be  successively  applied  in  2'25  seconds,  or  with  an  interval 
between  the  applications  of  succeeding  brakes  of  but  -045  second. 

The  controlling  element  in  this  system  is  a  discharge  of  air  from  the  train  brake-pipe  at 
each  car,  by  the  operation  of  the  triple  valve,  to  cause  the  operation  of  the  triple  valve  upon 
the  next  succeeding  car ;  that  is,  a  quick  discharge  of  air  from  the  train-brake  pipe  (either 
through  the  engineer's  brake-valve,  by  the  engineer,  or  at  any  point  in  the  train),  causing  the 
nearest  triple  valve  to  operate,  the  others  are  successively  operated  by  repeated  discharges  of 
air  from  the  train  brake-pipe,  each  triple  valve  responding  to  the  discharge  through  the  next 
preceding.  The  length  of  the  main  train  brake-pipe,  upon  a  train  of  50  freight-cars,  is  1,900 
ft.  The  remarkable  results  attained,,  in  the  application  of  the  quick-action  automatic  brake, 
will  be  appreciated  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  elasticity  of  dry  atmospheric  air  permits 
the  propagation  of  an  impulse  or  vibration,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  only  at 
the  rate  of  1,090  ft.  per  second.  Sound — a  most  perfect  example — requires  If  seconds  to 
travel  unimpeded  through  the  atmosphere  a  distance  of  1,900  ft.  Yet  the  quick-action 
brakes  are  applied  by  an  impulse  which  actuates  a  piece  of  mechanism,  which  in  turn  pro- 
duces a  second  impulse,  which  actuates  a  second  piece  of  mechanism,  and  so  the  impulse  is 
repeated  forty-nine  times  and  caused  to  travel  1,900  ft.,  against  the  retarding  influences  of  a 
comparatively  small  pipe,  having  a  sinuous  course  and  a  vast  number  of  irregular  shapes  and 
sharp  turns,  in  the  inconceivably  short  time  of  less  than  2£  seconds,  or  with  a  velocity  80  per 
cent  of  that  of  sound.  Such  results  have  been  attained  through  a  slight  modification  of  the 
triple  valve  of  the  plain  automatic  brake  (by  which  name  the  former  Westinghouse  automatic 
brake  is  now  known),  with  the  addition  of  a  few  supplementary  parts.  These  modifications 
are  such  that  they  alter  in  no  respect  the  functions  performed  by  the  triple  valve  of  the 
plain  automatic  brake,  and  the  additional  parts  operate  only  when  a  quick  stop  of  the  train  is 
required. 

Two  distinct  characters  of  performance  of  the  triple  valve  may  thus  occur,  the  selection  of 


BRAKES. 


87 


which  is  dependent,  wholly  upon  the  rate  at  which  the  air  pressure  in  the  train  brake-pipe  is 
reduced  for  applying  the  brakes.  The  measure  of  the  greatest  rate  at  which  the  pressure  in 
the  train  brake-pipe  may  be  reduced,  without  operating  the  supplementary  parts  of  the  new 
triple  valve,  is  that  rate  at  which  the  pressure  is  reduced  in  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  by  the 
flow  of  air  therefrom  to  the  brake-cylinder — which  latter  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the 
passage  connecting  them.  A  rate  of  reduction  of  the  air  pressure  in  the  train  brake-pipe, 
materially  greater  than  that  of  the  reduction  of  pressure  in  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  will  induce 
the  quick  action  of  the  nearest  triple  valve,  which  will  be  communicated  to  all  the  others, 
producing  a  full  application  of  all  the  brakes ;  any  rate,  not  greater,  will  cause  the  triple 
valves  and  brake  apparatus  to  act  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  in  the  plain  automatic 
brake,  permitting  the  application  of 
the  brakes  with  any  desired  degree 
of  force.  To  operate  the  quick-action 
automatic  brake,  greater  precision  is 
therefore  involved  than  the  plain  au- 
tomatic brake  required,  and  a  modi- 
fied engineer's  brake-valve  is  used  for 
this  purpose.  The  essential  features 
of  the  quick-action  automatic  brake, 
differing  from  those  of  the  plain  au- 
tomatic brake,  thus  lie  wholly  within 
the  triple  valve  and  engineer's  brake- 
valve.  While  the  end  primarily 
sought,  in  the  production  of  the 
quick-action  automatic  brake,  was  to 
avoid  injurious  shocks  to  the  train, 
through  application  of  the  brakes, 
another  result,  of  great  importance, 
was  incidentally  effected,  by  causing 
the  air,  discharged  from  the  train 
brake  pipe  through  the  triple  valve, 
to  pass  into  the  brake-cylinder  and 
to  be  retained  there.  This  discharge 
of  air  from  the  train  brake-pipe  takes 
place  before  any  considerable  quanti- 
ty of  air  can  flow  from  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  to  the  brake-cylinder;  the 
quantity  of  air  discharged  from  the 
train  brake-pipe  is  therefore  depend- 
ent upon  the  relative  volumes  of  the 
brake-cylinder  and  that  portion  of 
the  train  brake-pipe  attached  to  the 
car.  These  relative  volumes  are  such  that  the  discharge  of  air  from  the  train  brake-pipe  into 
the  brake-cylinder,  added  to  that  from  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  increases  the  final  pressure  in 
the  brake-cylinder  and  upon  the  piston  20  per  cent  beyond  that  when  the  cylinder  receives 
air  from  the  reservoir  alone.  Thus,  in  addition  to  preventing  injurious  shocks  to  the  train, 
the  quick-action  automatic  brake  attains  a  considerably  greater  degree  of  efficiency  by  produc- 
ing, almost  simultaneously,  upon  all  the  cars  of  the  train  the  greatest  permissible  retarding  force. 

The  Quick- Action  Triple  Valve. — The  parts  which  have  been  added  to  those  of  the  plain 
automatic  triple  valve  are  the  piston  8  (Fig.  1) ;  the  valve  10— which,  normally,  is  held  upon 
the  seat  9  by  the  spring  12,  and  which  is  operated  by  the  piston  8 ;  and  the  check-valve  15, 
seated  in  the  check-valve  case  13.  The  port  t  is  added  to  the  plain  automatic  triple  valve, 
which,  when  uncovered  by  the  slide-valve  3,  affords  communication  between  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  and  the  chamber  above  the  piston  8.  This  port  is  not  in  line  with  the  ports  leading 
respectively  to  the  brake-cylinder  and  the  atmosphere,  but  is  at  one  side.  The  slide-valve  3 
is  made  longer  than  in  the  plain  automatic  triple  valve,  and  a  corner  is  cut  away,  so  that, 
when  the  piston  5  moves  to  its  extreme  position  at  the  right,  the  slide-valve  uncovers  the  port 
#,  and  air  from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  is  admitted  to  the  chamber  containing  the  piston  8. 

The  operation  of  this  triple  valve  is  as  follows :  The  auxiliary  reservoir  having  been  filled 
with  air  at  the  pressure  in  the  train  brake-pipe,  the  brake  may  be  applied  by  reducing  the 
pressure  in  the  train  brake-pipe.  The  piston  5  moves  to  the  right  until  stopped  by  the  stem 
21,  and  air  begins  to  flow  from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  to  the  brake-cylinder  through  the 
ports  w,  z,  r,  and  c.  If  the  pressure  in  the  train  brake-pipe  is  not  reduced'at  a  more  rapid  rate 
than  that  at  which  the  pressure  falls  in  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  no  further  movement  of  the 
piston  5  takes  place;  if,  however,  the  pressure  in  the  train-pipe  is  rapidly  reduced,  the 
greater  pressure  in  the  auxiliary  reservoir  will  force  the  piston  5  to  its  extreme  position  at 
the  right,  compressing  the  spring  22,  and  causing  the  slide-valve  to  uncover  the  port  t.  The 
pressure  of  the  air  thus  admitted  from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  upon  piston  8  forces  it  down- 
ward, unseating  valve  10,  and  so  permitting  the  air  in  the  train  brake-pipe  to  lift  the  check- 
valve  15,  and  discharge  directly  into  the  brake-cylinder ;  the  check-valve  15  then  immedi- 
ately closes  and  prevents  the  return  of  any  air  to  the  train  brake-pipe.  In  this  position  of 
the  slide-valve,  also,  the  air  continues  to  flow  through  the  ports  S  and  r  from  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  to  the  brake-cylinder  until  their  air  pressures  come  into  equilibrium.  As  the 


Fio.  1.— Quick-action  triple  valve. 


BRAKES. 


sprint  22  may  be  compressed  by  a  comparatively  small  difference  in  the  air  pressures  upon 
the  sides  of  the  piston  5,  a  small  reduction  only  of  air  pressure  in  the  tram  brake-pipe,  if 
quickly  made,  occurs  before  it  is  given  access  to  the  brake-cylinder  through  the  check-valve 
15.  In  all  other  respects  the  quick-action  triple  valve  operates  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
plain  automatic  triple  valve. 

The  triple  valve  is  secured  to  and  communicates  directly  with  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  while 
the  pipe  b  passing  through  the  reservoir,  affords  communication  between  the  triple  valve  and 
the  brake-cylinder.  The  piston-rod  3  is  a  hollow  tube,  in  which  is  inserted  a  rod  having  a 


FIG.  2.— Brake- valve— Section. 


Fio.  4.— Engineer's  brake-valve— Plan. 


clevis  at  its  outer  end,  which  is 
attached  to  the  lever.  Its  out- 
ward movement  applies  the 
brake. 

The  Engineer's  Brake-  Valve. 
— This  valve  has  four  distinct 
functions :  First,  to  establish  di- 
rect communication  between  the 
main  storage  reservoir  and  the 
train  brake-pipe,  for  releasing 
the  brakes ;  second,  to  maintain 
the  required  air  pressure  in  the 
train  brake-pipe  and  auxiliary 
reservoirs,  while  also  maintain- 
ing a  certain  greater  pressure  in 
the  main  reservoir,  to  make  sure 
the  release  of  all  the  brakes  after 
an  application  ;  third,  to  permit 
the  escape  of  air  from  the  train 


brake-pipe  at  a  fixed  rate,  for  all  ordinary  applications  of  the  brakes ;  fourth,  to  cause  a 
rapid  discharge  of  air  from  the  train  brake'-pipe,  to  secure  the  quick-action  in  an  emergency 
application  of  the  brakes.  Pigs.  2,  3,  and  4  illustrate  the  brake- valve.  The  pipe  from  the 
main  reservoir  is  attached  at  X;  the  train  brake-pipe  at  Y-  at  T  a  small  reservoir  is  at- 
tached, which  merely  serves  the  purpose  of  giving  increased  volume  to  the  chamber  D.  A 
rotary  valve  13  (the  lower  face  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  8)  is  operated  by  the  handle  8. 
The  piston  17,  having  a  stem  formed  into  a  valve  at  its  lower  end,  is  subject  to  the  air 
pressure  of  the  train  brake-pipe  upon  its  lower  face  and  to  the  air  pressure  of  chamber  D  upon 
its  upper  face.  The  rotary  valve  13  has  two  ports,  a  and  /,  passing  through  it,  and  two 
cavities,  c  and  p,  in  its  lower  face.  The  seat  for  valve  13  has  a  cavity  b,  a  large  port  k  and 
a  small  port  h,  both  leading  directly  to  %the  atmosphere,  two  ports,  e  and  <;,  leading  to  the 
chamber  D,  a  large  port  I,  leading  to  the  train  brake-pipe,  and  a  port,  /,  leading  to  the  port 
I,  and  in  which  is  a  valve  21.  The  different  positions  for  the  handle  8  are  defined  by  projec- 
tions from  the  valve-casing,  shown  in  Fig.  4,  which  are  encountered  by  the  spring  9  from  the 
handle,  and  offer  sufficient  resistance  to  the  movement  of  the  handle  to  mark  the  positions.  ^ 
The  operation  of  this  valve  is  as  follows :  The  handle  8  being  placed  in  the  release  posi- 
tion, the  air  passes  from  the  main  reservoir,  through  the  port  a,  cavities  b  and  c,  and  port  I, 
to  the  train  brake-pipe,  and  releases  the  brakes.  At  the  same  time  the  air  also  passes  through 
the  ports  j  and  e  to  the  chamber  D,  thus  placing  piston  17  in  equilibrium.  The  handle  8 


BRAKES. 


89 


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90 


BKICK-MACHINES. 


is  then  moved  to  the  position  for  running.  Cavities  6  and  c  are  thus  separated,  and  the  air 
from  the  main  reservoir  now  has  to  pass  to  the  train  brake-pipe  through  ports  /,  /,  and  I. 
To  pass  through  the  port  /  the  valve  21  must  be  forced  from  its  seat,  and,  it  being  seated 


FIG.  5.— Brake- valve— Detail. 


by  the  spring  20  of  the  proper  resistance,  a  proportionally  greater  pressure  is  thus  carried  in 
the  main  reservoir.  In  this  position  of  the  handle,  the  piston  17  remains  in  equilibrium,  the 
train  brake-pipe  and  chamber  D  being  in  open  communication,  through  port  I,  cavity  c,  and 
port  g.  Figs.  5,  6,  7,  8  show  parts  in  detail. 

To  apply  the  brakes  for  any  ordinary  purpose  the  handle  8  is  moved  to  the  position  for 
"  service  stop  "  All  communication  with  the  main  reservoir  is  thus  destroyed,  and  the  air  in 
chamber  D  is  cut  off  from  the  train  brake-pipe.  The  cavity p  of  the  rotary  valve  13  con- 
nects ports  e  and  h,  and  air  from  the  chamber  1)  discharges  to  the  atmosphere.  A  pressure 
gauge  connected  to  the  chamber  D  at  W  indicates  when  the  pressure  has  been  sufficiently 
reduced  by  the  discharge  of  air,  and  the  handle  8  is  then  moved  back  as  far  as  the  position 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  7. 
Brake-valve— Details. 


FIG.  8. 


"  on  lap."  Here  all  ports  are  covered.  Accompanying  the  reduction  of  pressure  in  chamber 
Z>,  the  equilibrium  of  piston  17  being  destroyed,  it  is  forced  upward  by  the  greater  pressure 
in  the  train  brake-pipe,  and  the  port  n  is  opened.  The  aperture  of  the  port  n  is  so  gauged 
that  the  air  is  discharged  from  the  train  brake-pipe  through  the  ports  m  and  n  at  such  a 
rate  that  the  brakes  are  all  applied  gradually  and  uniformly.  The  discharge  of  air  from  the 
train  brake-pipe  through  the  port-rc  continues  until  the  reduced  pressure  becomes  a  little 
less  than  that  remaining  in  chamber  D,  when  piston  17  is  forced  downward  and  cuts  off 
further  discharge  from  the  train  brake-pipe.  The  volume  of  chamber  D  being  constant,  the 
reduction  of  pressure  invariably  corresponds  to  the  quantity  of  air  discharged  from  it,  without 
reference  to  the  volume  of  air  in  the  train  brake-pipe  ;  the  manipulation  of  the  brake-valve, 
to  apply  each  brake  with  any  particular  force,  is  the  same,  therefore,  for  trains  of  any  length. 

To  effect  a  quick  stop  the  handle  8  is  moved  directly  to  the  position  for  "  emergency 
stop."  The  cavity  c  then  connects  ports  I  and  k.  and,  a  large  direct  avenue  for  the  escape  of 
the  air  from  the  train  brake-pipe  being  presented,  a  violent  reduction  of  pressure  occurs, 
causing  the  quick  action  of  the  triple  valves  and  a  sudden,  full  application  of  all  the  brakes. 

On  page  89  is  given  a  tabulated  statement  of  the  results  of  a  series  of  tests  of  the  quick- 
action  automatic  brake  upon  a  train  of  50  freight-cars. 

Bran  Buster:  see  Milling  Machinery,  Grain. 

Breaker:  see  Coal-Breaker,  Ore-Crushing  Machines,  and  Rope-Making  Machines. 

BRICK-MACHINES.  Three  classes  of  machines  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  tiles, 
etc.,  may  be  distinguished  : 

1.  Soft-clay  or  sand-molding  machines.     The  clay  is  taken  from  the  bank,  mixed  with 
water,  and  thoroughly  tempered  in  the  machine,  and  pressed  into  molds,  which  are  then  taken 
from  the  machine,  and  the  brick  spread  on  the  yard  to  dry,  or  put  on  pallets  and  dried  in 
racks  or  artificial  driers. 

2.  Die-working  machines,  making  brick  from  tempered  clay  stiff  enough  to  allow  hacking 
direct  from  the  machine.     The  clay  is  ground  and  tempered  by  the  machine,  and  is  pressed 
out  through  a  die  in  the  form  of  a  bar.     It  is  then  cut  into  brick  of  the  desired  size  by  means 
of  strong  steel  wires.     Die- working  machines  may  be  divided  into  two  sub-classes :  (a)  Auger 
machines,  in  which  the  clay  is  continuously  moved  out  by  means  of  a  rotating  auger ;  and 
(b)  plunging  machines,  in  which  the  clay  *is  pressed  out  'by  the  reciprocating  motion  of  a 
plunger. 

3.  Dry-clay  machines,  which  make  brick  from  finely  pulverized  dry  clay.     This  last  type 
of  machine  is  adapted  to  a  comparatively  small  proportion  of  clays,  and  is  best  suited  for  the 
manufacture  of  pressed  brick  for  the  fronts  of  buildings. 

As  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  various  processes  of  brick-making,  opinions  differ  widely. 


BRICK-MACHIKES.  91 


The  adherents  of  the  soft-clay  process  claim  that  the  so-called  "  soft-mud  "  brick  are  not 
liable  to  crack  or  warp  in  drying,  or  check  in  burning ;  that  they  are  cut  easily  with  the 
trowel;  that  the  sand  surface  forms  an  excellent  ground  for  mortar;  that  all  portions  of 
the  brick  are  equally  dense,  not  having  an  external  shell  that  is  extremely  hard  and  liable  to 
flake  off,  leaving  the  porous  interior  to  waste  away.  It  is  also  claimed*  that  they  are  much 
less  difficult  to  burn,  and,  when  tfell  made  and  burned,  if  of  good  material,  have  no  superior 
for  strength  and  durability.  Against  the  stiff-mud  or  wire-cut  machines,  the  soft-clay  adher- 
ents urge  that  the  brick  produced  by  them  needs  repressing ;  that  they  are  not  usually 
square,  and  that  the  ends  are  more  or  less  ragged.  It  is  also  insisted  that  the  clay  being 
forced  through  dies  stiff  enough  to  handle  at  once,  the  center  of  the  stream  or  column  moves 
faster  than  its  surface,  and  arranges  itself  in  layers  or  laminations,  making  the  brick  very 
unsuitable  for  cutting  by  the  mason,  and  liable  to  flake. 

As  against  the  dry-clay  process,  it  is  claimed  that  it  is  not  possible  to  construct  a  dry-clay 
machine  that  will  exert  the  tremendous  pressure  necessary  to  be  continually  given,  and  last 
for  any  reasonable  length  of  time,  without  making  it  both  clumsy  and  expensive  ;  that  there 
is  no  uniformity  in  density  in  the  product,  and  that,  after  baking,  the  products  become  open 
and  weak.  The  advantages  claimed  for  the  tempered-clay  machines  are,  that  they  mix  and 
temper  the  clay  with  water  as  they  use  it,  without  any  additional  handling,  or  without  pre- 
viously drying,  rolling,  or  any  other  preparation  whatever  for  ordinary  clays,  taking  them 
just  as  furnished  by  Nature.  The  machines  first,  after  tempering  the  clay,  form  it  into  a 
parallel-sided  bar  of  the  proper  width  and  thickness  for  a  brick,  sand  the  surface,  cut  this  bar 
in  uniform  lengths,  and  then  deliver  the  bricks  so  molded  and  sanded  in  a  condition  suffi- 
ciently stiff  to  be  immediately  wheeled  and  hacked  in  the  shade  or  on  the  drying-car. 

The  adherents  of  the  stiff -clay  machine  claim  that  their  apparatus  does  everything  between 
dumping  the  clay  into  it  and  making  the  bricks  ready  to  hack.  The  bricks,  therefore,  do  not 
require  to  be  sun-dried,  and  hence  it  is  asserted  that  yards  using  such  machines  may  run  five 
or  six  weeks  longer  in  a  year  than  those  using  soft-clay  molding-machines.  It  is  pointed  out 
that,  if  the  soft  machine-made  or  hand-made  bricks  be  not  dried  enough  to  hack,  in  case  of 
sudden  rainy  weather,  they  must  necessarily  be  lost  or  damaged.  The  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  the  different  types  of  apparatus  will  be  found  fully  set  forth  in  the  trade  publica- 
tions of  the  various  brick-machine  manufacturers,  and  need  not  further  be  discussed  here. 

There  have  been  great  improvements  made  not  merely  in  the  construction  of  brick-machines 
during  the  last  ten  years,  but  also  in  their  workmanship.  A  leading  manufacturer  claims 
that  it  is  "•  wholly  a  mistaken  opinion  that,  because  clay-working  machinery  must  work  in 
mud  and  grit,  it  should  be  rough  and  coarse,"  and  maintains  that  the  details  of  such 
machinery  should  be  "  as  thoroughly  studied,  and  the  design  as  carefully  worked  into  shape, 
as  though  it  were  a  Waltham  watch  or  a  Corliss  engine.  Though  it  may  seem  useless  refine- 
ment to  work  to  templates  with  so  much  exactness  on  machinery  that  is  to  be  covered  with 
grease  and  dirt,  and  be  exposed  more  or  less  to  the  weather  and  all  kinds  of  rough  handling, 
yet  it  is  decided  economy,  durability,  and  freedom  from  expensive  delays,  to  justify  this  care 
and  expense." 

The  "  New  Haven  "  Horizontal  Steam-Power  Brick-Machine,  (Fig.  1). — This  is  an  example 
of  a  soft-clay  or  "  pallet-mud  "  machine.  It  is  provided  with  a  horizontal  pug-mill,  with  a 
vertical  pressing  mechanism  attached  to  the  front,  into  which  press-box  the  clay  is  forced  by 
feed-wings  on  the  tempering-shaft.  The  mold-ejecting  carriage  rolls  on  a  mold-table  (under 
machine),  and  is  operated  from  a  large  press-gear  by  means  of  lever  and  connection  shown  on 
side  of  the  machine.  There  are  numerous  features  in  the  construction  of  this  machine  which 
are  worthy  of  notice.  The  tempering-box  has  frame  timbers,  8  in.  X  8  in.,  strongly  framed 
together,  and  is  bound  by  three  rods  on  each  side,  reaching  from  end  to  end.  Vertical  rods 


strong  enough  to  stand  any  amount  of  back  pressure  that  may  be  exerted  at  this  point  by  the 
terapering-shaft.  The  lower  front  casting  of  the  tempering-box  weighs  790  Ibs.,  is  heavily 
ribbed  on  the  inside,  and  has  a  babbitted  bearing  for  the  front  end  of  the  tempering-shaft  cast 
on,  with  suitable  oil-pipe  cast  in,  reaching  to  the  top.  Immediately  above  is  an  upper  front 
casting,  which  supports  the  steel  crank-shaft,  and  which  is  held  firmly  in  place  by  two  side- 
braces,  and  is  securely  held  down  against  upward  pressure  of  the  press  by  heavy  rods  on  each 
side  of  the  crank.  The  tempering-shaft  is  4  in.  sq.,  with  a  heavy  steel  collar  shrunk  on  at 
the  shoulder  next  to  rear-bearing,  to  give  a  large  back  pressure-wearing  surface.  On  the 
rear  end  of  the  shaft  is  a  heavy  bevel  gear,  8  ft.  10  in.  diameter,  6  in.  face,  which  is  driven  by 
a  clutch  pinion  on  main  shaft.  These  gears  have  only  to  drive  the  tempering-shaft  as  the 
press  is  driven  by  pulleys.  As  many  flat  or  pitched  tempering-knives  and  feed-wings  can  be 
attached  to  this  shaft  as  are  needed  to  properly  temper  the  clay  and  feed  the  press.  The  press- 
box  is  33  in.  X  9A  in.  inside.  The  surfaces  are  planed  and  lined  with  steel  plates.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  steel  cross-head  attached  to  the  pitman,  and  which  moves  perpendicularly  in 
the  plunger  standard,  exerts  its  pressure  squarely  on  a  broad  steel  press-plate  that  fits  in  the 
pressure-adjusting  notches.  The  effect  of  this  arrangement  is  to  assure  a  firm,  square  move- 
ment of  the  plunger  downward,  and  prevents  liability  to  tilt  and  bring  extra  strain  and  wear 
on  the  guides.  The  pressing  surface  of  the  cross-head  is  4  in.  X  4|  in.  The  stroke  of  the 
plunger  can  be  regulated  by  inches,  from  3i  in.  to  10£  in.,  full  stroke,  and  pressure  remains 
on  while  the  mold  is  being  delivered ;  or,  by  removing  the  press-plate,  all  pressing  is  stopped 
while  the  machine  still  runs.  That  amount  of  adjustment  should  be  enough  to  accommodate 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


anv  degree  of  tempered  clay.  The  means  of  relief  in  cases  of  stones  or  other  obstructions 
consisUn  doors,  shown  in  front  of  the  press,  which  are  held  in  place  by  springs  so  adjusted 
that  if  an  obstruction  projects  from  any  single  brick  that  door  will  fly  open  and  allow  it  to 
pass  out,  leaving  the  remaining  five  bricks  in  the  mold  perfect,  or  if  the  obstruction  covers 
more  than  one  brick  it  will  open  two  or  more  doors  and  pass  out.  This  arrangement  prevents 
leakage  and  wear  and  tear  on  the  molds.  On  the  side  of  the  machine  just  above  the  grip 
connection  is  a  dash-pot  with  its  plunger  connected  with  the  ejector-lever,  which  forms  an 
to  prevent  jar  on  the  return  stroke.  The  mold-table  is  held  in  position  by  four 


FIG.  1.— The  New  Haven  brick-machino. 

large  steel  screws  that  work  in  heavy  iron  cross-beams.  The  ejector-carriage  is  of  iron,  with 
wood  buffer  strip  on  the  front  to  protect  the  molds  from  wear.  Its  four  rollers  run  on  an  iron 
track  on  table.  The  carriage  has  a  quick  return  motion,  which  allows  plenty  of  time  to  insert 
the  molds.  Weight  of  machine,  complete,  is  about  14,300  Ibs.,  or  a  little  more  than  7  tons. 
In  point  of  capacity,  the  machine  is  usually  geared  to  make  13  molds  per  minute,  which  is 
4,680  bricks  per  hour.  For  an  output  of  13  molds  per  minute  the  main  driving  shaft  should 
run  about  150  revolutions  per  minute.  With  stiff  clay  the  power  required  for  this  output  is 
about  25  horse.  To  produce  40,000  bricks  per  day  requires  a  force  of  nine  men  and  four  boys. 
The  Chambers  Brick-Machine  (Fig.  2),  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Chambers  Bro.  &  Co.,  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  is  an  example  of  an  auger-class  of  stiff-clay  machine.  The  clay  is  taken 
direct  from  the  bank  and  dumped  on  the  platform  covering  the  machine  at  the  side  of  a 
galvanized  iron  hopper  that  leads  into  the  tempering-case  of  the  machine,  and  mixed,  when 
necessary,  with  loam,  sand,  or  coal-dust ;  and  the  requisite  amount  of  water  being  added  to 
temper  the  clay  to  the  proper  consistency,  the  mass  is  shoveled  into  the  hopper  and  falls  into 
the  machine.  The  hopper  of  the  brick-machine  proper  is  square,  with  circular  corners,  to 
prevent  the  clay  from  sticking  in  the  corners,  and  is  larger  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  to 
prevent  jamming  of  the  mass.  It  enters  the  tempering-case  at  one  side  of  its  center  line,  so 
that  the  clay  in  falling  meets  the  revolving  tempering-knives  as  they  are  coming  up.  This 
keeps  up  an  agitation  of  the  clay  in  the  hopper,  and  tends  to  prevent*  clogging  and  an  irreg- 
ular supply  of  clay  to  the  tempering  device.  A  small  cast-iron  roller  is  situated  at  the 
bottom  of  the  hopper,  and  just  above  the  line  of  tempering-knives  and  at  the  side  toward 
which  the  knives  move.  Against  this  roller  the  clay  is  thrust  by  the  tempering-knives  as 
they  cut  through  the  solid  mass  of  fine  clay  and  lumps,  and  on  to  which  the  clay  adheres  ; 
but  as  this  roller  turns  around,  say  once  in  a  minute,  the  impinged  clay  is  carried  within  the 
path  of  the  knives,  and  is  carried  off  by  them  and  tempered,  thus  effectually  clearing  the 
throat  of  the  hopper.  The  tempering  portion  of  the  machine  consists  of  a  cast-iron  conical 
case,  in  which  revolves  a  horizontal  shaft  into  which  are  set  spirally,  strong  tempering-knives. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


93 


so  that,  as  they  pass  through  the  clay,  they  move  it  forward.  The  clay  being  stiff,  and  not 
having  much  water  on  it,  is  not  liable  to  slip  before  the  knives,  but  is  cut  through  and  through, 
and  thoroughly  tempered,  the  air  escaping  back  through  the  untempered  clay,  so  that  by  the 
time  the  clay  reaches  the  small  end  of  the  tempering-case  it  is  ready  to  be  formed  into  bricks. 


On  the  end  of  the  tempering-shaft  is  secured  a  conical  screw  of  hard  iron,  which  revolves 
in  a  hard-iron  conical  case,  the  inside  of  which  is  ribbed  or  fluted  lengthwise,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  clay  from  revolving  in  it,  and  is  hard,  to  prevent  wearing.  The  screw  being  smooth  and 
very  hard,  the  clay  slides  on  it.  thus  becoming,  as  it  were,  a  nut ;  the  screw  revolving  and  not 
being  allowed  to  move  backward,  the  clay  must  go  forward,  sliding  within  the  screw-case. 
This  operation  further  tempers  the  clay,  and  delivers  it  in  a  solid  round  column  to  the  form- 
ing-die, which  (Fig.  3)  is  held  within  the  steam-heated  former-case.  The  great  difficulty 
experienced  in  machines  expressing  plastic  materials  has  been  to  make  the  flowing  mass  move 


94 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


with  uniform  velocity  through  all  its  parts.  As  the  channel  of  a  river  flows  faster  than  the 
shallow  portions,  or  those  near  the  banks,  so  does  clay  move  through  a  die,  the  friction  of 
the  corners  holding  them  back,  while  the  center  moves  more  freely.  In  the  present  machine 
this  difficultv  is  overcome  by  the  peculiar  "  former,"  which  is  so  shaped  as  to  facilitate  the 
flow  of  the  clay  to  the  corners,  and  retard  it  opposite  to  the  straight  sides  of  the  die,  the  pro- 
jections being  much  larger  opposite  the  larger  diameter  of  the  die  (Fig.  3).  lor  very  wide 
and  thin  bricks  the  resisting  projection  is  omitted  wholly  at  the  short  diameter  of  the  die,  or 
at  the  edge  of  the  bricks,  the  spreading  of  the  clay  outward  to  the  edge,  rather  than  into  the 
corners  only,  being  facilitated.  By  this  means  the  angles  of  the  bar  of  clay  are  re-enforced 
and  made  very  solid  and  sharp,  thus  insuring  square  and  well-defined  corners  to  the  bricks. 
The  "  former  "  is  secured  to  the  screw-case  by  a  hinge  and  swinging  bolt,  so  that  it  may  be 


FIG.  3.  —The  Chambers  brick-machine— the  dies. 

quickly  swung  open  for  the  removal  of  stones.  This  swinging  bolt  is  secured  to  the  case  by 
a  pin  of  just  sufficient  strength  to  hold  under  normal  conditions,  and  when  undue  strain 
comes  from  hard  clay,  etc.,  it  yields,  thus  forming  a  safeguard  against  accidents  arising  from 
improper  feeding. 

As  the  bar  of  clay  issues  from  the  forming-die  it  passes  through  a  small  chamber  filled 
with  fine,  dry  sand,  which  adheres  to  the  surface  of  the  bricks.  The  surplus  sand  is  kept 
back  in  the  chamber  by  swinging  elastic  scrapers,  which  allow  the  bar  to  escape  with  its 
adhering  sand.  This  sanded  surface  of  the  clay  bar  prevents  the  bricks  from  sticking 
together  on  the  barrows  or  in  the  hacks,  or  on  the  drying-cars,  and  improves  them  in  color 
when  burnt.  All  clay  has  more  or  less  stones  in  it,  and  as  it  is  impracticable  to  pick  them  all  out, 
there  is  a  necessity  of  making  some  provision  for  their  removal.  If  a  stone  is  more  than  3  in. 
in  diameter,  and  does  not  lodge  in  the  stationary  lining  of  clay  in  the  case,  it  will  lodge  at  the 
entrance  to  the  expressing  screw,  preventing  the  clay  from  issuing  at  the  die,  when  a  safety- 
valve  is  forced  open,  through  which  the  stone  may  readily  be  removed.  If  a  stone  of  less 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


95 


diameter  than  the  mouth  of  the  screw  passes  to  that  point,  it  will  go  through  the  screw,  the 
openings  between  the  threads  being  less  at  the  entrance  than  at  any  other  point;  so  that  a 
stone  that  once  fairly  enters  can  not  lodge  until  it  has  reached  the  forming-die,  where  it  will 
lodge  if  it  is  larger  than  a  brick  is  thick,  and  prevent  the  proper  flow  of  clay,  causing  the  bar 
to  split  in  two,  or  only  part  of  the  bar  to  issue  ;  this  forming-die  being  secured  on  hinges,  it 
can  be  swung  open  and  the  stone  knocked  out,  when  the  die  is  closed  and  the  machine  again 
started.  Should  an  undue  pressure  be  brought  upon 
the  machine  from  a  stone  lodging  in  the  die,  or-the 
clay  being  too  sandy  or  too  stiff,  there  is  a  safety-pin 
holding  the  eye-bolt  that  secures  the  "  former,"  which 
is  cut  off  by  the  strain  and  the  former  opens,  thus  in- 
stantly and  automatically  relieving  the  machine. 

The  bricks  cut  from  the  continuous  bar  are  sepa- 
rated and  carried  by  an  endless  belt  any  desired  dis- 
tance, sometimes  200  ft.  across  the  yard,  from  which 
the  bricks  may  be  wheeled  to  any  point  most  conven- 
ient for  "  hacking,"  or  loaded  directly  upon  the  drier- 
cars,  as  may  be  required. 

The  Spiral  Cut-off  (Fig.  4),  employed  in  the  Cham- 
ber's machine,  is  a  thin  blade  of  tempered  steel,  secured 
to  the  periphery  of  a  drum,  in  the  form  of  a  spiral,  the 
distance  between  the  blades  of  which  is  that  required 
for  the  length  of  a  brick,  and  the  projection  of  which 
gradually  increases  from  nothing  at  its  first  end  to  the 
full  width  of  the  widest  brick  to  be  cut.  This  spiral 
knife  runs  perpendicularly  in  openings  in  the  links  of 
an  endless  chain,  supported  upon  rollers,  the  chain  be- 
ing so  formed  as  to  support  the  bar  of  clay  from  the 
bottom  and  one  edge ;  the  clay  is  thus  fully  supported 
while  being  slowly  cut  off  by  the  long  drawing  cut  of 
the  spiral  blades  in  passing  through  the  openings  in 
the  chain.  The  distance  between  the  spiral  blades  be- 
ing uniform,  the  lengths  of  the  bricks  are  uniform. 
The  ends  of  the  bricks  are  cut  smooth  and  square. 
The  speed  is  controlled  by  that  of  the  clay  itself; 
hence,  no  matter  how  irregular  the  flow  of  clay  from 
the  die,  the  spiral  runs  in  exact  unison  therewith,  con- 
sequently the  uniformity  in  the  length  of  the  bricks. 
This  controlling  of  the  speed  of  the  spiral  by  the  clay 
is  so  positive  that  it  will  run  at  any  speed,  from  3  to 
100  bricks  per  minute,  while  the  machine  runs  at  its 
regular  speed.  In  order  that  the  spiral  knife  may  not 
be  affected  by  stones,  the  shaft  to  which  it  is  secured 
is  held  in  position  by  gravity  and  counterweighted, 
so  as  to  adjust  it  with  just  sufficient  force  to  compel  the 
knife  to  pass  through  the  bar  of  clay.  When  the  knife 
comes  in  contact  with  any  hard  foreign  substance,  as 
stones,  brickbats,  or  bones,  its  rides  up  on  the  obstruc- 
tion, and,  when  passed,  falls  by  gravity  to  its  original 
position. 

The  Penfield  Plunger  Brick-Machine  (Fig.  5), 
manufactured  bv  Messrs.  J.  VV.  Penfield  &  Son,  Wil- 


loughby,  Ohio,  is  an  example  of  the  plunger  type  of 
stiff-clay  machine.  The  clay  is  fed  into  the  drum  or 
tempering-cylinder,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a  shaft 
filled  with  blades,  which  grind  the  clay  and  force  it 
through  a  port-hole  into  the  pressing  chamber.  A 
plunger  device  then  presses  the  clay  through  the  die, 
and  on  to  the  cut-off  table.  It  is  then  cut  into  bricks 
by  means  of  a  suitable  cutter-frame,  strung  with  wires 
and  operated  by  hand.  The  mechanical  device  used 
to  propel  the  plunger  is  a  steel  cam,  placed  on  the  main 
shaft  between  the  upper  and  lower  bed-plates.  It  ope- 
rates the  rollers  at  the  front  and  rear  ends  of  a  sliding 
frame  to  which  the  plunger  is  attached,  giving  it  alter- 
nately a  forward  and  backward  motion  at  each  revolu- 
tion of  the  shaft.  The  machines  are  made  either  sin- 
gle or  double  workers — one  cam  doing  the  work  in  either  case.  The  main  shaft,  cam,  and 
friction  roller  are  of  steel,  and  the  machines  are  built  with  proportionate  strength  through- 
out. In  this  machine,  as  in  that  last  described,  the  clay  is  tempered  and  molded  stiff  enough 
to  allow  immediate  hacking  of  the  brick.  Fig.  5  represents  a  Penfield  machine  capable  of 
turning  out  40,000  bricks  per  10  hours,  and  having  the  following  dimensions :  Height  of 
machine,  9  ft.  8  in. ;  length  of  sills,  6  ft. ;  width  from  out  to  out  of  sills,  3  ft.  10  in. ;  extreme 


96 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


width  6  ft.  6  in. :  capacity,  40,000  bricks  per  10  hours ;  estimated  weight,  12,000  Ibs. ;  speed 
of  puiley-shaf  t,  about  145  revolutions  per  minute ;  pulleys,  42  in.  diameter,  10  in.  face ;  ma- 
chine is  back-geared  42  to  1. 

By  a  change  of  die  in  this  machine,  all  shapes  and  sizes  of  bricks,  especially  those  of  orna- 
mental patterns,  can  be  made.    The  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  die,  therefore,  form 


FIG.  5. — The  Penfleld  plunger  brick-machine. 

a  novel  and  important  feature.  The  back  or  forming  die  receives  and  forms  a  bar  of  clay 
with  rounded  corners.  The  clay  bar  then  passes  through  the  finishing  die,  which  is  slightly 
square-cornered,  and  by  means  of  this  "  slicker "  and  the  process  of  lubrication  the  bar  is 
finished  and  given  corners  accurately  shaped.  The  lubrication  is  effected  by  water,  by  steam, 
or  by  both.  For  water  lubrication  the  finishing  die  is  set  a  short  distance  ahead  of  the  back 

die,  and  water  (or  oil)  is  allowed  to  flow  between 
the  two  dies  and  upon  the  clay  bar.  For  steam 
lubrication  the  finishing  and* forming  dies  are 
bolted  tightly  together  and  packed.  Steam  is 
then  supplied  directly  from  the  boiler  to  the  clay 
bar.  In  cases  where  both  water  and  steam  lubri- 
cation are  desired,  two  slickers  or  finishing  dies 
are  used,  the  one  next  to  the  forming  die  being 
arranged  for  steam  connection,  and  the  front 
slicker  being  water  lubricating,  each  being  oper- 
ated respectively  as  already  explained.  Good  re- 
sults have  also  been  obtained  with  a  so-called 
"brass  scale  finishing"  die  in  which  the  outer 
part  of  the  slicker  is  an  iron  casting,  into  which 
is  fitted  a  wooden  lining,  which  in  turn  is  lined 
with  strips  of  spring  brass.  This  slicker  is  pro- 
vided with  a  large  number  of  channels,  conduct- 
ing the  water  or  steam  from  the  outside  of  the 
slicker  to  the  brass  scales,  thus  lubricating  the  bar 
of  clay  effectively  as  it  passes  through  the  die. 
In  still  another  form  of  die  each  corner  of  the  bar 
of  clay  is  lubricated  separately,  and  by  means  of 
a  brass  plug  at  each  corner  the  flow  of  steam  can 
be  regulated  or  entirely  shut  off  from  any  one  or 
more  corners  at  any  time  desired.  Thus,  if  one 
corner  of  the  die  becomes  clogged,  so  that  the 
steam  does  not  reach  the  corner  of  the  bar  of 
clay,  causing  it  to  ruffle  or  tear,  the  steam  can  be 
shut  off  from  the  other  three  corners.  This  will 
allow  the  full  head  of  steam  to  reach  the  corner  which  is  clogged,  blowing  out  the  obstruc- 
tion. 


FIG.  6. — Hand  brick-repressing  press. 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


97 


Brick- Repressing  Machines. — Up  to  within  a  few  years,  the  process  of  making  orna- 
mental bricks,  tiles,  etc.,  was  carried  on  entirely  by  hand,  requiring  skilled  labor,  and  pro- 
ducing but  a  few  pieces  of  work  per  day.  An  example  of  a  repressing  hand-press,  which 
will  produce  designs  of  the  most  complicated  pattern,  and  manufactured  by  Messrs.  C.  W. 
Raymond  &  Co.,  of  Dayton,  Ohio, 
is  given  in  Fig.  6.  The  dies,  which 
are  supported  upon  the  fixed  stand- 
ard above,  are  made  of  finished 
brass  ;  and  as  one  die  can  easily  be 
changed  for  another,  the  range  of 
patterns  possible  is  endless.  The 
clay  is  first  struck  out  by  a  ma- 
chine, or  molded  by  hand,  in  order 
to  insure  proper  tempering  and  to 
get  the  requisite  amount  in  block. 
After  partial  drying,  it  is  put  in 
the  press,  when  a  single  stroke  of 
the  lever  causes  it  to  be  molded 
into  the  desired  form.  As  many 
as  2,000  blocks  per  hour  can  be 
made  on  a  single  press  of  this  de- 
scription. The  large  demand  made 
by  architects  for  ornamental  brick 
for  embellishment  of  the  exterior 
of  buildings  has  resulted  in  the 
construction  of  an  automatic-power 
brick-repressing  machine,  which  is 
constructed  by  the  same  manufac- 
turer, and  which  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  7.  Here  the  brick,  after  be- 
ing struck  out  by  hand  or  machine, 
and  allowed  properly  to  dry,  are 
placed  on  the  feeding-table  "by  an 
attendant,  or  run  indirect  from  the 
off-bearing  belt.  They  are  then 
taken,  by  the  mechanism  of  the  press,  fed  into  the  die  automatically,  where  they  are  subject 
to  great 'and  uniform  pressure,  which  imparts  to  them  sharp  and  well-defined  corners  and 
edges,  after  which  they  are  discharged  from  the  press  automatically  upon  the  endless  vibra- 
ting-belt  in  a  finished  and  perfect  condition.  Thence  they  are  placed  upon  barrows  or  trucks 
by  an  off-bearer.  Two  men,  or  rather  two  boys,  are  required  to  operate  it.  The  capacity 
of  this  machine  is  from  10,000  to  12.000  bricks  per  day.  Not  merely  are  brick-repressing 
machines  adapted  to  the  production  of  ornamental  bricks,  but  it  is  fast  becoming  the  practice 
to  repress  all  brick  used  for  paving  purposes.  It  is  claimed  that  paving  bricks  so  repressed 
will  not  flake  or  laminate,  nor  crack  by  the  contact  of  horses'  feet.  They  may  be  made  of 
any  shape,  and  so  as  to  present  a  uniform  and  smooth  surface,  and  as  a  roadway,  while  their 
greater  density  causes  them  to  absorb  less  fluids  and  gases. 

Messrs.  Chambers  Bro.  &  Co.  give  the  following  method  of  making  pressed  bricks,  using 
their  machine.  "  To  manufacture  press  bricks  by  our  machine,  we  put  on  a  die  that  will  mold 
the  bricks  sufficiently  narrow  to  drop  into  the  mold  of  the  press,  and  thick  enough  to  make  a 


FIG.  7.— Power  brick -repressing  press. 


FIG.  8. — Handling  bricks. 

press  brick  of  the  proper  size.  This  can  be  done  in  five  minntes.  Then  we  use  a  very  fine 
sand,  largely  impregnated  with  iron,  baked  dry  and  sieved,  which  is  put  into  the  sanding- 
machine,  which  coats  the  sides  and  edgres  of  the  brick  all  over,  thus  making  a  veneering  of 
fine  iron-ore  and  sand  on  their  faces.  These  bricks  are  taken  from  the  machine  in  the  usual 
manner,  loaded  carefully  on  barrows  designed  for  the  purpose  with  their  heads  all  even,  then 

7 


98 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


their  heads  are  rubbed  with  sand  also  (Fig.  8).  Now  they  are  wheeled  to  the  li  press-shed," 
where  they  are  "  hacked  "  close ;  that  is,  so  as  to  prevent  the  air  from  passing  between  them, 
thereby  keeping  them  at  about  the  same  consistency  as  when  they  were  made,  which  is  just 
right  for  repressing.  From  this  close  hack  the  bricks  are  taken  and  repressed  in  the  usual 
manner;  or,  if  a  sufficient  number  of  presses  be  used,  or  the  machine  runs  slow,  they  may  be 
taken  and  pressed  direct  from  the  barrows.  This  repressing  brings  the  bricks  to  a  mathemat- 
ical precision  as  regards  their  size,  surfaces,  and  angles,  the  flat  or  largest  surface  of  the  bricks 
being  concave,  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  edges  to  come  close,  so  as  to  show  a  very  thin 
joint  when  laid.  We  do  not  think  the  "  skin  "  on  the  press-bricks  molded  in  our  machines 
usually  so  good  as  those  molded  in  sand  by  hand;  but  where  the  clay  gives  "  color,"  and  not 
the  molding  sand,  then  the  best  color  is  obtained  by  repressing  our  machine-bricks  direct  from 
the  machine." 

Arrangement  of  Brick- Yard  Machinery.— Fig.  9  represents  aground-plan,  showing  the 
arrangement  of  pits,  single- worker  machine,  boiler  and  engine,  etc.  This  plan  is  made  to 
show  the  arrangement  of  pits  and  machines,  where  crusher  and  elevator  are  used,  or  where  it 


FIG.  9.— Plan  of  brick-yard. 

is  found  desirable  to  simply  use  the  elevator.  A  represents  the  machine  placed  midway 
between  the  pits  B  and  C.  The  pits  are  12  ft.  long  and  20  ft.  deep.  The  clay-crushers  are 
placed  between  the  two  pits,  and  about  half-way  back.  By  this  arrangement  the  clay  is 
always  reasonably  convenient  to  the  clay-crusher,  and  one  pit  can  be  filled  and  soaked  while 
the  other  pit  is  being  run  into  brick.  This  is  by  far  the  best  plan  upon  which  to  operate  the 
machine.  The  machine  does  not  in  this  case  require  moving,  and  the  clay  can  be  much  more 
thoroughly  soaked,  and  fed  into  the  crusher  with  less  labor  and  expense  than  it  can  be  thrown 
into  the  machine.  One  man  can  feed  the  crusher  as  easily  as  two  can  feed  the  machine. 
Where  a  crusher  is  not  used,  an  elevator,  represented  by  Z),  is  arranged  to  run  over  the 
partition  between  the  pits.  As  the  pits  are  12  ft.  wide  and  20  ft.  long,  the  shovelers  are  never 
at  a  great  distance  from  the  carrier,  and  the  saving  of  one  man's  labor  can  be  effected  by  this 
arrangement,  which  will  pay  for  an  elevator,  or  even  a  crusher,  in  a  very  short  time.  E 
represents  the  turnbling-rod  which  transmits  the  power  to  the  machine.  At  P  the  pulleys 
are  placed,  which  receive  the  belts  from  the  engine  J.  TiT  represents  the  boiler,  and  G  the 
crusher  pulley,  ^represents  the  pulley-shaft  to  the  crushers.  These  pits,  boiler  and  engine, 
etc.,  can  all  be  covered  by  a  shed,  30  X  50  ft.  Where  parties  do  not  use  the  elevator,  it  is 
found  desirable  to  make  the  pits,  instead  of  12  ft.  wide  and  20  ft.  long,  20  ft.  wide  and  12  ft. 
long.  In  this  case  the  machine  is  placed  in  the  center  of  each  pit,  and  moved  from  one  to  the 
other.  This  is  to  facilitate  getting  clay  to  the  machine,  as  in  no  case  will  the  clay  be  at  a 
greater  distance  than  12  ft.  from  the  machine. 

Drying  Bricks. — Fig.  10  represents  Chambers  Bro.  &  Co.'s  artificial  drier.  This  drier 
consists  of  six  or  more  brick  flues,  about  40  ft.  long,  3£  ft.  wide,  and  4  ft.  high,  built  of  bricks, 
with  a  railroad  track  through  each,  slightly  descending  from  the  machine,  with  fire-grates  and 
doors  at  the  lower  end  and  a  stack  at  the  upper  end.  From  the  grates,  upon  which  coal,  coke, 
or  wood  is  burned,  the  results  of  combustion  are  conveyed  along  in  a  flue  under  the  bottom 
of  the  track  to  near  the  stack  end,  and  are  allowed  to  escape  therefrom  gradually,  through 
perforations  or  slots,  up,  under,  through,  and  between  the  bricks  on  the  iron  cars.  For  each 
tunnel  there  are  two  chambers  for  the  admission  of  air,  one  on  either  side  of  the  grate  com- 
partment, which  enter  the  convey  ing- flue  just  back  of  the  grate  surface.  In  addition  to  the 
gases  from  combustion,  a  large  amount  of  air  is  admitted  over  and  at  the  sides  of  the  furnace 
into  the  flue,  which  becomes  heated,  and,  when  distributed  through  the  bricks  by  the  adjust- 
able flue,  takes  up  the  moisture  from  the  bricks  and  carries  it  off  through  the  stack.  The 
proportion  of  air  to  the  results  of  combustion  is  regulated  by  swinging  dampers,  while  the 
draft  of  the  fire  is  under  independent  control  by  the  ash-pit  doors. 

The  bodies  of  the  cars  used  with  this  drier  are  made  of  wrought  channel-iron,  a  rigid 
open  framework,  on  which  the  pallets  are  piled.  A  boy  can  transport  504  bricks  on  one  of 
them. 

The  "  pallets  "  consist  of  two  strips  of  wrought  channel-iron  secured  at  either  end  to  a 
handle  whose  height  is  greater  than  the  width  of  the  brick.  These  handles  are  so  constructed 


BRICK-MACHINES. 


99 


that  when  the  pallets  are  piled  one  on  top  of  the  other,  they  are  securely  interlocked.  At 
each  end  of  the  flues  is  a  transfer  or  switching  car,  which  transfers  the  loaded  cars  from  a 
single  track,  running  from  the  machine,  on  to  any  one  of  the  six  rnnning  into  the  flues ;  and 
in  like  manner  from  any  one  of  the  six  flues  to  the  track  running  to  the  kilns.  The  loaded 
cars  are  transferred  into  any  one  of  the  kilns  by  means  of  transfer-cars,  and  the  empty  ones 
returned  to  the  machine  by  a  return  track,  outside  of  the  flues.  Each  car,  with  its  load  of 


sixty-three  pallets,  is  brought  to  the  side  of  the  brick-machine.  One  man  transfers  the  empty 
pallets  from  the  car  to  the  "  pallet-carrier,"  which  carries  them  along  parallel  with  the  off- 
bearing  belt,  and  close  to  it,  at  a  convenient  speed,  to  enable  the  "  off-bearers  "  to  hack  the 
bricks  upon  the  pallets.  The  motion  of  the  pallet-carrier  is  continuous,  and  when  a  pallet 
has  received  its  quota  of  eight  bricks  it  reaches  a  point  opposite  an  empty  drying-car.  Here 
one  or  more  men,  as  the  capacity  of  the  machine  may  require,  lift  the  loaded  pallets  from  the 
carrier  to  the  car.  When  the  car  is  full  it  is  ready  to  be  drawn  to  the  drier,  and  another  that 


BROACHING-MACHINES. 


FIG.  l3.-Dump-table.  FlG-  14.-Brick-bam>w. 

forced  through  them,  the  steam  from  the  bricks  near  the  fire ^condensing -on  the  surfaces  of 
the  cold  ones  and  preventing  checking  or  cracking,  while  the  bricks  absorb  the  heat  from    he 

steam  and  commence  drying  from  the 
inside  first.  When  the  bricks  directly 
over  the  fire  are  dry,  the  car  is  run  out 
to  the  kiln  to  be  set,  a  fresh  car  being 
put  in  at  the  upper  end,  pushing  the 
others  down  and  bringing  another  par- 
tially dry  car  immediately  over  the  fire, 
and  so  on.  It  is  claimed  that  one  ton 
of  anthracite  coal  will  thus  dry  25,000 
bricks ;  hence  the  expense  of  artificial 
drying  is  less  than  that  of  sunshine. 

Figs.  11  to  17  represent  a  variety  of 
improved  brick-yard  appliances.  Fig. 
11  is  a  platform  spring-truck  suitable 
for  handling  green  bricks  when  placed 
upon  pallets.  Fig.  12  is  a  double-decked 
dry  car,  on  which  the  bricks  are  hacked 
four  courses  high  on  the  lower  deck  and 
three  courses  high  on  the  upper  deck. 
Fig.  13  is  a  revolving  dump  -  table. 

}.  17.-Steel  brick-pallet.  Fig-  14  is  a  barrow  designed  for  wheel- 

ing green  or  burned  bricks.  Fig.  15  is 
a  brickmaker's  strike-knife.  Fig.  16  is  a  wrought-iron  interlocking  pallet  for  stiff-tempered 
bricks:  and  Fig.  17  is  a  steel  pallet  for  bricks  molded  on  flat  side,  or  for  those  stiff  enough 
to  stand  on  edge. 

Broach,  Channeling- :  see  Quarrying  Machinery. 

BRO ACHING-MACHINES.  Nicholson  &  Waterman's  BroacJiing-Machine.  —  Figs.  1, 
and  2  show  a  broaching-machine  built  by  Nicholson  &  Waterman,  Providence,  R.  I.,  ar- 
ranged for  milling  the  sides  of  nuts  and  bolt-heads.  The  cutters  consist  of  straight  mills, 
with  teeth  set  angling  and  slightly  hooking.  Two  sides  are  finished  at  one  pass.  The  cutters 
are  set  in  a  swivel-head,  and  approach  each  other  at  the  bottom.  The  head  swings  from 
under  the  plunger  to  facilitate  the  entering  of  work.  Guide  or  holder  blocks  secure  the 
uniformity  of  angle,  centralization  of  bolt-head  or  nut,  and  serve  as  a  gauge  for  uniform  size. 
The  action  of  the  plunger  is  automatic  in  its  return.  A  rotary  pump  feeds  lubricant  upon 
the  work  from  a  tank  placed  under  the  working  top.  The  principle  upon  which  the  cutting  is 
done  is  that  of  a  shaving  or  drawing  cut.  The  nut  or  bolt  is  forced  down  between  the  mills, 
and  is  guided  centrally.  The  time  occupied  in  milling  two  sides  is  about  four  seconds  ;  for 


CALOKIMETER. 


101 


FIG.  2.— Broaching-machine. 


FIG.  1.—  Broaching-cutters 

the  six  sides,  twelve  seconds.  The  remain- 
der of  the  time  is  taken  in  handling  the 
work,  the  conveniences  at  hand  and  the  dex- 
terity of  the  operator  having  much  to  do 
with  the  product.  As  high  results  have 
been  obtained  as  two  finished  hexagonal 
bolt-heads  per  minute.  Under  the  worst 
conditions,  it  is  claimed  that  a  product  of 
500  hexagonal  nuts  per  each  ten  hours  can 
be  obtained.  For  bolt-heads  the  product  is 
considerably  more,  as  the  time  in  screwing  a 
nut  on  to  its  pin  (in  order  to  mill  centrally 
with  the  thread)  is  saved.  A  broaching-ma- 
chine  made  by  The  Pratt  &  Whitney  Co., 
Hartford,  Conn.,  is  designed  for  broaching 
holes  of  such  diametrical  form  that  they  can 
not  be  finished  by  rotary  motion,  as  drilling 
or  reaming.  It  will  work  cavities  up  to  2$ 
in.  diameter.  It  is  adapted  also  for  draw- 
ing or  for  finishing  the  outside  of  work. 

Bronze:  see  Alloys. 

Bucket,  Dredging:    see  Dredgers  and  Excavators. 

Buddie  :  see  Ore-Dressing  Machines. 

Burarlar-Proof  Construction:  see  Safes  and  Vaults. 

CALORIMETER.  An  instrument  for  measuring  quantity  of  heat.  In  steam-engineer- 
ing the  term  is  usually  applied  to  an  apparatus  for  determining  the  heat  in  steam  and  the 
percentage  of  its  contained  water. 

The  .Barrel  Calorimeter.  —  The  simplest  form  of  calorimeter  for  determining  the  quality 
of  steam  is  a  barrel  containing  about  300  Ibs.  of  water  set  on  a  platform  scale.  About  10  Ibs. 
of  the  steam  whose  quality  is  to  be  determined  is  carried  into  the  barrel  through  a  hose  and 
condensed.  From  the  observed  data  of  temperatures,  pressure,  and  weights  the  calculation 
of  the  quality  of  steam  is  made  as  follows,  according  to  the  formulae  proposed  by  Charles  E. 
Emery  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  vi,  p.  291)  : 

Le't  W  =  original  weight  of  water  in  calorimeter. 

Let  w  =  weight  of  water  added  by  heating  with  steam. 

Let  T  =  total  heat  in  water  due  to  the  temperature  of  steam  at  observed  pressure. 

Let  H  =  total  heat  of  steam  at  observed  pressure. 

Let  I  =  latent  heat  of  steam  at  observed  pressure  =  (H  —  T). 

Let  t  —  total  heat  of  water  corresponding  to  initial  temperature  of  water  in  calori- 
meter. 

Let  t'  =  total  heat  in  water  corresponding  to  final  temperature  of  water  in  calorimeter. 

Let  Q  =  quality  of  steam. 

Then 


Then  when  Q  <  1.  percentage  of  moisture  in  steam  =  100  (1  —  Q). 

When  Q  >  1.  number  of  degrees  steam  is  superheated  =  2-0833  I  (Q  —  1). 

The  later  practice  of  the  writer,  when  there  are  a  large  number  of  calculations  to  be  made, 
is  as  follows  : 

Add  to  above  notation  the  following  : 

Let  m  =  percentage  of  moisture  in  steam. 

Let  s  =  number  of  degrees  steam  is  superheated. 

Let  A  =  number  of  heat-units  lacking  per  pound  of  steam  condensed.  Equals  quantity 
in  parenthesis,  equation  (2). 

Let  2  =  sign  of  summation.     To  be  read  :  Sum  of  values  of  — 

Let  n  —  number  of  experiments  to  be  averaged. 


102  CALOKIMETER. 


Then 

(2)  m  =  7 

(3)  Q=l-m. 
When  A  or  m  is  minus. 

M\  s  =  —  Z'Oooo  A.. 

Averaging  several  experiments. 

2  - ' 

(0)  s  =  -  2-0833  — . 

n 

In  the  use  of  the  barrel  calorimeter  the  weight  of  the  water,  before  and  after  condensing 
the  steam,  requires  to  be  determined  with  accuracy.  An  error  of  ±  Ib.  will  cause  an  error  of 
3  per  cent  in  the  result. 

Coil  Calorimeter.— The  following  is  a  description  of  a  calorimeter  designed  by  William 
Kent,  in  which  some  of  the  probable  errors  of  the  ordinary  barrel  calorimeter  are  lessened : 

A'surface  condenser  is  made  of  light-weight  copper  tubing,  f  in.  in  diameter  and  about  50  ft. 
in  length,  coiled  into  two  coils,  one  inside  of  the  other,  the  outer  coil  14  in.  and  the  inner  10  in.  m 
diameter  both  coils  being  15  in.  high.  The  lower  ends  of  the  coil  are  connected  by  means  of  a 
brazed  T-coupling  to  a  shorter  coil,  about  5  in.  long,  of  2-in.  copper  tubing,  which  is  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  smaller  coil,  and  acts  as  a  receiver  to  contain  the  condensed  water.  The  larger 
coil  is  brazed  to  a  f-in.  pipe,  which  passes  upward  alongside  of  the  outer  coil  to  just  above  the 
level  of  the  top  of  the  coil  and  ends  in  a  globe- valve,  and  a  short  elbow-pipe  which  points  out- 
ward from  the  coil.  The  upper  ends  of  the  two  f-in.  coils  are  brazed  together  into  a  T,  and  con- 
nected thereby  to  a  f-in.  vertical  pipe  provided  with  a  globe-valve,  immediately  above  which  is 
placed  a  three-way  cock,  and  above  that  a  brass  union  ground  steam-tight.  The  upper  por- 
tion of  the  union*  is  connected  to  the  steam-hose,  which  latter  is  thoroughly  felted  down  to 
the  union.  The  three-way  cock  has  a  piece  of  pipe  a  few  inches  long  attached  to  its  middle 
outlet  and  pointing  outward  from  the  coil.  A  water-barrel,  large  enough  to  receive  the  coil 
and  with  some  space  to  spare,  is  lined  with  a  cylindrical  vessel  of  galvanized  iron.  The  space 
between  the  iron  and  the  wood  of  the  barrel  is  filled  with  hair-felt.  The  iron  lining  is  made 
to  return  over  the  edge  of  the  barrel,  and  is  nailed  down  to  the  outer  edge  so  as  to  keep  the 
felt  always  dry.  The  barrel  is  furnished  also  with  a  small  propeller,  the  shaft  of  which  runs 
inside  of  the  inner  coil  when  the  latter  is  placed  in  the  barrel.  The  barrel  is  hung  on  trun- 
nions by  a  bail  by  which  it  may  be  raised  for  weighing  on  a  steelyard  supported  on  a  tripod 
and  lifting  lever.  The  steelyard  for  weighing  the  barrel  is  graduated  to  tenths  of  a  pound, 
and  a  smaller  steelyard  is  used  for  weighing  the  coil,  which  is  graduated  to  hundredths  of  a 
pound.  In  operation  the  coil,  thoroughly  dry  inside  and  out,  is  carefully  weighed  on  the 
small  steelyard.  It  is  then  placed  in  the  barrel,  which  is  filled  with  cold  water  up  to  the  level 
of  the  top  of  the  globe-valves  of  the  coil  and  just  below  the  level  of  the  three-way  cock,  the 
propeller  being  inserted  and  its  handle  connected.  The  barrel  and  its  contents  are  carefully 
weighed  on  the  large  steelyard ;  the  steam-hose  is  connected  by  means  of  its  union  with  the 
coil,  and  the  three-way  cock  turned  so  as  to  let  the  steam  flow  through  it  into  the  outer  air, 
by  which  means  the  hose  is  thoroughly  heated ;  but  no  steam  is  allowed  to  go  into  the  coil. 
The  water  in  the  barrel  is  now  rapidly  stirred  in  reverse  directions  by  the  propeller  and  its 
temperature  taken.  The  three-way  cock  is  then  quickly  turned,  so  as  to  stop  the  steam  es- 
caping into  the  air  and  to  turn  it  into  the  coil ;  the  thermometer  is  held  in  the  barrel,  and  the 
water  stirred  until  the  thermometer  indicates  from  five  to  ten  degrees  less  than  the  maximum 
temperature  desired.  The  globe-valve  leading  to  the  coil  is  then  rapidly  and  tightly  closed, 
the  three-way  cock  turned  to  let  the  steam  in  the  hose  escape  into  the  air,  and  the  steam  en- 
tering the  hose  shut  off.  During  this  time  the  water  is  being  stirred,  and  the  observer  care- 
fully notes  the  thermometer  until  the  maximum  temperature  is  reached,  which  is  recorded  as 
the  final  temperature  of  the  condensing  water.  The  union  is  then  disconnected  and  the  barrel 
and  coil  weighed  together  on  the  large  steelyard ;  the  coil  is  then  withdrawn  from  the  barrel 
and  hung  up  to  dry  thoroughly  on  the  outside.  When  dry  it  is  weighed  on  the  small  scales. 
If  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  barrel  is  raised  to  110°  or  120°,  the  coil  will  dry  to  con- 
stant weight  in  a  few  minutes.  After  the  weight  is  taken,  both  globe-valves  to  the  coil  are 
opened,  the  steam-hose  connected,  and  all  of  the  condensed  water  blown  out  of  the  coil,  and 
steam  allowed  to  blow  through  the  coil  freely  for  a  few  seconds  at  full  pressure.  When  the 
coil  cools  it  may  be  weighed  again,  and  is  then  ready  for  another  test.  If  both  steelyards  were 
perfectly  accurate,  and  there  were  no  losses  by  leakage  or  evaporation,  the  difference  between 
the  original  and  final  weights  of  the  barrel  and  contents  should  be  exactly  the  same  as  the 
difference  between  the  original  and  final  weights  of  the  coil.  In  practice  this  is  rarely  found 
to  be  the  case,  since  there  is  a  slight  possible  error  in  each  weighing,  which  is  larger  in  the 
weighing  on  the  large  steelyard.  In  making  calculations  the  weights  of  the  coil  on  the  small 
steelyard  should  be  used,  the  weights  on  the  large  steelyard  being  used  merely  as  a  check 
against  large  errors.  It  is  evident  that  this  calorimeter  may  be  used  continuously,  if  desired, 
instead  of  intermittently.  In  this  case  a  continuous  flow  of  condensing  water  into  and  out  of 
the  barrel  must  be  established,  and  the  temperature  of  inflow  and  outflow  and  of  the  con- 
densed steam  read  at  short  intervals  of  time. 

The  Barrus  Universal  Steam  Calorimeter.— This  instrument  was  devised  by  George  H. 


CALORIMETER. 


103 


Barrus  in  1889.  It  is  fully  described  in  the  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  volume  xi,  and  the  following 
account  is  taken  from  that  publication.  The  current  of  steam  to  be  tested  is  first  passed 
through  a  chamber  in  which  the  free  moisture  is  deposited  and  measured,  and  subsequently 
it  is  carried  through  an  orifice  and  dis- 
charged to  the  atmosphere,  by  means 
of  which  the  partially  dried  steam  is 
wiredrawn  and  superheated,  and  its 
exact  final  condition  determined.  The 
apparatus  is  shown  in  the  following 
cut : 

The  principal  parts  consist  of  the 
chamber  A,  or  "drip-box,"   and   the 


wiredrawing     apparatus    or    **  heat- 
gauge,"  consisting  of  the  orifice  7,  and 


FIG.  1.— The  Barrus  calorimeter. 


gau 

the  two  thermometers  M  and  N.  The 
instrument  is  connected  to  the  main 
steam-pipe  O,  which  carries  the  steam 
to  be  tested  by  means  of  the  perforated 
pipe  F,  and  this  pipe  extends  across 
the  full  diameter,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
sample  of  the  steam  tested,  The  ori- 
fice /opens  into  a  pipe  which  is  in  free 
communication  with  the  atmosphere. 
By  the  use  of  the  orifice  a  continuous 
current  of  steam  is  made  to  pass 
through  the  whole  apparatus,  and  the 
current  has  a  constant  rate  so  long  as 
the  pressure  is  constant.  The  amount 
of  moisture  which  the  heat-gauge  alone 
will  measure  varies  somewhat  accord- 
ing to  the  pressure.  If  the  pressure  is 
80  Ibs.,  it  will  measure  between  3  per  cent  and  4  per  cent.  It  is  unnecessary  to  use  the  drip- 
box  unless  the  quantity  of  moisture  is  in  excess  of,  say,  3  per  cent.  The  unions  P  and  Q  are 
therefore  made  interchangeable.  When  a  test  is  to  be  made,  the  heat -gauge  is  first  applied 
directly  to  the  union  Q  and  a  preliminary  trial  made,  to  see  what  the  general  condition  of  the 
steam  is.  Whenever  the  moisture  exceeds  3  per  cent,  or  the  limiting  quantity  at  the  existing 
pressure,  the  thermometer  N  shows  a  temperature  of  about  213°,  and  drops  of  water  will  gen- 
erally be  seen  escaping  from  the  open  discharge-pipe.  If  the  quantity  of  moisture  is  not  be- 
yond the  range  of  the  wire-drawing  instrument,  the  temperature  shown  by  thermometer  N 
will  be  in  excess  of  213°. 

In  using  the  complete  apparatus,  the  condensed  water  from  the  drip-box  is  drawn  off  by 
means  of  the  valve  D  into  a  bucket  resting  on  scales,  and  the  quantity  drawn  off  is  regulated 
so  as  to  keep  the  water-level,  as  shown  in  the  glass  6\  at  a  constant  point.  When  the  quantity 
of  moisture  drawn  off  from  the  drain- valve  D  has  been  determined  for  a  given  time,  the  per- 
centage of  moisture  which  this  represents  must  be  found  by  comparing  it  with  the  total 
amount  of  steam  passing  through  the  apparatus.  The  trial  may  be  determined  either  by 
computation  or  by  trial.  The  computation  may  be  made  by  finding  the  exact  area  of  the 
orifice,  and  computing  the  quantity  which  passes  through  by  means  of  the  formula, 

„  _  Pressure  above  zero  X  area 
Q~  ~TO~ 

which  gives  the  number  of  Ibs.  discharged  through  the  orifice  per  second.  The  pressure  to 
be  used  is  that  corresponding  to  the  temperature  shown  by  thermometer  M.  The  quantity, 
as  thus  found,  is  accurate  enough  for  rough  comparisons.  The  exact  quantity  can  be  deter- 
mined by  conducting  the  steam  discharged  from  the  open  end  of  the  apparatus  into  a  tub  of 
water  placed  on  scales,  or,  what  is  a  better  way,  into  a  coil  of  lead  pipe,  or  iron  pipe,  sur- 
rounded by  flowing  water,  in  the  manner  of  a  surface  condenser,  and  weighing  the  condensed 
water  drawn  off  in  a  given  time. 

A  certain  amount  of  moisture  is  produced  by  radiation  from  the  apparatus  itself,  even 
though  all  the  parts  are  well  covered,  as  it  is  quite  necessary  that  they  should  be,  with  hair 
felting.  The  readings  of  the  instrument  on  the  test  must  therefore  be  corrected  for  the  loss 
thus  occasioned.  It  has  been  the  practice  of  the  author  to  make  these  corrections  by  observ- 
ing the  indications  when  the  apparatus  is  supplied  with  steam  from  the  pipe  G  at  a  time  when 
the  pressure  is  steady  and  the  pipe  contains  nothing  but  dead  steam,  there  being  no  current. 
This  condition  of  things  can  generally  be  obtained  in  a  factory  at  noontime,  when  the  engine 
is  stopped,  or  at  night^  after  the  close  of  the  day's  work.  It  may  fairly  be  presumed  that  the 
apparatus  is  then  supplied  with  dry  steam,  and  whatever  moisture  collects  in  the  drip-box  A, 
and  whatever  difference  is  shown  by  thermometers  M  and  N,  is  due  simply  to  the  loss  of  heat 
from  radiation.  When  the  loss  from  radiation  has  been  thus  obtained,  the  quantity  represent- 
ing that  due  to  the  drip-box  is  simply  subtracted  from  the  weight  of  water  drawn  off  during 
the  same  length  of  time  on  the  main  test.  The  way  in  which  the  correction  is  applied  to  the 
readings  of  thermometers  M  and  N  is  to  take  the  reading  of  thermometer  N  on  the  radiation 
test  when  thermometer  M  indicates  an  average,  and  use  this  reading  as  a  starting-point.  The  in- 
dication of  thermometer  ^Von  the  main  test  is  then  simply  subtracted  from  this  normal  reading. 


104 


CAR-HEATING. 


In  order  to  compute  the  amount  of  moisture  from  the  loss  of  temperature  shown  by  the 
heat-gauge,  the  number  of  degrees  of  cooling  of  the  lower  thermometer  N  is  divided  by  a 
certain  coefficient,  representing  the  number  of  degrees  of  cooling  due  to  1  per  cent  of  moist- 
ure. This  coefficient  depends  upon  the  specific  heat  of  superheated  steam,  which,  according 
to  Regnault's  experiments,  is  0'48.  In  other  words,  the  heat  represented  by  1°  of  superheat- 
ing is  0-48  of  a  thermal  unit.  The  author's  experiments  show  that  this  quantity  can  not  be 
applied  exactly  to  the  form  of  instrument  under  consideration.  The  quantity  to  be  used 
varies  somewhat  according  to  the  degree  of  moisture.  For  an  instrument  working  under  a 
temperature  of  314°  by  the  upper  thermometer,  and  with  a  cooling  by  the  lower  thermometer 
from  268°  to  241°,  the  quantity  was  found  to  be  about  O42.  When  the  cooling,  however,  was 
from  266°  to  225°,  the  quantity  to  be  used  was  found  to  be  about  0'51. 

The  experiments  have  not  as  yet  covered  a  sufficient  range  to  determine  the  exact  law 
which  can  be  applied  to  every  case,'  but  it  seems  probable  that  the  specific  heat  is  more  or  less 
constant  until  the  temperature  by  the  lower  thermometer  approaches  the  point  of  saturation 
for  the  low-pressure  steam,  while  beyond  this  point  the  specific  heat  rapidly  increases.  For 
the  present,  it  is  assumed  that  the  quantity  0-42  is  the  proper  one  to  apply  whenever  the 
temperature  by  the  lower  thermometer  is  above  285°,  and  that  in  cases  where  the  temperature 
is  below  235°  the  quantity  is  to  be  used  as  an  increasing  one,  reaching  perhaps  to  0'55  when 
the  temperature  drops  to  220°. 

One  per  cent  of  moisture,  now,  represents  the  quantity  of  heat  determined  by  multiplying 
the  latent  heat  of  1  Ib.  of  steam,  having  a  pressure  corresponding  to  the  indication  of  ther- 
mometer M,  by  O'Ol,  and  this  product  is  to  be  divided  by  0'42  (provided  the  lower  temperature 
is  not  below  235°),  in  order  to  express  it  in  terms  of  degrees  of  superheating.  For  example  : 
When  thermometer  M  shows  312°,  the  latent  heat  is  8-94  thermal  units,  and  1  per  cent  of  this 
is  8*94 ;  dividing  by  0*42,  the  number  of  degrees  of  superheat  corresponding  to  1  per  cent  of 
moisture  is  found  to  be  21*3.  For  several  other  temperatures,  which  cover  the  ordinary  range 
that  would  commonly  be  used,  the  necessary  coefficient  is  given  in  the  following  table : 


Temperature  by 
thermometer  M. 

270° 

Coefficient. 
22 

Temperature  by 
thermometer  M. 

310°. 

Coefficient. 
..  21-3 

Temperature  by 
thermometer  M. 

350° 

Coefficient. 
20*6 

280°           .  . 

.      ...  21-8 

320°  

21-1 

360°. 

20'5 

290°  

21-7 

330°  

21 

300°... 

.  21-5 

340°... 

.  20-8 

Canal  Lift :  see  Elevators. 

Cannon :  see  Ordnance. 

Car-Brake:  see  Brakes.  Car-Brass  Grinder:  see  Grinding  Machines.  Cars,  Rail- 
road :  see  Railroad  Cars.  Car-Wheel  Lathe :  see  Lathes,  Metal- Working. 

Card :  see  Cotton-Spinning  Machinery. 

CAR-HEATING.  Car-heating,  in  the  general  acceptance  of  the  term,  has  come  to  mean 
the  heating  of  railway-cars  by  the  use  of  steam  from  the  locomotive.  It  is  also  technically 
described  as  continuous  heating. 

The  Commingler  System  of  the  Consolidated  Car-Heating  Co.,  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  de- 
pends upon  the  direct  action  of  the  steam  upon  the  water  of  circulation,  caused  by  the 

steam  discharging  within  the  body  of  the  water  it- 
self. The  contact  of  the  steam  and  water  takes  place 
within  the  pear-shaped  body  of  the  commingler 
proper,  a  sectional  view  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
The  flow  of  steam  is  broken  into  hundreds  of  small 
jets  within  a  body  of  quartz  pebbles  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  silently  force  the  water  through  the  com- 
mingler after  imparting  to  it  the  entire  heat  of  the 
steam.  By  giving  the  proper  form  and  direction  to 
the  steam- jets  within  the  commingler,  a  forced  as 
well  as  a  gravity  circulation  is  readily  obtained,  and 
it  is  the  addition  of  this  feature  of  forced  circula- 
tion which  enables  the  commingler  to  move  the 
water  through  such  large  circuits.  Any  amount  and 
distribution  of  piping  that  may  be  found  desirable 
can  therefore  be  made  in  a  car,  the  capacity  of  the 
commingler  being  fully  assured.  With  the  com- 
mingler the  heating  system  is  kept  constantly  filled 
from  the  condensation  which  takes  place  witliin  the 
commingler,  and  thus  water  in  the  expansion-drum 
is  always  level  with  the  top  of  the  overflow-pipe. 
Five  Ibs.  steam-pressure  in  the  train-pipe  at  the  car 
is  claimed  to  be  sufficient  to  heat  the  largest  car  in 
the  coldest  weather.  Experiments  conducted  under 
the  supervision  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad 
showed  that  circulation  was  rapidly  established  by 
the  commingler  with  If  Ibs.  of  steam. 


FIG.  1.— Commingler  heater-section. 


.  . 

The  Commingler  Storage  System.— A.  small  commingler,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  is  placed 
under  the  middle  seats  on  each  side  of  the  car,  between  the  floor  of  the  car  and  the  sheathing. 


CAR-HEATING. 


105 


The  outflow  connection  of  this  commingler  is  connected  with  one  end  of  the  side  piping,  and 
the  other  end,  forming  the  return,  is  connected  with  a  valve,  and  thence  into  the  base  of  the 
commingler.  A  complete  circuit  is  thus  established,  through  which  a  continuous  flow  of 
water  may  take  place.  The  overflow,  through  which  surplus  water  is  removed  from  the 
system,  is  connected  with  the  fitting,  which  is  placed  at  the  highest  point  in  the  system. 
When  the  pipes  are  entirely  filled,  the  surplus  water  flows  from  this  fitting  through  the 
restricted  opening  in  the  trap-cock,  and  thence  down  through  the  channel-way,  cast  in  the 
base  of  the  commingler,  and  out  at  the  drip-pipe.  The  connection  of  the  overflow-pipe 
to  the  base  of  the  commingler  is  made  to  prevent  possibility  of  freezing  of  the  drip-pipe  in 
cold  weather.  This  danger  is  provided  against  by  connecting  the  steam-pipe  into  ports  in 
the  same  casting,  so  that  the  base  of  the  commingler  is  warmed  even  when  steam  is  shut  off 
of  the  apparatus  within  the  car.  The  course  of  the  steam  can  be  traced  from  the  nipple  con- 
necting into  the  base.  When  the  pipes  are  filled  with  water  of  condensation,  a  complete  cir- 
culation automatically  takes  place  every  seven  minutes,  and  all  surplus  is  carried  off  through 
the  overflow-pipe.  When  the  car  is  laid  off  for  the  night  or  for  more  than  three  or  four 
hours,  the  entire  system  is  quickly  emptied  of  water,  and  the  car  is  then  ready  to  stand  out 
in  any  temperature,  however  cold,  without  danger  of  any  part  of  the  apparatus  freezing,  and 
it  is  also  ready  to  be  quickly  heated  by  direct  steam  when  again  brought  into  use. 

Drum  Systems. — Several  forms  of  car-heating  apparatus  have  been  introduced  more  or 
less  extensively,  which,  as  a  class,  are  known  as  drum  systems.  This  method  of  heating 
employs  a  hot- water  circulation  within  the  car,  to  which  a  "  Baker"  or  other  similar  heater 
is  attached.  To  provide  a  means  for  maintaining  heat  in  the  car  when  steam  from  the  loco- 
motive is  used,  a  drum  is  employed  to  transfer  the  heat  of  the  steam  to  the  water  of  circulation. 

The  Coil-Drum. — The  drum  generally  consists  of  a  pipe  of  6  in.  in  diameter  and  about 
4  ft.  long,  and  capped  at  both  ends.  In  this  drum  is  placed  a  coil  of  copper  pipe,  which  coil 
is  made  a  part  of  the  hot-water  circuit  within  the  car.  Steam  from  the  locomotive  is  admitted 
to  this  drum  around  the  copper  coil,  through  which  heat  is  imparted  to  the  water  of  circula- 
tion. That  part  of  the  circuit  above  this  drum  becoming  relatively  lighter  than  the  descend- 
ing column  of  the  hot-water  circuit,  a  movement  of  the  circulating  medium  is  produced, 
creating  a  steady  flow  up  through  the  coil.  It  is  evident  that  the  amount  of  heat  com- 
municated to  the  circulating  medium  depends  upon  the  surface  of  the  coil  and  upon  its  con- 
ductive power  to  heat.  In  order  to  maintain  the  water  of  circulation  at  or  near  its  boiling- 
point,  a  pressure  of  from  10  to  20  Ibs.  of  steam  must  be  carried  in  the  drum.  The  Sewall 
drum-system  is,  perhaps,  the  most  widely  used  of  this  type  of  heater.  This  drum  is  placed 
within  the  car  by  the  side  of  the  heater,  and  is  connected  with  the  circulating  pipes  so  as  to 
form  a  branch  circuit  around  the  heater.  At  the  point  where  the  two  circuits  unite  above  the 
drum  is  placed  what  is  known  as  a  current-director,  which  is  a  casting  so  arranged  that  the 
force  of  the  moving  circuit  from  the  drum  creates  an  upward  flow  through  the  heater,  so  as 


FIG.  2.— Disk  drum-heater. 


to  produce  a  circulation  through  the  piping  in  the  car.  In  case  this  current-director  is  not 
used,  the  drum  is  apt  to  produce  a  short  circuit,  creating  a  downward  flow  through  the  coil 
of  the  heater. 


106 


CAK-HEATING. 


Salt-water  usually  constitutes  the  circulating  medium  in  this  system,  which  water  has  a 
freezing-point  of  about  10°  above  zero.  When  solutions  of  salt,  giving  a  lower  freezing-point, 
are  used  the  excess  of  salt  is  liable  to  deposit  in  the  circuit  within  the  coils  of  the  drum  and 
the  heater  and  so  to  greatly  reduce  the  effectiveness  of  the  heating  apparatus. 

The  Disk-Drum  System  is  a  modification  of  the  coil-drum  above  described.  A  series  of 
bronze  castings  made  in  the  form  of  hollow  disks  take  the  place  of  the  coil  within  the  drum. 
The  disks  are 12  in.  in  diameter,  and  are  securely  screwed  together  at  their  centers.  Eight 
strong  studs  are  cast  midway  between  the  center  and  the  circumference  of  each  disk,  for  the 
purpose  of  binding  its  walls  together.  These  studs  are  necessary  to  give  sufficient  strength 
to  withstand  the  enormous  pressure  liable  to  come  upon  the  circulating  pipes  when  fire  is 
used  in  the  heater.  All  disks  are  tested  at  500  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  Five  disks  are  usually  em- 
ployed in  each  drum,  although  seven  disks  are  sometimes  used.  Each  disk  is  ribbed  or  cor- 
rugated and  has  2  sq  ft.  of  heating  surface,  so  that  the  heating  surface  in  each  drum  varies 
from  10  to  14  sq.  ft.,  depending  upon  the  number  of  disks  employed.  This  construction 
allows  a  laro-e  amount  of  heating  surface  to  be  put  into  a  compact  form,  and  also  presents  a 
very  small  internal  resistance  to  the  flow  of  water  through  the  disks.  The  drum  itself  is 
made  of  cast  iron,  to  which  a  cast-iron  head  is  bolted. 

Two  drums  thus  constructed  are  connected  with  the  heating  circuit  of  each  car  at  its  lowest 
point  (see  Figs.  2  and  3).  They  are  placed  so  as  to  form  the  risers  from  the  cross-over  pipes, 


FIG.  3.— Disk  drum-heater. 

and  as  the  two  drums  discharge  into  the  pipes  on  different  sides  of  the  car,  the  heat  in  the  car 
is  evenly  distributed  It  is  evident  that  the  joint  action  of  the  two  drums  is  to  produce  the 
circulation  of  water  in  the  same  direction  through  the  pipes.  The  direction  of  flow  is  the 
same  as  when  fire  is  used  in  the  heater.  Since  the  water  is  heated  at  two  points,  all  the  water 
is  heated  when  it  has  moved  through  one  half  of  a  complete  circuit.  Steam  is  taken  into  the 
drum  from  the  train-pipe,  and  water  of  condensation  is  removed  from  the  drums  by  means  of 
a  trap  or  trap-valve  and  is  discharged  on  the  ground.  A  brine  of  salt  and  water  is  generally 
used  as  the  circulating  medium. 

The  Direct- Steam  System.— In  this  system  steam  from  the  locomotive  is  turned  directly 
into  the  radiating  pipes  of  the  car.  Three  pipes  1£  in.  in  diameter  are  generally  used  on  each 
side  of  the  car.  The  three  pipes  are  joined  together  at  both  ends  of  the  car  by  a  three-pipe 
manifold.  A  distributing  tee  is  placed  near  the  center  of  the  car,  and  is  connected  into  the 
two  upper  pipes.  To  this  distributing  tee  a  pipe  leading  from  the  train-pipe  is  connected, 
through  which  steam  is  supplied  to  the  heating  pipes.  A  tee  is  also  placed  in  the  lower  pipe 
near  the  center  of  the  car,  and  a  drip-pipe  is  connected  from  this  tee  to  a  casting  placed  in  the 
train-pipe  in  which  is  a  bleeder-valve  controlling  the  discharge  to  the  ground.  The  pipes  in 
the  car  are  graded  so  that  water  will  flow  to  the  ends  of  the  car  in  the  two  upper  pipes,  and 
then  flow  to  the  center  of  the  car  in  the  lower  pipe,  and  out  through  the  drain-pipe  and  the 
bleeder-valve  in  the  train-pipe  casting,  to  the  ground.  In  the  same  train-pipe  casting  is 
placed  the  steam-valve  which  controls  the  flow  of  steam  to  both  sides  of  the  car,  and  the  drip- 
pipes  from  both  sides  of  the  car  are  also  controlled  by  the  one  valve  above  described.  The 
two  valves  in  the  train-pipe  casting  are  provided  with  extended  spindles,  which  terminate  in 
a  floor-plate  made  flush  with  the  level  of  the  floor. 

The  office  of  the  train-pipe  casting  above  mentioned  is  to  prevent  the  drip-pipes  from  the 
car  from  freezing  by  connecting  them  into  a  casting  always  deriving  heat  from  the  train-pipe. 
This  feature,  patented  by  the  Consolidated  Car-Heating  Co.,  is  one  of  great  importance  as,  by 
removing  the  possibility  of  freezing  the  drain-pipe  when  the  bleeder-valve  is  closed,  it  becomes 
practicable  to  nearly  close  the  bleeder-valve  and  allow  the  pipes  to  fill  with  water  of  con- 
densation when  but  little  heat  is  required.  In  this  way  the  fierce  heat  of  direct  steam  can  be 
toned  down  to  meet  the  requirements  of  mild  weather.  In  cold  weather  the  bleeder-valve  is 
given  a  larger  opening,  so  as  to  allow  the  greater  part  of  the  radiating  pipes  to  be  filled  with 
steam.  This  construction  furnishes  an  effective  means  of  adjusting  the  amount  of  piping 
filled  with  steam  to  the  needs  of  all  kinds  of  weather. 


CAR-HEATIXG. 


107 


Temperature  Regulators. — Automatic  devices  designed  to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the 
circulating  medium  in  heating  apparatus  have  been  used  for  several  years.  These  devices, 
however,  have  not  been  wholly  successful  in  regulating  the  temperature  of  rooms,  because  they 
have  been  actuated  by  the  return  water  to  the  heating  apparatus,  and  have  been  designed  to 
close  the  damper  when  the  temperature  of  the  return  water  reached  a  certain  point.  As  it  is 
desired  in  heating  cars  that  the  return  should  be,  in  cold  weather,  at  a  much  higher  tempera- 
ture than  in  moderate  weather,  it  is  evident  that  the  temperature  of  the  return  affords  no 
indication  of  the  temperature  of  the  car.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  for  car-heating  purposes 
especially,  the  temperature  of  the  car  and  not  the  temperature  of  the  heating,  pipes  must 
govern  in  automatic  devices. 

Of  recent  years  several  devices  have  been  introduced  that  have  gone  a  step  further,  and 
have  been  so  arranged  that  they  are  actuated  by  the  temperature  of  the  car  itself.  In  the 
line  of  improvement  here  indicated,  the  Johnson  regulator  has  been  introduced  to  a  limited 
extent.  This  is  a  device  in  which  a  thermostat  is  used  to  make  electrical  contacts ;  one  con- 
tact when  the  temperature  of  the  car  reaches  72°  and  an  opposite  contact  when  the  tempera- 
ture reaches  70°.  The  electrical  contact  made  at  72°  closes  the  circuit  of  the  battery  so  as  to 
actuate  an  electro-pneumatic  valve,  which  admits  air  under  pressure  from  the  auxiliary  reser- 
voir of  the  air-brake  apparatus  to  a  pneumatic  steam-valve.  This  is  an  ordinary  form  of  steam- 
valve  in  which  the  valve-stem  is  connected  to  a  diaphragm  by  means  of  which  the  valve  is 
closed  by  the  air  pressure  above  referred  to.  When  the  temperature  of  the  car  reaches  72°. 

Provided  the  apparatus  has  been  set  for  that  temperature,  the  steam  is  automatically  shut  off 
rom  the  car.     When  the  temperature  falls  to  70°,  an  opposite  contact  is  made  which,  oper- 
ating the  electro-pneumatic  valve  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  air-supply  from  the  auxiliar 
reservoir  is  shut  off,  and  the  diaphragm  of  the  pneumatic  steam-valve  is  allowed  to  open,  and 
steam  is  again  admitted  to  the  car. 

The  Consolidated  Car-Heating  Go's  Regulator  is  a  graduated  apparatus,  and  is  so  arranged 
that  the  steam-valve  at  all  temperatures  below  60°  stands  wide  open.  At  60°  the  valve  begins 
to  close,  and  gradually  approaches  its  seat  until  the  temperature  of  the  car  reaches  74°,  when 


Front  Elevation, 


Section 
on  LineA. 


Rear  Elevation. 


Cross  Section  on  Line  BB 


FIG.  4. — Steam  heat-regulator. 

the  valve  is  entirely  closed.  The  amount  of  steam  which  can  pass  the  steam-valve  when  the 
temperature  of  the  car  is  65°  is  about  four  times  as  much  as  is  sufficient  to  maintain  an  even 
temperature  in  the  car  when  once  heated  up — in  other  words,  steam  sufficient  to  condense  to 
about  295  Ibs.  of  water  in  one  hour's  time.  At  68°  the  increase  of  temperature  of  the  car 
closes  the  valve,  so  that  about  150  Ibs.  of  water  will  condense  from  the  steam  which  passes  this 
valve  in  one  hour's  time.  At  70°  the  flow  is  about  75  Ibs.  per  hour.  At  72°  the  flow  is  about 


108 


CAR-HEATING. 


20  Ibs.  per  hour.  At  74°  to  75°  the  valve  entirely  shuts  off.  It  is  evident  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  car  equipped  with  this  apparatus  would  rise  to  that  temperature  at  which  just 
sufficient  steam  passes  the  steam-valve  and  into  the  car  as  is  necessary  to  maintain  an  even 
temperature,  and  at  no  time  is  it  necessary  that  the  steam-valve  should  actually  shut  off.  It 
gives  a  throttling  action  upon  the  flow  of  steam.  Taking  into  consideration  the  rapid  rate 
at  which  this  valve  closes,  it  will  be  seen  that,  under  conditions  of  railway  service,  the  temper- 
ature of  the  car  would  be  kept  practically  constant.  In  actual  practice  it  has  been  found  that 
the  temperature  of  the  car  will  be  kept  at  70°  and  within  a  maximum  variation  of  2°. 

The  detailed  construction  of  this  apparatus  can  be  seen  from  Fig.  4.  Two  metallic  dia- 
phragms are  employed,  which  are  brazed  together  at  the  edges,  and  have  metallic  hubs 
soldered  to  their  opposite  faces  at  their  centers.  (See  section  on  line  A.)  A  small  quantity 
of  a  liquid  whose  boiling-point  is  60°  P.  is  placed  within  the  space  between  the  two  dia- 
phragms. The  opening  to  this  space  is  then  hermetically  sealed.  The  diaphragm  is  then 
attached  into  a  bronze  framework 'in  such  a  manner  that  the  expansion  of  the  diaphragms  is 
communicated  by  means  of  a  lever  to  a  bell-crank,  which  through  a  rod  actuates  the  steam- 
valve  below.  This  pipe  is  5  ft.  long  and  holds  the  two  parts  of  this  apparatus  in  rigid  adjust- 
ment, and  also  offers  a  protection  to  the  rod.  At  a  temperature  below  60°  F.  the  liquid  placed 
between  the  two  diaphragms  remains  in  the  form  of  a  liquid,  and  the  two  diaphragms  are 
collapsed.  Above  the  boiling-point  of  the  liquid  in  these  diaphragms  a  vapor  pressure  is 
generated  between  the  two  diaphragms,  forcing  them  apart  and  causing  a  motion  in  the 
vertical  rod  and  its  connecting  mechanism  against  the  tension  of  the  spring  shown  in  the 
framework  of  the  regulator.  The  steam-valve  is  caused  to  close  partially  by  this  same 
movement.  When  the  temperature  rises  to  70°  the  valve  almost  reaches  its  seat,  and  simply 
allows  sufficient  steam  to  pass  to  preserve  an  even  temperature  in  the  car.  If  a  ventilator  is 
open  or  in  any  way  the  air  in  the  car  is  chilled,  the  effect  on  the  diaphragms  is  to  lower  their 
temperature  and  to  cause  them  to  collapse,  which  is  followed  by  a  corresponding  opening 
movement  in  the  steam- valve.  The  results  of  tests  with  this  apparatus  have  shown  that  the 
temperature  of  a  car  can  be  automatically  held  within  a  maximum  variation  of  2°  with  an 
external  temperature  varying  from  50°  above  zero  to  6°  above  zero  in  a  run  of  300  miles. 

Independent  Water- Heaters  usually  consist  of  a  suitable  jacket  made  of  heavy  sheet-iron, 
forming  a  combustion-chamber,  in  which  is  placed  a  coil  of  1^-in.  pipe  about  14  ft.  long. 
These  parts  are  properly  mounted  upon  a  base  carrying  the  grate,  with  fire-pot  and  ash-pit, 
forming  a  heater  of  well-known  construction.  The  coil  referred  to  is  connected  up  as  a  part 
of  a  hot-water  circulating  system.  The  heat  of  the  combustion-chamber  is  conducted  through 
the  metal  of  the  coil  to  the  water,  by  which  it  is  distributed  through  the  circulating  pipes. 
While  this  heater  has  rendered  service  for  years  in  car-heating,  it  nevertheless  has  been  found 
that  in  train-wrecks  it  is  liable  to  set  the  cars  on  fire.  To  overcome  this  objection  several 
heaters  have  been  designed  in  which  the  fire  is  so  inclosed  that  there  is  but  little  danger  of 
live  coals  being  scattered  in  case  of  a  wreck.  In  an  improved  heater  of  this  type  the  outside 
shell  is  made  of  18-in.  wrought-iron  tubing,  and  is  over  £  in.  thick.  Within  this  is  the  cast- 
iron  lining,  which  is  separated  from  the  shell  by  a  £-in.  thickness  of  asbestos  fire-felt.  Within 
this  lining  is  placed  a  closely  wound  coil  of  1^-in.  pipe  26  ft.  long.  Between  the  coil  and  the 
lining  is  an  annular-shaped  smoke-chamber  2  in.  thick,  through  which  the  hot  gases  from  the 
fire  pass  to  the  smoke-pipe  on  all  sides  of  the  coil.  The  closely  wound  coil  is  filled  with  coal, 
the  fire  burning  only  at  the  base  of  the  coil.  A  perforated  malleable-iron  head  is  bolted  into 
the  upper  end  of  the  shell,  through  which  smoke  passes  before  reaching  the  stove-pipe.  In 
this  head  a  sliding  door  covers  securely  the  opening  through  which  coal  is  fed  to  the  interior 
of  the  coil.  In  case  the  heater  should  be  upset  in  an  accident,  the  fire  can  not  escape  at  either 
end  of  the  shell. 

Steam-Couplers. — In  continuous  heating  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  has  been  to 
secure  a  connection  which  would  couple  the  ends  of  the  train-pipes  together,  and  so  make  a 
practically  continuous  steam-pipe  leading  from  the  locomotive  under  all  the  cars.  .Rubber 
hose  has  now  been  generally  adopted  as  a  means  for  taking  up  the  motion  between  cars,  and 
to  the  end  of  such  hose  is  attached  the  steam-coupler  proper.  This  coupler  must  couple 
easily,  uncouple  automatically,  be  durable,  be  exactly  alike  in  each  half,  and  the  interchange- 
ability  must  not  be  affected  by  wear.  Many  types  have  been  brought  out,  among  them  the 
McElroy,  Martin,  Gold,  Gibbs,  and  Emerson,  embodying  some  of  the  above-mentioned  desir- 
able features,  but  the  tendency  for 
two  years  past  appears  decidedly  to- 
ward what  is  known  as  the  Sevvall 
pattern,  many  railroads  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  Canada  having  re- 
cently adopted  it  for  steam-heated 
trains.  The  Sewall  is  a  straight- 
port,  abutting-face,  and  insulated 
steam-coupler.  The  cuts  herewith 
show  its  simplicity  of  construction. 

FIG.  5,-Sewairs  steam-coupler.  Tfhe.  PJfa^  for  Jf m  ^practically 

straight  and  unobstructed  by  strain- 
ers, springs,  diaphragms,  gasket-retainers,  or  acute  angles.  All  its  metallic  parts  are  made  of 
malleable  or  wrought  iron  or  steel.  On  the  coupler-head  are  placed  a  tooth  and  space  in 
proper  position  (shown  in  accompanying  cut,  Fig.  5),  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  a  guide 
for  the  interlocking  devices  when  being  coupled,  and  also  to  retain  the  coupler-heads  in  proper 


CARRIAGES   AND   WAGONS. 


109 


relation  while  uncoupling.  The  locking  features  are  constructed  upon  carefully  calculated 
epicycloidal  curves,  thereby  drawing  the  gaskets  together  in  a  direct  line  after  contact.  The 
center  line  of  pressure  exactly  coincides  with  the  center  line  through  the  locking  devices,  and 
hence  gravity  tightens  the  gasket  faces.  That  the  coupler  is  automatic  in  uncoupling  is  due 
to  the  curvature  of  the  hose-nipple,  the  center  line  of  draft  being  brought  above  the  center 
line  of  pressure  as  soon  as  hose  begins  to  approach  a  horizontal  position.  The  gaskets  are  com- 
posed of  peculiarly  treated  rubber  and  have  sufficient  elasticity  as  well  as  strength  to  form  a 
perfect  and  durable  steam-joint. 

Carriage  Drill :  see  Drills,  Rock. 

CARRIAGES  AND  WAGONS.  Buggies.— A  combination  vehicle,  having  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Brewster  buggy,  but  said  to  excel  it  in  riding  qualities,  is  constructed  with  the 
Timken  body  cross-springs  and  the  Brewster  end-springs  (see  Fig.  1).  The  end-springs  act  as  a 


FIG.  l. -Buggy. 

cushion  when  the  buggy  strikes  any  obstruction,  and  the  long  elastic  cross-springs  overcome 
the  force  of  the  jar,  so  that  it  will  hardly  be  felt  by  the  time  it  strikes  the  body ;  therefore,  the 
occupants  of  the  vehicle  do  not  receive  the  same  shock  as  they  would  in  a  vehicle  where  the 
force  strikes  the  body  direct  from  the  wheels.  A  double-perch  gear  allows  the  perches  to 
drop  below  the  axle.  The  entire  gear  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2. 

Dog-Carts. — Natural  woods  have  the  preference  in  this  class.     Among  the  improvements 
introduced  in  construction  is  an  arrangement  whereby,  when  the  tail-board  is  moved  down, 


FIG.  2.— Double-perch  gear  for  buggy. 


the  seat  with  the  lazy-back  slides  forward  about  6  in.  The  seat-board  is  hinged  in  the  center, 
the  rear  side  lazy-back  being  made  to  revolve  so  that  the  occupant  can  ride  facing  forward 
or  backward.  The  whiffletree  is  connected  with  chains  at  the  center  and  fastened  to  the 
axles  at  the  springs. 

The  Wagonet  is  growing  in  favor  for  short-trip  excursions,  and  designs  are  multiplying. 
In  one  of  the  latest  productions  the  lines  of  the  front  gear  are  made  to  harmonize  with  the 
curves  of  the  body,  and  greater  firmness  is  given  to  the  gear  by  distributing  the  weight  evenly 
upon  the  fifth  wheel.  The  king-bolt  is  placed  ahead  of  the  axle,  without  the  usual  curved 
bed.  The  dimensions  are :  Width  of  body  on  top,  42  in. ;  at  bottom.  37  in. ;  distance  center 
to  center  of  axles,  63  in.;  diameter  of  front  wheels,  36  in.,  and  rear.  45  in. ;  diameter  of  fifth 
wheel,  28  in.  Track  measured  outside  to  outside  on  ground,  4  ft.  10-i  in. 

Buck-Boards  are  popular  when  finished  in  the  natural  woods.  "The  rear  seat  is  now  fre- 
quently made  reversible.  A  recent  design  has  the  front  suspended  upon  one  elliptic  spring, 
while  at  the  rear  the  bottom  rests  on  the  axle,  and  the  rear  seat  is  carried  by  an  elliptic  spring 
supported  by  the  bottom  over  the  axle. 


110 


CAERIAGES  AND   WAGONS. 


A  new  and  attractive  design  of  buck-board,  having  three  seats  and  a  rumble  (adapted  for 
six  passengers)  meets  with  a  steady  demand.  The  natural- wood  fini-h  is  again  the  favorite, 
with  drab  corduroy  trimming  and  black  iron-work.  The  construction  of  the  body  is  simple. 
The  bottom  boards  consist  of  three  pieces  of  IJ-in.  ash,  with  three  cross-pieces  4'x  H  in.  in 
the  center,  tapered  to  f  in.  at  the  ends.  At  the  rear  end  of  the  body  two  pieces  are  bolted  to 
the  bottom  boards,  extending  back  about  24  in.  to  take  the  foot-board  for  the  rumble.  The 
side-bars  are  of  locust.  There  are  front  and  rear  springs,  and  a  cross-spring  both  at  front 
and  rear,  and  the  vehicle  has  two  perches.  Width  of  body,  about  30  in. ;  wheels,  46  in.  front 
and  50  in.  rear  in  the  wood ;  center  to  center  of  axles,  91  in. ;  track,  4  ft.  8  in. ;  diameter  of 
half  fifth  wheel,  14  in.  The  above  are  the  principal  measurements  only ;  builders  of  buck- 
boards  will  be  able  to  readily  supply  the  rest. 

Another  novelty  in  buck-board  wagons  was  recently  built  in  Newark,  N.  J.  The  front 
seat  is  hinged,  and  on  lifting  it  a  child's  seat  may  be  drawn  out ;  this  has  a  hinged  iron  sup- 
port which  then  falls  into  place.  The  rear  seat  is  hung  on  jump-seat  or  loop-irons,  so  that  it 
may  be  placed  in  any  part  of  the  back  of  the  body.  The  rumble  is  made  of  bent  stock,  as 
usual.  As  a  nice  set-off  to  the  natural-wood  body  finish,  the  gearing  is  striped  with  carmine. 
Light  Spindle-  Wagons. — The  principal  change  in  the  designs  of  spindle-wagons  is  the 
slightly  curved  toe-bracket,  which  has  a  graceful  and  pleasing  effect.  The  suspension  is  on 
cross  Brewster  springs,  with  side-bar  and  bolsters,  which  allow  the  body  to  be  hung  compara- 
tively low.  The  body-sills  are  of  hard  body  ash,  bent  at  the  toe  to  the  shape  of  the  pattern. 
A  light  rocker-plate  screwed  to  the  inside  of  the  sills  gives  extra  strength. 

/Surreys  are  now  often  made  with  four  elliptic  springs  instead  of  suspending  them  on  side- 
bars, or  two  elliptic  springs  with  high  wheels.  A  wheel-house  can  be  used  to  great  advantage 
in  connection  with  this  new  arrangement.  In  one  particular  form  the  sides  of  the  body  are 
straight,  and  there  is  no  door  between  the  seats,  but  the  front  seat  is  made  to  turn  over,  which 
gives  easy  access  to  the  rear  of  the  body.  Surreys  also  have  canopied  tops  fitted  to  them  oc- 
casionally. 

Advertising  Vehicles  are  constructed  in  a  variety  of  styles,  and  their  bodies  often  take  the 
form  of  the  goods  carried,  notably  the  shoe  and  the  hat. 

Hospital  Ambulances. — One  of  the  latest  styles  of  ambulance-wagons  has  the  body  sus- 
pended, so  that  at  the  rear  it  is  only  17  in.  from  the  ground,  which  affords  easy  access  to  the 
interior  from  the  rear,  this  being  the  desideratum.  There  is  a  wheel-house  in  front  to  allow 
of  short  turning.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  fitted  with  imitation  shutters,  which  can  be 
raised  and  lowered  to  admit  of  ventilation ;  these  shutters  are  secured  from  rattling  by  light 
steel  window-strips.  The  two  doors  at  the  rear  are  hung  on  concealed  hinges,  and  open  out 
practically  the  entire  width  of  back.  Two  beds  can  be  used  in  this  wagon,  one  hung  above 
the  other.  The  front  is  suspended  on  an  open  futchel-gear,  with  the  regular  elliptic  springs. 
The  back  has  an  axle  cranked  down  17  in.,  and  is  suspended  on  a  half-double  sweep-spring. 
The  lower  part  of  the  body,  up  to  where  the  spring  is  attached,  is  narrowed  3  in.  on  each  side, 
being  48  in.  wide  outside  at  the  top  and  42  in.  wide  at  the  bottom,  with  a  5  ft.  2  in.  track  all 
round.  The  front  wheels  are  36  in.  diameter  and  the  rear  54  in. ;  number  of  spokes,  16 ; 
distance  from  center  to  center  of  axles,  78  in. ;  diameter  of  fifth  wheel,  23  in. ;  weight  of 
vehicle,  complete,  about  1,100  Ibs. 

The  new  French  city  ambulances,  Fig.  3,  constructed  after  the  plans  of  Dr.  Nachtel,  of 
Paris,  are  models  in  their  way.  Its  smooth  and  varnished  sides  permit  the  vehicle  to  be  kept 

perfectly  clean.  A  litter  of  light 
wicker-work,  of  proper  and  con- 
venient form,  gliding  along  two 
grooves,  receives  the  patient,  who, 
owing  to  the  elasticity  of  this 
material,  is  enabled  to  rest  com- 
fortably, and  without  experienc- 
ing the  usual  though  unnecessary 
jolting  heretofore  incidental  to 
being  rapidly  conveyed  over 
roughly  paved  streets.*  A  little 
shelf  contains  all  that  is  requisite 
for  the  dressing  of  wounds  en 
route.  The  ambulance  is  lighted 
by  two  large  windows  on  each 
side.  The  entrance  at  the  rear 
is  closed  by  means  of  full- width 
folding  -  doors,  thus  preventing 
the  cold  air  and  drafts  from 
reaching  the  occupants,  which  is 
at  present  one  of  the  objectiona- 
ble features  of  the  American  am- 
bulance. 
FIG.  3.— French  ambulance  Gears. — A  new  gear,  known  as 

patent),  has  been  recently  put  upon  the  market.  It  is  i^dX^i^^^" 
nni~!f  t«S£?™  &K  T ^t • hacks'. ™ad' wagons,  and  light-delivery  wagons,  which  are  often  re- 
quired to  turn  short.  This  gear  takes  the  place  of  the  platform 'ordinarily  used  for  carriages, 


CARRIAGES   AND   WAGONS. 


Ill 


having  a  wheel-house  under  which  the  wheel  runs  in  turning  and  "  cramping,"  and  in  other 
styles  of  carriages,  dispensing  with  the  reach,  which  does  not  permit  the  wheel  to  turn  com- 
pletely under  the  wheel-house.  A  strong  steel  bar  is  bolted  firmly  to  the  under  side  of  the 
front  part  of  the  body,  and  it  extends  rearwardly  toward  the  wheel-house  to  a  point  just 
short  of  the  path  of  the 
wheel,  where  it  is  curved 
downward  (for  from  6  to 
12  in.,  according  to  the 
style  of  vehicle),  forming 
a  junction,  through  pivots, 
with  two  steel  bars  ar- 
ranged one  above  the  oth- 
er (from  4  to  8  in.  apart), 
with  an  intermediate  tie 
or  brace  ;  these  bars  run- 
ning forward  and  pivoted 
to  a  forged  head-piece  car- 
ried by  the  spring- bolster 
and  fifth  wheel,  thus  prac- 
tically joining  the  front 
axle. "  This  gear  prevents 
rocking  or  horse  -  motion 
of  the  front  spring,  stiffens 
the  connection  between 
the  axle  and  body,  and  in- 
sures perfect  vertical  mo- 
tion in  riding.  The  parts 
are  generally  made  by 
drop-forging.  A  trussed 
wagon-gear  of  a  late  type, 
suitable  for  use  with  three 
springs,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
4.  It  is  known  as  the  Selle 
patent,  and  finds  much 
favor  with  carriage-build- 
ers for  heavy  work. 

The  Rose  patent  com- 

bination  platform  -  spring  FlG 

and  gear  has  been  used  in 

various  places  during  the  last  few  years,  and  has  been  found  especially  valuable  for  light  vehi- 
cles. The  front  axle  is  cranked  down  several  inches  so  as  to  be  cros'sed  conveniently  by  two 
diagonally  arranged  spring-braces,  which  carry  the  fifth  wheel  at  the  point  of  their  intersec- 
tion. The  ends  of  these  cross-braces  are  joined  to  the  ends  of  the  side-springs,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  5. 

A  new  style  cut-under  Surrey  body  and  gear,  which  makes  a  desirable  easy-riding  vehicle, 
is  manufactured  by  the  Mulholland  Spring  Co.,  of  Dunkirk,  X.  J.  The  general  construction 
and  arrangement  needs  no  description,  the  main  point  of  difference  from  other  gears  being 
the  bracing-bars  running  from  the  semi-elliptic 
front  and  rear  springs  to  the  body.  The  An- 
chor Buggy  Co.,  of  Cincinnati,  has  successfully 
applied  a  new  principle  in  fifth  wheels  and  at- 
tachments, both  to  double  and  single  perch  vehi- 
cles. The  gear  is  known  to  the  trade  as  the 
"  patent  anchor  fifth  wheel  and  king-bolt."  Its 
chief  features  are  a  full-circle  top  and  bottom 
wheel,  with  the  king- 
bolt forming  a  part  of 
five  different  attach- 
ments bolted  together 
in  rear  of  the  axle  by 
a  double-head  bolt,  so 
that  all  wear  can  be 
taken  up.  Should  any 
part  break,  this  gear 
will  not  drop  the  body 

by  the  pulling  apart  of  FlG.  e.-Lazy-back  seats.    T-cart. 

the    front  wheels    and 

axle  from  the  spring-bearing ;  but  it  is  claimed  that  four  breakages  must  occur  before  the 
body  can  drop  sufficiently  to  endanger  the  occupant  of  the  vehicle. 

Seats. — Fig.  6  shows  a  new  arrangement  of  combination  lazy-back  locking  jump-seat  irons. 
Swinging  rear  seats  for  T-carts  are  now  largely  in  vogue.  "They  obviate  the  necessity  of 
climbing  over  the  rear  wheels.  A  safety-seat  for  two-wheeled  vehicles  has  a  mechanical 
arrangement  of  rack  and  pinion  and  worm  on  the  end  of  a  hand-lever  conveniently  placed  at 


112 


CARRIAGES   AND   WAGONS. 


the  right  side  of  the  driver,  so  that  he  can,  quickly  and  easily,  while  retaining  his  seat  and 
keeping  both  whip  and  reins  in  hand,  glide  the  seat  forward  or  backward  to  suit  the  ine- 
qualities of  the  road,  and  preserve  the  perfect  balance  of  the  carriage.  Directly  the  handle  is 
let,  go,  or  the  driver  ceases  to  turn  it,  the  seat  remains  fixed  and  immovable.  The  arrange- 
ment can  be  attached  to  any  existing  two-wheeled  cart ;  a  sliding  foot-rest  usually  accom- 

Springs. — Cushion-springs,  when  applied  to  a  side-bar  wagon,  are  capable  of  self-adjust- 
ment, so  as  to  adapt  themselves  to  any  variation  of  load,  and  rendering  the  riding  invariably 
easy,  without  reference  to  the  number  of  persons  occupying  the  vehicle.  The  inner  ends  of 
the' steel  cushions  are  fastened  to  the  middle  of  the  spring-bar  with  the  same  bolts  as  the 
steel  springs,  and  the  outer  ends  of  the  cushions  are  bolted  to  the  side-sills.  These  cushions 
are  only  yielding  to  a  slight  degree — just  enough  to  break  the  force  of  a  sudden  shock.  They 
press  down  upon  the  springs,  causing  the  openings  between  the  cushions  and  springs  to  close, 
according  to  the  amount  of  pressure,  thereby  virtually  shortening  the  springs,  and  thus  regu- 
lating their  stiffness  to  agree  with  the  load  carried. 

The  Silvester  Patent  Tire. — Fig.  7  is  practically  a  universal  felloe-clamp.  It  has  two 
vertical  flanges  which  inclose  the  felloe,  which  effectually  prevent  it  from  coming  off  without 


FIG.  7.— Silvester  tire. 


FIG.  8.— Thill-coupling. 


requiring  the  use  of  screws,  bolts,  or  other  fastenings.  To  protect  the  felloe  from  damage  by 
curb-stones,  railway-tracks,  etc..  the  tire  has  lateral  rims  or  flanges,  and  the  first-named  flanges 
bind  the  felloe  firmly  together  and  prevent  it  from  splitting. 

The  whole  arrangement  of  flanges  also  strengthens  both  tire  and  felloe,  and  prevents  bend- 
ing or  shrinking,  thus  effectually  preventing  the  wheel  from  getting  out  of  shape. 

Thill- Couplings. — A  novel  form,  made  by  the  Instant  Thill  Coupling  Co.,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8.  The  clips  upon  the  axle  have  forwardly  projecting  lugs  coupled  by  a  strong  steel- 
bolt,  which  is  embraced,  in  the 
space  between  the  lugs,  by  a  pair 
of  semicircular  jaws,  one  of  the 
latter  being  rigidly  attached  to 
the  shaft-end  by  bolts  and  clips, 
and  the  other  pivotally  connected 
with  the  first,  leaving  a  thumb- 
lever  projecting  beyond  the  piv- 
ot so  as  to  be  easily  pressed  upon 
to  open  the  jaws  in  shifting 
thills.  There  is  a  spring  under  it 
to  regulate  its  play.  No  wrench 
is  required,  and  absolute  safety 
and  the  maximum  convenience 
FIG.  9.-Carriage-irons.  are  claimed  for  the  appliance. 

Carriage- Irons  are  largely  duplicated  by  drop-forging,  and  these  parts  on  all  standard 
vehicles  are  consequently  interchangeable  throughout  the  respective  styles  and  sizes.  The 
accompanying  cuts, 
Figs.  9  and  10,  rep- 
resent forged  shift- 
ing rails  of  two  dif- 
ferent designs,  as 
made  by  the  Clapp 
Manufacturing  Co., 
of  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

Lighting.  —  An 
electric  light  has 
been  successfully 
used  in  a  wagon,  em- 
ployed by  the  Chief 

of  the  Boston  Fire  Department.  Incandescent  lamps  with  reflectors  are  placed  in  the  lanterns 
on  either  side  of  the  seat,  and  these  are  supplied  from  a  storage-battery  carried  on  the  floor  of 


FIG.  10. — Carriage-irons. 


CAKVING-MACHINES. 


113 


the  vehicle.     In  the  station  where  it  belongs  special  wires  hang  from  the  ceiling  just  over  the 
wagon,  and  the  charging  of  the  battery  goes  on  while  the  wagon  is  out  of  use. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  The  Hub  Publishing  Company,  of  New  York,  for  much  valuable 
information  in  connection  with  this  article,  and  also  for  many  of  the  new  styles  of  vehicles  above 
described,  many  oi  which  were  especially  designed  and  drawn  for  publication  in  that  journal. 

Carriers,  Hay :  see  Hay-Carriers. 

Carving  Machine :  see  Routing  Machine. 

CARVING-MACHINES.  In  carving-machines  may  be  included  several  types :  those  which 
merely  rout,  all  the  work  being  of  the  same  depth  and  being  cut  by  rotating  cutters  that  work 
with  their  sides  as  well  as  their  ends :  those  in  which  rotating  cutters  work  patterns  which  have 
varying  depths,  and  which,  instead  of  consisting  of  channels  having  flat  bottoms,  have  curving 
bottoms  or  tops ;  those  which  do  the  same  class  of  work  as  is  just  mentioned  by  fixed  knives  in- 
stead of  by  rotating  cutters ;  and  those  which  by  rotating  cutters  produce  patterns  which  have 
contours  in  planes  both  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  material  worked  and  at  right  angles  therewith. 

A  carving-machine  made  by  P.  Pryibil  for  making  flat  work  from  a  pattern  consists  in  the 
main  of  a  horizontal  table  having  lengthwise  traverse  upon  the  main  bed  of  the  machine,  a 
vertical  frame  at  one  end  of  the  latter,  and  a  system  of  jointed  arms  borne  by  the  upright 
frame,  and  bearing  at  its  outer  end  a  routing  or  carving  tool.  The  movements  of  this  cutting 
tool  are  directed  by  a  forming  pin  which  is  moved  over  the  pattern — in  which  it  does  not 
differ  from  several  other  carving-machines — but  in  this  one  the  cutter-fnime  is  balanced  and 
swings  upon  pivots,  the  table  rolls  on  a  track,  and  the  belts  are  endless,  thus  doing  away  with 
the  tremor  which  is  inseparable  from  laced  belts.  There  is  a  spiral  spring  which  tends  to 
bring  the  cutter-frame  in  one  direction,  thus  rendering  it  difficult  for  the  operator  to  cut 
too  deeply  into  the  work.  The  cutter-frame  has  vertical  adjustment  in  the  upright  frame  by 
a  hand-wheel ;  the  table  has  cross- feed  in  like  manner.  The  machine  will  take  in  about  36 
in.  wide,  one  half  being  taken  up  by  the  work  and  the  other  by  the  pattern ;  but  the  length 
taken  in  by  it  is  unlimited. 

The,  Albee  Routing- Machine,  while  having  in  its  most  simple  form  the  ordinary  arm  and 
elbow  attachment  to  a  post  or  wheel,  and  capable  of  doing  regular  routing,  has  attachments 
which  permit  it  to  be  used  for  carving,  fluting,  twisting,  etc.  The  work  is  made  fast  to  the 
table  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  risk  of  maiming  the  operator,  and  doing  away  with  the 
labor  of  moving  the  work ;  there  is  a  lever  by  which  the  cutter  may  be  raised  and  lowered  at 
will.  The  table  has  a  raising  and  lowering  attachment  by  which  both  ends  are  moved  at 
once,  a  screw  and  hand-wheel  working  on  knuckle  or  toggle  levers,  which  bear  the  opposite 
ends  of  the  table-top.  The  carving  attachment  consists  in  the  main  of  a  guide  attached  to 
the  table  to  hold  the  piece  of  molding  or  other  work  that  is  to  be  carved  or  fluted,  and  of 
another  guide  by  which  the  cutter  may  be  driven  in  parallel  or  other  lines  at  right  angles  or 
at  any  other  angle  to  the  piece  to  be 
worked.  A  twisting  attachment  permits 
working  spirally  on  pieces  of  any  desired 
diameter,  the  lengthwise  feed  being 
automatic  and  regular,  and  variable  by 
change  of  gear-wheels 

The  Pryibil  Tii'ist- Machine,  shown 
in  Fig.  1.  is  a  recent  production  for  mak- 
ing all  kinds  of  spiral  or  rope  moldings, 
either  straight,  tapered,  curved,  or  so- 
called  oval.  It  will  make  right,  left,  or 
pineapple  cuts,  and  will  also  do  straight 
fluting;  and  a  further  extension  of  its 
range  is  in  its  capacity  to  cut  from  one 
to  six  threads  on  a  piece,  and  to  make 
any  degree  of  twist,  from  one  turn  in  H 
in.  to  one  in  10£  in.  of  length.  The  cut- 
ters which  it  employs  are  similar  in  shape 
and  arrangement  to  those  used  on  varie- 
ty shapers,  and  are  held  between  collars ; 
but  they  are  so  arranged  that  the  knives 
have  a  peculiar  action,  cutting  from  out- 
side in.  Whether  the  twist  be  right  or 
left  handed,  the  cutters  rotate  in  the 
same  direction.  At  starting  upon  its 
design  the  makers  considered  the  fact 
that  machines  having  solid  cutter-heads 
and  using  knives  formed  to  outline,  like 
those  on  straight  molding-machines,  cut 
across  the  work  at  the  angle  of  twist, 
and,  by  cutting  one  side  of  the  body  against  the  grain,  were  apt  to  make  rough  work.  In 
avoiding  this,  machines  having  two  cutter-heads  and  two  sets  of  knives,  placed  close  together 
and  turning  in  opposite  directions,  have  been  used ;  but  this  requires  the  employment  of  two 
sets  of  spindles,  pulleys,  bearings,  belts,  etc. ;  of  course,  more  than  doubling  the  care  required 
to  effect  adjustment.  In  addition  to  this  there  are  required  two  separate  and  complete  sets 
of  cutters  where  right  and  left  twists  are  required ;  and,  as  each  set  comprises  four  slotted 


FIG.  1.— Pryibil  twist-machine. 


114 


CARVING-MACHINES. 


and  formed  knives,  the  expense  is  considerable  in  this  direction  alone.  But  it  is  in  the  sub- 
stitution of  one  set  for  another,  and  the  difficult  setting  of  all  of  them  to  match,  that  the 
principal  disadvantage  of  the  two-cutter  system  lies;  besides  which  there  is  an  additional 
trouble  in  the  difficulty  and  danger  of  running  two  sets  of  knives  side  by  side  at  5,000  turns 
per  minute,  close  enough  together  to  have  their  cuts  meet,  yet  without  the  cutters  themselves 
touching  each  other.  This  makes  the  double  fly-cutter  undesirable,  particularly  where  work 
in  great  variety  and  quantity  has  to  be  turned  out  at  a  low  price. 

The  end-cutter,  or  boring-cutter,  is  another  class  of  machine  originally  devised  to  produce 
smooth  work ;  there  being  a  single  knife  at  the  end  of  a  spindle  that  is  set  square  with  the 
work,  and  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  cut  is  fed  endwise,  causing  tne  cutter  to  bore  to 
proper  depth,  after  which  it  cuts  sidewise.  In  this  class  of  machine  there  are  required  both 
rigut  and  Jeft  hand  knives,  as  with  the  double-fly  cutter,  and  both  they  and  the  belt  must  be 
changed  to  suit  right  and  left  hand  twists.  There  being  but  limited  space  between  the  two 
bodies  on  a  piece  of  twist  work,  there  is  room  for  only  one  knife,  and,  as  this  can  not  be  set  at 
such  an  angle  as  to  cut  properly,  it  practically  scrapes  its  way  through  the  stock — a  slow 
operation,  calling  for  very  frequent  resharpening  of  the  cutting-tool.  The  Pryibil  machine 
uses  both  classes  of  cutters,  the  boring  and  the  scraping  tools,  but  the  former  are/ised  only 
in  that  class  of  double  spiral  work  where  there  is  a  space  between  two  separate  and  discon- 
nected spirals,  each  one  twisted  around  the  other,  but  not  touching  it.  Fly-cutters  can  not 
do  such  work  as  this,  but  can  do  every  other  class  of  work.  They  have  been  made  to  do 
square  work  by  setting  them  sidewise  to  their  collars  at  an  angle  of  45°,  causing  them  to  cut 
with  a  shearing  action  from  the  outside  of  the  work  toward  the  center.  As  the  knives  are 
made  from  bar-steel,  and  are  straight-faced  and  right  and  left,  the  two  of  a  pair  can  be  placed 
together  face  to  face  to  compare 
their  outline  in  grinding.  By  this 
system  the  difficulty  is  much  re- 
duced of  cutting  the  two  sides  of 
the  body  to  match  at  the  top ;  but 
still  further  accuracy  in  this  par- 
ticular is  got  by  an  adjustment  to 
the  machine  by  which  the  work 
may  be  swung  around  to  match 
the  cutter  in  a  moment  without 
stopping  the  cutter.  The  same 
movement  enables  double  and  FIG.  2.-Egan  carved-moldmg  machme. 

curved  tapers — that  is,  tapers  that  are  large  in  the  middle  and  small  at  both  ends — to  be 
njade  by  the  use  of  suitable  wooden  forms.  This  machine  is  particularly  well  adapted  to 
making  screen- work  of  the  "  Moorish  "  pattern,  consisting  of  long,  thin  spirals  interwoven 

like  wire-netting.  Such  work  is  ordinarily  con- 
sidered very  difficult  to  make,  by  reason  of  the 
trouble  in  getting  the  thin  sticks  to  stand  up 
against  the  cut.  In  the  subject  of  this  illustra- 
tion there  is  a  steady  rest  directly  opposite  the 
cutter,  holding  a  wooden  block,  through  which  a 
hole  is  bored,  fitting  the  stick  to  be  cut  spiral. 
The  cutter  works  its  own  way  through  the  block 
to  the  work,  and,  as  the  cutter  and  the  block 
maintain  their  relative  position  while  the  work 
feeds  along,  the  latter  can  not  spring  or  break. 
The  spindle-frame  of  this  machine  is  counterbal- 
anced so  as  to  swing  easily  from  right  to  left,  and 
is  fed  to  the  work  by  a  quick  lever-motion. 
Changes  of  twist  are  produced  by  turning  two 
wheels  on  a  screw,  according  to  a  table  attached 
to  the  machine ;  the  change  from  right  to  left  is 
effected  by  placing  the  gears  on  one  or  the  other 
side  of  a  rack. 

The  Egan  Carved-JMolding  Machine. — A  ma- 
chine for 'making  carved  moldings,  and  built  by 
the  Egan  Co.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  its  function  be- 
ing to  cut  moldings  without  a  pattern  and  leave 
sharp  corners.  There  is  a  frame  of  heavy  timbers, 
much  like  that  of  an  ordinary  Daniell's  wood- 
planer,  with  suitable  heavy  iron  slides  at  the  top 
for  the  bed  to  travel  over.  The  lower  part  of  the 
bed  has  spur  and  rack  gearing.,  giving  an  auto- 
matic motion  back  and  forth  to  the  carriage  or  bed  which  bears  the  work.  The  travel  of 
the  bed  is  regulatable,  so  that  long  or  short  moldings  may  be  made  at  will.  The  head  or  tool- 
holder  is  pivoted  on  horizontal  studs  at  the  right  of  the  housing  of  the  machine,  and  is  made 
to  raise  and  lower  when  cams  borne  by  the  front  end  of  its  saddle  come  into  contact  with  up- 
ward-projecting studs  on  the  sides  of  the  traveling-bed.  The  shape  of  the  knives,  which  arc 
fixed,  governs  the  style  of  the  molding,  of  course  modified  by  the  action  of  the  cams  and  studs 
in  throwing  them  in  and  out  of  cut  as  the  material  is  fed  along  under  the  knives,  and  by  the 


FIG.  3.— Geometrical  carving-machine. 


CENTERING-MACHINE. 


115 


position  of  the  knives  with  regard  to  the  tool-post.  The  bed  traveling  back  and  forth,  and 
the  tool-post  and  its  knives  working  up  and  down  as  the  cams  pass  over  the  studs  on  the  car- 
riage, produce  the  proper  combination  of  movements  to  make  carved  moldings. 

A  Geometrical  Carving  and  Corner-Block  Machine,  Fig.  3,  patented  by  S.  Y.  Kittle,  is 
used  in  making  interior  wood-decorations  for  ceilings,  such  as  corner-pieces,  center-pieces, 
borders,  etc.  There  is  a  frame  which  has  a  square  table  or  box  with  a  flaring  base,  and  a 
continuation  having  a  gap  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  band-saw  or  drill-press  frame ;  this 
carries  a  vertical  router-spindle,  the  pulley  of  which  has  one  bearing  above  and  one  below, 
the  belt  passing  over  two  idler-pulleys  at  the  back  of  the  frame  and  down  over  the  main  pulley 
which  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine,  at  the  back,  the  shaft  running  fore  and  aft,  and  hence 
at  rio-ht  angles  to  the  router  pulley-shaft  and  the  idler-shaft.  The  table  has  vertical  motion 
by  a°rack  and  pinion,  and  horizontal  adjustment,  as  well  as  tipping  motion  for  certain  classes 
of  work.  There  are  adjustable  stops  to  regulate  the  depth  of  cut ;  and  the  table  has  an  index 
for  dividing  and  regulating  its  circular  movement.  There  are  suitable  clamps  and  jaws  for 
centering  and  holding  down  the  blocks,  and  the  whole  table  is  counterbalanced,  so  as  to  move 
more  readily  up  and  down  by  a  hand-lever.  The  router-shaft  pulley  is  covered  by  a  casing 
which  protects  the  operator,  and  keeps  oil  from  being  slung  over  him  and  the  work.  By  this 
machine,  work  of  the  class  done  in  metal  by  a  rose- engine  or  geometrical  lathe  may  be  effected ; 
and  by  an  attachment  the  operator  can  cut  designs  on  material  of  any  length,  as  in  the  case 
of  long  boards  on  mantel-pieces.  Another  attachment  is  for  rout- 
ing or  duplicating  operations  in  line  for  fancy  moldings,  consist- 
ing of  a  table  with  rack  and  pinion-feed,  that  may  be  fed  along  by 
a  hand- wheel,  or  by  a  lever  and  ratchet,  as  desired. 

CENTER ING-'MACHINE.  A  new  double-spindle  centering- 
machine,  made  by  the  D.  E. 
Whiton  Machine"  Co..  New 
London.  Conn.,  is  shown  in 
Fig  1.  Two  spindles  are 
provided,  one  of  which  car- 
ries a  drill,  and  the  other 
a  reamer  or  countersink. 
They  are  driven  at  differ- 
ent speeds,  by  a  single 
belt,  over  a  pulley  whose 
center  is  in  line  with  the 
center  of  the  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  head.  Both 
spindles  are  balanced  by 
springs  as  in  sensitive  drills, 
and  are  successively  ad- 
vanced to  their  respective 
cuts  by  a  feeding-lever. 

The  machine  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  neither  spindle 
can  be  advanced  by  the 
feeding-lever  except  at  the 
central  point.  The  moment 
this  advance  is  begun  no 
lateral  movement  of  the 
head  is  possible,  nor  is  lat- 
eral movement  again  possi- 
ble until  the  return  of  the 
spindle  to  its  normal  with- 
drawn position.  A  support  is  provided  for  the  front  end  of  the  bar  while  it  is  being  inserted 
in  the  chuck,  in  addition  to  the  Y-shaped  rest  for  the  rear  end.  The  chuck  is  thereby  made 
self-centering. 

Centrifugral  Extractor:  see  Creamers.  Centrifugal  Pumps:  see  Pumps,  Rotary. 
Centrifugal  Reels:  see  Milling  Machinery,  Grain. 

Chain  Machine:  see  Rope-Making  Machines, 

Channeling:  see  Quarrying  Machines. 

Cheek  Yalves  :  see  Yalves.    Cheek  Rower :  see  Seeders  and  Drills. 

Chemical  Fire-Engine:  see  Engines.  Fire,  Chemical. 

Chlorinating  Machine:  see  Mills,  Gold. 

Chrome  Steel :  see  Alloys. 

Clay  Filter :  see  Filters." 

CLAY-WORKING  MACHINERY.  Apparatus  for  the  treatment  and  handling  of  clay 
prior  to  its  manufacture  into  bricks,  tiles,  etc.  When  clay  is  thoroughly  and  evenly  tempered, 
it  is  then  in  best  condition  to  make  a  good  brick.  Hence,  since  clay  'in  its  natural  state  is 
found  in  such  a  variety  of  conditions,  the  question  of  properly  preparing  it  for  the  machine, 
with  the  least  expense'and  the  best  results,  becomes  a  matter  "of  importance.  It  is  seldom,  if 
ever,  the  case  that  a  bed  of  clay  is  found  with  moisture  so  evenly  distributed  in  it  that  it  is 
just  in  the  right  condition  to  work  the  season  through.  A  very  common  as  well  as  successful 
plan  is  to  soak  the  clay  in  pits.  Two  pits  are  used,  one  being  filled  and  soaked  while  the 


FIG.  1. — Double-spindle  centering-machine. 


116 


CLAY-WORKING   MACHINERY. 


other  is  being  made  into  brick.  Clay  that  is  either  too  dry  or  too  wet  does  not  work  satis- 
factorily alone  or  as  well,  alternately  mixed,  as  if  the  entire  mass  was  uniform  in  temper  when 
out  into  the  machine.  This  difficulty  is  overcome  by  carefully  soaking  in  clay-pits,  or  by 

equivalent  preparation  by  pug-mills  and  crush- 
ers. When  pits  are  used,  the  clay  should  be 
leveled  off  in  the  pits,  and  the  lumps  broken  up 
after  every  few  loads.  A  sufficient  amount  of 
water  should  then  be  thrown  upon  it,  and  this 
operation  repeated  until  the  pit  is  full.  By  this 
means  the  clay  will  neither  be  too  soft  at  the 
bottom  or  at  the  top,  but  evenly  tempered 
throughout.  A  little. experience  and  observa- 
tion will  suffice  to  obtain  good  results  in  tem- 
pering the  clay.  To  facilitate  the  convenience 
of  soaking  the  clay-pit,  a  tank  should  be  erected 
high  enough  so  that  the  water  can  be  thrown 
from  it  by  the  use  of  a  hose,  and  in  this  way 
one  person  can  easily  supply  the  necessary 
amount  of  water  without  any  hindrance  to  the 
other  part  of  the  work.  In  a  very  few  cases  the 
clay  comes  from  the  bank  in  the  right  condition 
to  go  at  once  into  the  machine.  In  this  case  it 
is  best  to  have  a  platform  arranged  over  the 
machine,  on  a  level  with  the  top,  so  that  the 
clay  can  be  dumped  on  this  platform,  and  with 
the  least  possible  labor  thrown  into  the  ma- 
chine. In  dry  weather,  when  the  clay-bank  has 
a  tendency  to  dry  up  badly,  it  is  a  very  good 
practice  to  arrange  to  partially  soak  the  clay  in 
the  bank  by  means  of  throwing  water  over  the 
bank,  or  if  possible  irrigate  it  by  digging  trench- 
FIG  l  -Clay -crusher.  es  over  the  bank  and  allowing  the  water  to  flow 

through  them. 

CLAY-CRUSHERS  AND  GRANULATORS.— Machines  for  crushing  and  granulating  clay  embody 
rotary  crushing-rolls,  and  are  so  constructed  as  automatically  to  separate  out  the  stones 
naturally  contained  in  the  material. 

-  The  "Brewer  Clay-Crusher,  manufactured  by  Messrs.  H.  Brewer 
&  Co.,  of  Tecumseh,  Mich.,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  1.  This  apparatus 
has  two  conical  rolls,  22  in.  in  length,  with  diameters  respectively 


Fio.  3.— Detail. 


FIG.  5i.— jeenneitl  clay-crusher. 


CLAY-WORKING   MACHINERY. 


117 


of  14  in.  and  17  in.  at  the  ends.  The  stones  are  separated  from  the  clay,  and  are  discharged 
at  one  end  of  the  rolls.  The  rolls  are  made  of  chilled  castings,  and  are  run  at  unequal 
speeds,  the  effect  being  to  disintegrate  the  clay  more  thoroughly.  Such  of  the  clay  as  does  not 
pass  between  the  rolls 
moves  toward  the  trans- 
verse crushing-roll,  which 
is  placed  near  their  larger 
ends.  The  unequal  revo- 
lutions ot  the  two  crush- 
ing-rolls, taken  in  connec- 
tion  with  the  fact  that  the 
periphery  of  each  roll  has 
a  varying  speed  through- 
out its  entire  length— ow- 
ing to  their  conical  form 
— has  proved  that  all  the 
clay,  except  the  very  large 
lumps,  will  be  drawn  be- 
tween the  crushing  -  rolls 
before  it  reaches  the  trans- 
verse roll.  The  periphery 
of  the  transverse  roll  is  of 
irregular  form,  and  is  also 
provided  with  teeth,  or 
spurs,  both  of  which  assist 
in  breaking  up  the  clay. 
The  transverse  roll  re- 
volves with  its  upper  sur- 
face turning  toward  the 
moving  clay,  and  any  lumps  or  clods  of  clay  with  which  it  may  come  in  contact,  whether 
moist  or  dry,  are  readily  broken  up  and  forced  between  the  two  crushing-rolls. 

The  Perifield  Clay-Crusher,  manufactured  by  Messrs.  J.  W.  Penfield  &  Son,  of  Willoughby. 
Ohio,  is  represented  in  Fig.  2.  The  peculiar  construction  of  the  crushing-rollers  in  this 
machine  will  be  noted  in  Fig  3.  On  each  there  is  a  broad  spiral  corrugation,  right  and  left 
hand  respectively,  which  extends  the  entire  length  of  the  roll.  The  projection  on  one  roll 
fits  into  the  corresponding  depression  on  the  other,  so  that  the  rolls  can  always  be  set  closely 
together,  and  any  wear  be  thus  taken  up.  When  running  at  a  moderate  speed,  the  clay 
passes  freely  through  the  rollers  and  is  crushed,  while  all  stones  too  large  to  be  at  once  crushed 
are  quickly" passed  to  one  end  and  out  of  the  crusher  through  an  automatic  gate.  The  rollers 
run  at  different  speeds  :  usually  one  about  twice  as  fast  as  the  other.  The  mode  of  applying 
this  so-called  differential  principle  to  corrugated  rolls  is  exceedingly  ingenious;  the  necessity 


FIG.  4. — Clay  disintegrator. 


FIG.  5.— Pug-mill 

of  exact  matching  of  the  corrugations,  and.  at  the  same  time,  of  driving  the  rolls  at  different 
speeds,  resulting  in  a  problem  not  easy  to  solve.  The  high-speed  roll  "is  made  with  a  single 
thread  or  corrugation  running  at  1-i-in.  pitch:  the  slow-roll  has  a  double-thread  or  corruga- 
tion running  at  3-in.  pitch,  twice  as  great ;  hence,  the  corrugations  on  the  former  will  advance 
the  same  in  two  turns  as  the  latter  in  one.  In  the  machine  represented  in  Fig.  2  the  upper 
rollers  are  corrugated,  and  are  17  in.  in  diameter  and  36  in.  in  length.  Heavy  car-springs  are 
arranged  between  the  boxes  of  the  adjustable  roller.  The  lower  rollers  are  smooth,  24  in.  in 
diameter  and  36  in.  long,  and  are  geared  to  run  at  differential  motion.  The  height  of  this 
machine  is  5  ft.  6  in.,  and  it  crushes  clay  sufficient  for  from  40.000  to  60.000  bricks  per  day. 

The  Ports  Clny  Disintegrator,  illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  is  especially  adapted  for  tough,  stony 
clay,  which  it  pulverizes  by  removing  successive  portions  from  a  mass  thrown  into  the  hopper; 
the  action  being  similar  to  that  of  a  file  or  grater.  The  mechanism  consists  of  a  cutting 
cylinder,  revolving  from  500  to  800  revolutions  per  minute,  in  combination  with  a  cylinder  of 
larger  diameter,  revolving  at  from  20  to  50  revolutions  per  minute.  The  clay  is  carried 
through  and  ground  entirely  by  the  action  of  the  high-speed  cylinder,  the  low-speed  cylinder 


118 


CLUTCHES   AND   COUPLINGS. 


acting  simply  as  a  feed-roller.  By  the  differential  speed,  and  by  the  cutting  action  of  project- 
ing bars  on  the  roll,  the  clay  is  finely  divided. 

Pug-Mills  often  receive  clay  in  a  crude  state  just  as  it  comes  from  the  bank,  and  reduce 
and  pug  it,  to  bring  it  to  tempered  condition.  They  are  also  employed  to  mix  two  or  more 

kinds  of  clay  together,  or  to 
combine  it  with  sand,  sawdust, 
grout,  or  other  material.  Fig. 
5  represents  a  Pentield  pug- 
mill,  capable  of  pugging  the 
clay  for  from  40,000  to  50,000 
bricks  per  day.  The  temper- 
ing-tub  is  made  of  heavy  boil- 
er-plate, is  5  ft.  long,  29 'in.  in 
diameter  at  the  large  end,  ta- 
pering down  to  25  in.  at  the 
small  end,  and  is  provided  with 
a  large  hinged  door.  The  main 
shaft  is  of  forged  steel,  4%  in. 
in  diameter  where  the  gears 

FIG.  6. -Clay  tempering- wheel.  are   attached,   and    hammered 

square  where  the  knives  fit  on. 

The  pugging-shaft  is  provided  with  a  wrought  washer  and  brass  wear-plates  at  the  back  end, 
receiving  the  end-thrust  of  shaft.  The  journals  are  all  long,  and  shafting  proportionately 
heavy. 

Tempering-  Wheels  are  employed  for  mixing  and  tempering  the  clay  in  the  pit.  Raymond's 
wheel,  illustrated  in  Fig.  6,  has  16  spokes  and  a  double  tire.  It  is  operated  in  the  pit  by  either 
steam  or  horse  power.  The  clay  is  worked  between  the  spokes  as  well  as  between  the  tires. 
By  an  automatic  arrangement  of  the  rod  and  pinion,  the  wheel  is  drawn  back  and  forth  on 
the  shaft,  changing  its  position  with  each  revolution,  and  reversing  itself  both  at  the  outer 
and  inner  edge  of  the  pit. 

Cleaning  Machine :  see  Flax  Machines. 
Clocks :  see  Watches  and  Clocks. 

CLUTCHES  AND  COUPLINGS.  The  Hill  Friction- Clutch  Pulley  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
The  pulley  is  cast  with  a  rim  projecting  from  the  arms,  inside  of  and  concentric  with  the  or- 
dinary rim,  which  rim  is  gripped  on  both  sides 
by  wooden  blocks.  These  are  moved  by  a  com- 
bination of  toggles,  whose  action  is  shown  in  the 
sectional  view. 


FIG.  1.— Hill  friction-clutch  pulley. 


FIG. 


.—Link  Belt  Eng.  Co/s  disk  friction-clutch. 
The  Link-Belt  Engineering  Go's  Disk  Friction- Clutch  is  shown  in  Fig.  2 ;  figure  showing 
the  clutch  in  engagement,  and  figure  disengaged.     It  consists  of  a  plate-center  pulley,  con- 
taining beneath  its  rim  on  one  side  the  toggle-lever 
mechanism,   and  on  the  other  the  clamping-plate, 
embracing  a  disk  which  is  provided  with  projecting 
hard-wood  plugs.     This  disk  is  loosely  interlocked 
with  square  jaws  on  the  hub  of  the  pulley,  wheel,  or 
coupling. 

The  Brock  Friction- Clutch,  a  portion  of  which 
is  shown  in  the  sectional  view  (Fig.  8),  has  a  rim 
which  is  grasped  on  the  inner  and  outer  sides  by 
the  clutch  members,  which  are  shod  with  seasoned 
maple.  The  radial  motion  of  the  jaws  or  clutch 
members  is  produced  by  the  sliding  piece  (seen  to 
,  ,  ,  the  right  of  the  pulley)  being  pushed  toward  the 

clutch  or  pulley,  giving  motion  to  angled  levers,  which  force  the  upper  or  outer  jaws  in- 
wardly and  the  inner  jaws  outwardly,  until  they  grip  firmly  both  sides  of  the  rim.     Moving 


FIG.  3.— Brock  friction-clutch. 


CLUTCHES   AND   COUPLINGS. 


119 


Fii.  4.— Weston  safety 
ratchet. 


the  sliding  piece  away  from  the  clutch,  in  the  position  shown  in  cut,  disengages  the  jaws  or 
Motional  surfaces. 

The  Weston  Safety  Ratchet,  as  applied  to  crabs,  winches,  and  similar  hoisting  apparatus, 
is  shown  in  Fig  4.  The  principle  is  based  upon  the  combined  use  of  a  friction-clutch  with  a. 
ratchet  wheel  and  pawl  in  such  a  manner  that  the  action  of  the 
weight  tightens  the  clutch  and  prevents  all  possibility  of  accidental 
release.  The  reverse  motion  of  the  handle  releases  the  clutch  and 
permits  the  load  to  follow,  but  any  variation  in  the  speed  of  the 
crank-motion  is  followed  by  a  corresponding  variation  in  the  barrel- 
movement  and  when  the  motion  of  the  crank  is  stopped,  either  in- 
tentionally or  accidentally,  the  barrel  also  stops.  Referring  to  the 
cut,  D  is  a  section  of  a  spur-pinion  suitable  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  any  light  train  of  gearing.  At  C  is  a  ratchet-wheel  with  which 
a  pawl  engages,  and  which  can  thus  only  revolve  freely  in  one  direction.  Between  the  pinion 
D  and  the  ratchet-wheel  C  are  several  friction  disks,  the  alternate  ones  being  connected  with 

pinion  and  ratchet-wheel,  and  giving  enough  friction 

\^ x— -x  surface  to  hold  the  two  parts  firmly  together  as  a  unit 

f*    w  ;      1     S_  when    they  are  forced   into   close  frictional   contact. 

""L  .^-.p^. * )  Both  pinion  and  ratchet-wheel  are  loose  upon  the  shaft 

A,  and  are  placed  between  two  collars.     One  collar,  B. 

•>  jm>     i-iSKE  is  pinned  fast  to  the  shaft,  and  is  a  plain  collar.     The 

other  collar,  E,  has  a  helix  formed  upon  its  side,  and 
there  is  a  corresponding  helix  upon  the  hub  of  the  pin- 
ion upon  that  side.  This  collar  E  is  also  pinned  fast  to 
the  shaft,  so  that  there  is  but  slight  play  between  the 
parts,  just  enough  to  permit  the  engagement  or  release 
of  the  friction-disks.  When  the  shaft  A,  carrying  with 
it  the  collar  E,  is  revolved,  the  top  moving  toward  the 
observer,  the  helix  on  the  collar  acts  as  a  circular  wedge 
upon  the  helix  on  the  pinion-hub,  and  forces  the  fric- 
tion-disks tightly  together,  and  also  tightens  the  whole 
series  upon  the  shaft;  and  any  motion  given  to  the 
shaft  A  is  transmitted  through  the  pinion  D,  just  as  if 
it  were  keyed  fast.  The  same  action  takes  place  when 
the  load  attempts  to  rotate  the  pinion  backward.  When 
it  is  desired  to  lower  the  load,  the  shaft  A  is  turned 
bcakward.  The  ratchet-wheel  can  not  revolve  in  that 
direction,  as  it  is  held  by  the  pawl,  and,  as  the  pinion  is 
held  by  the  friction-disks,  the  shaft  alone  is  turned,  carrying  with  it  the  collar  E.  This 
motion  releases  the  wedge  action  of  the  helix,  and  reduces  the  pressure  upon  the  disks,  and 
hence  the  load  can  now  pull  the  pinion  backward,  the  alternate  disks  slipping  upon  each 
other.  Any  tendency  for  the  load  to  turn  the  pinion  faster  than  the  shaft  and  collar  E  at 
onee  creates  an  increase  in  the  friction  between  the  disks,  and  so  the  pinion  can  not  run  down 
any  faster  than  the  motion  of  the  crank  and  shaft,  and,  if  the  crank  is  for  any  reason  let  go, 
the  friction-disks  will  at  once  tighten  and  bold  the  load. 

Frisbies  Friction- 
Clutch  (Fig.  5)  is  used  in 
connection  with  a  hoist  - 


FIG.  5.— Frisbie's  cut-off  coupling. 


FIG.  6. — Frictional  belt-gearing. 


FIG.  7.— Almond's  right-angled  coupling. 


ing-drum,  such  as  is  used  in  pile-drivers  and  like  hoisting  machinery.  The  sectional  view 
shows  its  use  as  a  cut-off  coupling.  The  rim  of  the  clutch,  as  shown,  contains  a  groove  with 
internal  beveled  surfaces,  each  of  which  is  pressed  by  wooden  blocks  which  are  drawn  outward 


120 


COAL-BREAKERS. 


by  the  operation  of  a  bent  arm-lever,  the  long  arm  of  which  rides  upon  a  cone,  which  is  moved 
along  the  shaft  by  the  shifting  lever.     . 

Frictional  Self- Gearing. —A  new  system  of  transmitting  power  by  belts  and  pulleys,  made 
by  the  Evans  Friction  Cone  Co.,  of  Boston,  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.     The  power  is  transmitted 


FIG.  8.— States  Machine  Co/s  angle- joint. 


shows  the  points  of  contact  of  the  belt  when  the  pulleys  are  idle,  but  little  pressure  remaining 
upon  the  belt.  The  oblique  line  A  A  shows  the  points  of  contact  of  the  belt  when  the  pulleys 
are  in  motion.  The  force  of  the  driving  pulley  C  is  transmitted  to  the  outer  face  of  the 
pulley  D,  in  a  line  obliquely  with  the  axis  of  the  driven  pulley. 

Almond's  Right-angled'  Coupling. — Fig.  7  shows  a  form  of  shaft-coupling  made  by  T.  R. 
Almond,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  for  transmitting  motion  between  two  shafts  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  The  sleeve  A,  which  slides  on  the  post  B,  carries  two  studs  C  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  each  of  which  is  connected  by  a  ball-and-cup  joint  to  the  forked  piece  F:  which  oscil- 
lates on  pins  formed  on  the  piece  JE,  which 
rotates  with  the  pulley  K.  Motion  being 
given  to  either  pulley  K,  it  causes  the  stud 
C  on  the  same  side  to  be  carried  upward 
and  downward,  and  to  be  oscillated  back 
and  forth  as  the  sleeve  A  moves  on  the 
post  B.  On  the  other  side  these  motions 
are  all  reproduced,  causing  the  other  pul- 
ley K  to  rotate.  The  coupling  is  inclosed 
in  a  metal  case,  which  holds  a  supply  of  oil 
sufficient  to  last  from  one  to  two  years. 

The  States  Machine  Co's  Angle- Joint 
is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  One  joint  will  operate 
within  an  angle  of  110°,  and  a  pair  used 
jointly  will  operate  within  70°.  The  sec- 
tional view  clearly  shows  the  construction. 
The  end  of  each  of  the  coupled  shafts  is 
fitted  with  a  piece  carrying  a  semicircular  projection  T-shaped  in  section.  These  projections 
fit  into  T-shaped  grooves  cut  at  right  angles  in  a  steel  ball.  The  ball  is  made  in  pieces  for 
the  purpose  of  putting  the  coupling  together.  The  coupling  is  especially  adapted  for  feeding 
devices  of  machine-tools  where  the  power  has  to  be  transmitted  at  a  varying  angle. 

COAL-BREAKERS.  Coal-breakers  and  the  machinery  used  in  them  for  the  preparation 
of  anthracite  coal  for  the  market  have  been  ably  described  by  Mr.  Eckley  B.  Coxe,  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  xix,  398,  of  \viiich  this  article  is 
largely  an  abstract.  Anthracite  coal  as  it  comes  from  the  mines  is  not  marketable.  The 
"run  of  mine"  can  not,  as  in  the  case  of  bituminous  coal,  be  sold.  Anthracite,  being  very 
compact  and  practically  free  from  volatile  combustible  matter,  burns  only  at  the  surface,  and 
it  is,  therefore,  deemed  important  to  have  the  lumps  as  nearly  of  a  uniform  size  as  possible, 
so  that  between  them  a  large  amount  of  surface  will  remain  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air 
without  checking  the  draft  too  much  or  allowing  enough  air  to  pass  to  cool  the  coal  below 
the  ignition-point.  In  other  words,  if  the  pieces  of  coal  of  the  size  of  a  chestnut  and  smaller 
are  mixed  with  lumps  of  the  size  of  an  egg,  they  fill  the  air-passages  and  prevent  a  free 
draft.  It  has  long  been  recognized,  therefore,  that  one  of  the  most  important  points  in 
preparation  is  to  have  a  uniform  sizing,  and  also  to  make  as  large  a  number  of  different  sizes 
as  can  be  produced  without  too  great  expense.  It  is  also  essential  to  remove  all  the  dust, 
which  is  of  little  or  no  use  at  present,  and  depreciates  the  value  of  coal  in  the  market. 

Mixed  with  the  pure  coal,  large  amounts  of  slate,  "  slate-coal  "  and  "  bony  coal "  generally 
occur.  The  term  "slate-coal"  is  commonly  used  to  designate  lumps  composed  partly  of  coal 
and  partly  of  slate,  in  which  the  pure  coal  occurs  in  such  large  masses  that,  by  rebreaking, 
pieces  of  pure  coal  of  marketable  sizes  can  be  obtained  economically ;  and  "  bony  coal "  to 
designate  lumps  in  which  the  coal  and  slate  are  so  interstratified  that  they  can  not  be  sepa- 
rated economically  by  mechanical  preparation ;  also  coal  in  which  the  impurities  are  present 
in'such  high  percentages  as  to  destroy  or  greatly  diminish  its  market  value.  In  other  words, 
slate-coal  is  coal  from  which,  by  breaking  and  preparation,  a  certain  amount  of  pure  coal  can 
be  obtained  :  bony  coal  is  coal  which  can  not  be  economically  rendered  more  pure  by  mechani- 
cal preparation,  although  it  may  be  used  for  certain  purpose's  in  its  crude  condition. 

The  problem  is,  to  remove  the  impurities  as  completely  as  possible.  Of  course,  when  the 
slate  occurs  in  separate  pieces,  it  should  be  eliminated  without  further  breaking.  But.  the 
slate-coal  must  be  broken  into  smaller  pieces  to  separate  the  slaty  portion  from  the  coal.  It 
is  generally  impossible  to  sell  all  the  larger  lumps  which  come  from  the  mines,  and  machinery 
must  be  provided  for  breaking  them  up  into  such  sizes  as  the  market  requires. 

The  coal  coming  from  the  mines  should  be  divided  into  its  various  sizes,  and  the  free  slate 
in  each  size  should  be  removed,  before  any  breaking  is  done.  This  can  be  done  either  by  hand- 
labor  or  by  mechanical  means.  In  the  first  case  the  coal  is  passed  along  chutes,  on  the  sides 
of  which  men  and  boys  are  placed  who  pick  out  the  slate,  and  in  some  cases  the  bony  and 
slate-coal,  and  allow  the  pure  coal  to  pass  into  the  pockets.  The  mechanical  slating  of  the 
coal  depends  upon  one  or  more  of  three  physical  characteristics  of  the  coal  and  slate :  the 
difference  in  their  specific  gravity ;  the  difference  of  the  forms  in  which  they  break ;  and  the 


COAL-BREAKERS.  121 


difference  of  their  angle  of  friction,  or,  in  other  words,  the  difference  in  the  angle  of  a  chute, 
lined  with  stone  or  iron,  down  which  the  coal  or  slate  will  slide  without  any  increase  of 
velocity.  As  a  rule,  slate  will  not  slide  down  a  chute  which  will  carry  coal. 

Machinery  for  Sizing  CoaL — This  may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  fixed  or  movable 
bars,  and  fixed  or  movable  screens.  In  the  first,  the  openings  through  which  the  coal  falls 
are  much  longer  than  they  are  wide,  while  in  the  second  the  ratio  of  the  length  to  the  width 
of  openings  does  not  generally  vary  much  from  unity.  In  special  cases  the  first  class  may  be 
used  to  take  out  dust  or  fine  coal ;  otherwise,  they  are  seldom  employed,  except  for  large  coal, 
unless  when  exact  sizing  is  not  important.  The  reason  is,  that  long,  flat  pieces  fall  out  with 
the  cubical  pieces  of  much  smaller  dimensions,  rendering  the  coal  thus  sized  unsightly,  incon- 
venient to  handle  in  the  furnace,  etc.  There  are  three  types  of  the  first  class  now  in  common 
use :  1.  The  adjustable  bars,  supported  at  both  ends.  2.  The  finger-bars,  supported  at  one 
end.  3.  The  oscillating  bars. 

The  Adjustable  Bars  are,  as  the  name  implies,  a  series  of  bars,  whose  position  can  be  ad- 
justed, over  which  the  coal  to  be  sized  is  made  to  slide  longitudinally.  The  ends  of  the  bars 
are  made  V-shaped,  and  they  fit  into  similar  grooves  on  the  transverse  pieces  by  which  they 
are  supported,  so  that  the  bars  can  be  placed  at  required  distances  from  each  other  varying 
with  the  width  of  the  bases  of  the  triangles,  which  is  usually  about  4  in.  The  bars  are  gener- 
ally made  4  ft.  long,  but,  of  course,  can  be  made  of  any  size. 

The  Finger-Bars  are  an  improvement  upon  the  ordinary  bars,  and  have  been  recently  in- 
troduced. In  using  the  continuous  bars,  part  of  the  dirt  and  fine  coal  is  often  carried  over 
the  bar,  and  is  delivered  in  the  chute  at  the  lower  end,  instead  of  falling  through  ;  and  as  the 
spaces  between  the  bars  are  parallel  and  closed  at  the  lower  end,  long  pieces  often  wedge  and 
catch,  particularly  at  the  bottom,  thus  necessitating  a  frequent  cleaning.  Of  the  finger-bars, 
the  lower  end  is  entirely  free,  and  the  bars  are  narrower  there  than  at  the  upper  end,  and  any 
lump  that  may  wedge  is  likely  to  be  loosened  by  the  first  lump  which  strikes  it.  Upon  the 
vertical  portion  at  the  upper  end  of  the  bars  are  two  half-holes,  by  which  they  are  bolted  to 
the  beam  or  bar-bearings. 

The  Movable  or  Oscillating  Bars  consists  essentially  of  a  series  of  double  bars,  placed 
sufficiently  far  apart  to  allow  coal  of  the  required  size  to  pass  between  the  bars  of  each  pair. 
The  lower  ends  of  the  bars  have  semicircular  bearings,  which  fit  over  a  horizontal  shaft,  while 
the  upper  ends  are  supported  upon  two  round  steel  rollers.  The  bars  are  oscillated  back  and 
forth  by  eccentrics  on  the  main  driving-shaft,  which  are  so  connected  with  the  bars  that  the 
motion  of  the  latter  is  approximately  horizontal.  The  throw  given  them  is  about  3  in.  On 
the  main  or  driving  shaft  there  are  two  eccentrics,  placed  180°  apart.  The  bars  are  flat  on 
top,  the  extreme  lower  end  being  rounded  off  to  allow  the  coal  to  roll  off  easily  ;  then  for  a 
certain  distance  they  are  horizontal,  rising  finally  in  a  curve,  the  center  of  which  is  upward, 
to  the  point  where  the  coal  arrives  upon  the  bars.  The  upper  ends  of  the  bars,  which  are 
carried  by  the  rollers,  extend  under  the  chute  whence  the  coal  is  fed. 

Fixed  Screens  may  be  either  fixed  or  movable.  The  former  consists  simply  of  an  inclined 
plane,  formed  either  of  woven  wire  screens  or  punched  or  cast  plates,  with  round,  square, 
elliptical,  etc.,  holes.  The  coal  in  this  case  is  allowed  to  slide  or  roll  by  gravity,  not  too 
rapidly,  down  this  plane.  The  larger  pieces  pass  over,  and  the  smaller  fall  through.  By 
placing  several  screens  with  openings  of  decreasing  size  underneath  one  another,  or  a  series 
with  openings  of  increasing  size,  in  the  same  chute  below  one  another,  any  desired  number  of 
sizes  can  be  made.  The  objection  to  these  is  that  their  capacity  is  limited,  the  sizing  is 
imperfect,  and  the  screens  clog  more  or  less. 

Movable  Screens. — The  movable  screens  are  among  the  most  important  parts  of  a  breaker. 
They  are  of  two  types.  In  the  first  type  the  screening  surface  forms  a  cylinder  and  revolves 
about  its  axis.  In  the  other  type  the  screening  surface  is  approximately  horizontal,  and  the 
motion  and  action  are  very  similar  to  that  of  an  ordinary  hand-sieve.  In  many  cases  the  screen 
is  moved  backward  and  'forward  in  an  approximately  horizontal  plane.  This  motion,  com- 
bined with  the  inclination  of  the  sieve,  causes  the  coal  which  is  fed  on  the  higher  part  of  the 
screen  to  travel  gradually  across  it,  allowing  the  smaller  particles  to  fall  through.  In  other 
cases  the  approximately  horizontal  screen  receives  a  gyratory  motion,  like  the  motion  a 
molder  gives  to  his  sieve  when  screening  his  sand.  Its  great  advantage  is  that  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  screen  is  constantly  in  action,  while  in  the  revolving  screen  of  say  5  ft.  in  diame- 
ter only  about  8  in.  of  the  16  ft.  circumference  is  at  any  one  time  in  action,  unless  the  screen 
is  overcrowded,  and  the  revolving  of  the  screen  acts  like  an  elevator  and  tends  to  throw  the 
coal  back  into  the  screen. 

The  problem  of  constructing  a  gyrating  screen,  when  the  screen  is  to  be  large  and  must 
make  a  great  number  of  sizes,  is  to  support  it  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  gyrate  easily  and 
safely,  and  at  the  same  time  be  self-contained,  so  that  the  centrifugal  force  will  be  counter- 
balanced and  will  not  shake  the  building.  The  method  consists  essentially  in  supporting 
one  horizontal  plane  upon  another  by  means  of  three  or  more  double  cones,  while  the  motion 
of  gyration  is  given  to  the  upper  plate  by  a  crank  upon  a  shaft  passing  through  and  jour- 
naled  in  the  lower  plates.  The  cones  roll  freely  in  a  prescribed  path  on  the  lower  plate, 
while  the  upper  plate  moves  upon  the  other  end  of  the  double  cone,  its  relative  motion  to 
that  of  the  cone  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  bottom  plate.  The  result  is  that  every  point 
on  the  upper  plate  describes  a  circle  of  the  same  diameter  (in  coal-screens  generally  about  4 
in.),  but  no  two  circles  have  the  same  center. 

The  cones  may  be  guided  in  various  ways.  By  one  method  the  upper  and  lower  plates  are 
made  with  an  annular,  truncated,  V-shaped  track,  which  fits  into  a  corresponding  groove  in 


122 


COAL-BREAKERS. 


the  cone.  In  other  cases  the  guiding  is  done  by  an  annular  grove  in  the  running-plate  and  a 
corresponding  annular  enlargement  of  the  cone  at  the  outer  edge.  When,  however,  the 
screens  are  run  at  high  speed,  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  double  cone  to  fly  from  the  center ; 
the  surface,  therefore,  on  which  the  cones  roll  is  sometimes  made  conical,  so  that  the  weight 
of  the  screen  has  a  tendency  to  force  the  cone  toward  the  center,  thus  counteracting  the  cen- 
trifugal force  to  a  great  extent.  In  this  type  the  circumferential  surface  of  the  enlargement 
is  very  broad,  and  has  a  good  bearing  against  the  outer  surface  of  the  groove  in  the  running- 
plates.  This  form  of  cone  is  well  suited  to  resist  any  tendency  of  the  centrifugal  force  to 
throw  it  out. 

There  are  other  types  of  cones  in  which  the  guiding  is  done  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint  at 
the  two  points  of  the  cones.  Both  the  running-plates  and  cones  in  this  type  are  made  in  the 
lathe,  and  are  all  fitted  to  gauge.  The  same  precautions  are  taken  in  the  lower  right  cut  as 
in  the  upper  left  cut  to  counteract  the  effect  of  the  centrifugal  force. 

In  the  case  of  single  gyrating  screens  the  screen-box  is  commonly  made  about  4  ft.  wide 
and  6  ft.  long,  inside  measurement.  The  number  of  shelves  varies  from  two  to  six,  depend- 


Fio.  1.— Double  gyrating  screen. 

ing  upon  the  material  to  be  screened.  The  smaller  the  size  of  coal,  the  closer  to  each  other 
the  screens  can  be  put.  The  boxes  are  made  from  1  to  2  ft.  deep.  The  double  gyrating 
screen  (Fig.  1)  is  a  combination  of  two  single  screens,  driven  by  two  parallel  vertical  shafts, 
each  shaft  having  two  eccentrics  upon  it  close  together,  and  placed  180°  apart.  In  the  latest 
forms  of  these  screens  counterbalances  on  a  shaft  connected  with  the  outside  end  of  each  box 
have  been  added,  whereby  strains  on  the  eccentrics  of  the  driving-shafts  are  lessened,  and  the 
screens  are  made  to  run  more  steadily  at  a  higher  rate  of  speed.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
best  results  in  screening  were  obtained  at  from  140  to  145  gyrations  per  minute.  The  screens 
are  sometimes  made  of  cast-iron  plate  when  the  holes  are  large,  but  punched  steel  is  generally 
preferred,  being  lighter.  Copper  is  occasionally  used  for  small  sizes. 

Machinery  for  Breaking  Coal. — For  breaking  up  the  coal  two  methods  are  used.  When 
the  lumps  are  large  and  the  pieces  of  slate  attached  to  them  are  of  such  a  character  as  to 
render  it  economical,  the  larger  lumps  are  broken  by  hand,  the  men  using  picks  made  for  that 
purpose.  In  this  way  large  pieces  of  pure  coal  or  pure  slate  can  often  be  ob- 
tained ;  but  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  breaking  is  done  by  rolls. 

The  rolls  used  in  breaking  coal  are  of  two  kinds,  those  with  pointed  teeth 
and  those  known  as  corrugated  rolls  (Fig.  2),  in  which  the  teeth  are  continu- 
ous from  one  end  to  the  other.  In  the  latter  there  are  no  points,  and  the 
ends  of  the  teeth  are  slightly  rounded,  the  part  doing  the  work  being  cast  in 
chills,  so  as  to  give  greater  endurance. 

In  the  operation  of  a  roll  as  ordinarily  constructed — i.  e.,  with  pointed 
teeth — the  point  of  one  of  the  teeth  inserts  itself  into  a  lamp  of  coal  which 
is  passing  through  the  rolls,  and  breaks  it  very  much  as  the  stroke  of  a  pick 
would  do ;  that  is,  the  lines  of  fracture  radiate  approximately  from  the  point 
where  the  tooth  strikes  the  lump  of  coal.  If  two  pieces  of  round  iron  are 
placed  parallel  to  one  another,  and  at  such  a  distance  apart  that  a  piece  of 
coal  will  just  be  supported  by  them,  and  if  a  third  piece  of  round  iron, 
placed  midway  between  and  in  a  direction  parallel  to  and  above  the  other 
two,  is  then  brought  down  upon  the  coal,  the  piece  of  coal  will  break  near 
the  middle  like  a  piece  of  wood  subjected  to  a  load  in  the  middle  too  great 
Fm'  t-2H~~Ci?rru"  ^or  ^  to  t)ear>  l^*ie  resulfc  °*  tnis  action  is  generally  to  break  the  lump  into 

)lls>       two  pieces  of  nearly  the  same  size,  which  is  the  result  desired. 

In  breaking  coal,  as  in  crushing  ore,  experiment  has  shown  that  successive  reductions  give 
the  most  satisfactory  results — i.  e.,  produce  the  minimum  amount  of  fines — and  most  breakers 
are  equipped  upon  this  principle.  It  is  not  necessary,  consequently,  to  change  the  distance 


COAL-BREAKERS. 


123 


FIG.  3.— Taper  rolls. 


between  the  centers  of  the  shafts  of  the  rolls  after  the  proper  distance  for  most  economical 

breaking  has  once  been  determined,  and  the  rolls  are  made  with  fixed  bearings.    Where  it  is 

desired  to  crush  coal  to  various  sizes  with  the  same  set  of  rolls,  those  with  adjustable  bearings 

are  used. 

Taper  rolls,  the  construction  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  3,  are  sometimes  used  where  a 

small  quantity  of  a  number  of  different  sizes  is  to  be  broken  up  at  once.  At  the  upper  or 
larger  end  the  rolls  will  take  steamboat ;  a  little  farther  from  the  end 
they  will  take  broken ;  a  little  farther  they  will  take  egg ;  and  a  little 
farther  stove.  When  the  coal  to  be  broken  up  is  of  different  sizes,  and 
the  quantity  not  large,  these  rolls  may  be  economical,  but  the  tend- 
ency of  practice  at  the  best  breakers  is  to  increase  the  number  of 
rolls,  having  a  different  roll  for  each  size  to  be  broken. 

Jigs. — The  jigs  used  in  washing  coal  are  modifications  of  the  or- 
dinary Hartz  jig  used  in  ore-dressing,  differing  only  in  size,  capacity, 
and  minor  details  of  construction.  The  principle  of  coal-washing, 
moreover,  is  identical  with  that  of  ore-dressing,  except  that  in  the  lat- 
ter heavy  mineral  is  separated  from  lighter  gangue,  which  is  thrown 
away,  while  in  the  former  light  coal  is  to  be  separated  from  heavier 
slate  or  pyrites.  The  coal-jigs  in  general  use  are  invariably  of  the 
side-piston  type,  and  consist  of  a  single  compartment,  in  the  jigs 
used  at  the  Drifton  breaker  (Fig.  4)  the  sieves  are  5  ft.  long  and  3  ft. 
wide,  and  the  pistons  of  the  same  size.  The  bottom  of  the  jig  is  semi- 
circular. The  coal  to  be  washed  is  fed  on  to  the  jig  at  the  side  of  the 
sieve  next  the  piston,  over  an  adjustable  plate  (6),  the  lower  end  of 
which  is  placed  as  near  the  sieve  as  is  consistent  with  a  free  discharge 
of  the  coal.  The  coal  passes  out  under  this,  spreading  over  the  sieve, 
its  constituents  arranging  themselves  according  to  their  specific  grav- 
ities— the  slate  and  pyrites  at  the  bottom  and  the  pure  coal  at  the  top.  At  the  outside  of 

the  sieve  the  pure  coal  is  skimmed  off  from  the  top  by  a  series  of  flat  strips  of  iron  carried  on 

two  rows  of  link-belt  chains,  running  over  a  wheel  (34).  or  by  some  similar  device.     The  coal 

is  thus  dragged  up  an  inclined  plane  and  discharged,  the  water  carried  with  it  draining  back 

to  the  jig.     The  slate  passes  out  through  an  opening  in  the  side  of  the  jig  just  above  the  sieve, 

which  is  regulated  by  an  adjustable  slide,  into  a  flat  cast-iron  hopper  (9).     The  bottom  of  this 

hopper  is  closed  by  a  gate,  which  allows  neither  slate  nor  water  to  escape.     This  gate  is 

opened  at  proper  intervals,  the  upper  opening  from  the  sieve  to  the  hopper  being  closed  at 

the  same  time,  and  the  accumulated  slate  discharged  from  the  hopper  into  a  trough,  whence 

it  is  removed  by  a  suitable  conveyor  after  having  been  inspected. 

For  jigging  fine  coal  similar'jigs  are  used,  but  the  sieves  are  bedded  with  feldspar  or  like 

material  of  approximately  the  same  specific  gravity.     In  jigs  of  this  class  the  slate  discharges 

through  a  goose-neck  outlet  instead  of  one 

of  the  kind  shown  in  Fig.  4.  or  else  through 

the  bedding  and  sieve  into  the  hutch  below, 

whence  it  can  be  drawn  through  a  proper 

gate. 

Automatic  Slate- Pickers. — These  depend 

for  their  action  upon  the  fact  that,  while  the 

coal  generally  breaks  into  cubical  masses,  the 

pieces  of  slate  of  the  same  length  and  width 

are  of  very  much  less  thickness.     Hence,  if 

a  quantity  of  slate  and  coal  which  has  been 

passed  through  a  screen  and  properly  sized, 

the  slate,  if  placed  edgewise,  would  drop 

through  a  slit  over  which  the  coal  would 

pass.     There  are  two  types  of  automatic 

slate-pickers :  one,  intended  to  be  placed  in 

a  chute  and  to  be  fixed;  and  the  other,  to  be 

placed  in  the  discharge-slip  of  a  gyrating 

screen  and  gyrated. 

The  fixed  slate-picker  consists  essentially 

of  a  series  of  V-troughs  of  iron  cast  in  one 

piece,  one  side  of  the  V  being  shorter  and  at 

right  angles  to  the  other.     The  lower  half  of 

the  casting  has  a  taper  slit  in  the  short  side. 


FIG.  4.— Coal  jig. 


The  slit  is  so  arranged  that  anything  lying  on  the  long  side  of  the  trough  and  of  not  too 
great  height  can  slide  out  through  it.  Any  lump  which  is  thicker  than  the  height  of  the  slit 
will  of  course  be  retained  in  the^trough.  The  slits  widen  as  they  approach  the  lower  end.  and 
the  part  of  the  casting  below  the  cross-bar  hangs  freely,  so  that  there  is  nothing  to  stop  a 

Siece  from  sliding  through  the  slit.  This  slate-picker  is  placed  in  an  ordinary  trough  or  chute 
own  which  the  coal  slides.  It  receives  pitch  enough  to  allow  the  coal  to  slide  over  freely, 
but  with  not  too  great  velocity.  As  the  coal  and  slate  come  down  the  chutes,  each  lump 
places  itself  in  one  or  other  of  the  grooves  or  troughs,  which  are  made  a  little  wider  than  the 
largest  lump  of  the  size  for  which  the  slate-picker  is  to  be  employed.  As  the  lumps  slide 
down,  all  the  flatter  pieces  tend  to  pass  out  through  the  slit  on  the  side,  while  the  cubical 


124  COAL-MINING   MACHINES. 

lumps  go  over.  Should  a  piece  catch  in  the  slit  in  consequence  of  the  increase  in  height  to- 
ward the  end,  some  one  of  the  pieces  which  follow  will  generally  knock  it  loose,  so  that  it 
does  not  remain  and  block  the  slits.  The  slits  if  made  parallel  would  soon  clog.  The  flat 
pieces,  which  are  mostly  slate,  and  which  fall  through  the  taper  slit,  pass  over  a  chute  or 
picking-table  or  any  convenient  place,  where  they  are  examined  by  a  boy,  who  takes  out  any 
flat  coal  that  may  come  through  with  the  slate.  The  size  and  taper  of  the  slit,  the  pitch  of 
the  picker,  the  width  of  the  troughs,  the  length  of  the  upper  and  the  lower  portion  of  the 
casting,  vary  with  the  size  of  the  coal,  nature  of  slate,  etc. 

The  Gyrating  Automatic  Slate-Picker  is  made  in  the  same  way,  with  this  exception,  that 
only  the  part  with  the  slit  is  used.  This  is  placed  on  the  discharge-chute  attached  to  a  gy- 
rating screen.  The  pickers  are  made  in  two  patterns,  to  be  used  according  as  the  screen 
gyrates  in  one  direction  or  the  other.  They  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  gyrating  motion  of 
the  screen  has  a  tendency  to  throw  the  coal  and  slate  against  the  short  high  side.  In  this 
way  the  latter  is  thrown  out  and  passes  to  a  jig  or  picking-table. 

A  third  method  of  removing  slate  mechanically  is  used  in  several  breakers  in  the  Wyo- 
ming region.  It  consists  essentially  of  an  inclined  plane,  down  which  the  lumps  of  coal  a'nd 
shite  are  allowed  to  slide  freely.  The  plane  may  be  covered  with  iron,  stone,  or  slate.  The 
angle  is  such  that  the  slate  will  slide  down  uniformly  while  the  velocity  of  the  coal  increases. 
There  is  a  gap  at  the  end  of  the  inclined  plane,  over  which  the  coal  jumps  by  virtue  of  the 
greater  velocity  acquired  in  sliding  down  the  plane,  while  the  slate,  moving  slowly,  drops  into 
it.  There  are  a  number  of  devices  for  changing  the  pitch  of  the  chute,  the  form  of  the  open- 
ing, etc. 

COAL-MINING  MACHINES.  The  principal  inducement  to  operators  to  use  coal-cutting 
machinery  in  preference  to  mining  by  hand-labor  is  naturally  due  to  a  reduction  in  the  cost 
of  getting  out  the  coal  to  be  gained  by  the  former  method.  With  it,  it  is  possible  to  effect  a 
larger  saving  of  coal  than  is  possible  by  hand-labor,  due  to  the  small  height  of  the  undercut ; 
also  the  number  of  men  which  have  to  be  employed  can  be  materially  reduced.  To  get  out 
the  same  amount  of  coal  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  as  many  working-places  open  in  mines 
using  machinery  as  it  would  be  when  employing  hand  labor,  thus  making  it  possible  to  have 
the  working-places  more  concentrated,  and  thereby  to  save  a  large  amount  of  expense  in  the 
form  of  dead-work,  such  as  keeping  open  gangways.  To  give  an  approximate  idea  of  the  cost 
of  mining  with  machinery  as  compared  with  hand-labor,  it  can  be  stated  that  a  coal-cutter 
in  the  Hocking  Valley  is  capable  of  giving  an  output  of  80  to  85  tons  a  day.  The  price  now 
paid  for  cutting  coal  by  machines  in  rooms  is  8  cents  per  ton ;  the  price  paid  for  loading  coal 
after  the  cutting  is  35  cents  per  ton.  A  miner  can  mine  and  load  on  an  average  3  tons  per 
day,  being  paid  70  cents  per  ton.  This  shows  a  cost  of  43  cents  per  ton  of  coal  mined  by 
machines,  against  70  cents  mined  by  hand.  To  the  former  will  have  to  be  added  wages  for 
one  engineer,  fuel,  interest  and  depreciation,  and  wear  and  tear  of  the  plant.  By  working  the 
machines  day  and  night,  however,  these  last  items  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  This  policy 
is  being  followed  in  most  mines  using  machinery,  as  it  enables  a  comparatively  small  machine*- 
plant  to  give  a  large  daily  output.  For  example,  should  an  output  of  800  tons  per  day  be 
required,  and  the  machines  be  worked  during  the  day  only,  ten  coal-cutters  (with  the  neces- 
sary engines),  etc.,  would  be  required.  By  working  day  and  night,  five  coal-cutters  would  be 
sufficient,  as  well  as  engines,  generators  or  compressors,  and  ducts  of  half  the  size.  The  work 
of  loading  and  hauling  would  be  done  during  the  day  only.  There  are  at  present  two  general 
styles  of  coal-cutters  in  use  ;  those  using  rotary  cutters  and  those  using  reciprocating  cutters, 
both  of  which  have  special  features,  which  make  it  advisable  to  use  one  or  the  other,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  coal. 

Rotary  Coal-Cutters. — The  general  features  of  rotary  coal-cutters  are  as  follows :  the  under- 
cut is  made  by  means  of  revolving  tools,  the  axis  around  which  they  revolve  being  either  a 
horizontal  line  parallel  with  the  coal-cutter  (cutter-bar),  a  horizontal  line  at  right  angles  with 
the  coal  (augers),  or  a  vertical  line  (chain-machine). 

The  machines  in  general  consist  of  a  stationary  bed,  \ipon  which  slides  a  movable  frame 
bearing  the  cutting  devices.  The  latter  is  gradually  fed  into  the  coal  as  the  knives  or  tools 
cut  the  coal  away  in  front  of  it.  The  motor  (either  compressed  air  or  electric)  is  attached  to  the 
movable  frame  or  to  the  stationary  bed,  suitable  gearing  transmitting  the  power  to  the  cutting 
devices.  The  feed  is  automatic,  and  consists  either  of  a  screw  and  nut  or  rack  and  pinion. 
The  best  speed  for  feeding  seems  to  be  from  one  ninth  to  one  tenth  of  an  inch  per  revolution 
of  the  cutting  devices ;  although  for  some  coal  this  speed  might  be  increased  with  advantage. 
An  important  feature  of  this  style  of  coal-cutters  is  a  proper  device  for  withdrawing  the  coal- 
dirt  or  slack  from  the  cut,  to  prevent  the  knives  from  becoming  clogged. 

In  the  room  and  pillar  work  in  use  in  this  country  the  coal  is  generally  undercut  the  entire 
width  of  the  room  to  a  depth  equal  to  the  height  of  the  vein.  It  takes  about  nine  or  ten  cuts 
to  accomplish  this  in  a  room  30  ft.  wide.  After  the  undercut  is  made,  from  three  to  four 
holes  are  drilled  in  the  coal  about  two  thirds  of  the  height  from  the  floor,  but  varying  with 
the  condition  of  the  vein.  These  holes  are  filled  with  powder,  and  the  coal  shot  down.  After 
having  been  blasted  down,  the  coal  is  loaded  into  the  mine-cars  by  a  set  of  miners,  and  the 
room  is  cleaned  up  for  another  set  of  cuts.  While  the  process  of  drilling,  blasting,  and  load- 
ing is  going  on,  the  coal-cutter  is  taken  into  another  room  prepared  for  it,  and  there  again 
undercuts  the  coal  the  entire  length  of  the  room.  The  best  part  of  the  coal  is  generally  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vein,  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  to  save  as  much  of  this  as  possible.  For 
this  reason  the  "  bearing-in,"  or  cut,  is  often  made  in  the  fire-clay  underlying  the  coal,  if  this 
is  not  too  gritty,  or  in  a  slate-parting  in  the  coal.  If  the  latter  is  high  up  in  the  vein,  the 


GOAL-MINING   MACHINES.  125 

machines  can  be  worked  from  the  bench — in  other  words,  if  the  coal  underlying  the  parting 
is  allowed  to  remain  down  for  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  face  of  the  room  to  allow  the 
machines  to  rest  on  it  while  making  the  new  cut.  When  undercutting  in  fire-clay,  care  is 
generally  taken  to  cut  partially  in  the  coal,  as  the  white  clay  adhering  to  the  latter  would 
decrease  its  value  in  the  market.  Wherever  neither  a  suitable  parting  in  the  coal  nor  a  fire- 
clay bottom  exists,  and  it  is  desirable  to  get  out  the  largest  amount  of  lump-coal  possible 
(especially  in  some  of  the  small  veins),  the  height  of  the  cut  has  to  be  made  as  small  as 
possible  ;*  it  is,  however,  not  advisable  to  reduce  it  below  3^  in.,  as  otherwise  it  may  not  allow 
the  coal  to  tumble  over  properly  when  shot  down. 

The  amount  of  work  a  machine  is  capable  of  performing  in  a  given  time  can  be  expressed 
in  tons  only  when  the  thickness  of  the  vein  and  the  amount  of  impurities  in  the  shape  of 
partings,  bony  coal,  or  slate,  etc.,  are  known.  A  better  method  of  designating  the  amount  of 
work  the  coal-cutter  is  capable  of  performing  in  one  day  is  by  giving  the  number  of  cuts  it 
can  make,  or  the  number  of  sq.  ft.  it  can  undercut.  This  daily  work,  of  course,  varies  some- 
what with  the  nature  of  the  coal,  whether  the  latter  is  hard  or  soft,  or  contains  sulphur  or 
bastard,  the  width  of  the  workings,  and  the  territory  to  be  covered  by  one  machine.  The 
largest  record  so  far  made  with  rotary  coal-cutters  is  said  to  have  been  52  cuts  in  ten  hours, 
or  950  sq.  ft.  undercut.  The  average  work  in  the  same  mine  in  wide  workings  is  35  cuts,  or 
645  sq.  ft.,  for  narrow  and  wide  workings  30  cuts,  or  555  sq.  ft. 

When  handled  by  expert  men,  and  with  not  too  hard  coal,  machines  can  make  about  30 
to  35  cuts  a  day  in  from  nine  to  ten  hours,  making  it  necessary  to  prepare  at  least  four  rooms 
for  each  to  work  in. 

With  the  exception  of  one  type,  all  the  rotary  coal-cutters  used  in  America  are  fastened 
down  in  proper  position  at  the  face  of  the  coal  to  be  undercut.  They  then  make  a  cut  in  the 
coal  to  a  certain  depth,  and  of  a  width  depending  on  that  of  the  cutting  device.  The  latter 
is  then  withdrawn,  and  the  whole  machine  moved  sidewise,  and  placed  in  position  to  make 
another  cut  adjoining  the  former.  The  time  consumed  in  shifting  the  machines  averages 
about  H  min.  To  reduce  this  lost  time  as  much  as  possible,  it  is  advisable  to  undercut 
as  many  square  feet  as  possible  with  one  setting  of  the  machine.  There  is,  however,  no 
advantage  in  making  the  cut  deeper  than  the  vein  is  high — that  is,  in  a  5-ft.  vein  the  cut 
would  be  5  ft.  deep,  as  otherwise  the  coal  will  not  "  shoot  "  down  properly  and  tumble  over. 
If  the  coal  simply  settles  down  in  its  former  place,  it  is  in  a  worse  condition  for  mining  than 
if  it  had  not  been  undercut.  Neither  is  it  advisable  to  make  the  machines  longer  than  required 
for  the  6-ft.  cut,  as  they  would  become  too  unwieldy.  It  is  necessary  to  make  the  cut  as  wido 
as  possible,  so  as  to  reduce  the  numbar  of  times  th3  machine  has  to  "be  shifted  to  cut  the  coal 
in  a  room  of  a  certain  width. 

Handling  Machines. — Coal-cutters  are  generally  handled  by  two  men  only,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the  weight  of  the  machines  as  much  as  possible.  It  must  also 
be  borne  in  mind  that  they  are  not  only  handled  very  roughly,  but  have  to  do  very  hard  work, 
being  at  times  forced  through  coal  containing  small  streaks  of  sulphur,  or  other  impurities, 
harder  by  far  than  the  coal  itself.  Should  these  foreign  substances  occur  very  frequently  in 
the  "  bearing-in  seam  " — that  is,  in  that  part  of  the  coal  in  which  the  undercut  is  to  be  made — 
the  reciprocating  coal-cutters,  of  course,  would  be  the  proper  machines  to  use.  If,  however, 
only  small  streaks  of  sulphur  occur,  the  rotary  coal-cutters  are  generally  forced  through 
them. 

The  main  feature  of  a  successful  coal-cutter  is  great  strength.  To  show  that  this  is  of  far 
greater  importance  than  lightness,  the  record  is  given  of  the  time  required  to  shift  a  3,000-lb. 
machine,  36  seconds  being  the  average  time  in  six  tests  to  shift  the  machine  from  one  position 
to  another.  This,  of  course,  is  exceptionally  quick,  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  men 
would  be  able  to  keep  it  up  all  day.  This  machine  is  probably  the  heaviest  on  the  market,  the 
motor  alone  on  it  weighing  about  1,700  Ibs. 

It  is  hardly  reasonable  to  expect  that  the  machine  can  be  shifted  in  less  than  a  minute  and 
a  half  as  average  for  a  day,  no  matter  how  light  it  is  made,  and  this  is  being  easily  accom- 
plished by  expert  men  with  machines  having  the  abnormal  weights  given  above. 

To  convey  the  machines  from  room  to  room  they  are  mounted  on  small  trucks  and  hauled 
by  mules  or  horses  from  one  place  to  the  other.  These  trucks  are  generally  provided  with  a 
suitable  winch  and  chain,  by  means  of  which  the  machines  can  be  readily  loaded.  The  average 
time  to  do  this  is  about  2  min.  45  sec. ;  the  average  time  to  unload  the  coal-cutter  is  2  min. 
35  sec. ;  and  to  get  the  machine  ready  for  the  cut  will  take  3  min.  A  quick  record  for  this 
work  is  1  min.  45  sec.  to  load.  1  min  30  sec.  to  unload,  1  min.  26  sec.  to  set  and  get  ready  for 
the  cut.  The  time  required  to  move  the  machine  may  be  estimated  as  from  40  to  50  sec.  for 
each  room  between  the  one  cut  and  the  one  to  be  cut,  although  it  may  take  all  the  way  from 
10  min.  to  an  hour  before  a  mule  can  be  secured  for  this  work.  A  truck  so  constructed  that 
it  can  be  operated  by  electricity  in  mines  using  the  latter  for  power  purposes  is,  therefore,  very 
desirable. 

Reciprocal iny  Coal-Cutters. — The  second  style  of  machine  used  in  America  is  the  recipro- 
cating coal-cutter.  This  is  not  capable  of  quite  as  rapid  work  as  the  rotary  cutter.  It  has, 
however,  some  features  which  make  it  well  adapted  to  certain  kinds  of  coal  and  certain  con- 
ditions. It  has  already  been  said  that  when  the  quantity  of  sulphur  or  similar  substances  is 
not  too  great  in  the  bearing  the  seam  of  the  coal,  the*  rotary  cutter  can  be  used.  Should 
sulphur  occur  in  large  quantities,  and  in  the  shape  of  what  is  called  "  sulphur  balls."  or 
'•  nigger-heads,"  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  reciprocating  cutters.  Another  reason  for  using 
the  latter  machine  in  preference  to  the  former  in  small  veins  can  be  found  in  the  following: 


126 


COAL-MINING  MACHINES. 


In  certain  districts  the  miners  are  paid  for  the  amount  of  lump  coal  mined.  The  small  sizes 
of  coal  which  pass  through  the  screens  having  bars  from  1£  to  H  in.  apart — namely,  nut,  pea- 
coal,  and  slack — are  clear  profit  to  the  operator.  In  these  districts  the  royalties  on  the  coal 
are  also  paid  by  the  amount  of  lump  coal  mined.  Whenever  the  small  grades  of  coal,  there- 
fore, have  a  good  market,  it  may  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  operator  to  get  out  as  much  of 
these  sizes  as  possible ;  and  this  can  be  done  by  means  of  the  punch- 
ing or  reciprocating  cutter.  All  the  coal  coming  out  of  the  cut 
made  by  the  rotary  machine  is  in  the  form  of  fine  slack,  and  is  not 
marketable ;  that  coming  out  of  the  cut  made  by  the  punching- 
machine  is  generally  in  the  shape  of  nut  or  pea  coal.  It  is  also 
necessary  to  make  the  height  of  the  cut  with  the  latter  machines 
higher  than  that  made  by  the  rotary  machine,  to  enable  the  tool  to 
enter  it  and  to  undercut  the  coal  to  the  proper  depth.  We  present 
various  improved  forms  of  drills  and  coal-cutters. 

Grirrfs  Coal-Drill  (Fig.  1)  is  a  simple  form  of  hand-tool. 
When  in  position,  the  post  is  fastened  securely  to  the  roof  and  the 
floor  of  the  mine.  The  nut  through  which  the  screw-rod  turns  is 
placed  in  any  of  the  slots  cut  in  the  post  in  order  to  get  the  proper 

FIG  1  —  Grim's  coal-drill      P^oh  of  hole  to  be  drilled.     The  steel  bits  slip  into  the  socket  at 
the  end  of  the  screw-rod,  and  are  made  in  different  lengths  to  suit 

the  depth  of  hole  to  be  drilled— for  instance,  if  a  6-ft.  hole  is  to  be  drilled,  a  steel  bit  2  ft. 
long  is  first  used,  then  it  is  replaced  by  a  steel  bit  4  ft.  long,  and  finally  by  one  6  ft.  long. 
The  screw-rods  or  feed-bars  are  made  with  6,  8,  10, 
12,  and  14  threads  per  inch,  a  range  which  fits  the 
drill  for  all  grades  of  hard  coal  or  rock. 

Watts'  Drill  for  Boring  and  Reaming  (Fig.  2) 
is  specially  adapted  for  boring  into  coal-banks. 
The  machine  is  provided  with  an  expansible  bit, 
which  remains  in  its  closed  or  normal  position 
while  the  hole  is  being  bored.  When  a  previously 
determined  depth  is  reached,  the  bit  is  expanded 
to  create  a  pocket  at  the  end  of  the  bore  for  the 
reception  of  a  large  amount  of  powder. 

The  figure  shows  an  enlarged  vertical  section 
through  the  outer  end  of  the  auger-casing.  The 
drive-shaft  is  provided  with  a  longitudinal  face- 
groove  extending  practically  from  end  to  end,  and 
at  its  forward  or  inner  extremity  a  socket  is  fast- 
ened to  the  shaft.  At  the  rear  of  the  guide-box  a 
spur-wheel  is  connected  with  the  drive-shaft  by 
a  feather  passing  through  the  hub  and  entering 

the  groove  of  the  shaft.     By  this  means  when  the  FIG.  2.— Watts1  drill, 

wheel  is  revolved  to  turn  the  shaft,  the  latter  is 

free  to  move  forward.     When  a  hole  has  been  drilled  the  desired  depth,  a  thumb-screw  is 
turned,  which  holds  the  clamp  tightly  to  the  frame  and  stops  the  forward  movement  of  the 


casing  without  preventing  the  casing  from  turning. 


FIG.  3. — Jelirey  air-feed  drill. 


By  further  manipulation  the  casing  be- 
comes stationary  and  forces  the  bir- 
rod  outward,  thereby  causing  the 
bit-members  to  expand.  When  the 
pocket  has  been  properly  formed, 
the  bit-rod  is  drawn  backward,  the 
bit  assumes  its  normal  position,  and 
may  be  readily  removed  from  the 
hole. 

The  Jeffrey  Positive- Feed  Coal- 
Drill  consists  of  a  small  rotary  en- 
gine hung  in  an  upright  frame,  hav- 
ing joints  at  top  and  bottom  to  en- 
gage by  adjusting  screws  with  the 
roof  and  floor  of  the  mine.  This  is 
supported  by  a  dog  or  brace,  to  stiff- 
en and  hold  the  frame  rigid  as  the 
auger- bit  advances  into  the  coal. 
Power  is  transmitted  to  this  auger- 
bit  or  feed-bar  through  two  gear- 
wheels. Attached  to  the  engine  are 
feed-nuts  that  open  and  close  upon 
the  feed-screw,  which  is  4  to  5  ft.  in 
length,  on  one  end  of  which  is  a 
square  socket,  into  which  is  inserted 
the  square  end  of  the  auger-bit. 
Two  bits  are  used  for  convenience, 
one  3  ft.  and  the  other  6  ft,  long, 


COAL-MINING   MACHINES. 


127 


boring  a  hole  If  to  2  in.  in  diameter,  as  may  be  required.    Seven,  eight,  and  nine  foot  auger- 
bits  are  used  to  good  advantage. 

The  Jeffrey  Air-Feed  Drill  (Fig.  3)  is  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  positive-feed  drill. 
In  place  of  the  feed-screw  it  has  a  feed-tube  containing  a  piston,  in  the  end  of  which  is  at- 
tached a  suitable  smooth  feed-bar,  3  or  4  ft.  in  length,  having  a  square  socket,  into  which  the 
auger  is  fastened.  This  tube  arrangement  is  adjustable  in  all  directions,  so  that  the  drill  will 
accommodate  itself  to  any  mine.  Only  one  hose  connection  is  required  to  operate  the  drill, 
the  feed  to  the  tube  and  engine  being  controlled  by  means  of  a  three-way  valve.  In  oper- 
ating, the  engine  is  started  first,  after  which  the  air  is  turned  into  the  tube,  which  forces  the 
piston  forward  until  it  travels  the  full 
length  of  the  air-tube.  The  air  is  then 
shut  off  from  the  feed  and  allowed  to 
escape,  and  the  feed-bar  is  pushed  back 
into  the  tube.  The  advantage  this 
drill  has  over  the  screw-feed  is  that  the 
air  acts  as  a  cushion  when  striking  an 
unseen  sulphur  ball  or  rock,  which  al- 
lows the  auger  to  advance  more  slowly, 
preventing  strain  upon  the  machine. 
The  apparatus  drills  a  hole  \\  to  2  in. 
in  diameter  to  a  depth  of  6  ft.  in  four 
minutes,  and  can  be  set  and  started  in 
less  than  two  minutes. 

The  Jeffrey  Air  Coal-Mining  Ma- 
chine (Fig.  4)  consists  of  a  bed-frame 
occupying  a  space  2  ft.  wide  by  7  ft. 
6  in.  long,  composed  of  two  steel  chan- 
nel bars  firmly  braced,  the  top  plates 
on  each  forming  racks  with  their  teeth 
downward,  into  which  the  feed-wheels 
of  the  sliding  frame  engage.  Mounted 
upon  and  engaging  with  this  bed-frame 
is  a  sliding  frame,  similarly  braced, 


Fio-  4.— Jeffrey  coal-mining  machine. 


, 
consisting  mainly  of  two  steel  bars,  upon  which  are  mounted,  at  the  rear  ends,  one  double 

5  in.  X  o£  in.  engine,  from  which  power  is  transmitted  through  straight  gear  and  worm  wheel 
to  the  rack,  by  means  of  which  the  sliding  frame  is  fed  forward.     Upon  the  front  end  of 
this  sliding  frame  is  mounted  the  cutter-bar,  held  firmly  by  two  solid  steel  shoes,  with  suit- 
able brass  boxes.    The  cutter-bar  contains  steel  bits,  held  in  place  by  set-screws,     When  the 
cutter-bar  is  revolved,  these  cutters  or  bits  cover  its  entire  face.     The  cutter-bar  is  revolved 
by  an  endless  curved-link  steel  chain  from  the  driving-shaft,  and  simultaneously  advanced  by 
the  above  mechanism  into  the  coal  or  other  material,  to  be  undercut  to  the  desired  depth. 
The  feed  is  thrown  on  and  off  by  means  of  a  lever.     The  cut  under  the  coal,  5  to  6  it.  by  3  ft. 

6  in.,  is  made  and  the  cutter-bar  withdrawn  in  from  four  to  six  minutes.     The  machine  is 
then  moved  over  the  length  of  the  cutter-bar  used,  and  another  cut  is  made  in  the  same  man- 


FIG.  5.— Harrison  mining-machine. 

ner.  This  is  continued  until  the  entire  width  of  the  room  has  been  undercut,  after  which  the  ma- 
chine is  loaded  on  the  truck  and  taken  into  another  room.  The  makers  claim  that  in  some  coal- 
veins  the  machines  have  cut  at  the  rate  of  130  to  150  lineal  ft,  face  in  ten  hours  to  a  depth  of  6  ft. 


128 


COAL-MINING   MACHINES. 


The  Harrison  Mining- Machine. — Fig.  5  embodies  a  direct-acting  engine  mounted  upon 
two  wheels,  the  whole  resting  upon  a  board  which  is  inclined  toward  the  face  of  the  coal.  A 
pick  shaped  like  a  fish-tail  is  attached  to  the  piston-rod.  The 
valve  is  a  rotary  engine,  and  moves  constantly  and  uninterrupt- 
edly when  the  throttle  is  open,  whether  the  piston  is  stationary 
or  in  motion.  Two  handles  are  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  cylin- 
der, which  are  used  by  the  operator  to  direct  the  machine.  The 
operator  sits  on  the  board,  places  his  feet  against  the  wheels,  and 
takes  hold  of  the  handles.  A  channel  is  made  under  the  face  of 
the  coal.  The  machine  requires  a  maximum  of  16  cub.  ft.  of  air 
per  minute  at  45  Ibs.  pressure  to  run  it,  and  an  average  of  15 
cub.  ft.  each  per  minute  when  several  machines  are  being  run 
from  one  main  pipe  at  the  same  time,  which  is  fed  to  the  machine 
through  a  1-in.  four-ply  hose.  The  projectile  weighs  from  60  to 
90  Ibs. — according  to  the  length  of  the  rod — and  strikes  from 
190  to  210  blows  per  minute.  The  total  weight  of  the  machine 
is  from  570  to  620  Ibs.  The  makers  claim  that  from  25  to  50  sq. 
yds.  of  floor  is  the  ordinary  amount  undercut  by  one  machine 
each  day.  It  has  often  undercut  from  6  to  8  sq.  yds.  of  floor  per 
hour,  cutting  time,  but  all  lost  time  for  moving  and  other  con- 
tingencies are  included  in  this  statement  of  a  day's  work. 

The  Sergeant  Coal-Mining  Machine  (Fig.  6)  is  made  in  two 
c  sizes :  the  standard  machine — weight,  700  Ibs. ;  length,  7  ft.  6  in. 
'%  over  all — which  will  undercut  to  a  depth  of  4-£  ft. ;  and  the  light 
|  mining-machine — weight,  500  Ibs. ;  length,  7  ft.  over  all — which 
bo  will  undercut  to  a  depth  of  5  ft.  The  light  mining-machine  is 
&  15  in.  high,  and  will  mine  coal  from  a  16-in.  vein. 

The  distinctive  features  of  this  machine  are  as  follows :  No 
JS!  rotary  or  reciprocating  engine  is  used  to  operate  the  valve,  but  a 

0  duplex  slide-valve  system,  consisting  of  two  valves  in  the  same 
"    chest,  independent  of  the  action  of  the  main  piston.     This  valve 
§    motion  is  positive.     Having  no  dead  centers,  it  starts  on  turning 
si   on  the  air,  and  has  no  outside  hand-wheels  or  moving  parts. 
|5    The  stroke  is  made  variable  both  in  length  and  strength,  and  the 

1  force  of  blow  and  length  of  stroke  are  under  instant  control  of 
«  the  operator.  The  picks  are  of  forged  steel,  with  shanks  made 

6  square  and  of  full  size  where  they  enter  the  socket.  Balancing 
fc  is  effected  by  loosening  one  nut  and  slipping  the  hub  backward 

or  forward  in  a  slot  cast  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder.  The  piston 
is  made  of  forged  steel,  and  is  corrugated  to  prevent  rocking  or 
twisting.  It  is  held  in  place  by  a  composition  metal  sleeve 
which  is  bolted  into  the  front  head.  The  wrheels  are  provided 
with  large  hub-bearings — 4  in.  in  diameter — which  eases  the  effect 
of  the  blow  on  the  operator,  and  obviates  lost  motion.  The 
movement  back  and  forth  on  the  board  while  running  at  full 
speed — 190  to  250  double  strokes  per  minute — is  about  f  in. 
The  operator  can  swing  the  machine  and  direct  the  blow  with 
one  hand,  and  can  work  either  right  or  left  handed.  The  ma- 
chine requires  but  little  space  and  can  be  used  successfully  in 
narrow  veins,  around  and  between  props,  and  wherever  a  miner 
can  swing  a  pick. 

The  Jeffrey  Electric  Coal-Mining  Machine  is  represented  in 
side  view  with  the  cutter-bar  withdrawn,  in  Fig.  7.  It  consists 
of  a  bed-frame  occupying  a  space  2  ft.  wide  by  8  ft.  6  in.  long, 
composed  of  two  steel  channel  bars  firmly  braced,  the  top  plates 
on  each  forming  racks  with  their  teeth  downward,  into  which  the 
feed-wheels  of  the  sliding  frame  engage.  Mounted  upon  and 
engaging  with  this  bed-frame  is  a  sliding  frame,  similarly  braced,  consisting  mainly  of  two 
steel  bars,  upon  which  are  mounted  at  the  rear  ends  one  electric  motor,  from  which  power 
is  transmitted  through  straight  gear  and  worm  wheel  to  the  rack,  by  means  of  which  the 
sliding  frame  is  fed  forward.  Upon  the  front  end  of  this  sliding  frame  is  mounted  the 
cutter-bar,  held  by  two  solid  steel  shoes,  with  brass  boxes.  The  cutter-bar  contains  bits, 
made  of  tool-steel,  held  in  place  by  set  screws.  When  the  cutter-bar  is  revolved,  these  cutters 
or  bits  cover  its  entire  face.  The' cutter-bar  is  revolved  by  an  endless,  curved-link,  steel  chain 
from  the  driving-shaft,  and,  as  it  is  revolved,  is  advanced  by  the  above  mechanism  into  the 
coal  or  other  material  to  be  undercut  to  the  desired  depth'.  The  current  required  is  from 
30  to  50  amperes  at  a  pressure  of  220  volts ;  each  motor  is  wound  to  develop  fully  15  horse- 
power, though  frequently  in  some  veins  of  coal  the  machine  only  uses  30  amperes,  or  7-J- 
horse-power  in  making  cuts.  The  armature  of  the  motor  is  calculated  to  run  at  a  speed  of 
1,000  revolutions  per  minute,  from  which  the  speed  is  reduced,  so  as  to  run  the  cutter-bar  200 
revolutions  per  minute. 

The  Lechner  Coal-Mining  Machine  is  represented  in  Fig.  8.     The  machine  is  operated  by 
either  compressed  air  or  electric  power.     It  consists  of  a  stationary  frame  held  to  the  floor  of 


COKE-OVENS. 


129 


the  mine  by  two  jacks,  out  of  which  a  sliding:  frame  is  advanced  and  withdrawn  by  means  of  a 
screw  feed-rod.  Around  the  front  of  this  sliding  frame  passes  an  endless  chain  provided  with 
steel  cutters  securely  fastened  in  its  solid  links,  suitable  gearing  driving  the  chain  around  at 


Fia.  7.— Electric  coal-mining  machine. 

proper  speed.  *A  steadying  drill,  provided  with  a  long  bearing  directly  back  to  the  cutting- 
head,  passes  forward  with  the  sliding  frame,  and  prevents  any  thrust  caused  by  the  side-cutting 
action  of  the  chain.  The  standard  machine  is  made  to  undercut  3|  ft.  in  width,  5  ft.  in  depth, 
and  3  in.  in  height,  although  these  dimensions  can  be  varied  to  suit  special  conditions.  The 
size  of  the  machine  is  8-|  ft.  in  length,  3£  ft.  in  width  at  the  front  end,  2£  ft.  at  the  back 
end,  and  22  in.  in  height.  The  weight  of  the  standard  machine  for  rope  transmission  is  1,050 


FIG.  8. — Lechner  coal-mining  machine. 

Ibs.,  with  engines  for  compressed  air  1,350  Ibs.,  and  with  electric  motor  on  frame  of  machine 
1,800  Ibs.  It  is  claimed  that  in  ordinary  hard  bituminous  coal  the  undercut  of  \1\  sq.  ft.  is 
made  within  four  minutes.  The  cutting  chain  is  provided  with  39  bits,  or  three  sets  of  13 
each,  following  in  the  same  plane;  these  bits  are  backed  up  with  metal  similar  to  a  lathe  or 
planer  tool.  The  power  required  to  drive  the  Lechner  machine  depends  entirely  on  the  work 
to  be  done. 

Coal-Hoist:  see  Elevators.  Coal-Screens,  Coal-Sizing  Machinery.  Coal-Washing1 
Machinery:  see  Coal- Breakers. 

COKE-OVENS.  The  coke-ovens  in  use  in  the  United  States  are  almost  exclusively  of 
the  old  beehive  type,  10^  ft.  to  12  ft.  in  diameter  and  5  ft.  to  7  ft.  in  height.  It  is  recognized 
that  they  are  very  wasteful,  a  large  proportion  of  the  value  of  the  coal  used  being  lost,  but 
no  attempt  to  recover  this  seems  to  have  been  generally  made  in  this  country.  In  1887  there 
were  in  operation  in  the  United  States,  in  271)  establishments,  26,001  ovens,  and  3.594  ovens 
in  course  of  construction.  These  ovens  consumed  11,859,753  tons  of  coal,  producing  7.611,705 
tons  of  coke,  a  percentage  of  64*2.  Dr.  Bruno  Terne,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Chemical 
Section  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  October  20,  1891,  estimates  that  on  the  basis  of  the  work 
at  two  large  establishments  in  France  there  should  also  have  been  saved  151,804,838  Ibs.  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  or  12-8  Ibs.  per  ton  of  coal,  which,  at  3  cents  per  lb.,  would  have  been 
worth  $4,554,746,  besides  a  large  quantity  of  tar,  amounting  probably  to  nearly  2|  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  coal.  In  England  and  on  the  Continent  great  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  introduction  of  improved  ovens  fpr  the  recovery  of  these  by-products,  and  many 
different  kinds  of  ovens,  designed  for  this  purpose,  have  come  into  use.* 

The  tardiness  of  the  coke  manufacturers  of  the  United  States  in  introducing  improved 
ovens  is  inexplicable,  as  the  flames  from  the  tops  of  the  beehive  ovens  which  illumine  the  sky 
by  night  in  the  Connellsville  region  are  a  constant  reminder  of  the  present  wasteful  methods 
of  coke  manufacture.  The  greater  first  cost  of  the  improved  ovens  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
reasons  which  has  delayed  their  introduction,  and  it  is  also  feared  that,  although  the  coke 
made  by  them  may  be  of  good  quality,  there  may  be  a  prejudice  against  it.  as  it  lacks  the  sil- 
very appearance  of  the  Connellsville  coke.  The  Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright.  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Labor  Statistics,  in  his  report,  "  Cost  of  Production  :  Iron,  Steel,  Coal,  etc."  (1890), 
gives  the  average  cost  of  producing  one  ton  of  coke  in  30  establishments  in  the  United  States 
9 


130 


COKE-OVENS. 


as  follows-  coal,  $1.219;  labor,  $0.357;  officials  and  clerks,  $0.028;  supplies  and  repairs, 
$0  058  •  taxes  $0.005 :  total,  $1.067.  The  average  amount  of  coal  necessary  to  make  one  ton 
(2  000  Ibs.)  of  coke  was  8,110  Ibs.  With  these  figures  the  results  obtained  with  the  improved 
ovens  described  in  the  following  paragraphs  may  be  compared : 

The  Coppee  Coke-Oven,  which  is  extensively  in  use  in  Europe,  is  designed  for  coking 
finely  divided  coal.  They  are  usually  built  in  series  of  30  or  40,  and  are  worked  in  pairs. 
The  ovens,  which  are  30  ft.  long,  18  in.  wide,  and  4  ft.  high,  have  each  28  vertical  flues  lead- 
ing from  the  top  through  the  partition-wall  common  to  two  ovens,  to  horizontal  flues  that 
pass  longitudinally  beneath  the  chambers.  In  these  horizontal  flues  the  gases  from  a  freshly 
charged  oven  mix  with  those  from  one  in  which  the  coking  is  nearly  complete,  and  combustion 
is  effected  by  air  admitted  through  three  small  openings.  At  each  end  of  the  oven  are  two 
iron  doors.  When  a  charge  is  completely  coked,  it  is  pushed  out  of  the  oven  through  the 
doors  at  one  end  by  an  engine  and  ram  placed  at  the  opposite  end,  this  operation  requiring 
about  two  minutes.  The  lower  doors  are  then  closed,  and  a  fresh  charge  of  coal  fed  in 
through  three  holes  in  the  roof,  which  are  covered  by  sliding  doors.  The  charge  is  next  leveled 
by  means  of  rakes,  the  upper-end  doors  closed,  and  the  operation  resumed  ;  the  whole  time, 
from  opening  the  doors  to  discharge  to  closing  them  after  a  recharge,  being  but  eight  minutes. 


FIG.  1. 


FlG. 


?f 


a,  a  ,  a",  in  the  roof  of  the 
oven,  which  is  from  2  ft.  to 
2|  ft.  wide  and  5|  ft.  to  6| 
ft.   high.    *The  gases  are 
drawn  off  through  a  pipe, 

b,  b',  b",  which  is  provided 
with    a    regulating  valve, 
whence  they   pass   into  a 
system  of  pipes  common  to 
from  30  to  50  ovens,  kept 
cool   by  jets  of  water,  in 
which  the  tar  and  ammo- 
niacal     liquors    are     con- 
densed.    The  lower  open  end  of  the  condensing  pipes 
dip  into  a  collector  for  the  products  of  condensation, 
similar  to  those  employed  in  gas-works.     The  gases  from 
the  condenser  are  then  passed  through  scrubbers  filled 
with  wet  coke,  where  the  last  traces  of  ammonia  are  re- 
moved.    The  uncondensed  gases  pass  onward  to  the 
oven  for  heating  purposes,  entering  through  a  horizon- 
tal aperture,  c,  c',  in  the  basal  flue  of  the  oven  above  a 
grate,  d,  that  is  filled  with  ignited  coke-dust,  while  the 
air  for  combustion  enters  from  below  through  the  grate. 
Under  the  base  of  the  oven  the  burning  gases  pass  to 
and  fro  once,  then  rise  between  two  adjacent  ovens  to 
the  uppermost  of  the  side-flues,  e,  e',  e",  and  pass  grad- 
ually downward  to  a  large  flue,  /,  which  conveys  them 

to  the  chimney.  The  duration  of  the  coking  is  from  60  to  72  hours,  in  ovens  of  the  smaller 
size.  The  yield  of  coke  is  said  to  be  75  per  cent.  At  the  Besseges  iron-works,  in  France,  in 
1879,  46,902  tons  of  coal  were  coked  in  85  ovens  of  this  type.  The  amount  of  coke  produced 
was  32,092  tons,  or  70'55  per  cent,  together  with  1,096  tons  of  tar  (2-23  per  cent)  and  4,399 
tons  of  ammoniacal  liquor.  The  net  gain,  after  deducting  all  expenses,  and  not  counting  the 
coke,  was  $18,938.  The  consumption  of  coke-dust  on  the  grate  did  not  exceed  35  Ibs.  per 
ton  of  coke  produced. 

In  the  more  recent  Simon-Carves  ovens  the  fireplace  and  grate  are  dispensed  with,  and 
the  oven  is  fired  exclusively  with  the  gases  escaping  condensation,  these  entering  the  lower 
flue  at  the  place  where  the'hearth  used  to  be,  while  air  is  forced  in  through  an  annular  pipe, 
being  previously  heated  to  500°  or  600°  by  being  brought  in  contact  with  the  hot  flues  convey- 
ing the  spent  gases  away  from  the  ovens.  The  two  lower  flues  are  thrown  into  one,  and  at  the 
bottom  flue,  where  the  greatest  heat  is  sustained,  the  walls  are  lined  with  fire-brick.  The 
heated  air  admitted  into  the  bottom  flue  is  purposely  insufficient  for  complete  combustion  of 
the  gas  introduced  there,  the  further  supply  of  hot  air  being  obtained  through  the  side-flues 
of  the  oven,  the  amount  thus  admitted  being  controlled  by  dampers.  These  ovens  are  made 
23  ft.  long,  6-£  ft.  high,  and  19|  in.  wide.  Their  capacity  is  about  5  tons  of  coal  per  charge, 
the  time  of  coking  lasting  48  hours.  The  cost  of  a  Simon-Carves  oven  to  work  about  480  tons 
per  year,  which  is  the  capacity  of  an  ordinary  beehive  oven,  is  $845,  complete  with  the  coolers 
and  all  appliances.  An  ordinary  beehive  oven  of  this  capacity  costs  but  $280.  At  Dyson  & 
Co.'s  Bear  Park  Colliery  (Durham,  England),  according  to  Mr.  S.  A.  Tuska,  in  an  article  "  The 
Simon-Carves  Coking  Process"  (published  by  the  author),  a  battery  of  50  ovens  cokes  about 
900  tons  of  coal  per  week.  The  analysis  of  this  coal  is  as  follows:' Volatile  matter,  27'69  per 
cent;  fixed  carbon,  68*44  per  cent;  sulphur,  '77  per  cent;  ash,  3*10  per  cent.  The  yield  in 
coke  was  72'31  per  cent ;  sulphate  of  ammonia,  9  tons  per  week,  equivalent  to  ammoniacal 
water,  10  per  cent  of  the  coal,  and  of  tar  6£  to  7i  gals,  per  ton  of  coal.  The  cost  of  labor  for 


FIG.  3.  FIG.  4. 

FIGS.  1  to  4. — Simon-CarvSs  coke-oven. 


COKE-OVENS. 


131 


coking  and  collecting  by-products  is  estimated  at  48  cents  per  ton  of  coke  for  a  battery  of  50 
ovens,  producing  107'5  tons  of  coke  per  24  hours.  A  force  of  33  men  is  required  to  operate  a 
plant  of  this  size. 

The  Pernolet  Coke-Oven  (Pig.  5)  is  very  similar  to  the  ordinary  beehive  oven,  but  it  has  a 


FIG.  5.— Pernolet  coke-oven. 


FIG.  6. — Jameson  coke-oven. 


FIG.  ?.— Liirmann  coke  oven. 


fireplace  and  grate,  and  the  gases  are  carried  to  an  upper  collecting  tube  a,  and  returned  to 
the  bottom  flue  b,  where  they  are  fired  with  solid  fuel. 

The  Jameson  Coke-Oven" (Fig.  6)  is  an  improve- 
ment on  the  ordinary  beehive  oven.  Channels  are 
made  in  the  bottom  of  the  oven,  covered  with  per- 
forated tiles,  b,  b',  b",  connected  outside  the  oven 
with  pipes  leading  to  an  apparatus,  c,  c',  for  produc- 
ing a  slight  suction,  and  for  discharging  the  by- 
products when  required.  This  is  a  very  simple  and 
inexpensive  oven,  and  is  said  to  have  given  very 
good  results.  According  to  Mills  and  Rowan 
(Chemical  Technology,  Fuel  and  its  Applications,  p. 
185),  a  series  of  trials  showed  an  average  yield  of 
56£  per  cent  coke,  the  average  yield  of  ammonium 
sulphate  and  tarry  oil  being  6'3  Ibs.  and  6'2  gals, 
per  ton  (2,240  Ibs.),  respectively. 

The  Lurmann  Coke-Oven  (Fig.  7)  consists  of  a 
large  chamber,  a,  opening  into  which  are  a  number 
of  coking-chambers,  b.  b',  into  which  fine  coal  is  fed 
continuously  from  hoppers  by  a  piston-feed,  worked 
by  a  crank.  The  gaseous  products  pass  into  the 
chamber  a,  and,  if  required  to  be  collected,  are 

drawn  off  at  an  aperture  at  the  top,  and  thence  conducted  into  the  spaces  c.  c',  under  the  re- 
torts 6,  b\  where  they  are  burned  by  means  of  air  admitted  for  the  purpose.     The  coke,  as  it 

falls  from  the  ends  of 
b,  &',  is  received  in  the 
chamber  a,  and  is  re- 
moved at  intervals. 
This  oven  is  continu- 
ous -  working,  and 
yields  good,  compact 
coke.  It  is  very  sim- 
ple in  construction, 
requiring  no  special 
fire-bricks,  and  is  com- 
paratively inexpen- 
sive. 

The  Bauer  Coke- 
Oven  (Fig.  8),  which 
has  been  used  with 
satisfactory  results  in 
France  and  Scotland, 
consists  of  alternate 
coke  and  regenerator 
chambers  arranged 
side  by  side  in  a  doub- 
le row,  while  main 
flues  for  the  combus- 
tion gases  run  along 
the  tops  of  the  cham- 
bers near  the  front, 


FIG.  8.— Bauer  coke-oven. 


132  COKE-OVENS. 


and  discharge  into  chimneys  placed  in  convenient  positions.     The  coking-chamber  E,  with 
a  charging  opening  at  the  top,  a  curved  back  and  base,  and  large  discharge  opening  in  front, 
communicates  at  the  sides  through  openings  /  /*,  arranged  at  various  heights,  with  the 
combustion-chamber  #,  where  the  gases  are  mixed  with  air  admitted  from  the  outside  through 
passages  H,  forming  a  combustible  gas  of  high  heating  power,  which,  by  way  of  passage  A,  is 
conducted  to  the  channel/  below  and  along  the  back  of  tne  coking-chamber,  and  then  through 
i  into  the  upper  chambers  6rl,  heating  by  their  combustion  the  upper  part  of  the  walls  of  the 
coking-chamber  E  before  they  are  discharged  through  the  passages  /  I  into  the  main  flue  t1. 

The  air  before  it  mixes  with  the  retort  gases  is  heated  by  passing  through  long  passages  in 
contact  with  the  heated  walls,  and  the  amount  of  air  can  be  carefully  regulated  by  slides. 
Additional  air  inlets  with  valves  are  provided  near  the  top  of  the  ovens  at  H l,  and  the  com- 
bustion gases  can  be  also  retarded  in  their  flow  to  the  chimney  by  valves  at  i2.     Fig.  1  is  a 
cross-section  through  the  combustion,  and  Fig.  2,  through  the  coking-chambers.     Forty  of 
these  ovens  were  erected  at  the  works  of  the  Carlton  Iron  Co.,  Ltd.,  in  1888  (Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal,  1,  72).    To  obtain  actual  results  of  their  work  special  trials  were  made  in 
April,  1890,  124  tons  of  coal  being  used,  of  which  65  tons  16  cwt.  was  washed  East  Howie  coal 
(fairly  good  coking  coal),  and  58  tons  4  cwt.  unwashed  coal  from  various  collieries,  varying 
considerably  in  quality  and  containing  a  large  amount  of  volatile  matter.     Out  of  a  total  fixed 
carbon  and  ash  of  69'65  in  the  coal,  69'44  per  cent  was  returned  as  coke,  the  time  required  for 
coking  being  24  hours.     The  proportion  of  large  to  small  coke  was  satisfactory,  there  being 
only  about  6  tons  of  small  in  a  total  of  86  tons  of  coke  obtained  from  124  tons  of  coal.     This 
proportion  of  small  coke  is,  however,  considerably  reduced,  it  is  stated,  in  places  where  the 
traveling  belt  is  used  for  the  transit  of  the  coke  from  the  ovens  to  the  trucks.     The  traveling 
belt  consists  of  an  endless  metallic  chain,  supported  on  rollers  and  so  arranged  that  it  travels 
slowly  in  front  of  the  discharge  opening  of  the  ovens.     When  the  door  of  a  chamber  is  opened 
the  coke  runs,  owing  to  the  shape  of  the  coking-chamber,  with  but  very  little  assistance  from 
the  attendant,  on  to  the  traveler,  where  it  is  quenched  by  water-sprays.     The  belt  discharges 
the  coke,  practically  without  handling,  into  the  trucks ;  thus  a  great  saving  of  labor  is  effected, 
a  foreman  with  three  laborers  attending  to  a  group  of  40  ovens.     The  experience  so  far  gained 
seems  to  show  that,  owing  to  the  high  temperature  obtained  in  the  regenerative  flues  by  burn- 
ing the  gases  with  a  suitable  admixture  of  atmospheric  air,  coals  of  almost  any  composition 
can  either  by  themselves  or  as  mixtures  be  used  to  produce  sound  hard  coke  suitable  for  blast- 
furnace work,  and,  since  none  but  the  volatile  gases  are  utilized  to  produce  the  necessary  heat, 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  fixed  carbon  is  converted  into  coke,  while  in  addition  any  of  the  vola- 
tile gases  not  required  for  the  coking  process  may  be  condensed  and  utilized  for  by-products. 
Dr.  von  Bauer,  the  inventor  of  this  oven,  has  found  that  about  16  per  cent  of  gases  is  neces- 
sary for  the  combustion. 

The  Otto  Coke-Oven  is  essentially  a  combination  of  a,  coking-chamber  with  the  Siemen's 
regenerator  in  order  to  heat  the  air,  serving  for  the  combustion  of  gas  to  as  high  a  degree  as 
possible.     Where  the  gases  are  passed  through  a  condenser,  as  is  done  in  all  cases  where  the 
by-products  of  coking  are  recovered,  it  is  necessary  to  compensate  for  the  cooling  of  the  gas 
by  using  air  at  as  high  a  temperature  as  possible  for  combustion  with  the  gas.     The  Otto 
ovens  are  arranged  in  batteries,  beneath  which  are  the  regenerative  chambers  connected  by 
flues  extending  under  the  oven-floors,  and  equipped  with  the  usual  arrangement  of  reversing- 
valves,  etc.     Combustion  of  the  gas  and  heated  air  from  one  regenerator  takes  place  in  one 
half  of  these  bottom  flues,  the  hot  gases  and  flames  rising  through  the  vertical  side  flues 
which  inclose  the  coking-chambers,  and  escaping  by  the  other  half  of  the  bottom  flues  and 
the  other  regenerator.     This  process  is  reversed  periodically  in  the  manner  usual  with  Siemens 
furnaces.    The  coking-chambers  have  openings  at  each  end  for  withdrawing  the  coke,  three 
openings  in  the  roof  for  filling  and  two  for  the  escape  of  the  gases  given  off  in  coking.     These 
latter  are  fitted  with  pipes  and  valves  communicating  with  the  main  gas-pipe  or  receiver. 
Dr.  C.  Otto  states  (Journal  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  vol.  ii,  1884,  p.  520)  that  the  re- 
generators for  heating  the  air  attain,  in  the  working  of  these  ovens,  a  temperature  of  1.800° 
F.,  and  that  as  a  consequence  it  is  found  unnecessary  to  use  all  the  gas  given  off  from  the 
valves  for  combustion.     At  a  German  coke-works,  out  of  24,700  cub.  ft.  of  gas  produced  per 
coke-oven  per  day  only  17,700  cub.  ft.  were  required  for  combustion.     The  bottom  and  side 
flues  become  so  hot  that  with  a  charge  of  5  tons  13  cwt.  of  dry  coal  the  coking  process  lasts 
only  48  hours,  and  sometimes  less.     With  Westphalian  coal  the  ammonia,  reckoned  as  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  recovered,  amounted  to  1  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  coal.     The  yield  of  coke 

from  one  coking-works  amounted  in  seven  months 
to  an  average  of  3  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  coal 
used.     By  the  daily  treatment  of  2  tons  14  cwt.  of 
coal  per  oven,  sufficient  waste  heat  is  obtained  from 
every  oven  to  heat  54  sq.  ft.  of  boiler  surface,  which 
corresponds  (according  to  Dr.  Otto)  with  an  evapo- 
ration of  1  Ib.  of  water  for  every  pound  of  coal  coked. 
The  Aitken  Coke-Oven  (Fig.  9)  is  a  beehive  oven 
fitted  with  two  pipes,  a,  a',  for  conveying  the  blast 
___„_____.____._._„__.„.__._,,,,,,______    and  gas  from  the  condensers  through  small  holes 

Fio.  9.— Aitken  coke-oven  '    *n  ^ne  ro°^  distributed  equally  around  its  circum- 

ference. Channels,  b,  b',  b",  in  the  floor  of  the  oven 
conduct  the  by-products  collected  to  a  pipe,  c,  which  leads  them  to  the  condensers.  The 
ovens  are  9  ft.  in  diameter  and  5  ft.  high,  from  the  floor  to  the  charging  hole  in  the  roof. 


COKE-OVENS. 


133 


The  Semet-Solvay  Coke- Oven  (Fig.  10)  consists  of  a  central  retort  for  coking,  heated  by 
the  combustion  of  waste  gas  in  flues  which  surround  it.  The  coal  is  charged  into  the  retort 
through  the  openings  A,  A  in  the  roof.  The  waste  gases  escape  through  the  opening  B  in 


FIG.  10.— Semet-Solvay  coke-oven. 


the  roof,  and  thence  pass  to  condensers,  where  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  volatile 
matter  is  recovered,  as  tar  and  sulphate  of  ammonia.  The  uncondensed  gases  are  divided,  the 
necessary  amount  for  heating  the  retort  being  reconducted  to  the  latter,  and  the  remainder 
led  off  and  burned  beneath  boilers.  The  gas  returned  to  the  oven  passes  through  the  pipes 
D  D'  into  the  upper  of  the  three  flues  which  stand  on  either  side  of  each  retort.  Here  it 
meets  preheated  air,  entering  through  the  flues  E  and  F.  Gas  and  air  burn,  sweep  four  times 
the  length  of  the  retort,  and  through  the  flues  G,  H,  1,  J,  and  pass  thence  under  boilers 
through  the  flue  K,  and  thence  to  the  chimney,  where  their  temperature  is  about  200°  C.  In 
order  that  the  heat  developed  in  the  flues  G,  H,  and  /  may  pass  readily  to  the  charge  coking 
in  L,  the  walls  of  these  flues  are  made  very  thin.  Details  of  the  pieces  which  compose  these 
flues  are  shown  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  Fig.  10.  The  partition- walls  which  support 
the  massive  roof  are  wholly  independent  of  these  thin  and  necessarily  rather  fragile  flue-pieces. 
The  joints  of  the  latter  are  made  very  thin,  and  are  rebated,  and  the  total  extent  of  joint  is 
made  very  small,  in  order  to  oppose  the  passage  of  the  gas  direct  from  the  retort  L  into  the 
flues  G,  ll,  and  /,  which  would,  of  course,  lessen  the  yield  of  by-products.  The  cast-iron  end- 
doors  of  the  retorts  are  shielded  by  double  sheet-iron  doors  to  retain  the  heat.  The  roof  is 
made  extremely  thick,  and  the  air  "is  preheated  by  passing  through  the  flue  E,  to  cut  off  the 
escape  of  heat  outward  from  the  apparatus.  To  improve  the  combustion  the  gas  is  admitted 
partly  at  D,  where  it  meets  the  whole  of  the  air,  and  partly  at  D'.  The  little  fireplaces  usually 
employed  for  igniting  the  gas  are  suppressed,  and  it  is  thus  possible  to  give  the  rational  down- 
ward path  to  the  burning  gas  and  air. 

A  test  of  this  oven  was  made  at  a  French  colliery  with  coal  of  the  following  composition : 
Water,  4*5  per  cent;  tar,  1-5  per  cent;  other  volatile  combustible,  10  to  11  per  cent;  ash  and 
fixed  carbon,  83  to  84  per  cent.  It  yielded  81  to  82  per  cent  of  coke,  13  to  15  Ibs.  of  ammonia 
(recovered  as  sulphate  of  ammonia),  and  31  to  34  Ibs.  of  tar  per  2,240  Ibs.  of  coal  charged. 
The  outlay  for  labor  in  operating  and  maintaining  ovens  and  condensers  was  not  above  26 
cents  per  ton  of  coke,  or  perhaps  6  cents  more  than  in  the  ordinary  Belgian  oven,  and  the 
value  of  the  by-products  about  36  cents  per  ton  of  coke,  so  that  the* net  gain  was  estimated 
at  30  rents  per  ton  of  coke.  The  oven  cokes  a  4-ton  charge  of  coal  in  22  hours.  (See  Engi- 
neering and  Mining  Journal,  1,  165.) 

Works  for  Reference. — For  details  concerning  the  manufacture  of  coke,  see  the  following 
works :  The  Manufacture  of  Coke,  by  Joseph  D.  Weeks,  1885 ;  Cost  and  Manufacture  of  Coke 
on  the  Simon-Carves  System,  by  R.  Dixon,  Journal  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  ii,  No.  434, 
1883;  The  Manufacture  of  Coke  from  Illinois  Coal,  by  H.  L.  Luebbers:  Utilization  of  By- 
Products  in  the  Manufacture  of  Coke,  by  H.  Simon,  Journal  of  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  i,  No. 
434,  1880 ;  Treatise  on  Metallurgy,  by  F.  Overman,  1882 ;  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Metal- 
lurgy, by  W.  C.  Roberts- Austen,  1891 ;  Utilization  of  the  By-Products  of  the  Coke  Industry, 
by  Bruno  Terne,  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  cxxxii.  375;  Chemical  Technology,  vol.  i, 
Fuels,  by  E.  J.  Mills  and  F.  J.  Rowan :  The  Physical  Properties  of  Coke  as  a  Fuel  for  the 
Blast  Furnace,  by  John  Fulton,  Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers, 
October,  1883 ;  The  Manufacture  and  Cost  of  Coke,  by  F.  Koerner,  John  Fulton,  and  others, 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  xlii,  291,  309,  330.  361,  362,  399,  415,  421,  434,  452 ;  Journal 
of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute.  1883,  pp.  814  and  828 ;  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry,  vols.  1883.  1884,  and  1885;  Recent  Improvements  in  Coke  Ovens,  by  MM.  De  Vaux 
and  Eich,  Revue  Universelle  des  Mines,  1883. 


134 


CONDENSERS. 


Cold  Saw:  see  Saws,  Metal- Working.    Cold  Storage:  see  Ice-Making  Machines. 

Comber :  see  Cotton-Spinning  Machinery. 

Comparator :  see  Measuring  Instruments. 

Compressed  Air :  see  Air,  Compressed. 

Concentrator :  see  Evaporator  and  Ore-Dressing  Machinery. 

Condenser :  see  Cotton-Grin,  Ice-Making  Machines  and  Engines,  Steam. 

CONDENSERS.  The  Bulkley  Injector-Condenser  is  of  the  injector  form,  with  its  water 
supply  and  discharge-pipes  arranged  to  act  as  a  siphon.  The  condensing-water  enters  by  the 
side  nozzle,  shown  in  the  cut  (Fig.  1),  passing  downward  around  the  exhaust-nozzle  in  a  thin 

circular  sheet.  The  exhaust- 
steam  thus  enters  a  hollow 
cone  of  moving  water,  and  is 
condensed.  The  water  then 
passing  down  with  great  ve- 
locity through  the  contracted 
neck  of  the  condenser  draws 
with  it  the  air  and  vapor  into 
the  discharge-pipe  below.  The 
general  arrangement  of  the 
condenser  and  its  pipes  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1. 

HilVs  System  of  Condensa- 
tion for  Pumping  -  Engines 
(Fig.  2)  provides  an  ordinary 
surface-condenser  arranged  to 
take  water  from  either  the 
suction  or  discharge  pipe  of 
the  main  pumps,  which  water, 
after  it  has  effected  the  vacu- 
um in  the  condenser,  is  re- 
turned to  the  pipe  from  which 
it  was  taken.  By  the  regulat- 
ing-valve the  amount  of  water 
passing  through  the  main 
which  is  diverted  into  the  con- 
denser is  regulated  so  that  the 
least  water  capable  of  produc- 
ing a  given  vacuum  shall  pass 
through  the  condenser,  in  or- 
der that  the  temperature  of 
the  hot  well  or  water  delivered 
from  the  condenser  by  the  air- 
pump  shall  be  as  high  as  pos- 
sible (this  water  being  used  as 
the  feed  to  the  boilers).  By 
delivering  more  water  to  the 
FIG.  l.-Bulkley  injector-condenser.  condenser,  a  better  vacuum 

may  be  obtained,  with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  temperature  of  the  contents  of  the 
hot  well ;  but  experience  has  shown  that  the  gain  in  economy  by  the  improved  vacuum  is 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  reduced  temperature  of  the  feed  to  the  boilers,  and  that  a 


FIG.  2.— Hill's  system. 


FIG.  3. — Wheeler's  surface-condenser. 


given  vacuum  of  about  27  in.  warrants  maximum  economy  in  all  cases  (as  is  usual)  where  the 
water  of  condensation  in  the  hot  well  is  pumped  back  into  the  boilers. 

Wheeler's  Surf  ace-Condenser  Q?\g.  3). — In  this  condenser  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine 


COTTON-GIN.  135 


entering  bv  the  nozzle  A,  comes  first  in  contact  with  the  perforated  scattering-plate  0.  The 
steam  expanding  in  the  top  of  the  condenser,  reduces  its  pressure  and  temperature  before  it 
comes  in  contact  with  the  cold  tubes.  The  water  of  condensation  gravitates  to  the  bottom, 
and  passes  out  by  the  nozzle  B  to  the  air-pump.  The  cooling  water  is  pumped  into  the  com- 
partment F  through  the  nozzle  <7,  and  enters  the  small  tubes  as  shown  by  the  arrows.  After 
traversing  the  small  tubes,  it  returns  through  the  annular  spaces  between  the  small  and  large 
tubes  and  enters  into  compartment  G  ;  thence  it  passes  into  compartment  IT  by  the  passage- 
way K  The  water  then  circulates  through  the  tubes  of  the  upper  section  (in  the  same 
manner  as  described  above),  and  finally  passes  out  of  condenser  by  the  discharge-nozzle  D. 
The  lower  part  of  the  engraving  shows  one  of  the  small  and  large  tubes  m  section.  The 
small  tube  M  is  expanded  into  the  screw-head  N,  which  latter  screws  into  the  head  K.  This 
small  tube  ends  within  a  few  inches  of  the  cap  G  of  the  large  tube  L,  thereby  giving  space 
for  the  water  to  reverse  its  direction  before  flowing  back  through  the  annular  space  between 
the  two  tubes.  The  end  of  the  large  tube  that  screws  into  the  head  J^is  drawn  thick,  so  that 
coarse  deep  threads  and  a  screw-driver  slot  can  be  cut ;  this  latter  is  similar  to  the  slot  shown 
in  N  which  admits  a  tool  for  screwing  up  or  unscrewing  tubes  from  the  tube-heads.  When 
necessarv  to  remove  the  tubes  for  cleaning  or  repairs,  both  small  and  large  tubes  can  be 
drawn  out  from  the  same  end  of  the  condenser.  After  removing  the  small  tube  the  large 
tube  is  unscrewed  and  drawn  through  the  hole  left  vacant  by  the  screw- 
head  of  the  small  tube— this  hole  being  a  little  larger  than  the  thick  end 
of  the  large  tube. 

The  Worthington  •' Independent  Condenser  "  (Fig.  4)  is  a  condensing 
apparatus  consisting  of  a  combination  of  a  duplex  pump  with  an  inject- 
or-condenser. The  illustration  shows  the  general  construction  of  the 
parts.  A  is  the  vapor-opening,  to  which  is  connected  the  pipe  that  con- 
ducts to  the  apparatus  the  steam  or  vapor  that  is  to  be  condensed,  and  in 
which  a  vacuum  is  to  be  made  and  maintained.  The  injection-water 
used  to  produce  the  condensation  of  the  steam  or  vapor  is  conveyed  by  a 
pipe  attached  to  the  injection-opening  at  B.  Over  the  end  of  the  spray- 
pipe  C  is  placed  a  cone  provided  with  wings  that  separate  and  distribute 
the  water,  and  insure  its  complete  admixture  with  the  steam.  This  cone 
is  adjustable. 

The  operation  of  the  condensing  apparatus  is  as  follows : 
Steam  being  admitted  to  the  cylinders  K  so  as  to  set  the  pump  in  motion, 
a  vacuum  is  formed  in  the  condenser,  the  engine,  cylinder,  the  connecting 
exhaust-pipe,  and  the  injection-pipe.     This  causes  the  injection  water  to 
enter  through  the  injection-pipe  attached  at  B  and  spray-pipe  C  into  the 
condenser-cone  F.     The  main  engine  being  then  started,  the  exhaust 
steam    enters  through  the  ex- 
haust-pipe at  A,  and.  coming  in 
contact  with  the  cold  water,  is 
rapidly  condensed.    The  velocity 
of  the   steam  is  communicated 
to  the    water,  and    the    whole 
passes  through  the  cone  F  into 
the  pump  G1  at  a  high  velocity, 
carrying  with  it,  in  a  thorough- 
ly commingled  condition,  all  the 
air    or      uncondensable     vapor 


which  enters  the  condenser  with  FrG'  4"~^  orthineton  independent  condenser. 

the  steam.    The  mingled  air  and  water  are  discharged  by  the  pump  through  the  valves  and 

pipe  at  J,  before  sufficient  time  or  space  has  been  allowed  for  separation  to  occur. 

Converter :  see  Mills,  Silver,  and  Steel  Manufacture. 

Copper  Steel :  see  Alloys. 

Corliss  Engine:  see  Engines,  Steam. 

Corn  Harvester:  see  Harvesting  Machines,  Grain.    Planter:  see  Seeders  and  Drills. 

Cornish  Rolls :  see  Ore-Crushing  Machines. 

Cotton  Belts:  see  Belts.  Cotton  Drills:  see  Seeders  and  Drills.  Cotton-Picker:  see 
Harvester.  Cotton.  Cotton  Planter:  see  Seeders  and  Drills.  Cotton-Press;  see  Presses, 
Hay  and  Cotton. 

COTTON-GIN.  The  improvements  in  cotton-gins  during  the  past  decade  include  novel 
forms  of  condensers  and  feeders,  and  the  extended  use  of  these  attachments,  and  the  inven- 
tion of  a  new  type  of  gin,  in  which  a  peculiarly  formed  working  cylinder  is  substituted  for 
the  saws.  It  may  not  be  generally  known  to  cotton-planters  that  not  only  is  all  the  dirt  and 
dust  taken  from  'the  cotton  before  spinning,  but  the  exact  amount  of  dirt  in  every  bale  is 
known  and  recorded,  so  that  it  is  impossible  at  the  present  time  to  sell  dirt  for  cotton.  A 
first-class  condenser  will  not  only  raise  the  grade  of  cotton,  but  will  add  greatly  to  the  con- 
venience of  running  the  gins,  and  decrease  dangers  from  fire.  As  the  output  of  a  gin  depends 
materially  upon  the  maintenance  of  the  integrity  of  the  roll,  and  this  in  turn  upon  the  skill 
of  the  person  feeding,  it  will  be  evident  that  an  automatic  feeding  contrivance  which  substi- 
tutes regular  machine-work  for  hand-labor  should  possess  important  economical  advantages. 
In  the  following  illustrations  are  represented  the  newest  forms  of  standard  gins. 

The  Eagle  Gin  is  represented  in  perspective  in  Fig.  1,  with  the  condenser  and  feeder 


136 


COTTON-GIN. 


attached.    Its  interior  construction  is  shown  in  the  sectional  view  (Fig.  2).    Among  the  new 
features  is  an  adjustable  grate-fall  hollow,  and  an  arrangement  of  the  breast,  which   it  is 

claimed  prevents  breaking 
of  the  roll.  The  object 
sought  also  was  a  perfect- 
ly smooth  seed-board,  pre- 
senting no  angles  to  in- 
terfere with  the  easy  turn- 
ing of  the  roll.  The  bot- 
tom is  formed  of  an  iron 
plate  sufficiently  strong  to 
hold  the  weight  of  the 
roll.  This  plate  is  at- 
tached to  the  body  of  the 
seed-board  with  h'inges  at 
its  top  edge,  so  that  the 
bottom  edge,  which  is 
notched  to  correspond 
with  the  saws,  may  swing 
in  or  out.  The  feeder  is 
arranged  on  top  of  the 
gin.  The  feed  -  cylinder 
has  the  same  speed  as  the 
gin-saws,  and  has  strong, 
blunt  pins  to  bring  up  the 
cotton.  Behind  this,  and 
parallel  with  it,  is  another 
cylinder,  moving  slowly 
in  the  same  direction,  hav- 
ing wires  in  it  bent  back- 
ward. Between  these  two 
cylinders  the  cotton  is 
completely  opened,  and 
the  whole  bolls  broken  apart,  putting  them  in  such  condition  that  the  gin  will  easily  dis- 
charge them,  at  the  same  time  knocking  out  a  large  amount  of  leaf  and  dirt.  The  condenser 
is  simply  a  large  drum,  covered  with  cloth,  and  having  a  pressure-roller  over  it.  These  are 
inclosed 'in  a  case,  reaching  to  the  floor,  leaving  a  few  inches  of  the  drum  uncovered,  from 
which  the  cotton  is  blown  off  in  a  continu- 
ous sheet  by  the  brush.  A  hole  is  to  be  cut 
through  the  floor  under  the  condenser, 
through  which  the  air  made  by  the  brush  is 
blown,  carrying  the  dust  with  it. 

The  Brown  Gin  is  represented  in  section 
in  Fig.  3.  The  feeder  has  an  endless  apron, 
JV,  by  which  the  cotton  is  delivered  to  the 
roll-box,  and  is  arranged  to  tilt  back.  The 
brush  cylinder-shaft  is  made  of  large  iron 
pipe  with  journals  of  cast  steel  running  in 
adjustable  boxes,  allowing  the  cylinder  to 
be  moved  up  to  the  saws,  to  compensate  for 
the  wear  of  the  bristles.  It  is  driven  by  two 
belts,  one  at  each  end.  This  gives  the  cyl- 
inder the  strong  steady  speed  necessary  to 
clean  the  teeth  of  the  saws  well,  and  cause 
the  gin  to  mote  properly. 

The  Mason  Cotton- Gin  is  an  entirely  new 
departure  in  cotton-ginning  machinery.  Its 
principle  is  defined  as  follows  :  to  construct 
a  ginn ing-cylinder  having  teeth,  which  shall 
seize  only  the  cotton-fibers,  and  not  the 


FIG.  1.— Eagle  gin. 


seeds  or  other  relatively  hard  foreign  sub- 
stances contained  in  the  mass  presented  to 
its  action,  and  shall  strip  or  remove  the  cot- 
ton-fiber wholly  or  in  great  degree  from  said 


FIG.  2.— Section  Eagle  gin. 


seeds.  By  "  ginning-cylinder  "  is  meant  a  cylindrical  body  for  drawing  out  the  cotton-lint 
from  the  seed-cotton,  to  be  substituted  in  place  of  the  aggregation  of  saws  now  used  in  an  or- 
dinary gin.  This,  the  inventor  says,  can  be  accomplished  by  means  of  a  cylinder  having  a 
hard  periphery,  in  which  periphery  are  numerous  openings,  and  in  each  of  which  openings  is 
secured  a  tooth  fixed  at  one  end  and  extending  in  said  opening  in  a  circumferential  direction 
with  reference  to  _the  cylinder,  provided  that  the  position  of  the  free  points  or  ends  of  said 
teeth  shall  approximate  to  the  circumjacent  level  or  surface  of  the  periphery  of  cylinder,  the 
said  cylinder  being  rotated  so  that  the  teeth  shall  be  presented  points  forward  to'the  cotton. 
It  is  requisite,  also,  that  there  shall  exist  in  front  of  and  on  each  side  of  the  end  or  point  of 


COTTON-GIN. 


137 


each  tooth  a  space  or  opening  into  which  the  lint,  by  reason  of  its  softness  and  elasticity,  may 
enter  when  the  cotton  is  placed  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  and  into  which 
space  the  seeds  or  hard  foreign  material,  not  being  soft  and  elastic,  can. not  enter,  and  into 
which  the  seeds  are  also  prevented  from  entering  by  reason  of  their  size.  By  simply  causing 
the  cotton  to  lie  in  contact  with  said  cyl- 
inder when  rotating,  with  the  points  of  the 
teeth  forward,  the  lint  will  by  its  own  elas- 
ticity enter  the  openings  around  the  teeth 
in  a  radial  direction,  toward  the  axis  of 
cylinder,  and  will  be  engaged  and  drawn 
oiit  by  said  teeth,  while  the  hard  bodies — 
such  as  the  seed  and  foreign  matters — will 
not  be  so  engaged.  The  point  of  the  tooth 
is  also  arranged  to  protrude  beyond  the 
circumjacent  parts  to  such  a  degree  only 
as  that  by  the  rotation  of  the  cylinder  it 
may  ba  thrust  for  a  minute  distance  into 
the  outer  adherent  coating  of  the  seed. 

On  referring  to  Fig.  4  it  will  be  seen 
that  this  gin  uses  no  ribs  or  grating.  A  is 
the  grate-fall  or  breast  hinged  to  the  main 
frame  at  a.  B  is  the  back-board ;  (7,  the 
seed-board ;  and  D  the  brush  for  removing 
the  lint  from  the  cylinder.  E  is  the  gin- 
ning-cylinder,  which  in  the  machine  occu- 
pies substantially  the  same  position  as  the 
saw-gin  cylinder  in  common  use,  the  grate, 
grid,  or  ribs  being  removed,  and  a  bar,  F,  FIG.  3.— Brown  gin. 

secured  in  the  concave  c. 

The  cylinder  E,  shown  in  detail  (Pig.  5),  consists  of  a  sheet  or  thin  plate  of  metal,  Gf,  pref- 
erably steel,  which  is  bent  in  a  cylindrical  shape,  having  its  meeting  edges  secured  together 
around  heads  or  disks,  preferably  of  wood.  Said  cylinder  may  consist  of  a  number  of  smaller 

cylinders  or  sections,  M.  The  ad- 
vantage of  making  the  cylinder  E 
of  a  number  of  sections  is,  that  in 
case  one  section  becomes  injured  it 
can  easily  be  removed  and  another 
substituted.  The  several  sections 
should  be  placed  closely  together  side 
by  side,  and  so  fastened  by  any  con- 
venient means.  Before  the  sheet  Gr 
is  secured  upon  its  support  there  is 
formed  therein  a  number  of  slots  o, 
disposed  longitudinally  across  the 
surface,  or  in  direction  of  the  axis  of 
the  cylinder.  In  each  slot  is  pro- 
duced a  pointed  tooth,  #,  lying  length- 
wise the  slot.  By  reason  of  the  tooth 
being  tapered  and  pointed  and  ar- 
ranged in  the  slot,  there  is  an  open 
space  extending  directly  in  front  of 
the  point  of  the  tooth  and  around 
the  same  on  both  sides.  This  is  the 
opening  already  referred  to.  in  which 
the  cotton  can  enter  by  its  elasticity 


FIG.  4. — Mason  cotton-gin. 


and  softness  when  pressed  against  the  periphery  of  the  cylinder. 

The  openings  and  teeth  in  the  sheet  G  are  'made  with  the  sheet  flat.  When  the  sheet  is 
bent  in  cylindrical  form,  the  teeth  being  attached  only  on  one  end  will  not  naturally  partake 
of  the  curved  shape  of  the  bent  sheet, 

but  will  remain  straight,  or,  in  other  g        ? 

words,  will  remain  tangential  to  the 
circumference.  The  elevation  of 
the  point  is,  however,  so  slight  as 
not  to  enable  it  to  engage  with  hard 
foreign  substances  in  the  cotton, 
while  on  the  other  hand  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  allow  it  to  penetrate,  as  al- 
ready stated,  through  the  soft  cov- 

6rifn?v,°«Khe    ^    beffrf-  drart"S  FIG.  5.-Ginning  cylinder, 

out  the  fiber,  as  the  rotation  of  the 

cvlinder  continues.  Returning  now  to  Fig.  4,  the  operation  of  the  machine  is  as  follows : 
The  seed-cotton  is  placed  in  the  receptacle  JTand  meets  the  toothed  surface  of  the  cylinder  E, 
which  rotates  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  4.  The  teeth  upon  said  cylinder  engage* only  with 


-A/=U=U_=U_U  \J  U-  U  U  U  V>-U;-U  U  U  -U^  J,  U^U;U^ 


138  COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY. 

the  cotton-lint,  as  already  described,  and  carry  the  same  past  and  under  the  bar  F  which 
prevents  seeds  and  other  foreign  substances  being  drawn  around  the  cylinder  with  the  lint. 
As  the  cylinder  continues  its  revolution,  the  lint  is  removed  from  its  teeth  by  the  brush- 
wheel  D,  from  which  the  cleansed  material  passes  out  of  the  machine  in  the  direction  of  the 

COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY.  To  show  more  plainly  the  advance  in  cotton- 
spinning  machinery  during  the  past  ten  years,  it  may  be  well  first  to  state  in  a  general  way 
the  operations  that  are  at  the  date  of  this  work  in  use  in  converting  the  cotton  in  the  bale  to 
the  warp  on  the  beam,  or  the  filling  on  the  cop  or  bobbin,  ready  for  weaving.  The  cotton  is 
received  at  the  mills  in  compressed  bales,  containing  about  500  Ibs.  each,  and  generally  con- 
fined by  ropes  or  iron  bands,  and  sacking.  In  this  cotton  is  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
leaf  sand,  and  seeds,  and  sometimes  other  foreign  substances.  The  first  operation  is  the 
opening  of  the  bales  and  the  mixing  of  cotton,  which  is  done  by  hand,  so  as  to  secure  a  com- 
parative evenness  of  fiber.  A  number  of  bales  are  opened  at  once,  and  the  mixing  is  supposed 
to  be  thorough.  From  the  heap  of  cotton  so  mixed  it  is  taken  to  an  opener,  where  it  is  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  beaters  and  fans,  and  delivered  in  rolls  called  laps.  Two  or  more  of 
these  laps  are  then  fed  to  a  finishing  lapper,  where  the  beating  operation  is  again  gone 
through,  and  the  lap  from  this  machine  is  the  completed  product  of  the  picker-room.  The 
cotton  at  this  stage  has  been  freed  from  the  larger  portion  of  the  foreign  matter,  and  the 
fibers  have  been  thoroughly  disentangled. 

The  next  operation  is  that  of  carding,  which  is  a  very  important  one,  and  perhaps  not  yet 
thoroughly  understood.  The  lap  from  the  picker  is  slowly  fed  into  the  carding-machine,  in 
which  is  a  revolving  cylinder  covered  with  clothing,  containing  teeth,  by  which  the  cotton  is 
carried  past  either  stationary  or  movable  surfaces,  also  containing  teeth,  and  deposited  upon 
another  cylinder  called  a  doffer,  from  which  it  is  taken  off  in  a  thin  sheet  by  a  comb.  The 
card  continues  the  cleaning  of  the  cotton,  and  thoroughly  disentangles  the  fibers,  and  places 
them  in  a  condition  in  which  they  can  be  easily  straightened. 

It  is  stated,  in  most  books  of  reference,  that  the  cards  straighten  the  fibers ;  but  any  one  who 
will  examine  with  a  glass  the  sheet  that  comes  from  the  doffer  will  be  satisfied  that  the  fibers 
lie  in  anything  but  parallel  directions.  They  are  so  disposed,  however,  that  straightening  be- 
comes an  easy  process  in  the  drawing  to  which  the  fibers  are  afterward  submitted.  Where 
carding  is  well  done,  the  fibers  are  thoroughly  disentangled,  and  the  sheet  is  free  from  lumps, 
technically  called  mits.  There  are  two  kinds  of  cards  in  large  use  on  cotton :  the  stationary 
flat  card,  and  the  revolving  flat  cord ;  the  latter  being  quite  generally  known  as  the  English 
flat  card,  though  now  manufactured  by  several  American  shops.  The  revolving  flat  card  is 
said  to  do  the  largest  quantity  of  work,  but  that  is  asserted  by  the  friends  of  the  other  card 
to  be  due  to  the  use  of  larger  cylinders.  It  is  also  claimed  that  the  revolving  card  makes  less 
waste.  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  is  a  better  feed  in  use  on  the  revolving  flat  than  on  the 
ordinary  card  as  previously  built.  Another  important  point  is  this :  the  flats  of  the  common 
card  have  to  be  raised  at  stated  intervals  to  be  cleared  from  accumulations  of  dirt  and  fiber. 
When  they  are  raised  an  opening  is  left,  in  which  the  flyings  from  the  cylinder  collect,  to  the 
detriment*  of  the  work  when  the  flat  is  replaced.  With  the  revolving  flat  the  cylinder  is 
always  covered,  and  the  flats  not  in  use  are  thoroughly  brushed  out,  between  their  service  at 
the  rear  side  of  the  cylinder  and  their  next  service  at  the  front  side.  The  cotton  leaving  the 
card  is,  with  the  revolving  flat  card,  gathered  together  into  a  strand,  and  run  into  a  can. 
Where  the  ordinary  card  is  usetl,  the  strand  is  fed  into  what  is  termed  a  railway-box,  where, 
with  other  strands,  a  sheet  is  formed,  which  is  carried  by  a  belt  to  what  is  termed  a  railway- 
head,  where  it  is  reduced  in  size  of  strand  by  drawing-rolls,  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  an 
evener. 

The  next  operation  is  known  as  drawing,  which  is  done  to  complete  the  straightening  of 
the  fibers  of  the  cotton  and  to  reduce  the  sliver,  the  technical  name  for  the  strand  in  this 
condition  in  size.  Besides  this,  the  strands  are  doubled  over  and  over  again  before  being 
drawn,  to  equalize  the  diameters  of  the  resulting  strand.  The  theory  is  that  by  doubling, 
large  places  in  one  strand  are  likely  to  come  opposite  small  ones  in  another  strand,  and  the 
general  average  of  size  be  improved.  Too  much  drawing,  however,  weakens  the  material,  and 
there  is  considerable  question  among  manufacturers  as  to  the  proper  amount.  Where  the 
English  card  is  used,  the  cans  from  the  card  are  set  up  behind  the  drawing-frame  ;  and  where 
the  railway-head  system  is  used,  the  cans  from  the  railway-head  are  placed  in  that  position. 
The  material  is  delivered  from  the  cans  on  one  side  of  the  frame  through  the  drawing-rolls 
to  cans  on  the  other;  the  diameter  of  cans  being  generally  reduced  with  the  diameter  of  the 
strands.  The  process  of  drawing  was  the  invention  of  Arkwright,  and  it  consists  in  subject- 
ing the  material  to  the  operation  of  several  pairs  of  rolls,  the  front  ones  of  which  revolve 
more  rapidly  than  the  rear  ones,  and  thus  elongate  the  sliver  and  correspondingly  reduce  it 
in  diameter.  From  one  to  three  sets  of  drawing-frames  are  now  in  use  in  most  mills.  The 
sliver  at  the  last  drawing-frame  is  made  as  small  as  it  is  sure  to  hold  together  in  being 
drawn  out  of  the  can.  To  enable  it  to  be  still  further  reduced,  it  is  necessary  to  introduce 
twist  in  the  next  processes.  Machines  by  which  this  is  done  are  called,  in  general  terms, 
roving-machines,  and  their  product  is  known  as  roving.  These  machines,  like  the  drawing- 
frame,  draw  the  cotton  still  smaller,  and  communicate  twist  to  it  by  means  of  revolving  spindles 
with  their  fliers,  and  wind  it  upon  bobbins. 

Of  the  two  kinds  of  roving-machines  in  use,  viz.,  the  so-called  speeder  and  the  so-called 
fly-frame,  the  fly-frame  during  the  last  ten  years  has  gained  upon  the  speeder,  especially  on 
fine  work.  The  roving,  in  being  prepared  tor  spinning,  passes  through  from  two  to  four  of 


COTTON-SPINNING   MACHINERY.  139 

these  machines  successively,  and  at  some  of  them  it  is  doubled,  for  the  purpose  before  stated 
in  referring  to  diawing-frames.  The  final  result  is  a  soft  cord,  having  a  slight  twist  in  it, 
and  weighing  on  ordinary  work  about  four  skeins,  or  two  miles  to  the  pound.  For  coarser 
work  it  is  heavier,  and  for  finer  work  lighter.  This  is  the  last  process  of  the  carding-room, 
which  embraces,  in  all  factories,  opening,  carding,  drawing,  and  roving  machinery,  and 
changes  the  cotton  from  its  crude  condition  in  the  bale  into  fine  continuous  strands  wound 
upon°bobbins  ready  for  spinning.  In  a  mill  where  cloth  is  manufactured,  roving  is  divided  in 
its  destination,  part  for  warp  and  part  for  filling.  The  warp  yarn  is  spun  with  much  greater 
twist,  because,  in  the  first  place,  of  the  extra  strength  which  it  requires  in  weaving ;  and, 
second,  because  the  less  twist  of  the  filling,  gives  a  soft  appearance  to  the  cloth,  and  is  of 
advantage  in  dyeing  or  printing.  The  warp  yarn  is  spun  upon  what  are  known  as  ring- 
frames,  previously  described,  which  receive  the  roving  from  the  carding-room,  and  convert  it 
into  yarn  of  the  size  desired.  The  reduction  in  size  is  made  by  drawing-rolls,  as  before,  and 
twist' is  given  as  in  the  fly-frame,  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  spindles ;  but,  in  the  winding  upon 
the  bobbin,  the  ring  and  traveler  previously  described  are  substituted  for  the  flier.  The  ring- 
frame  has  been  improved  during  the  last  ten  years  more  than  any  other  machine  used  in 
manufacturing.  The  details  of  these  improvements  will  be  referred  to  later. 

Following  the  yarn  from  the  ring-frame,  where  it  is  wound  upon  bobbins,  it  goes  to  the 
spooler,  where  the  yarn  is  unwound  from  bobbins  and  wound  upon  a  large  spool  holding  20,- 
000  yards,  more  or  less.  As  each  bobbin  is  wound  off,  another  is  tied  on,  until  the  spool  is  full. 
The  yarn  in  going  from  the  bobbin  to  the  spool  is  passed  through  what  is  called  a  spooler- 
guide,  which  cleans  the  yarn  of  many  bunches  and  imperfections,  which  might  better  have 
been  taken  out  in  the  carding-room,  *if  possible.  After  spooling  comes  warping,  in  which  a 
large  frame  called  a  creel  is  filled  with  spools,  usually  300  or  400  in  number.  The  ends  from 
each  of  these  spools  are  drawn  together  into  a  flat  sheet,  which  is  wound  upon  a  beam,  usually 
about  54  in.  long  and  24  in.  in  diameter  of  heads.  Each  one  of  these  threads  passes  through  an 
eye,  which,  with  other  mechanism,  serves  as  a  stop-motion  for  the  machine,  so  that  if  one 
thread  breaks  it  can  be  replaced,  and  the  sheet  of  threads  kept  complete.  The  full  beams  are 
taken  to  a  sizing-machine  called  a  slasher,  and  there  they  are  run  through  boiling  size  and 
dried  upon  a  cylinder  or  over  steam  pipes,  and  wound  upon  a  loom-beam  at  the  other  end  of 
the  machine.  The  threads  are  then  drawn  through  loom  harnesses  and  reeds,  and  the  warp 
is  ready  for  weaving. 

Filling  is  spun  either  upon  filling-frames  or  mules.  During  the  last  ten  years  the  filling- 
frame  has  been  gaining  upon  the  mule  on  coarse  and  medium  work,  and  also  on  fine  work 
where  considerable  twist  can  be  used,  such  as  thread-yarns.  The  filling-frame,  after  spinning 
its  yarn,  winds  it  upon  a  bobbin,  while  the  mule  winds  it  in  what  is  called  a  cop,  with  a  paper 
tube  for  a  base.  These  bobbins  or  cops  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat  or  dampness  to 
prevent  kinking  in,  drawing  off  and  are  then  ready  for  use  in  the  loom-shuttle.  Several 
times  as  much  waste  is  made  in  weaving  mule  or  cop  filling  as  in  weaving  frame  or  bobbin 
filling.  Some  yarn  for  weaving,  and  almost  all  for  other  purposes,  after  being  spun  is  doubled 
and  twisted.  This  requires  the  use  of  the  machine  known  as  a  twister.  The  twister  is  a  simi- 
lar machine  to  the  spinning-frame,  except  that  it  does  not  draw  the  yarn.  It  takes  two 
threads  or  more  of  completed  yarn  and  twists  them  into  one,  and  winds  them  upon  a  bobbin. 
The  twisted  yarn,  if  destined  for  weaving,  is  then  spooled,  warped,  and  dressed  as  usual.  If 
destined  for  other  purposes  it  is  subjected  to  other  operations,  beyond  the  scope  of  this  arti- 
cle. Considering  the  diversified  field  of  manufacture  from  the  cotton-bale  to  the  loom,  it  is 
best  to  classify  the  different  processes. 

Opening  and  Picking. — In  openers  and  pickers  the  changes  are  in  the  nature  of  improve- 
ment in  the  manner  of  utilizing  old  ideas  rather  than  radical  innovations.  The  clearing- 
trunk  is  being  used  in  improved  forms  on  openers,  and  so  are  automatic  feeds  and  lap-eveners. 
A  preparatory  machine,  called  a  bale-breaker,  made  by  Platt  Bros.,  of  Oldham,  England, 
breaks  the  matted  cotton  into  small  pieces  before  it  comes  to  the  pickers.  This  has  also  a 
new  dust-trunk,  through  which  the  cotton  is  drawn  by  the  exhaust  opener.  The  cotton  passes 
one  way  by  means  of  a  fan-draft  while  the  grids  travel  slowly  in  an  opposite  direction. 

Cards. — Although  there  has  been  much  commotion  of  late  years  over  this  subject,  it  re- 
sults rather  from  the  increased  use  in  this  country  of  the  English  revolving  flat  card,  old  in 
principle  but  improved  in  detail,  rather  than  from  any  important  inventions.  The  adoption 
of  a  system  in  which  single  carding  takes  the  place  of  double,  and  the  coiler  is  substituted  for 
the  railway,  is  enough  of  a  change  to  excite  considerable  agitation  and  discussion.  This  in- 
troduction of  English  ideas  set  our  shops  at  work  to  reproduce  and  improve  on  the  revolving 
flat,  and  also  to  further  perfect  the  American  card,  so  that  it  might  stand  comparison  more 
favorably.  Xo  doubt  quite  a  percentage  of  the  improved  results  of  the  last  few  years  in  carding 
is  due  to  the  use  of  superior  clothing.  Tempered  steel  clothing,  needle-pointed,  is  rapidly 
gaining  ground,  and  the  methods  of  attachment  are  better  than  formerly. 

The  first  American  revolving  flat  card  (Fig.  1)  was  introduced  by  the  Pettee  Machine  Co., 
of  Newton  Upper  Falls,  Mass.  It  was  constructed  after  the  best  English  models,  and  illus- 
trates to  advantage  the  general  ideas  in  use.  The  Lowell  Machine  Shop  has  put  an  Amer- 
ican revolving  flat  card  on  the  market  having  several  new  improvements.  The  arch  is  so 
constructed  that  the  flexible  bend  is  placed  close  to  the  cylinder,  and  its  method  of  setting 
with  the  shields  prevents  all  fly  from  blowing  out  and  packing  itself  around  the  bend  and 
chain-blocks.  In  all  revolving  flat  cards  it  is  highly  essential  that  the  cylinder  should  be 
capable  of  perfect  adjustment,  and  also  that  the  flexible  bends  on  which  the  flats  travel  may 
be  set  so  that  the  flats  will  be  perfectly  concentric.  As  the  teeth  wear  or  become  ground,  this 


140 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY. 


setting  is  necessary,  and  every  part  of  the  flat  mechanism  needs  to  be  perfectly  constructed 
in  order  that  these  slight  variations  may  be  made.  Howard  &  Bullough  have  a  very  ingen- 
ious arrangement  of  conical  concentric  bends  on  which  the  flats  rest,  which  are  adjusted 

in  position  by  screws  and 
inclined  surfaces.  Each 
screw  has  a  dial  with  a 
pointer,  so  that  by  turning 
each  dial  a  definite  distance 
the  bends  will  all  be  ad- 
justed alike.  They  also 
have  a  new  way  of  attach- 
ing card  clothing,  using  no 
rivets.  Platt  Bros.,  of  Old- 
ham,  England,  have  lately 
adopted  a  new  flexible  bend 
with  slots  and  screw  ad- 
justment which  admit  of 
the  direct  setting  by  the 
gauge  of  the  flats  to  the 
cylinder.  They  are  also  so 
arranged  that  the  flats  are 
ground  on  the  under  side 
while  in  position. 

Fi3.  1.— Cotton-card.  The    Whitin     Machine 

Works  have  endeavored  to 

so  improve  the  American  top  flat  card  ,as  to  enable  competition  in  single  carding  with  the 
English  machine.  This  card  (Fig.  2)  will  produce  100  Ibs.  and  upward  per  day  of  fine  carding 
with  the  minimum  amount  of  waste.  The  sides  and  arches  of  the  card  are  built  entirely  of 
iron,  and  the  construction  is  simple,  so  that  changes  can  be  readily  made.  The  main  cylinder 
is  42  in.  and  the  doffer  18  in.  in  diameter,  measured  without  the  clothing.  Both  are  accu- 
rately ground,  and  are  balanced  to  a  speed  largely  in  excess  of  that  used  in  practice  The 
cylinder  is  clothed  close  up  to  either  edge,  securing  a  carding  surface  37^  in.  wide.  The 
clothed  surface  of  the  doffer  is  slightly  in  excess  of  this.  The  card  is  provided  with  40  iron 
flats,  the  arc  described  by  these  being  greater  than  formerly,  and  equal  to  fully  two  fifths  of 
the  circumference  of  the  cylinder.  The  flats  are  now  made  If  in.  wide,  with  clothed  surface 
of  -ff  in.  They  are  planed  and  ground  perfectly  true  to  receive  the  clothing,  and,  being  heav- 
ily ribbed  are  free  from  the  possibility  of  warping  or  twisting.  The  ends  of  the  flat  are  also 
planed,  and  thus  their  correct  pitch  with  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  is  accurately  and  uni- 
formly obtained.  The  device  for  adjusting  the  flats  consists  of  a  square  steel  body  terminat- 
ing at  either  end  in  a  pin.  The  lower  pin,  having  a  fine  thread  cut  upon  it,  passes  through  a 
rib  in  the  card  arch,  and  is  secured  on  both  sides  of  the  rib  by  a  nut.  Thus  any  flat  may  be 
accurately  and  quickly  adjusted.  Mortises,  accurately  spaced,  and  planed  into  a  second  rib 
on  the  card  arch,  receive  the  square  bodies  of  the  adjusting-pins,  thus  preventing  any  lateral 
motion.  The  adjusting-pin  is  further  secured  by  a  screw  passing  through  the  square  body 
into  the  arch.  The  top  flat  passes  over  the  upper  part  of  the  adjusting-pin  and  finds  a  true 
bearing  on  a  small  collar  turned  upon  the  upper  side  of  the  body  of  the  pin.  They  claim  for 
this  device  great  ease  and  nicety  of  adjustment,  and  perfect  immovability  when  set.  A  quick 
stripper,  that  lifts,  strips,  and  replaces  a  flat  in  less  than  four  seconds,  is  used,  and  is  geared 
at  both  sides  to  avoid  torsion.  A  simple  device  is  attached  by  which  the  feed  may  be  instant- 
ly stopped,  and  also  the  doffer  thrown  out  of  gear  with  coiler  and  calendar  rolls.  Many 
American  cards  in  use  are  being  changed  over  to  the  coiler  system,  the  Foss  &  Pevey  cards 
especially,  with  better  results.  The  latter  card  is  being  improved  in  addition  by  the  use  of 
the  shell-feed. 

Combing. — As  combers  are  only  used  on  very  fine  work,  their  field  is  somewhat  limited. 
If  some  way  could  be  devised  to  increase  the  production  of  a  comber  with  no  increase  of  ex- 
pense, it  might  pay  to  use  them  to  a  much  greater  extent,  as  the  advantage  is  obvious.  Dob- 
son  &  Barlow,  of  Boltou,  England,  have  improved  the  Heilman  comber  by  a  change  in  the 
combing  cylinder  (Fig.  3).  Formerly  the  cylinder  possessed  only  one  series  of  combs  and  one 
fluted  segment.  Thus  it  required  one  complete  revolution  of  the  cylinder  to  get  one  length 
of  combed  fiber.  The  manufacturers  have  succeeded  in  introducing  a  second  series  of  combs 
and  a  corresponding  second  fluted  section,  which  doubles  production  at  the  same  speed ;  al- 
lows of  a  lower  speed,  which  produces  better  results,  and  a  largely  increased  production.  The 
old-fashioned  process  of  preparing  comber-laps  has  been  to  take  slivers  from  the  card,  put 
them  through  one  process  of  ordinary  drawing,  and  the  slivers  from  the  drawing  were  then 
put  through  a  small  sliver-lap  machine  and  made  into  a  lap  for  the  comber.  This  old  process 
makes  a  lap  that  consists  of  a  series  of  slivers  laid  side  by  side,  and  is  not  of  one  uniform 
thickness,  but  first  has  a  thick  and  then  a  thin  place.  It'is  obvious  that  the  nipper  of  the 
comb  can  not  act  as  well  upon  this  lap  as  if  the  thickness  were  uniform  throughout,  and  fur- 
ther that  where  the  thin  places  are  there  is  danger  of  good  cotton  passing  through  into  waste 
on  account  of  the  defective  nip ;  also,  where  the  thick  places  come,  the  pins  are  required  to 
do  too  much  work,  and  the  quality  at  once  suffers. 

When  the  patent  ribbon-lapper  is  used,  the  system  is  as  follows :  The  ordinary  style  of 
drawing-frame  is  thrown  out  entirely,  and  the  card-slivers  are  doubled  up  into  a  lap  directly 


COTTON-SPINXIXG   MACHINERY. 


141 


on  the  small  sliver-lap  machine;  then  six  of  these  laps  are  placed  in  the  creel  of  the  machine 
and  are  drawn  through  four  lines  of  rollers  in  the  form  of  a  ribbon  instead  of  a  sliver,  and  by 
means  of  curved  plates  are  placed  perfectly  even  and  level  on  a  polished  table. 

Drawing-Frames. — Although  the  railway-head  with  evener,  first  introduced  by  George 
Draper  &  Sons,  is  hardly  the  same  as  a  drawing-frame,  its  functions  are  near  enough  like  it 


for  it  to  be  considered  in  the  same  class.  These  machines  have  been  perfected  and  made  much 
more  sensitive  and  accurate.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  evening  should  com- 
mence as  soon  as  possible  after  the  detection  of  the  fault.  The  Evans  Friction  Cone  Co.  have 
an  evener  on  the  market  in  which  two  cones  with  a  friction-belt  running  between  them  regu- 
late the  variations,  and  are  claimed  to  enable  a  change  of  speed  far  quicker  than  an  ordinary 


142 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY. 


belt  running  over  cones  in  the  usual  way.     Railway-heads  and  machines  in  the  next  class  have 
of  late  been  provided  with  steel  fluted  rolls,  having  collars  to  prevent  the  teeth  meshing  too 


FIG.  3. — Combing-cylinder — detail. 


closely,  instead  of  the  common  leather-covered  rolls.  They  have  been  pronounced  a  success 
in  certain  instances,  but  their  use  is  hardly  extensive  enough  as  yet  to  give  an  opinion  as  to 
their  advantages.  The  advantages  claimed  are  less  weight  required  on  the  saddles,  and  no 
expense  for  roll-covering.  This  is  being  introduced  by  the  Metallic  Drawing  Roll  Co.,  of 
Springfield,  Mass.  The  drawing-frame,  having  come  into  more  extended  use  on  account  of 
the  addition  of  the  coiler  system,  is  receiving  considerable  attention. 


FIG.  4.— Roving-frame. 

The  electric  stop-motion,  as  applied  by  Howard  &  Bullough,  is  an  innovation,  espe- 
cially as  it  marks  the  first  successful  adaptation  of  electricity  to  cotton  manufacturing. 
This  has  had  an  extensive  introduction,  and  as  applied  does  more  than  the  ordinary  stop, 
as  it  detects  four  faults,  viz. :  (1)  A  sliver  breaking  before  it  reaches  the  drawing  rollers, 
(2)  a  sliver  breaking  at  the  front  between  the  drawing  rollers  and  coiler,  (3)  a  stop  for  a  full 
can  in  the  coiler,  and  (4)  a  stop  when  cotton  laps  around  the  drawing  rollers.  Fales  &  Jenks, 
of  Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  are  the  American  builders  of  this  machine. 

The  Whitin  Machine  Works  are  introducing  a  new  drawing-frame  with  single-bossed  rolls, 
which  is  an  improvement  on  the  general  class. 


COTTON-SPINNING   MACHINERY. 


143 


Roving- Frames. — Fly-frames  and  speeders  have  undergone  considerable  general  improve- 
ment, although  much  of  the  machinery  now  offered  to  the  trade  is  of  the  same  type  and  style 
as  that  of  ten  years  since.  The  gradual  trend  of  opinion  has  turned  in  favor  "of  fly-frames 
rather  than  speeders.  Fig.  4  represents  the  40- 
spindle  stubble  of  the  Providence  Machine  Co., 
of  Providence,  R.  I.,  and  Fig.  5  the  Hopedale  Ma- 
chine Co.'s  improved  roving-frame.  In  fly-frames 
one  of  the  improvements  is  Tweedale's  differential 
motion.  In  this  the  revolutions  of  the  various 
wheels  are  all  in  one  direction — saving  in  friction, 
power,  and  wear  and  strain  on  the  cone-strap. 
Howard  &  Bullough,  besides  controlling  the  above, 
have  applied  an  electric  stop-motion  to  prevent 
single  breaks  necessitating  the  stopping  of  the  ma- 
chine. As  to  the  merits  of  fly-frames  and  speeders 
now  in  use,  making  four-hank  roving  or  coarser,  it 
is  found  that  the  roving  can  be  made  cheaper  on  the 
speeder  and  better  on  the  fly-frame.  The  only 
reason  for  the  better  work  of  "the  fly-frame  is  be- 
cause the  spindle  and  flier  gyrate  together  when 
there  is  gyration,  and  so  the  roving  is  not  stretched 
between  the  flier  and  the  bobbin,  while  in  the  form 
of  speeder  now  in  general  use,  the  spindle  and 
flier  being  separate,  and  the  spindle  and  bobbin 
being  sure  to  gyrate  more  or  less,  thin  places  in 
the  roving  must  result.  The  Hopedale  Machine 
Co.,  of  Hopedale,  Mass.,  have  made  a  new  speeder 
which  removes  this  objection. 

The  common  form  of  spindle  in  machines  of 
this  class  is  cut  off  below  the  top  of  the  bobbin, 
its  support  being  at  the  bottom  of  the  flier.  This 
construction  limits  the  speed  at  which  the  ma- 
chine can  be  run,  and  even  at  the  ordinary  speed 
the  bobbin  as  it  fills  shows  in  many  cases  a  marked 
variation  from  true  running.  The  spindles  car- 
ried to  and  into  the  top  of  the  flier,  thus  mak- 
ing a  bearing  at  both  ends  of  the  spindle,  and 
making  a  much  higher  speed  both  possible  and 
practicable,  and  at  the  same  time  improving  the 
quality  of  the  product  by  avoiding  both  gyration 
and  vibration  of  the  bobbin,  which  are  so  damag- 
ing in  their  effect  on  the  evenness  of  the  roving 
by  straining  and  stretching  it  as  it  follows  the 
movement  of  the  spindle ;  in  other  words,  because 
the  spindle  is  held  at  both  top  and  bottom,  it  can 
not  gyrate,  and  the  result  is  even  and  substantial- 
ly perfect  roving.  The  lower  part  of  the  spindle 
is  tubular,  is  connected  with  the  driving-gear  on 
the  lower  shaft,  and  extends  through  the  base  of 
the  flier,  where  it  is  provided  with  lugs  to  carry 
the  upper  part,  which  is  slotted  for  a  sufficient 
portion  of  its  length  to  receive  and  carry  the  flat 
or  traversing  part  of  the  spindle,  which  rests  on 
the  traverse  rail  and  carries  the  bobbin  by  a  toe 
which  projects  from  its  top  outside  the  slotted 
part  of  the  spindle  into  the  base  of  the  bobbin. 
The  spindle  is  solid  above  the  slot,  and  continues 
upward  through  the  flier  to  its  nose,  where  it  is 
held  by  an  ingenious  lock.  The  top  section  of 
the  spindle,  the  tubular  or  lower  section,  and  the 
flat  traversing  part  can  be  removed  at  any  time 
by  taking  off  the  bobbin  and  without  disturbing 
either  flier  or  flier-plate.  When  the  bobbins  are 
full  and  ready  to  doff,  the  frame  is  stopped  with 
the  toe  carrying  the  bobbin  projecting  from  the 
back  or  front  side  of  the  spindle,  and  with  the 
traverse  rail  at  its  lowest  point;  the  bobbin  is 
raised  until  it  strikes  the  lock  and  lifts  it,  unlock- 
ing the  spindle  and  allowing  it  to  tip  forward  and 
the  bobbin  to  be  removed ;  the  empty  bobbin  is  put  on,  and  with  the  spindle  returned  to  an 
upright  position,  lifting  the  lock  as  i'n  removing  the  bobbin.  This  movement  locks  the  spin- 
dle in  place,  and  with  the  bobbin  set  firmly  on  the  projecting  toe  the  frame  is  ready  to  start. 
This  operation  of  doffing  requires  no  more  time  than  the  old  method,  one  motion  removing 


I 


\\ 


144 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY. 


the  bobbin  and  another  replacing  it.  Supporting  the  spindle  at  the  top  prevents  vibration 
and  allows  the  bearings  to  be  made  smaller,  which  reduces  the  friction  and  the  power  required 
to  drive  a  given  number  of  spindles,  besides  allowing  a  much  greater  speed.  The  bearings 
are  made  as  small  as  is  consistent  with  durability,  can  be  conveniently  oiled,  and  are  thor- 
oughly protected  from  accumulation  of  dirt.  A  spindle  can  not  become  bound  or  tight  in  its 
bearings,  and  may  be  removed  and  wiped  in  a  moment.  The  spindle  and  flier  can  be  oiled 
when  running.  From  15  to  30  per  cent  increase  in  speed  is  gained  in  this  frame,  with  a  prod- 
uct which  is  as  much  better  in  quality,  so  far  as  evenness  is  concerned,  as  it  is  greater  in 
quantity. 

Spinning. — In  this  department  the  change  in  the  last  ten  years  has  been  radical,  with 
greater  proportionate  results  than  those  obtained  in  any  other  class.  Spinning  is  divided  into 
warp  and  filling,  almost  all  the  warp  in  this  country  being  spun  on  ring-frames,  and  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  filling  on  mules.  Taking  the  frame  first  as  the  most  modern,  the 
great  advance  has  been  in  speed,  production,  saving  of  power,  and  less  attendance  per  product. 
This  results  almost  wholly  from  the  invention  of  the  top  spindle  by  Mr.  F.  J.  Rabbeth,  about 
1878.  The  Sawyer  had  been  having  an  almost  uninterrupted  sway,  as  it  was  such  an  advance 
over  the  old  common  type  in  production,  saving  in  power,  etc.  The  Rabbeth,  however,  has 
proved  as  far  superior  to  it  as  it  was,  in  turn,  the  superior  of  its  rivals.  The  name  "  top 
spindle  "  was  afterward  changed  to  "  self-centering  "  spindle.  Spindles  of  this  type  have  since 
come  to  be  known  simply  as  " Rabbeth"  spindles,  although  every  spindle  with  a  sleeve-whorl, 
before  the  minute  differentiation  of  modern  types,  was  known  as  a  "  Rabbeth  "  spindle  both 
in  this  country  and  abroad.  The  particular  features  of  this  so-called  "  top  "  spindle  were : 
First,  the  above-mentioned  sleeve- whorl ;  second,  the  loose  bolster,  supported  in  a  tube  which 
held  both  bolster  and  step-bearings,  and  formed  an  oil-reservoir  to  lubricate  them  ;  third,  the 
elastic  packing,  ordinarily  composed  of  woolen  yarn  which  surrounded  this  bolster,  shown  in 
the  cut  at  D ;  fourth,  the  flat  top  step  on,  rather  than  in,  which  the  rounded  bottom  of  the 
spindle  moved  with  the  bolster ;  fifth,  the  snout  oil-chamber,  which  insures  a  better  supply  of 
oil,  and  keeps  the  reserve  at  a  higher  level  than  any  other  form  yet  tested.  This  feature  had 
been  before  embodied  in  the  Ra,bbeth-Sawyer  spindle.  The  spindle  was  called  the  "  top,"  or 
"  self-centering,"  spindle  on  the  theory  that  the  spindle  acted  like  a  top,  and  found  its  center 
of  rotation  under  an  unbalanced  load.  This  theory  has  since  been  discarded  by  experts,  it 
now  being  thought  that  the  advantages  of  the  Rabbeth  spindle  are  derived,  first,  from  the 
cushioning  effect  of  the  loose  bearing ;  and,  second,  from  the  additional  cushioning  effect  of 
the  packing  interposed  between  the  bolster-bearing  and  the  surrounding  case,  both  taken  in 
connection  with  a  sleeve-whorl  surrounding  the  tube  containing  the  bearings.  The  spindle 

does  not  center  itself,  but  runs  out 
of  center  with  less  jar  and  vibration 
and  heat,  and  thus  is  enabled  to  bear 
a  greatly  increased  speed,  and  to  run 
with  less  power.  The  Sawyer  spin- 
dle was  limited  in  speed.  'With  an 
unbalanced  load  it  would  vibrate 
and  gyrate,  at  more  than  7,500  turns 
per  minute,  so  as  to  become  useless. 
The  Rabbeth  spindle,  on  the  contra- 
ry, will  bear  any  speed  desired,  and 
the  limit  of  production  of  the  frame 
is  transferred  from  the  speed  that 
the  spindles  will  bear  to  the  speed 
with  which  operatives  can  make 
good  piecings  of  yarn  broken  in  the 
operation  of  spinning.  From  9,000 
to  10,000  revolutions  per  minute  is 
the  speed  at  which  they  are  customa- 
rily run  on  medium  yarns.  The 
power  required  to  drive  them  at  a 
speed  of  9,000  does  not  exceed  the 
power  required  to  drive  the  common 
spindle  at  a  speed  of  5,500. 

Four  forms  of  Rabbeth  spindles 
are  being  made  by  American  build- 
ers at  the  present  time.  These  are 
known  as  the  Rabbeth  proper,  or  the 
No.  49  D  Rabbeth  (Fig.  6) ;  the  Sher- 
man (Fig.  7) ;  the  Whitin  (Fig.  8) ; 
and  the  McMullan  (Fig.  9).  They 
all  possess  the  characteristic  features 
which  permit  the  spindle  to  be  run 
at  high  speed ;  namely,  the  sleeve-whorl  and  the  supporting  tube  within  it,  containing  loose 
bearings,  and  serving  as  a  reservoir  for  the  oil  to  lubricate  them.  The  present  Rabbeth  has 
many  improvements  over  the  original  form.  The  bolster  has  a  head  to  limit  the  extent  of 
movement,  keeping  the  spindle  in  the  center  of  the  ring  at  all  times.  The  spindle  proper  has 
been  lengthened  and  made  with  a  tapered  bearing.  By  means  of  an  adjustable  screw-step, 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  7. 
Spindles. 


FIG.  9. 


COTTON-SPIXNING  MACHINERY. 


145 


the  fit  in  the  bolster  may  be  made  looser  or  tighter,  taking  up  wear,  and  enabling  the  proper 
conditions  to  be  found  for  steadiness.  This  is  the  chief  improvement  in  spindles  since  me 
introduction  of  the  Rabbeth.  The  Sherman  is  a  type  of  Rabbeth  having  its  bolster  and  step 
in  one  piece  and  using  no  packing.  It  has  had  an  extensive  introduction.  The  Whitin  is 
very  similar  to  the  Sherman,  the  main  difference  being  in  the  fit  of  the  bolster  in  the  sup- 
porting tube,  the  Sherman  bolster  being  loose  and  the  Whitin  having  supposedly  a  sliding 
fit  opposite  the  bolster-bearing.  The  McMullan  has  a  separate  step  loose  within  the  bolster, 
and  is  the  latest  spindle  on  the  market.  The  value  of  the  introduction  of  these  spindles  to 
the  community  has  been  enormous.  The  figures  below  will  show  approximately  this  value, 
though  they  are  believed  to  be  low,  as  many  incidental  gains  are  not  reckoned.  The  average 
speed  of  common  spindles,  before  the  invention  of  the  Sawyer,  did  not  exceed  5,500  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  The  average  speed  of  the  Sawyer  spindle  may  be  considered  as  7,500,  and 
that  of  the  Rabbeth  as  9,000. 

The  production  of  yarn  is  substantially  in  proportion  to  the  speed  of  the  spindle.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  increase  of  production  in  altered  frames  was  greater  rather  than  less  than 
the  increase  in  speed,  owing  to  the  greater  steadiness  in  running.  On  the  basis  of  the  speed, 
however,  5,000,000  Rabbeth  spindles  produce  as  much  yarn  as  would  more  than  8,000,000  com- 
mon ;  3,000,000  Sawyer  spindles  produce  as  much  yarn  as  would  4,000,000  common.  It  fol- 
lows that,  had  the  new  spihdles  not  been  introduced,  more  than  4,000,000  additional  common 
spindles  would  have  been  required  to  produce  the  yarn  now  spun  in  this  country.  The  cost 
of  spinning-frames,  complete,  per  spindle,  is  about  $3.  It  is  estimated  that  a  square  foot  of 
floor-space  is  required  per  spindle  to  give  suitable  room  for  spinning-frames  and  alleys.  This 
costs,  at  the  lowest  estimate,  65  cents  per  square  foot.  The  necessary  plant  in  and  for  shaft- 
ing, heating,  lighting,  belting,  etc.,  for  this  room  would  carry  the  cost  for  machinery  and  room 
above  $4  per  spindle.  At  this  figure,  therefore,  the  saving  in  room,  machinery,  etc.,  has  been 
4,000,000  spindles  at  $4  each,  or  $16,000,000.  But  this  is  not  all.  The  old  spindles,  at  5,500 
turns,  required  as  much  power  as  the  modern  spindles,  either  Sawyer  or  Rabbeth,  at  the 
higher  speeds  run  ;  hence,  the  power  required  to  drive  these  4,000,000  common  spindles  may 
be  counted  an  entire  saving  At  100  spindles  to  the  horse-power,  this  would  amount  to  a 
saving  of  40,000  horse-power,  or  more  than  three  water-powers  like  that  of  Lowell,  and  worth, 
at  $30  per  horse-power  per  annum  (surely  a  low  enough  price  for  steam-power  in  New  Eng- 
land), $1,200,000  each  year.  Then,  owing  to  the  better  running  of  these  spindles,  they  require 
no  more  attention  at  their  high  speed  than  the  common  spindles  at  the  low  speed.  The  labor 
cost  for  spinning,  including  all  employes,  from  the  spinner  to  the  overseer,  is,  in  the  best 
mills,  about  a  cent  and  one  tenth  per  spindle  per  week,  or  57  cents  a  year.  The  labor  saved 
per  annum  is  therefore  above  $2,200,000.  Then,  again,  the  old-fashioned  spindles  required 
oiling  twice  a  day,  while  the  Rabbeth  requires  oiling  only  oni-e  in  three  or  four  weeks,  making 
a  saving  which  would  be  counted  a  large  benefit  were  the  other  items  not  so  enormous. 

Capitalizing  all  these  gains  at  ten  times 
the  annual  saving,  and  omitting  the  minor 
advantages,  the  advantage  to  the  community 
by  the  introduction  of  the  rapidly  running 
spindles  is  shown  by  the  following  figures : 

Saving  of  machinery $16,000,000 

Saving  of  power 12,000,000 

Saving  of  labor 22,000,000 

Making  a  total  of $50,000,000 

This  is  not  all.  The  3,000,000  Sawyer 
spindles  will  all,  or  nearly  all,  be  changed  to 
Rabbeth,  while  the  remaining  common  and 
other  inferior  types  of  spindles  must  also  be 
supplanted  by  the  new  types,  and  the  gains 
from  these  changes,  on  the  basis  above  stated, 
will  be  in  the  proportion  above  shown.  Still 
again,  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  new  spin- 
dles per  annum  required  by  the  growth  of  the 
country  are  substantially  all  of  the  Rabbeth 
type.  By  making  similar  calculations  to  those 
above,  the  future  value  of  these  inventions  to 
the  public  may  be  calculated  in  the  same  way. 

So  far,  we  have  only  considered  the  advan- 
tage for  this  country.  The  Rabbeth  spindle, 
in  some  of  its  varieties,  is  the  only  ring-spin- 
dle now  built  abroad,  and  it  has  already  gone 
into  use  there  to  the  number  of  several  mill- 
ions. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  advantage 
to  the  human  race  from  the  invention  and  introduction  of  these  improvements  in  spindles  has 
been,  from  1871  to  date,  more  than  $100,000,000,  and  that  it  will  go  on  as  their  use  increases. 
All  the  modern  spindles  now  in  use  are  under  the  control  of  the  Sawyer  Spindle  Co.,  whose 
agents  are  the  firm  of  George  Draper  &  Sons,  Hopedale,  Mass. 

10 


FIG.  10.— Spinning-frame- detail. 


146 


COTTON-SPINNING   MACHINERY. 


The  other  parts  of  the  frame  have  also  undergone  considerable  change.  It  has  been  found 
that  with  the  high  speeds  the  yarn  is  more  liable  to  balloon  out  and  whip  together  than  be- 
fore, and  it  has  been  found  nec- 
essary to  interpose  a  blade  or  sep- 
arator, as  it  is  called,  between 
the  spindles  to  prevent  ends 
breaking  from  this  cause.  There 
are  several  types  on  the  market, 
but  the  original,  the  "  Doyle " 
(Fig.  10),  has  received  the  most 
extensive  introduction,  4,000,000 
having  been  applied.  This  sepa- 
rator consists  of  a  series  of  metal 
blades  attached  to  two  rods  run- 
ning parallel  with  the  frame  and 
hinged  to  supports  on  the  roller- 
beam.  As  the  ring-rail  rises  it 
tips  the  blades  back  out  of  the 
way,  in  which  position  they  are 
also  placed  for  doffing.  There 
are  many  attachments  to  these 
separators  to  lift  them  without 
the  ring -rail,  to  automatically 
raise  them  when  ready  to  doff, 
etc.  All  the  successful  separa- 
tors have  the  feature  of  with- 
drawing when  the  ring-rail  is 
near  the  top.  The  rings  now 
used  are  the  double  adjustable 
type,  introduced  by  George 
Draper  &  Sons  over  twenty  years 
ago.  It  has  been  found  that  by 
burnishing  rings  they  will  start 
up  better  and  wear  out  less  trav- 
elers. The  use  of  hinges  on  the 
thread-boards,  so  that  a  whole 
side  may  be  tipped  out  of  the 
way  for  doffing  by  one  motion, 
is  being  used  the  last  few  years 
universally  on  new  frames.  There 
are  numerous  designs  of  lifters 
and  catches,  about  equally  good. 
In  the  frames  proper,  greater 
care  and  attention  to  detail  has 
improved  the  designs  materially. 
The  use  of  cut-gearing  is  now 
insisted  upon.  The  chief  diffi- 
culty with  a  frame  is  to  get  it 
perfectly  fitted  together  and  set 
up,  so  that  there  will  be  no 
cramping  and  the  spindles  will 
come  vertical.  The  Mason  Ma- 
chine Works,  in  their  new  frame 
(Fig.  11),  use  adjustable  legs  and 
cross-bars,  which  tend  to  over- 
come this  trouble  in  the  most 
sensible  way.  The  greatest  source 
of  trouble  in  running  a  frame  is 
with  the  banding.  Loose  bands 
cause  slack  -  twisted  yarn,  that 
makes  havoc  in  the  "next  pro- 
cesses if  not  discovered,  and  tight 
banding  consumes  power  enor- 
mously and  wears  out  the  spin- 
dles. There  are  numerous  ten- 
sion devices  to  even  the  band 
tension,  but  the  simplest  and  best 
way  to  regulate  this  evil  is  by 
using  an  invention  that  is  ap- 
plied to  what  is  known  as  the 
Weeks  banding-machine,  which 
makes  the  spindle-bands.  The  device  referred  to  is  a  marker  which  marks  all  the  bands  at  the 
proper  length,  so  that  when  one  is  put  on  it  may  be  tied  up  to  the  mark,  and  all  will  come 


COTTON-SPINNING   MACHINERY. 


147 


uniform  and  correct.  An  annoyance  of  some  magnitude  in  the  spinning-room  is  caused  by 
lint  accumulating  on  the  lifting-rods,  causing  them  to  stick  and  spoil  whole  sets  of  bobbins. 
The  Whitin  Machine  Co.  inclose  their  rods  in  a  tube,  which  effectually  prevents  this  difficul- 


ty. The  Shaw  &  Flinn  lifting-rod  cleaner  is  another  device  for  the  same  purpose.  As  has 
been  stated  before,  the  use  of  the  spinning-frame  for  filling  yarn  has  been  increasing  rapidly, 
and  while  it  has  not  seemed  policy  to  throw  out  mules  before  they  were  worn  out  in  order  to 


148 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY. 


adopt  frames,  the  new  mills  are  to  a  large  extent  adopting  frame-filling  on  coarse  and  medi- 
um numbers.  The  evener  of  Mr.  George  Draper,  described  by  us  ten  years  ago,  is  largely 
responsible  for  this  change  in  public  opinion,  as  by  the  aggressive  introduction  of  this  im- 
provement the  help  have  been  educated  to  run  filling-frames. 


FIG.  13. — Wade  spooling-frame. 

The  great  improvements  in  frames  have  had  their  effect  by  spurring  the  mule-builders  to 
greater  efforts.  Mules  have  undergone  considerable  change,  the  advantage  gained  being 
higher  speed  and  saving  in  power.  The  Mason  (Fig.  12)  may  be  taken  as  the  leading  Ameri- 
can mule,  and  the  late  improvements  upon  it  are  as  follows :  An  adjustable  momentum-brake 
to  check  the  speed  of  spindles  quickly,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  diminish  gradually  at  the  end 
of  every  stretch,  before  the  direction  of  the  spindles  is  reversed  for  the  backing-off  operation. 
By  this  means  a  perceptible  saving  of  time  is  effected  at  every  stretch  or  draw  made  by  the 

mule.  An  improved  nosing-motion  was  also  applied  to 
more  fully  assist  the  wind-motion  to  adapt  itself  to  the 
taper  of  the  spindle,  and  so  prevent  the  winding  on  of 
kinks,  when  the  diminishing  diameter  of  the  spindle 
would  otherwise  have  caused  it  to  fail  to  take  up  the  yarn 
sufficiently  fast  for  that  purpose.  An  improved  backing- 
off  motion,  applied  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  greater 
range  to  that  particular  function  of  the  mule,  rendering 
it  possible  to  back  off  with  equal  facility  and  exactness 
cops  of  all  sizes  and  degrees  of  fineness.  A  power-doffing 
motion,  to  enable  the  doffing-hands  to  work  the  carriage 
FIG.  14. -Spooler-guide.  and  faners  which  guide  the  yarn,  without  having  to  pull 

the  driving-belt  by  hand,  or  to  leave  the  front  of  the  mule.  A  simplified  form  of  chain  and 
chain-gear,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  carriage  in  and  out.  The  flexible  spindle-bolster, 
which  rendered  possible  a  much  higher  speed,  and  has  proved  of  great  value,  like  the  high- 
speed frame-spindles.  A  new  belt-shifting  mechanism,  which  makes  a  gain  in  production  of 
over  5  per  cent  by  extra  quickness.  The  1890  mule,  which  is  a  combination  of  the  best  ideas 
in  the  English  mules,  with  the  improved  features  of  the  American,  as  above  noted.  The  Eng- 
lish features  copied  were  the  continuous  cylinder  and  faller-rod  connections,  which  runs  in 
one  direct  line  through  the  whole  length.  This  necessitated  a  complete  transformation  in  the 
driving-in  and  winding  mechanism.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  class  of  machinery  there 
is  plenty  of  push  and  improvement.  The  Lowell  Machine  Shop  also  has  a  new  mule  for 
which  great  saving  in  power  is  claimed.  Speed  and  production  are  equal  to  the  best  English 
mules. 

The  "  Parr-Curtis,"  represented  by  Messrs.  E.  A.  Leigh  &  Co.,  is  an  excellent  representative 
English  mule,  and  has  many  new  advantages.  Its  chief  feature  is  the  method  of  driving  the 
drawing-up  motion,  and  the  changes,  which  are  worked  by  a  helical  spring  instead  of  the  cam- 
shaft, thus  dispensing  with  the  latter.  The  drawing-up  and  backing-off  motion  are  driven 
direct  by  means  of  an  endless  band  from  a  grooved  pulley,  rigid  upon  the  loose  pulley  of  the 
rim-shaft,  the  band  also  passing  round  a  tightening  pulley  to  take  up  the  slack.  The  speed 
of  the  backing-off  motion  can  thus  be  conveniently  altered  by  changing  the  grooved  pulley 
without  altering  the  speed  of  the  drawing-up.  The  American  builders  of  the  Parr-Curtis 
mule  are  the  Saco  Water-Power  Machine  Shop.  Other  builders  have  followed  the  general 
trend  toward  more  spindles  and  higher  speeds. 


COTTON-SPINNING   MACHINERY. 


149 


Spooling. — An  ordinary  spooler  consists  practically  of  bobbin-holders,  guides,  and  spindles. 
Although  the  Wade  holder  (Fig.  13)  is  old,  it  has  been  improved  in  detail  and  mode  of  appli- 
cation. There  are  many  new  spooler-guides  on  the  market,  but  the  Northrop  (Fig.  14),  intro- 
duced by  George  Draper  &  Sons,  who  also  introduced  the  Wade  holder,  is  practically  control- 
ling the  field  at  the  present  day.  This  guide  is  adjustable  on  a  round  rod,  over  which  the 
yarn  runs,  and  the  slit  is  adjustable  in  width  for  different  numbers  of  yarn.  It  is  extremely 
simple.  Some  spoolers  are  being  made  with  a  traveling-belt  through  the  center,  to  carry  away 
the  empty  bobbins.  George  Draper  &  Sons  introduced  experimentally  a  most  ingenious  idea, 
consisting  in  a  knot-tyer  for  each  spindle  that  tied  knots  automatically.  One  of  the  great 
difficulties  in  weaving  arises  from  the  long  ends  of  these  knots  tangling  the  warp.  The  auto- 
matic tyer  cut  these  ends  short  and  avoided  this  trouble.  Drum-spoolers  are  still  used, 
though  in  inferior  numbers,  and  have  been  improved  to  quite  an  extent.  Stop-motions  for 


doubling  spoolers  of  many  kinds  are  being  experimented  with.     The  Hopedale  Machine  Co.'s 
spooler  is  represented  in  Fig.  15. 

Warping. — The  ordinary  warper  has  undergone  but  little  change  in  the  last  few  years. 
The  rising  roll  and  the  Walmsley  stop-motion  are  used  more  extensively  than  ever.  Improve- 
ments in  details  of  creels,  combs,  etc.,  are  hardly  of  enough  importance  to  chronicle  as  em- 
bodying new  principles.  There  is,  however,  a  branch  of  warping  that  has  received  considera- 
ble attention,  and  that  is  the  production  of  chain-warps  to  be  linked  or  wound  on  balls.  The 
great  change  of  custom  in  the  processes  of  dyeing  have  brought  about  the  use  of  these  ma- 
chines, the  old  fashion  of  dyeing  from  skeins  being  entirely  changed.  The  process  of  chain- 


150 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY. 


warping,  making  a  chain  direct  from  the  spools  and  linking  it  automatically,  was  the  first 
innovation.  The  Walcott  warper  came  into  use  for  this  purpose,  and  as  chains  of  1,000  yards 
were  most  commonly  used,  containing  from  500  ends  upward,  it  was  admirably  adapted  for 
the  purpose.  The  Denn  warper  also  was  used,  especially  where  2,000  ends  or  more  were  run 


into  a  chain.  Of  late,  however,  the  long-chain  system  is  far  in  advance,  on  account  of  the 
greater  cheapness  in  handling  and  dyeing.  For  these  the  Hopedale  warper,  with  the  Straw 
leasing-motion,  and  Clarke  balling-machine  (Fig.  16),  is  unequaled.  In  these,  long  chains  from 
350  to  500  ends  are  run. 

The  operation  of  this  balling-machine  is  very  simple :  The  ends  are  taken  from  spools  in  a 
creel  through  the  regular  slasher-warper  to  the  front  comb,  in  place  of  which  is  a  Straw 
leasing-motion ;  after  passing  through  this  the  ends  are  brought  together  in  the  trumpet  and 
carried  over  the  pulley  as  a  chain  and  back  to  a  trumpet  which  traverses  the  length  of  the 
ball  back  and  forth,  on  the  same  principle  as  the  card-grinder.  The  chain  is  carried  diago- 
nally round  a  shaft  which  forms  the  center  of  the  ball,  and  rests  against  the  cylinder  of  the 
warper,  being  held  by  weight. 

Many  improvements  have  been  made  in  this  machine  since  its  introduction,  and  it  is  now 
much  easier  handled  and  attended. 

Twisting. — In  twisters  the  same  radical  change  has  taken  place  as  in  frames — that  is, 
higher  speed,  by  the  introduction  of  the  modern  type  of  spindle.  The  Sherman  form  of  the 


COTTON-SPINNING   MACHINERY. 


151 


Rabbeth  type  has  been  most  extensively  introduced,  and,  although  they  are  of  necessity 
much  larger  and  heavier  than  spinning-spindles,  the  same  principles  seem  to  apply  with  equally 
good  results.  The  Hopedale  Machine  Co.  was  the  first  to  equip  twisters  with  improved 
spindles,  as  they  started  with  the  Sawyer.  Their  machine  (Fig.  17)  is  a  good  illustration  of 
steady  improvement.  It  is  very  heavily  built  and  most  conveniently  arranged  for  changing 
twist.  Besides  the  spindles,  they  are  lately  introducing  a  marked  improvement,  in  the  form 
of  a  stop-motion,  the  simplicity  of  which  can  not  but  commend  itself.  Other  stop-motions  in 


use  are  of  such  a  complicated  nature  that  their  introduction  has  been  extremely  limited.  This 
one  is  applied  where  a  single  bottom  and  top  roll  are  used,  the  top  roll  having  bearings  on  an 
inclined  track  so  arranged  that  if  the  thread  breaks  between  the  spindle  and^the  roll,  the  roll 
will  run  down  the  track  and  stop  the  delivery,  preventing  roll  waste  and  damage  resulting 
from  winding  on  the  lower  roll.  With  two-ply  yarn  it  will  act  if  either  strand  breaks  back  of 
the  roll.  They  also  have  a  new  ring-rail  for  wet  twisting,  which  is  made  of  a  strip  of  rolled 
brass  having  flanges  so  arranged  that  the  rail  is  reversible. 

Reeling,  Quilling,  etc. — Very  little  change  is  noted  in  reels  and  quillers  of  the  usual  sort, 
but  a  new  class  has  arisen,  first  "introduced  by  Mr.  Straw,  of  the  Amoskeag  Co.,  who  invented  a 
machine  for  quilling  from  a  chain.  This  is  used  on  colored  work,  and  does  away  with  the  cus- 


152 


COUPLERS,   CAR. 


torn  of  reeling  and  quilling  in  the  old  way.  The  Whitin  Machine  Co.  have  introduced  a  chain- 
quilling  machine  (Fig.  18)  having  novel  features.  The  chain  of  yarn  that  comes  to  the  machine 
from  the  dry  cans  is  placed  on  a  turn-table  and  passed  over  friction-drums  the  same  as  in  ordi- 
nary chain-beaming,  and  is  then  wound  upon  bobbins  in  this  machine.  The  arrangement  of  the 
spindles  allows  a  very  compact  machine  to  do  a  large  amount  of  work.  Lapped  ends  can  not 


FIG.  18.— Chain-quilling  machine. 

be  made,  consequently  bobbins  will  weave  from  start  to  finish  without  break  of  yarn.  There  is 
no  friction  device,  therefore  the  color  is  left  clean  and  bright  on  the  yarn — a  marked  advantage. 

The  above  practically  covers  the  whole  field  of  ordinary  cotton  manufacturing  up  to  the 
process  of  weaving.  Of  course,  for  special  instances,  special  machinery  has  to  be  invented, 
but  its  interest  is  of  a  local  character.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  industry  of  cotton 
manufacturing  has  advanced  materially  in  the  last  ten  years,  and  more  by  improved  machinery 
than  in  any  other  way. 

COUPLERS,  CAR.  The  requirements  of  an  efficient  car-coupler  are  thus  summed  up 
by  Prof.  S.  W.  Robinson :  1.  That  they  be  coupled  and  uncoupled  without  requiring  men  to 
go  between  cars.  2.  That,  whatever  the  relative  heights  of  the  couplers,  they  couple  and 
uncouple  equally  well.  3.  That  free  slack,  as  far  as  possible,  be  dispensed  with,  to  reduce 
damage  to  equipment  and  freight.  4.  That  cars  can  be  coupled  easily  and  with  a  minimum 
of  concussion,  to  encourage  careful  handling  of  cars.  5.  That  they  be  simple  and  durable, 
and  at  a  minimum  of  cost.  6.  That  the  couplings  at  both  ends  of  a  car  be  alike.  7.  That 
there  be  no  loose  parts  to  be  lost.  8.  That  they  couple  on  curves.  9.  That  they  couple  with 
certainty,  and  remain  so  without  danger  of  parting  on  the  road.  10.  That  they  be  such  as 
act  favorably  with  brakes.  11.  That  coupling  and  uncoupling  be  unobstructed  by  inclement 
weather.  12.  That  the  coupling  be  universal,  or  readily  connecting  with  all  other  couplers. 
13.  That  they  do  not  occupy  excessive  room  in  a  train,  to  give  it  undue  length. 

As  the  result  of  protracted  experiments,  Prof.  Robinson  concludes:  1.  That  the  avoidance 
of  "  free  slack  "  is  one  of  the  most  important  steps  to  be  taken  in  the  freight-car  coupler,  and 
that  this  is  only  second  in  importance  to  the  adoption  of  such  devices  as  shall  be  automatic, 
and  not  hazardous  to  the  lives  of  trainmen  in  operating.  2.  That  the  threefold  numerous 
dimensions  to  be  provided  for  in  the  link  and  pin  coupler,  as  compared  with  hook-couplers, 
and  with  the  link  and  pin,  the  free  slack  is  greater  than  in  hook-couplers,  leading  to  dis- 
astrous consequences,  while  with  hooks  it  can  be  reduced  to  practically  nothing.  3.  That 
with  hook-couplers  the  rigging  at  both  ends  of  a  car  can  be  positively  identical,  with  no 
detachable  parts,  whereas  with  the  link  and  pin  this  is  impossible.  4.  That  close  hook- 
couplers  can  be  much  lighter  than  in  those  where  severe  concussions  occur,  as  in  the  link  and 
pin.  5.  That  close  hook-couplers  serve  much  more  favorably  than  others  in  connection 
with  all  kinds  of  brakes.  Figs.  1  to  19  represent  the  principal  forms  of  car-couplers  in  use 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  following  table  gives  particulars  concerning  them : 


COUPLERS,   CAR. 


153 


REMARKS. 

As  now  sold. 
Old  style. 
As  now  sold. 
Opens  by  gravity. 

Latest  form. 
Old  style. 
As  now  used. 

Has  adjustable  clevis  in 
chain. 
Now  being  redesigned. 

Pushed  to  open  knuckle. 

Now  being  modified. 

ruueci  to  open  KHUCKIO. 
Shaft  on  right  of  c.  r.  in- 
stead of  left. 

Uses  several  styles. 

1 

1 

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of  car  ii  rotutvd 
to  unlock. 

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it 

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Center  

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Center  
Left  of  center  

.  .  .  Right  of  center  .  . 

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Name  of  coupler 

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154 


COUPLERS,   CAR. 


Standard  Coupler-Gauge. — This  has  been  adopted  by  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
Master  Car-Builders'  Association,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  couplers  are  near 
enough  to  the  standard  contour  established  by  the  Association  to  insure  proper  coupling  with 


Fias.  1-19.— Car- couplers. 


one  another,  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  insured  by  close  adherence  to  the  standard  contour,  and 
also  to  establish  limits  of  variation  for  such  of  the  standard  rectilinear  measurements  of  the 
coupler,  only,  as  will  promote  the  interchangeability  of  couplers  in  place  upon  cars. 

The  gauge  for  new  couplers,  shown  in  Fig.  20,  provides  means  for  gauging  the  contour 


CRANES. 


155 


B 

C 

D... 


2    in. 
30    •' 

5  sq.  in. 


rin. 
" 
" 


in. 


lines,  excepting  the  thickness  of  the  knuckle,  at  points  throughout  the  whole  essential  extent 
of  the  standard  form  of  contour,  and  it  controls  the  variation  in  both  directions  from  the 
standard. 

The  gauge  for  new  knuckles,  shown  in  Fig.  21,  allows  fa  in.  variation  each  way  from  the 

standard  dimensions  of  3  in.  Fig.  22  shows  the  lim- 
its of  standard  rectilinear  measurements.  The  limits 
shown  in  the  table  are  proper  limits  of  variation  for 
the  standard  rectilinear  measurements. 

Recent  Improvements  in  Car-Couplers. — Car-coup- 
lers are  almost  invariably  automatic.  The  standard 
contour  is  closely  followed.  Among  the  more  impor- 
tant recent  improvements  is  a  change  in  the  location 
of  the  link-pin  hole  on  the  end  of  the  knuckle,  made  by  moving  it  toward  the  interior  face 
about  i  in.  This  gives  a  large  increase  in  the  thickness  of  metal  between  the  link-pin  and 
the  outside  face  of  the  knuckle,  and  tends  to  reduce  breakage.  Another  improvement  is  a 

movement  of  the  pivot  -  pin 
away  from  the  end  of  the 
coupler  to  a  sufficient  extent 
to  allow  a  portion  of  the 
knuckle  to  pass  outside  the 
pivot-pin  lugs.  This  has  two 
beneficial  effects ;  it  strength- 
ens the  knuckle  considerably, 
and  serves  as  a  protection  to 
the  lug.  There  is  an  increase 
in  confidence  in  the  use  of  cast 
steel  for  couplers.  Knuckles 
are  of  three  kinds — cast  steel, 


s  MUST  PASS  THIS  GA 

.POINTS   ARE    DR 
. IT  WITH   ANY  ONE 


FlG.    20 


— 

1 

i 

1 

^ 

^ 

\ 

C 

i 

i 

9 

FIG.  21. 


FIG.  22.— Gauge. 


forged  steel,  and  wrought  iron.  Self-opening  knuckles  and  those  that  may  be  opened  from 
the  side  of  the  car  are  prominent.  Devices  have  been  introduced  for  overcoming  the  necessary 
differences  in  the  lateral  displacement  of  the  ends  of  cars  of  different  lengths  on  curves. 
These  are  of  two  sorts  :  one,  for  the  back  of  tenders,  has  the  form  of  a  pivoted  coupler-head  ; 
another,  for  freight-cars,  has  a  spring  on  either  side  of  the  drawbar,  which  permits  considera- 
ble lateral  motion,  and  yet  returns  the  coupler  to  the  center  on  a  straight  track. 

(See  files  of  the  Railroad  Gazette  and  Proceedings  of  Master  Car-Builders'  Association.) 

Couplings  :  see  Carriages  and  Wagons,  Clutches  and  Couplings,  and  Fire  Appliances. 

Covering  Boiler :  see  Boilers,  Steam. 

CRANES.     A  variety  of  improved  and  novel  forms  are  illustrated. 

SWINGING  CRANES. — Fig.  1  represents  a  30-ton  swinging  crane,  built  by  Messrs.  Sellers  &  Co., 
Philadelphia — the  peculiar  feature  of  the  construction  being  that  anything  suspended  from 
the  hook  can  be  brought  quite  close  to  the  center,  there  being  no  brace  to  interfere. 

Fig.  2  represents  a  40-ton  wharf-crane,  of  English  construction,  designed  chiefly  for  lifting 
marine  engines  and  boilers  in  or  out  of  ships.  The  engine-cylinders,  the  position  of  which  is 
shown  on  Fig.  3,  are  7  in.  bore  and  10  in.  stroke.  When  the  crank-shaft  runs  at  200  revolutions 
per  min.,  loads  up  to  7  tons  can  be  raised  at  a  speed  of  13  ft.  per  min.,  and  heavier  loads  at  4  ft. 
per  min.  The  brake  has  full  control  of  the  heaviest  loads,  and  can  be  worked  either  by  hand- 
lever  or  screw.  The  latter  enables  the  attendant  to  keep  the  load  suspended  for  any  length 
of  time,  without  interfering  with  the  engines  working  for  slewing.  The  slewing  is  effected 
by  a  train  of  gearing  from  the  crank-shaft,  and  a  pinion  on  a  vertical  shaft  working  into  the 
circular  rack  fixed  on  the  foundation. 

The  Great  Steel  Derrick  at  the  Brooklyn  (N.  Y.)  Navy- Yard  is  carried  on  a  pontoon  60  ft. 
wide  by  63  ft.  long.  The  tower  is  built  of  steel  I-beams  and  rods,  and  contains  63  tons  of  metal. 


156 


CRANES. 


The  king  post  is  65  ft.  high  ;  14  ft.  7  in.  from  its  base  it  passes  through  the  crown  casting.  Just 
above  the  crown  casting  the  front  and  back  booms  are  connected  to  it.  The  back  boom  is  a 
box-girder  made  up  of  plates  and  angle  irons,  and  is  2  ft.  sq.,  weighing  6^  tons.  The  two 


FIG.  1.— Sellers  30-ton  swinging  crane. 

members  of  the  front  boom  are  16|  in.  I-beams,  spaced  far  enough  apart  for  the  sheaves  and 
tackle  to  work  between.  The  object  of  the  back  boom  is  simply  to  afford  a  point  of  attach- 
ment with  advantageous  leverage  for  the  back-stays.  The  upper  surface  of  the  members  of 
the  main  boom  has  planed  upon  it  sliding- ways  for  the  carriage  which  supports  the  sheaves. 
This  carriage  bears  two  lifting-tackles.  One  is  a  gantline  or  single  fall,  for  light  work  ;  the 
other  is  a  16-fold  purchase,  for  heavy  lifting.  The  hoisting-engine  has  two  cylinders,  8  by  14 
in.,  and  by  a  system  of  worm  gearing  and  clutches  actuates  any  of  the  different  windlass- 
drums  required.  The  hoisting-gear  alone  weighs  13-£  tons.  The  lower  main  hoisting-block 
with  its  8  sheaves,  each  26  in.  in  diameter,  and  working  on  a  2|-in.  steel  pin,  and  receiving  1-J-in. 
steel-wire  rope,  weighs  2,000  Ibs.  The  load-limit  is  as  follows  :  with  the  back-stay  secured  to 
the  after-edge  of  the  pontoon,  75  tons  can  be  lifted  :  with  the  sliding-carriage  at  two  thirds 
the  length  of  the  boom  and  at  full-boom  length,  50  tons  can  be  lifted ;  with  the  back-stay 
brought  into  the  ball-carriages  at  the  base  of  the  tower,  30  tons  can  be  lifted  at  two  thirds 
boom  length,  and  30  tons  at  full-boom  length. 

OVERHEAD  CRANES.— Fig.  4  represents  a  150-ton  steam  traveling-crane,  erected  at  Woolwich 
Arsenal,  England.  It  will  lift  150  tons  on  a  span  of  65  ft.  from  center  to  center  of  the  rails. 
The  crab  consists  of  side-frames  of  steel  plates  and  angles,  running  upon  five  double-flanged 
wheels  on  each  side,  securely  connected  together,  and  carrying  the  steam-engine  and  gearing 


CEANES. 


157 


for  all  the  movements,  with  a  steam-boiler,  coal-bunker,  and  feed-water  tank,  the  whole  cov- 
ered by  a  corrugated  iron  house  with  angle-iron  framing.  The  cylinders  are  10  in.  diameter 
by  10  in.  stroke.  The  speeds  pro- 
vided are  as  follows:  Hoisting, 
2  ft.  per  min.  for  150  tons,  and  4 
ft.  and  6  ft.  per  min.  for  lighter 
loads;  cross-traverse,  15  ft.  per 
min. ;  longitudinal  traverse,  15 
ft.  per  min.  for  full  load,  and  30 
ft.  per  min.  for  lighter  loads. 
The  maximum  range  of  lift  is 
from  3  ft.  to  24  ft.  from  the 
ground  to  the  bottom  of  the 
hook,  with  the  top  of  the  gantry 
rails  26  ft.  above  ground,  giving 
a  lift  of  21  ft.  The  maximum 
cross-traverse  is  54  ft. 

A  Novel  Fortn  of  Overhead 
Crane,  of  Belgian  construction,  is 
illustrated  in  plan  and  side  eleva- 
tion in  Fig.  5.  It  is  designed  for 
situations  where  both  light  and 
heavy  loads  have  to  be  lifted  ;  as, 
for  instance,  in  foundries,  where 
much  time  is  often  lost  in  hoist- 
ing light  molding  -  boxes  with 
slow  gear. 

Upon  the  two  barrels  is  wound 
a  steel  rope  with  a  snatch-block 
suspended  in  the  bight  between 
the  two  barrels.  The  smaller  bar- 
rel is  rotated  directly  by  a  chain- 
wheel  and  dependent  chain.  By 
it  one  man  can  lift  440  Ib.  The 
large  barrel  is  provided  with 
double  purchase-gear,  so  propor- 
tioned that  two  men  can  lift  a  ton. 


FIG.  2. — W  harf-crane. 


Further,  upon  the  shaft  of  the  large  barrel  is  a  coupling, 
and  when  this  is  put  into  gear  both  barrels  are  coupled  together  by  means  of  a  pitch-chain, 


FIG.  3. — Wharf-crane  plan. 


Fia.  5.— Overhead  crane. 


158 


CRANES. 


and  a  differential  raising  or  lowering  action  results,  by  which  two  men  are  able  to  hoist  a  load 
of  5  tons.  When  the  two  barrels  are  coupled  together,  the  pawl  must  be  lifted  out  of  the 
ratchet-wheel  of  the  small  barrel. 

When  a  workman  has  to  lift  a  small  weight,  he  pulls  the  chain  of  the  small  barrel.  If  he 
finds  the  load  too  heavy,  he  applies  himself  to  the  second  chain,  without  any  coupling  or 
uncoupling  being  necessary.  It  is  only  in  the  case  of  very  heavy  loads  that  any  adjustment  of 
the  mechanism  is  required*.  All  the  motions  can  be  worked  from  below  by  hand-chains. 


Electric  Traveling-Cranes. — Electrically  driven  traveling-cranes  have  come  into  extensive 
use  during  the  past  three  or  four  years,  the  convenience  of  transmitting  power  by  a  wire,  as 
compared  with  transmission  by  square  shafts,  belting,  or  ropes,  being  its  chief  recommenda- 
tion for  this  service.  Any  form  of  traveling-crane  may  be  converted  into  an  electric  crane 
without  changing  either  the  track,  the  bridge,  or  the  trolley,  simply  by  substituting  for  the 
belt,  rope,  or  square  shaft,  which  gives  motion  to  the  first  rotating  shaft,  whence  all  the  mo- 
tions of  longitudinal  and  vertical  transverse  travel  are  derived,  an  electric  motor  with  suita- 
ble spurgearing.  Preference  is  now  given,  however,  to  cranes  fitted  with  three  independent 
motors,  one  for  each  of  the  three  motions  of  the  crane.  All  the  movements  are  controlled  by 
switches  handled  by  the  operator  stationed  in  a  carriage  at  one  end  of  the  bridge. 

Rope-Driven  Traveling- Crane  (Figs.  6  and  7)  illustrate  a  rope-driven  traveling-crane  made 
by  the  Philadelphia  Engineering  Works.  In  this  crane  ropes  and  belts  are  used  as  far  as 
possible,  instead  of  gears  and  shafting.  The  trolley  has  the  full  traverse  motion  of  the  bridge. 
The  power  is  applied  by  two  endless  cotton  ropes  (5,  5)  extending  along  the  full  length  of  the 
shop,  being  guided  by* pulley- wheels  at  intervals.  These  ropes  are  kept  taut  on  one  end  by 
passing  over  a  movable  sheave  suspended  upon  guide-bars,  and  pass  over  driving-sheaves  (6,  7) 
placed  zigzag  in  relation  to  a  pair  of  guide-sheaves,  upon  either  side  of  the  main  girders  (1, 1). 


CRANES. 


159 


By  this  arrangement  a  long  grip  on  the  driving-sheaves  is  obtained.  One  of  these  driving- 
sheaves  (6)  is  fitted  to  a  shaft,  working  in  adjustable  bearings,  and  carrying  three  pulleys 
for  the  lifting-gear.  The  power  is  transmitted  from  these  pulleys,  through  belts,  to  a 
counter-shaft  (13)  fitted  up  with  three  sets  of  tight  and  loose  pulleys,  thereby  obtaining 


FIG.  7.— Rope-driven  crane. 


FIG.  6.— Rope-driven  traveling-crane. 

three  lifting  and  three  lowering  speeds.  From  this  counter-shaft  (13)  the  motion  is  trans- 
mitted, through  a  pair  of  spur-gears,  to  a  square  shaft  (21)  (provided  with  tumbling  bearings), 
extending  the  full  length  of  the  bridge  (1).  The  motion  is  then  transmitted  to  the  lifting-drum 
(23),  from  any  part  of  the  square 
shaft  (21),  by  means  of  tangent 
gear  (24  and  25)  carefully  cut  by 
special  machinery,  and  spur-gears 
(26,  27).  The  sides  of  the  trolley 
(28)  are  made  of  cast  iron,  secured 
to  each  other  by  distance  bolts 
and  bars  (28,  29).  The  drum  (23) 
is  made  of  cast  iron,  and  has  a 
right  and  left  handed  groove  for 
the  chains.  By  this  arrangement 
the  load  always  hangs  in  the  cen- 
ter, between  the  girders.  A  driv- 
ing-sheave (7)  is  fitted  to  a  shaft 
(33)  working  in  adjustable  ball- 
bearings (34),  and  carrying  four 
pulleys,  two  for  giving  motion  to 
the  bridge  (1)  up  and  down  the 
shop,  and  two  for  giving  trans- 
verse motion  to  the  trolley.  The 
power  is  transmitted  from  two  of  these  pulleys  (one  being  smaller  than  the  other),  through 
belts,  to  a  square  shaft  extending  the  full  length  of  the  bridge  (1),  with  two  sets  of  tight  and 
loose  pulleys.  The  power  is  transmitted  from  this  square  shaft  to  the  trolley-wheel  through 
bevel  and  spur  gear-wheels,  thereby  obtaining  two  speeds  for  the  trolley  travel.  The  other 
two  pulleys  (one  being  smaller  or  larger  than  the  other)  are  belted  to  two  sets  of  tight  and 
loose  pulleys,  working  on  a  round  shaft  (44),  and  extending  the  full  length  of  the  bridge. 
The  power*  is  transmitted  to  the  bridge  girder-wheels  on  both  sides  from  this  shaft  (44)  by 
means  of  compounded  gear-wheels,  thereby  obtaining  two  speeds  for  the  bridge,  and  insuring 
a  parallel  motion  for  the  same. 

HYDRAULIC  CRANES. — The  Ridgway  Steam  Hydraulic  Crane  has  a  jib  carrying  a  free 
trolley,  which  is  suspended  by  short  and  very  heavy  chains  passing  over  wheels  on  the 
inclined  brace  and  mast,  and  are  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  a  cylinder.  The  piston-rod  of 
this  cylinder  is  hollow,  and  is  bolted  to  a  projection  from  the  bottom  gudgeon.  This  large 
and  heavy  cylinder  is  used  to  counterbalance  the  weight  of  the  jib.  Conveniently  located 
on  or  in  the  ground  is  a  closed  cylinder.  On  top  of  this  cylinder  is  a  plain  slide-valve, 
from  which  one  pipe  is  run  to  the*  boiler  for  steam,  and  another  outside  the  building  for 
exhaust.  From  the  bottom  of  this  cylinder  a  pipe  is  carried  to  the  crane  bed-plate  connect- 
ing with  the  passage  to  the  lifting  cylinder.  The  ground  cylinder  is  filled  with  water  to 
within  a  foot  of  the  top — air  occupying  this  space.  It  being"  now  desired  to  lift  the  crane, 
steam  is  admitted,  and  being  prevented  by  the  air  from  coming  in  contact,  with  the  water,  it 
does  not  condense  ;  the  water  takes  the  same  pressure  as  the  steam,  passes  to  the  crane,  where, 
entering  the  lifting-cylinder,  the  latter  is  pressed  down  the  roc!,  raising  the  jib  and  its  attached 
load.  To  lower,  the  steam  is  exhausted  and  the  water  flows  back  by  gravity,  and  the  cylinder 
rises  and  the  jib  is  lowered. 

A  hydraulic  traveling-crane,  designed  by  Erwin  Graves,  of  Camden,  N.  J.,  is  described  in 
vol.  xii"  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E, 


160 


CBANES. 


LOCOMOTIVE  TRAVELING-CRANE. — A  form  of  crane  recently  adopted  for  steel-works,  arse- 
nals, etc.,  for  very  heavy  lifting,  has  a  locomotive  boiler  and  engine  on  one  end  of  the  travel- 
ing-bridge, the  engine  furnishing  motive-power  through  the  necessary  spur-gearing  for  the 
three  motions  of  the  crane.  This  kind  of  crane  is  independent  of  all  other  motive-power  of 
the  works  in  which  it  is  used,  and  requires  merely  to  be  supplied  with  fuel  and  water  at  some 
convenient  point  in  its  course. 

A  Locomotive- Crane,  of  English  manufacture,  is  represented  in  Fig.  8.  It  is  intended  to 
lift  10  tons  at  a  radius  of  20  ft.,  and  7  tons  at  a  distance  of  25  ft.  from  the  central  pillar  of 


FIG.  8. — Locomotive  crane. 

the  crane,  being  fitted  with  a  motion  which  allows  this  radius  to  be  varied.  The  hoisting  is 
done  oy  a  galvanized  steel-wire  rope,  1£  in.  in  diameter,  which  is  wound  on  a  specially  large 
steel  barrel.  This  barrel  is  worked  by  double-purchase  spur-gearing,  the  motion  of  which  is 
controlled  by  clutches  in  the  usual  way.  A  powerful  friction-brake  is  supplied  for  holding 
and  lowering  the  load.  The  crane  has  a  revolving  motion,  consisting  of  an  internal  bevel 
secured  to  the  frame  of  the  machine,  and  a  pinion  gearing  into  it,  the  motion  of  which  can 
be  reversed  without  stopping  or  reversing  the  engines. 

The  crane  is  propelled  by  the  same  engines  by  means  of  which  its  other  motions  are 
worked,  the  connection  to  the  wheels  being  made  by  bevel  gearing.  These  engines  have 
cylinders  8|  in.  in  diameter,  with  a  12-in.  stroke,  and  are  fitted  with  a  link-reversing  mo- 
tion. 

A  40- Ton  Travel  ing- Crane. — The  remarkable  crane  represented  in  Fig.  9  (called  a  steam 
Titan)  was  built  for  lifting  blocks  of  concrete  weighing  32  tons,  used  in  the  construction  of 

the  Madras  Breakwater.  The 
weight  of  the  Titan,  without 
water  -  ballast  or  load,  is  152 
tons,  and  with  ballast  170  tons. 
All  the  motions  of  the  appli- 
ance are  under  perfect  control 
by  means  of  a  set  of  levers  situ- 
ated on  a  platform,  and  within 
easy  reach  of  the  single  opera- 
tor. A  feature  of  importance 
in  connection  with  this  appli- 
ance is  that  it  not  only  has  to 
be  capable  of  slewing  round  in 
a  complete  circle,  but  has  also, 
owing  to  the  shape  of  the  break- 
water on  which  it  will  be  em- 
ployed, to  be  capable  of  travel- 
ing on  a  curved  road.  To  en- 
able it  to  accomplish  this,  the 
Titan  is  carried  upon  twelve 
wheels  arranged  as  two  four- 
wheeled  bogies,  one  at  each  end, 
and  with  driving-wheels  in  the  center.  This  arrangement  enables  the  Titan  to  travel  with 
ease  round  a  curve  of  90  ft.  radius.  The  radius  described  by  the  arm  is  50  ft.,  and  to  minim- 
ize the  shock  produced  by  stopping  a  load,  owing  to  the  momentum  acquired  when  being 
slewed  round,  spring-braking  devices  are  introduced  in  connection  with  the  gearing,  so  as  to 
bring  the  arm  to  a  gradual  stop. 


FIG.  9.— Tram  "  Titan."1 


CREAMERS. 


161 


Crank  :  see  Engines,  Steam. 

CREAMERS.  This  term  is  applied  to  centrifugal  extractors  when  used  for  the  separa- 
tion of  cream  from  milk.  Similar  apparatus  is  also  employed  for  the  separation  of  fusel-oil 

from  alcoholic  liquors.  When  a  liquid  is  to  be 
separated  from  a  liquid,  the  receptacle  must  be 
imperforate.  The  components  of  different  spe- 
cific gravity  become  arranged  in  distinct  con- 
centric cylindrical  strata  in  the  basket,  and  must 
be  conducted  away  separately.  In  creamers  the 

/  /  s^0r  i    i:       "^T\X  \ 

I 


FIG.  1.— Alexandra  creamer. 


FIG.  3.— Creamer. 


particles  of  cream  must  not  be  broken  or  subjected  to  any  concussion,  as  partial  churning  is 
caused,  and  the  cream  will,  in  consequence,  sour  more  rapidly. 

The  Alexandra  Creamer,  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  1,  is  one  of  the  most 
approved  forms  of  English  cream- 
er. It  is  exceedingly  light  to  drive, 
a  result  attained  by  the  use  of  a 
peculiar  form  of  rotating  vessel, 
which  is  free  to  adjust  itself  on  the 
spindle.  This  vessel  D  is  nearly 
globular,  and  has  a  deep  projection 
in  its  bottom,  much  like  that  which 
is  found  in  wine-bottles,  particular- 
ly champagne-bottles.  The  head 
of  the  spindle  C,  which  is  ball- 
shaped,  fits  into  a  socket  formed  in 
this  recess.  The  center  of  gravity 
of  the  vessel  is  below  the  point  of 
support,  and  thus  the  whole  rides 
easily  without  any  rigid  connection 
between  the  vessel  and  the  spindle. 
There  is  sufficient  frictional  resist- 
ance between  the  two  to  impart 
motion  to  the  vessel  without  slip, 
but,  if  an  accident  should  occur  to 
the  driving-gear,  the  vessel  can 
slip,  and  thus  its  momentum  can 
expend  itself  gradually  without 
adding  to  the  severity  of  the  acci- 
dent. 

This  machine  under  test  gave 
the  following  results  :  Quantity  of 
milk,  81-01  Ibs.  (7'86  gals.) ;  time  of 
skimming,  24  hrs.  15  min. ;  rate  per 
hour,  19*47  gals.;  revolutions  of  FIG.  2.  -De  Laval  creamer. 

11 


162 


CULTIVATORS. 


handle  per  min.,  45  ;  horse-power  consumed,  0*880  ;  units  of  power  per  Ib.  of  milk  skimmed, 
788'1  foot-pounds :  temperature  of  milk,  84°  to  87°  F. ;  per  cent  of  fat,  3'25 ;  temperature  of 
separated  milk,  79°  to  81°  F. ;  — 


per 
cent  of  fat,  0*45. 

Two  interesting  forms  of  cream- 
ers are  illustrated  in  Figs.  2  and  3. 
The  De  Laval  machine  (Fig.  2)  is 
driven  by  a  steam  turbine,  situated  in 
the  lower  casing.  The  wheel  of  the 
Sharpless  Russian  machine  is  located 
in  proximity  to  the  apparatus  proper. 

CULTIVATORS.  The  superior- 
ity of  surface-cultivation  for  corn  has 
received  slow  but  sure  recognition. 
The  large,  deeply  penetrating  cultiva- 
tor-blades formerly  used  are  disap- 
pearing, and  the  leading  manufactur- 
ers are  producing  new  cultivators  with 
small  teeth  in  increased  number.  Fig. 
1,  showing  a  corn-plant  with  its  roots, 
explains  the  advantages  of  surface- 
cultivation  with  five  small  teeth  com- 
pared with  the  two  large  cultivator- 
shovels,  in  general  demand  till  a  re- 
cent date.  The  long  shovels  cut  off 
the  roots  which  nourish  the  growth 
of  the  ear,  and  act  as  guys  to  sustain 
the  stalk  erect,  as  the  long  shovels 
must  run  deep  to  cover  the  ground. 
If  running  shallow,  long,  large  shovel- 
teeth  merely  make  V-shaped  scratch- 
es, neither  killing  the  weeds  nor  thor- 
oughly opening  up  the  hard  surface. 
The  five  small  teeth  uproot  the  weeds 
and  leave  no  part  of  the  surface-dirt 


FIG.  1. — Corn-plant  and  cultivator. 


undisturbed,  yet  do  not  seriously  interfere  with  the  tender  extended  side-roots  of  the  corn- 
plant.     To  throw  weeds  to  the  surface,  where  they  will  die,  instead  of  covering  them  over,  as 


FIG.  2.— Albion  cultivator. 


CULTIVATOBS. 


163 


a  rigid  tooth  inclines  to  do,  as  well  as  to  insure  clearance  and  scouring  in  sticky  prairie  soils, 
the  combination  of  the  narrow  shovel  or  tooth  with  a  spring-shank  has  been  effected  in  the 

Albion  Cultivator,  seen  in  Fig.  2.  The 
machine  can  be  adjusted  to  cut  deep 
when  the  corn  is  small,  pulverizing  the 
ground  well  down  below  the  surface  ; 
but  afterward,  as  the  root  -  laterals 
spread  out  near  the  surface,  can  be  run 
shallow  above  them  and  still  mellow 
the  packed  surface  and  work  out  weeds. 
The  figure  shows  the  machine  fitted 
with  a  riders  seat,  and  also  displays  the 
effect  of  the  numerous  small  shovels. 
The  hill-shields  here  seen  protect  from 
injury  the  leaves  of  the  plant  when 
well  grown,  as  the  machine  passes  as- 
tride the  row.  After  a  season's  culti- 


I 


vating  by  this  means  a  field  is  fairly 
well  rid  of  weeds,  as  all  weeds  that 
have  sprouted  successively  will  have 
been  torn  out  and  left  to  die.  The 
springing  action  of  the  steel  shanks 

tends  to  shake  off  dead  corn-stalks  and  trash,  as  well  as  to  throw  out  the  weeds  on  the  surface 

to  wilt. 


FIGS.  3.  4.— Cultivator  shovel. 


FIG.  5.— Bradley  cultivator. 

Spring-Trip  'Cultivator- Shovel. — A  form  of  rigidly  acting  but  safety-spring-trip  culti- 
vator shovel  (Fig.  3)  is  made  by  the  Weir  Plow  Co.      Fig.  4  shows  its  tripping  feature, 


FIG.  6. — Bradley  expansion  arch  cultivator. 


164 


CULTIVATORS. 


Fia.  7.— Double-blade  cultivator. 


by  which  it  passes  obstructions  without  the  risk  of  breakage.     The  pivots  a  c  and  d  are 
normally  nearly  in  line,  allowing  the  strong  spiral  springs  to  offer  a  very  stout  resistance  to 

the  flexion  of  the  pivot  c  ;  but 
when  the  limit  of  that  resist- 
ance is  once  exceeded  by  collis- 
ion of  the  shovel -point  with 
an  earth  -  fast  obstruction,  a 
slight  flexion  of  the  pivot  / 
causes  collision  of  the  nuption 
e  with  the  rear  shoulder  of  / 
by  reason  of  shortening  the  dis- 
tance slightly  between  the  cen- 
ter of  the  pivot  d  and  the 
shoulder,  throwing  the  pivot  c 
back  out  of  line  with  a  and  d, 
raising  the  point  of  attachment 
of  the  extremity  of  the  spring 
at  b  enough  to  nearly  neutralize 
the  power  of  the  spring,  and 
thus  permitting  the  point  of 
the  shovel  to  yield  backward 
and  draw  over  any  low  obsta- 
cle, after  which  the  tendency 
of  the  spring  to  uncoil  returns 
the  shovel  to  working  position 
and  relocks  it.  The  nuption  e, 
termed  a  break-pin,  is  adjusta- 
ble, to  change  the  amount  of 

resistance  necessary  to  unlock  the  toggle  ac  d,  but  the  pivots  a  cd  must  never  be  adjusted  in 
exact  line,  for  in  that  position  there  will  be  no  tripping,  and  the  device  will  continue  rigid. 

The  Bradley  Cultivator  Attachment  shown  in  Fig.  5  with  narrow  paring-blades  or  scrapers 
for  cutting  off  weeds  or  grass  below  the  earth  surf  ace  and  pulverizing  the  top  soil,  interchange- 
able with  the  ordinary  cultivator  shovel-blades  on  the  same  machine.  Fig.  6  shows  Bradley's 
expansion  arch,  made  in  two  independent  parts,  passing  through  and  held  in  a  casting  on  top 
of  the  tongue-butt  adjustably  for  widening  or  narrowing  the  distance  between  the  two  shovel- 
gangs,  which  may  thus  be  run  close  to  the  plant  in  early  cultivation  and  farther  from  it  after- 
ward, while  always  maintaining  the  straight  position  of  the  shovels. 

Double-Blade  Cultivators. — Fig.  7  is  a  representative  of  the  class  of  cultivators  with  plank- 
runners  and  two  pairs  of  paring-blades.  The  runners  are  shod  with  metal,  for  durability. 
The  blades  are  reversible,  to  throw  dirt  to  or  from  the  hill  or  drill,  and  the  metallic  wing- 
shields  in  the  rear  can  be  raised  or  lowered  to  govern  the  amount  of  dirt  passing  underneath 
them  to  the  corn.  To  raise 
the  blades  in  turning,  the 
driver  pulls  slightly  by  the 
standard  -  handle  in  front 
of  him,  thus  shifting  his 
weight  so  that  it  lifts  the 
blades.  The  security  of 
the  plants  from  injury 
makes  this  style  of  cultiva- 
tor available  in  very  young 
corn,  and  the  thorough  dis- 
posal of  weeds  by  it  is  an 
advantage  when  the  season 
is  such  as  to  give  weeds  a 
start  of  the  corn. 

Steering  Cultivator. — 
The  peculiar  feature  of  the 
cultivator  seen  in  Fig.  8  is 
the  steering-lever  in  front 
of  the  driver,  attached  near 
the  butt  of  a  tongue  pivoted 
in  the  hounds.  Swaying 
the  lever  changes  the  direc- 
tion of  travel  independently 
of  the  incidental  steering 
tendency  of  the  team ;  and 
thus  the  gangs  can  be  made 
to  follow  crooked  rows  and 


m 


FIG.  8.— Steering  cultivator. 


avoid  plowing  up  hills  standing  out  of  line.  On  hillsides  the  gangs  can  be  held  from  drifting 
downward.  The  use  of  the  lever  increases  the  ease  of  turning  at  the  ends  of  the  rows.  This 
construction  imparts  more  lateral  movement  to  the  front  than  the  rear  shovels,  enabling  tho 
operator  to  work  close  to  the  plants,  with  facility  of  control  to  prevent  injuring  them.  By 


CULTIVATORS. 


165 


treadles  the  shields  are  raised  or  lowered  without  stopping,  governing  the  quantity  of  earth 
thrown  to  the  plant  according  to  its  size. 

Weir's  Tongueless  Cultivator  (Fig.  9)  is  rendered  light,  and  allows  the  team  free  move- 


Fio.  9.— Weir's  tongueless  cultivator. 

raent,  by  the  absence  of  a  tongue.     It  has  lateral  adjustment  of  hitch  to  insure  the  proper 
direction  for  the  wheels,  in  case  the  team  used  is  unequal  in  size  and  step. 

The  Deere  Garden-Hoe  (Fig.  10)  has  two  short  beams  with  handles  adapted,  to  propel  the 


<**<* 


FIG.  10.  — Deere's  garden  hoe. 


machine  with  any  of  its  different  attachments,  shown  in  Fig.  11.     The  handles  are  con- 
nected also  with  the  arch  in  front  by  side-springs,  permitting  instant  adjustment  to  and  from 


Fia.  11. — Garden  koe-attachrnents. 


166 


CULTIVATORS. 


the  row  by  the  operator.     A  still  simpler  hand-implement  with  wheels,  of  the  same  class,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  12.     The  two  implements  last  named  are  for  garden-culture. 


FIG.  12.— Hand  garden-hoe. 


Beet  Cultivators. — Fig.  13  is  specially  designed  for  beet-culture.    The  cultivation  of  sugar- 
beets  in  the  United  States  is  beginning  to  excite  lively  interest,  with  a  view  to  beet-sugar  pro- 


Fio.  13.— Beet  cultivator. 


duction.    It  requires  thorough  tilth  and  level  cultivation— a  porous  soil,  allowing  circulation 
of  air  and  moisture.    To  insure  a  mellow  seed-bed  the  plow  is  run  six  or  eight  inches  deep, 


FIG.  14.— Moline  beet  cultivator. 


CYCLES. 


167 


followed  immediately  by  the  subsoil  plow  to  stir  the  underlying  soil  to  the  depth  of  upward 
of  one  foot  below  the  surface  in  the  autumn ;  and  thorough  spring  harrowing,  followed  by 
rolling,  and  the  drills  are  fourteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  one  inch  deep.  The  cultivation 
should  be  repeated  every  two  weeks  or  oftener,  until  the  beet-leaves  cover  the  ground :  when 
the  plants  may  be  left  until  ripe  and  plowed  out  from  the  ground.  The  yield  of  sugar  de- 
pends largely  on  care  and  cultivation  at  the  proper  time.  The  seed  is  often  drilled  in  rows 
and  thinned  out  when  a  sufficient  growth  is  reached.  The  time  for  thinning  is  when  the  plant 
shows  four  leaves ;  this  is  often  done  by  driving  the  cultivator  crosswise,  cutting  out  surplus 
plants,  and  leaving  the  hills  in  rows.  Fig.  14  is  the  Moline  beet-cultivator,  just  introduced. 
The  tooth-frame  adjusts  to  the  truck  by  two  widely  separated  connections,  with  pivots  per- 
mitting easy  hand  guidance,  to  avoid  injuring  the  plants;  and  the  depth  of  cut  is  regulated 
by  a  center  chain  inclined  forward,  and  attached  at  the  front  end  to  a  standard,  self-locking, 
when  the  handles  are  raised,  by  pawl  and  ratchet,  and  unlocked  by  a  lanyard. 

Crushers  :  see  Clay- Working  Machinery  and  Ore-Crushing  Machines. 

Curling  Machine  :  see  Hat-Making  Machines. 

Cutters :  see  Bolt  Cutter,  Book-Binding  Machines,  Coal-Mining  Machines,  Ensilage  Ma- 
chinery, Gear-Cutting  Machines,  Grinding  Machines,  Key-Seat  Cutters,  Lathe  Tools,  Metal 
Milling  Machines,  Molding  Machines,  Wood  and  Stalk  Cutters. 

CYCLES.  The  term  "cycle"  may  be  considered  as  generically  applicable  to  that  general 
class  of  vehicles  that  has  aptly  been  called  the  man-motor  carriage,  of  which  the  unicycle, 
bicycle,  tricycle,  and  velocipede  are  types. 

If  we  exclude  the  Johnson  bicycle,  patented  in  England  in  1818  (which  was  a  mere  rolling 
support  for  the  rider,  placed  between  the  legs,  so  that  his  feet  touching  the  ground,  and,  moved 
as  in  walking,  would  carry  him  and  his  support  along),  the  honor  of  inventing  the  bicycle  is 
now  accorded  to  a  Scotchman,  one  Gavin  Dalzell,  some  time  in  1846.  This  wheel,  said  to  be  yet 
in  existence,  finds  almost  its  exact  counterpart  in  the  "rover"  or  "safety"  bicycle  of  the 
present  day.  Its  rear  wheel,  40  in.  in  diameter,  was  the  driver,  the  cranks  of  which  were 
connected  by  rods  with  oscillating  foot-levers  pivoted  to  the  machine-frame  ;  the  front  wheel, 
about  30  in.'in  diameter,  was  mounted  in  a  fork  having  a  slight  rake,  which  in  turn  was  jour- 
naled  in  the  forward  part  of  the  frame,  the  upper  end  of  the  fork  having  a  pair  of  handles  turned 
rearward  within  convenient  reach  of  the  rider,  who  sat  about  midway  between  the  two  wheels. 
Pierre  Lallement  was  the  first  patentee  of  the  bicycle,  in  1866.  He  was  a  Frenchman,  then 
residing  in  the  United  States.  This  machine,  afterward  popularly  termed  the  "  bone-shaker," 
had  the  cranks  placed  on  the  axle  of  the  front  wheel,  which  thus  became  the  driving  as  well 
as  the  steering  wheel ;  the  rider  applied  his  feet  directly  to  the  cranks.  Cycles  may  be  classi- 
fied into  three  divisions:  ordinary  bicycles,  safety  bicycles  (including  those  of  "the  dwarf 
variety),  the  Otto  bicycle,  and  tricycles,  including  sociables,  tandems,  and  carriers. 


FIG.  1.— Bicycle. 

BICYCLES. — The  ordinary  type  of  bicycle,  illustrated  by  Fig.  1,  hardly  needs  description. 
As  it  is  supported  on  only  two'  points — namely,  its  two  wheels — it  is  necessarily  unstable,  and 
vill  fall  to  one  side  or  the  other.  One  of  the  points  is  movable  on  being  turned  sidewise, 


168  CYCLES. 


which,  when  the  bicycle  is  in  motion,  constitutes  an  act  of  recovery,  caused  by  turning  the 
wheel  toward  the  side  to  which  the  machine  is  falling  ;  the  balance  is  recovered,  and  the  equi- 
librium is  thus  maintained  by  continually  turning  the  wheel  toward  one  side  or  the  other. 
The  rider  is  seated  slightly  behind  the  center  of  the  driving-wheel,  so  that  he  is  able  by  means 
of  his  feet  alone  to  control  the  steering,  and  to  maintain  his  balance,  the  cranks  in  this  case 
forming  levers  with  which  to  turn  the  wheel  to  either  side  as  required.  This  action  requires, 
during  the  pedaling  movement,  a  counteracting  stress  on  the  handle-bar,  otherwise  the  machine 
would  fail  to  run  steadily. 

The  weight  of  the  ordinary  roadster  bicycle  varies  according  to  the  diameter  of  the  driving- 
wheel,  extending,  in  the  case  'of  a  racer,  from  18  Ibs.  upward.  One  authority  distributed  the 
weight  of  a  54-in.  bicycle  among  its  several  parts  in  the  following  approximate  proportions  : 
driving-wheel  with  cranks,  40  per  cent  ;  small  rear  wheel,  7-£  per  cent  ;  front  fork  with  head, 
handle-bar  and  brake-fittings,  25  per  cent;  backbone  and  spring,  17|  percent;  saddle  and 
pedals,  10  per  cent. 

One  of  the  chief  improvements  over  the  old  Lallement  machine  has  been  the  introduction 
of  rubber  cushions  on  various  parts  of  the  machine  for  absorbing  and  lessening  the  vibration, 
which  is  one  of  the  great  discomforts  of  cycle-riding.  Thus,  each  of  the  wheels  is  provided 
with  rubber  tires  ;  rubber  cushions  have  been  provided  around  the  bearings  of  each  of  the 
wheels  and  to  the  handle-bar  bearings  ;  the  suspension  of  the  seat-spring  upon  rubber  buffers  : 
and  also  applying  springs  to  the  fork  of  the  driving-wheel,  interposed  between  the  wheel- 
bearings  and  the  fork  proper. 

It  was,  however,  through  the  introduction  of  "  suspension  "  wheels  that  the  first  real 
advance  was  made  in  cycles,  as  by  such  principle  of  construction  the  wheels  are  very  light, 
rigid,  and  strong.  They  are  constructed  either  with  solid  or  hollow  rims,  the  latter  being 
lightest  and  strongest,  and  the  spokes  are  direct  radial  spokes  or  tangential  spokes.  The 
spokes  are  threaded  through  holes  in  the  rim  and  screwed  direct  into  the  flanges  of  the  hub, 
being  butt-ended  or  enlarged  at  the  threaded  portion,  so  that  the  sectional  area  of  the  spoke 
is  not  diminished  by  the  cutting  of  the  thread.  PIollow  rims  are  made  in  three  ways  :  by 
being  rolled  out  of  a  length  of  solid-drawn  steel  tube  ;  by  being  built  up  of  two  or  more  strips 
of  steel  plate  first  rolled  to  the  required  section  and  then  brazed  together  ;  and  by  being  rolled 
or  drawn  out  of  a  single  strip  of  steel  plate,  the  edges  of  which  form  a  lap-joint,  which  are 
brazed  together.  The  rubber  tires  are  constructed  of  a  round  or  half  round  section,  with 
either  a  plain  or  a  corrugated  surface,  and  either  solid  or  hollow.  A  popular  form  of  hollow 
or  cushion  tire  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

In  some  they  are  made  of  hard  and  soft  rubber,  the  hard  forming  the  wearing  surface  and 
the  soft  the  abutting  surface  or  cushion.  The  tire  is  generally  fixed  to  the  rim  by  being 

cemented  in  it.  A  wire,  however,  has  been  passed  along 
the  center  of  the  tire,  the  two  ends  secured  together  by 
a  right  and  left  handed  nut.  Various  sections  of  rims 
have  also  been  used  for  holding  the  tire  without  extra- 
neous aid.  It  is  questionable,  though,  whether  there  is 
not  a  want  of  cohesion  between  the  rim  and  the  tire  in 
this  method. 

The  tangentially  arranged  spokes  were  adopted  be- 

__  cause  of  a  certain  amount  of  windage   which  takes 

FIG.  2.—  Cushion  tire!!  .....  place  before  the  power  is  transmitted  to  the  rim  through 

the  spokes.     In  the  tangentially  arranged  spokes  they 

are  generally  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair  being  threaded  through  a  hole  in  the  flange  of  the 
hub,  with  their  outer  or  free  ends  fixed  to  the  rim  by  lock-nuts  or  nipples.  One  of  the  recent 
forms  of  tangential  spokes  is  to  use  single  instead  of  pairs  of  spokes  threaded  through  trans- 
verse holes  in  the  hub,  and  bent  to  run  off  at  right  angles  to  the  hole,  and  thus  form  a  kind 
of  hook.  The  spoke-ends  are  also  headed,  to  prevent  them  from  pulling  through  the  holes, 
and  secured  to  the  rim  by  nipples  or  lock-nuts. 

Another  form  of  spoke  is  the  corrugated  or  crimped  spoke,  corrugated  throughout  its 
entire  length,  which  gives  a  certain  amount  of  elasticity  to  the  wheel. 

The  bearings  of  the  wheels  are  now  invariably  made  with  anti-friction  balls  interposed  be- 
tween the  moving  parts.  Many  have  thought  that  this  method  of  easing  the  running  parts 
was  an  invention  which  came  in  with  the  improved  bicycle,  but  such  anti-friction  balls  and 
rollers  had  been  proposed  and  described  for  use  with  axles  as  far  back  as  the  year  1787,  and  other 
patents  for  similar  contrivances  were  granted  in  1791  and  in  1794. 

One  of  the  successful  kind  of  ball-bearings  is  that  known  as  the  "  ^Eolus  "  bearing,  in 
which  the  adjustment  is  concentric,  so  that  the  bearing  remains  perfectly  true  after  adjust- 
ment. In  another  form,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  there  are  two  facing  cones,  only  one  of  which  is 
moved  in  adjusting  to  take  up  the  side-play  or  check.  One  enterprising  gentleman  by  care- 

ful experiment  found  that  12  balls  in  a  bearing  lost  together  g^g  gr.  in  weight  in  running 
1,000  miles,  or  only  —  gr.  per  ball,  equaling  an  actual  surface  wear  of  only  jg 


The  frame  of  a  bicycle  is  generally  constructed  of  weldless  steel  tube,  and  consists  of  two 
essential  parts,  the  front  fork  and  the*  backbone. 

In  order  to  give  extra  strength  to  the  fork,  to  enable  it  to  resist  the  torsional  strain  pro- 


CYCLES.  169 


duced  by  the  rider's  pulling  upon  the  steering-handles,  it  is  generally  drawn  and  tapered  into 
an  oval  section,  while  the  backbone  is  of  circular  section,  although  somewhat  tapered  toward 


FIG.  3.— Ball-bearing. 

the  point  where  it  is  usually  brazed  to  the  backbone.  This  latter  is  bent  and  blocked  into 
shape  from  a  blank  of  sheet-steel,  the  sides  being  usually  of  a  half-round  section.  Frequently, 
however,  the  back  fork  is  simply  a  prolongation  of  the*  backbone  proper.  The  front  fork  is 
made  rigid  between  the  axle  and"  front  end  of  the  backbone. 

Bearing  in  mind  that  the  front  wheel  is  the  steering-wheel,  and  that  this  is  carried  in  the 
vertical  front  fork,  the  method  of  mounting  and  controlling  the  wheel  must  be  considered. 

At  the  top  of  the  fork  is  a  socket  or  head  pivotally  connected  by  a  short  spindle  with  the 
front  end  of  the  backbone,  coned  bearings  being  provided  at  each  end  of  the  spindle.  A  trans- 
verse bar  having  handles  at  both  ends,  and  fixed  upon  the  head  just  mentioned,  serves  to  con- 
trol the  steering-wheel,  and  affords  also  a  steadiment  for  the  rider.  A  brake-handle  is  pivoted 
to  the  handle-bar  in  such  way  as  to  be  easily  grasped  by  the  rider  without  releasing  his  hold 
on  the  bar.  The  brake  now  almost  invariably  used  on  ordinary  bicycles  is  termed  a  "spoon- 
brake,"  and  consists  of  a  spoon-lever  so  pivoted  in  the  head  as  to  be  easily  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  circumference  of  the  driving-wheel.  The  leverage  is  so  arranged  that  great  power 
is  obtained,  and  care  must  be  exercised  in  applying  it  so  as  to  prevent  sudden  stoppage,  which 
results  in  the  rider  being  thrown  off. 

The  saddle  is  of  leather,  and  in  some  of  the  most  popular  types  of  machine  is  made  detach- 
able from  its  frame  or  support,  which  is  mounted  upon  the  backbone  close  behind  the  front 
fork,  so  that  the  rider's  feet  may  conveniently  reach  the  pedals.  Different  forms  of  steel 
springs  are  used  in  making  up  the  saddle-frame,  and  these  have  an  adjustable  tension  for 
riders  of  different  weights.  Devices  for  adjusting  the  saddle  fore  and  aft  and  for  altering 
the  pitch  of  the  seat  are  also  now  invariably  employed. 

The  pedals  are  made  in  several  varieties,  the  chief  forms  being  known  as  "  rubber  "  and 
"  rat-trap  "  ;  they  are  mounted  upon  pedal-pins  bolted  to  the  cranks,  which  are  in  turn  fixed 
to  the  axle  of  the  driving-wheel.  The  rubber  surfaces  tend  to  absorb  a  great  deal  of  the  vibra- 
tion, and  also  afford  a  good  grip  for  the  rider's  shoe ;  the  roughened  steel  plates  in  the  "  rat- 
trap  "  type  excel  in  the  latter  particular,  but  lack  the  power  of  taking  the  vibration.  A  com- 
bined "  rubber "  and  "  rat-trap  "  pedal,  constructed  with  rubber  on  one  side  and  serrated 
plates  on  the  other,  is  largely  used,  and  found  to  give  the  advantage  of  both  varieties.  Two 
square  blocks  of  rubber,  serrated  upon  their  surfaces,  and  pivoted  within  the  pedal-frame,  are 
also  favorably  known  as  affording  adjustment  to  the  curve  of  the  foot.  Foot-gripping  devices 
are  also  used  with  pedals  in  various  forms. 

A  peculiar  and  popular  type  of  bicycle  is  found  in  that  called  "  The  Star."  It  has  a  large 
driving-wheel  driven  by  pedals,  which  in  their  alternate  up-and-down  motion  actuate  ratchets 
formed  upon  the  driving-axle.  The  rider's  seat  is  over  this  wheel,  slightly  in  front  of  its 
center,  and  the  backbone  extends  downward  in  front,  where  it  is  forked  over  a  small  steering- 
wheel.  The  frame,  including  the  backbone,  is  practically  triangular  in  shape,  with  a  branch 
for  the  seat-support,  and  this  frame  is  so  pivoted  that  the  front  wheel — besides  moving  side- 
wise  in  steering — may  be  raised  from  the  ground  at  the  will  of  the  rider  by  correspondingly 
moving  the  handle-bar.  This  machine  is  often  used  for  the  unique  purpose  of  playing  the 
game  of  polo.  The  contestants,  mounted  upon  "  Star  "  bicycles,  follow  the  ball  to  and  fro 
between  the  goals,  and  use  the  small  front  wheel  as  a  bat,  in  driving  the  ball  in  the  desired 
direction  as  well  as  for  checking  it  in  its  course. 

Another  ratchet-pedal  action  is  found  in  the  "  Eagle  "  machine.  Here  the  wheels  are 
situated  as  in  the  ordinary  bicycle,  but  instead  of  a  rotary  motion  being  imparted  to  the  pedals, 
a  simple  up-and-down  movement  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  is  the  result  of  the  rider's  efforts,  and 
this  operates  through  ratchets  to  revolve  the  driving-wheel. 

The  accessories  and  fittings  of  bicycles,  such  as  tool-bags,  lamps,  bells,  lubricators,  distance- 
indicators,  etc.,  are  too  numerous  in  form  for  description  ;  their  manufacture  affords  employ- 
ment to  many  artisans  of  different  trades,  and  involve  the  investment  of  large  amounts  of 
capital. 

Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  next  important  form  of  bicycle — the  "Safety"— it  is 
necessary  to  look  briefly  at  the  type  called  "  Dwarf  "  bicycle,  this  being  the  immediate  fore- 


170 


CYCLES. 


runner  of  that  successful  and  desirable  cycle  which  permits  the  use  of  a  small  driving  and 
steering  wheel. 

In  one  class  of  the  "  Dwarf  "  machine  the  power,  instead  of  being  applied  direct  to  the 
driving-wheel,  is  transmitted  to  it  through  a  pair  of  endless  chains  and  sprocket-wheels  from 
a  divided  pedal-axle  carrying  a  crank,  placed  below  and  slightly  in  rear  of  the  driving-wheel 
axle,  so  that  the  rider's  feet  are  much  nearer  the  ground,  and  his  seat  correspondingly  lowered. 
This  construction  permits  of  gearing-up,  so  that  the  wheel  may  be  equal  in  speed  to  any 
desired  size  of  driving-wheel,  and  also  allows  the  use  of  long  cranks,  independent  of  the  length 
of  the  rider's  legs.  This  accounts  for  its  ease  of  propulsion,  and  consequent  speed,  for  it  is 
admitted  that  the  internal  friction  in  this  machine  is  greater  than  in  the  ordinary  ungeared 
machine,  and  its  weight  certainly  no  less ;  therefore  the  theory  must  be  that  the  low  speed  of 
pedaling  does  not  produce  so  much  exhaustion  as  is  experienced  from  a  more  rapid  movement 
of  the  legs. 

A  machine  of  this  class  may  be  adjusted,  within  certain  limits,  to  suit  riders  of  any  height, 
by  raising  or  lowering  the  pedal-axle  brackets  and  altering  the  length  of  the  chains.  By 
having  the  lower  end  of  the  fork  pivoted  to  the  upper  branch  at  the  center  of  the  wheel,  and  by 
turning  the  brackets  to  an  angle  and  then  tightening-up,  the  height  of  the  pedal-axle  from 
the  ground  may  be  varied  without  altering  the  length  of  the  chains. 

"  Dwarf  "  bicycles  are  also  propelled  by  a  lever-action,  and  this  type  is  commonly  known 
as  "  Kangaroo,"  and  frequently  as  "  Grasshoppers."  The  fork  of  the  front  wheel  is  extended 
below  the  driving-axle,  and  on  the  ends  are  pivoted  two  pedal-levers,  worked  at  their  free  ends 
with  the  feet ;  these  pedal-levers  work  the  cranks  or  the  wheel-axle  through  connecting-rods 
so  arranged  as  to  increase  the  leverage.  The  action  of  the  feet  is  a  reciprocating  one,  the 
path  of  the  pedals  being  simply  the  arc  of  a  circle,  of  which  the  radius  equals  the  length  of 
the  lever,  and  the  reciprocations  of  the  rider's  feet  are  just  equal  in  number  to  the  revolutions 
of  the  driving-wheel. 

Another  type  of  lever-action  "  Dwarf  "  machine  has  the  pedal-levers  suspended  from  links 
pivoted  high  up  on  the  branches  of  the  fork,  and  the  pedal-levers  are  themselves  connected 
direct  to  the  cranks,  and  curved  backward  to  bring  their  free  extremities  properly  under  the 
rider's  feet.  The  path  or  travel  of  the  pedals  is  elliptical,  or  a  mean  between  the  arc  of  the 
reciprocating  and  the  complete  circle  described  in  the  purely  rotary  machines.  The  front 
fork  is  made  to  rake  backward,  so  that  the  curve  of  gravity  is  kept  well  behind  the  axle  of 
the  driving-wheel ;  and,  owing  to  the  consequent  safe  position  of  the  rider,  a  larger  driving- 
wheel  can  be  used  without  seriously  curtailing  the  safety  of  the  machine.  On  account  of 
the  lowness  of  the  seat,  the  rider  can  not  use  the  handle-bar  as  a  rest  for  his  legs  in  "  coasting," 
as  is  done  with  the  ordinary  wheel.  The  "  Dwarf '?  machine  has  usually  a  pair  of  foot-rests 
extending  forward  of  the  axle  on  extensions  of  the  fork. 

The  bicycle  having  reached  this  point  in  its  development,  it  only  remained  for  the  process 
of  evolution  to  produce  the  present  standard  form  of  "  Safety  "  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  4, 
which  is  largely  in  use  by  persons  of  both  sexes,  from  the  child  to  its  grandparent. 


FIG.  4.— "Safety"  bicycle. 

Having  all  the  favored  appliances  of  the  most  approved  ordinary  roadster,  such  as  cushion 
and  pneumatic  tires,  ball-bearings,  adjustable  seats,  etc.,  this  machine  possesses  the  elements 
of  safety  and  speed  to  an  almost  perfect  degree. 

The'front  wheel  is  used  for  steering  and  the  rear  wheel  for  driving,  both  being  of  the  same 
diameter,  viz.,  usually  30  in.,  geared  to  54  in. 

The  pedal-shaft  is'  carried  in  the  frame  just  in  front  of  the  driving-wheel,  its  center  being 
slightly  lower  than  that  of  the  wheel,  undan  endless  chain  imparting  motion  from  a  sprocket- 


CYCLES. 


171 


wheel  upon  one  end  of  this  pedal-shaft  to  a  wheel  of  the  proper  relative  size  on  the  driving- 
wheel  axle.  The  bracing-bars  of  the  frame,  all  of  forged  steel,  are  arranged  in  different  ways 
— a  preferred  form  of  frame  in  men's  bicycles  being  that  of  an  elongated  diamond,  the  sharper 
apexes  being  at  the  rear  axle  and  front  fork,  and  the  other  angles  occurring  at  the  pedal-shaft 
and  the  point  where  the  saddle  is  supported,  a  cross-bar  lying  between  the  two  latter.  The 
front  fork  is  rigid,  and  made  with  a  curve  and  "  rake  "  rearward  from  the  front-wheel  axle, 
so  that  the  handle-bar  may  be  within  convenient  reach  of  the  riders  hands,  and  the  saddle 
lies  just  over  the  front  half  of  the  rear  or  driving  wheel. 

The  Ladies'  Bicycle  (see  Fig.  5)  is  similar  to  the  above  in  all  respects,  save  that  the  back- 
bone of  the  frame  extends  downward  from  the  head  of  the  fork  close  to  the  rear  part  of  the 
front  wheel,  and  then  curves  underneath  to  a  junction  with  the  pedal-axle.  Skirt-guards  are 
provided  over  the  moving  parts  adjacent  to  the  rider's  seat.  For  ladies'  use,  the  present 
standard  diameter  of  wheel  is  28  in.,  geared  to  50£  in.  The  brake  is  of  the  plunger  type  in 


FIG.  5.— Ladies'  "  safety  "  bicycle. 

both  machines,  and  is  applied  to  the  driving-wheel,  and  the  handle-bar  is  a  single  tube  of 
seamless  steel  tapered  at  each  end  and  curved  backward,  to  bring  the  grasping  pieces,  which 
are  of  rubber,  within  easy  reach  of  the  rider's  hands. 

The  spokes  preferred  in  these  standard  "  safety  "  machines  are  of  the  double-tangent  type. 

As  a  result  of  continued  and  practical  investigation  by  experts  in  this  country  and  Eng- 
land, an  efficient  anti-vibration  device,  in  addition  to  the  cushioned  tires  and  hubs,  has  been 
deemed  an  essential  part  of  a  high-grade  modern  bicycle ;  a  yielding  spring- fork,  of  which  that 
named  the  "  Victor  "  is  a  leading  type,  has  been  largely  adopted. 

It  is  of  especial  value  for  rough-road  riding,  where  obstacles  are  frequently  met  with,  and 
great  strain  consequently  brought  to  bear  upon  the  machine. 

The  front  fork  consists  of  two  steel  bars  "  raking  "  backward  from  the  axle  of  the  front 
wheel,  and  pivoted  to  short  links,  which  are  also  pivoted  to  the  head,  which  practically  forms 
part  of  the  frame.  Two  strong  steel  springs,  bowed  toward  the  rear,  extend  from  the  steering- 
wheel  axle,  one  on  either  side  of  the  wheel,  to  a  rigid  connection  with  the  lower  part  of  the 
head.  The  springs  carry  foot-rests.  By  referring  to  Fig.  4,  the  action  of  this  spring- fork  will 
be  understood  without  further  explanation. 

The  spring-fork  is  equally  applicable  to  ladies'  bicycles. 

The  Otto  Bicycle  is  the  invention  of  a  brother  of  the  inventor  of  the  gas-engine  bearing 
the  same  name,  and  probably  is  the  only  one  of  its  class,  it  being  believed  that  no  other  bicycle 
exists  in  which  the  whole  weight  of  the  machine  itself,  as  well  as  the  full  weight  of  the  rider, 
rests  upon  the  driving-wheels. 

It  is  in  some  respects  more  nearly  allied  to  a  tricycle  than  to  the  bicycle  proper,  but,  as 
it  has  only  two  wheels,  and  consequently  requires  the  balance  to  be  still* maintained  by  the 
rider,  it  is  rightly  called  a  bicycle.  The  "wheels  are  of  equal  size,  and  are  here  mounted  loose 
on  the  same  axle,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  both  of  them  are  drivers.  The  rider  sits  between 
them,  and  works  a  continuous  pedal  crank-axle,  the  position  of  which,  when  he  is  seated,  is 
below  and  slightly  in  front  of  the  axle  carrying  the  driving-wheels.  The  crank-axle  is  con- 
nected with  the  driving-wheels  by  endless  steel  bands  passing  around  plain  pulleys  on  the 
ends  of  the  crank-axle  and  on  each  wheel.  The  bands  are  kept  taut  by  tightening  springs, 
and  the  machine  is  steered  by  slacking  one  or  other  of  them,  which  causes  the  corresponding 
driving-wheel  to  lose  motionj  and  therefore  the  other  wheel  overruns  it.  If  a  sharp  turn  has 


172  CYCLES. 


to  be  made  suddenly,  a  brake  is  applied  to  one  wheel  at  the  same  time  that  its  driving-band 
is  slackened,  which  causes  the  machine  to  turn  round  in  a  circle  upon  that  wheel  as  the  center. 
This  machine,  having  no  small  wheel  fore  or  aft  the  rider,  while  steady  sidewise,  has  to 
balance  himself  in  the  direction  of  his  motion,  which  he  is  enabled  to  do  through  the  medium 
of  the  pedal  crank-axle :  by  pressing  on  the  forward  pedal,  if  he  is  falling  forward,  he  throws 
his  weight  backward ;  and  by  pressing  on  the  rear  pedal,  if  he  is  falling  backward,  he  throws 
his  weight  forward.  To  prevent  him  from  actually  capsizing  backward,  a  safety-tail  projects 
behind  upon  the  ground  whenever  the  seat  is  tipped  too  far  back.  Among  the  many  beauti- 
ful features  presented  by  this  machine,  the  best  seem  to  be :  Firstly,  its  balance,  whereby  the 
rider  is  always  in  the  best  position  to  utilize  his  strength  and  weight,  notwithstanding  the 
varying  gradients ;  secondly,  the  nicety  with  which  it  can  be  steered  ;  thirdly,  its  tendency  to 
run  in  a  straight  line  without  any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  rider;  fourthly,  its  freedom  from 
vibration ;  fifthly,  the  circumstance  that  it  makes  only  two  tracks ;  and,  sixthly,  the  perfect 
distribution  of  the  wheel-load. 

The  power  required  to  propel  a  bicycle  on  an  average  road  has  been  approximately  esti- 
mated at  from  f  to  £  of  a  horse-power,  according  as  the  speed  varied  between  6  and  14  miles 
per  hour,  with  the  odds  in  favor  of  a  rotary-action  against  a  lever-action  machine. 

Tandem  Bicycles.— One  of  the  earlier  machines  of  this  class  is  constructed  of  two  ordinary 
bicycle  driving-wheels  complete  in  their  forks,  which  latter  are  connected  by  a  backbone, 
having  in  its  length  a  swivel  or  axial  joint.  Each  rider  drives  his  own  wheel,  sitting  just 
behind  its  center,  and  each  steers  independently  of  the  other  for  balancing  himself.  The 
axial  joint  in  the  backbone,  and  the  joints  formed  by  the  heads  of  the  forks  and  the  bearings 
of  the  wheels,  together  make  a  perfect  universal  joint  between  the  two  wheels.  Within  cer- 
tain limits  the  rear  rider  has  of  course  to  follow  in  the  track  of  the  front  wheel ;  otherwise 
the  heads  of  the  two  forks  become  locked,  and  a  dismount  is  rendered  necessary.  Although 
this  machine  is  very  fast,  lighter  than  two  ordinary  bicycles,  and  almost  entirely  free  from 
vibration,  there  is  an  element  of  danger  about  it  that  militates  against  its  general  use,  inas- 
much as  it  demands  to  a  certain  extent  a  unity  of  thought  and  action  on  the  part  of  the  two 
riders. 

THE  TRICYCLE,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  three-wheeled  machine,  each  one  of  which  wheels 
must  be  free  to  move  in  its  own  direction,  independent  of  the  united  action  of  the  other  two. 
For  running  in  a  straight  line,  all  three  wheels  must  be  parallel ;  while  for  running  round  a 
curve,  one  or  more  of  the  wheels  must  be  turned  uutil  the  center  lines  of  the  axles  intersect 
in  plan,  their  point  of  intersection  being  the  center  of  the  curve  round  which  the  machine 
will  then  run ;  therefore,  the  more  acute  the  angle  of  intersection,  the  greater  will  be  the 
radius  of  the  curve ;  and,  inversely,  the  more  obtuse  the  angle,  the  sharper  will  be  the  curve. 
Besides  being  independent  in  the  direction  of  running,  each  wheel  must  also  be  capable  of 
revolving  at  a  greater  or  less  speed  than  the  others.  It  is  also  essential  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  rider's  weight  shall  be  on  the  driving  wheel  or  wheels,  and  that  only  enough  shall  be 
on  the  steering  wheels  or  wheel  for  insuring  their  proper  action.  Owing  to  the  variety  of 
ways  in  which  these  principles  can  be  carried  out  practically,  it  is  easy  to  account  for  the 
variety  of  tricycles  constructed. 

The  simplest  form  of  tricycle  is  obviously  that  with  only  one  driving-wheel,  either  or  both 
of  the  others  being  used  for  steering.  An  early  type  of  single  driver,  now  practically  obsolete, 
had  two  large  wheels  mounted  opposite  and  parallel  to  each  other,  one  of  which  was  driven, 
and  the  other  was  allowed  to  run  free ;  the  third,  or  steering  wheel  was  placed  centrally  in  the 
rear. 

Another  form  of  single  driver  has  the  large  driving-wheel  on  one  side,  and  two  small 
steering-wheels  on  the  opposite  side,  placed  respectively  fore  and  aft  of  the  driver,  and  ar- 
ranged to  turn  together,  bnt  in  contrary  directions.  The  double  steering,  fore  and  aft,  of  the 
driving-wheel  overcomes  the  tendency  of  the  machine  to  run  in  a  curve,  in  consequence  of 
the  single  driving-wheel  on  one  side.  This  was  one  of  the  first  tricycles  introduced,  and  has 
stood  the  test  of  competition,  being  at  the  present  time  one  of  the  most  popular.  Its  chief 
features  are  that  it  is  simple  in  construction,  makes  only  two  tracks  when  running,  and  is 
narrow  in  width.  Its  narrowness,  although  rendering  it  somewhat  unstable  in  running 
round  a  curve  at  a  high  speed,  allows  of  its  passing  through  a  doorway  of  ordinary  width. 

The  third  and  last  kind  of  single  driver  has  the  driving-wheel  placed  centrally  in  the  rear 
of  two  steering-wheels,  which  are  mounted  parallel  and  opposite  to  each  other.  The  defect 
of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  weight  of  the  rider  is  too  equally  distributed  over  the  three 
wheels,  instead  of  coming  more  upon  the  driver  than  upon  the  other  two. 

There  are  several  types  of  double-driving  tricycles,  where  the  two  driving-wheels  are  placed 
parallel  and  opposite  to  each  other,  with  the  steering-wheel  in  front  or  behind,  and  generally 
central,  though  in  some  cases  it  is  placed  in  line  with  one  of  the  driving-wheels,  so  that  the 
machine  then  only  makes  two  tracks. 

The  two  principal  methods  of  double-driving  are :  first,  by  clutch-action  ;  and,  secondly, 
by  differential  or  balance-gear. 

In  the  clutch-action  plan  the  two  driving-wheels,  or  the  chain-wheels  driving  them,  are 
locked  to  their  axle  while  the  tricycle  is  being  driven  straight  forward,  but  in  running  round 
a  curve  the  outer  wheel  overruns  the  clutch,  and  the  inner  wheel  alone  drives.  Of  the  various 
clutches  so  far  devised,  probably  the  best  results  have  been  attained  by  that  known  as  the 
Bourdon  clutch.  It  consists  of  a  disk  fixed  upon  the  crank-axle,  and  having  its  circumference 
cut  away  so  as  to  form  a  series  of  inclined  planes.  A  box  forming  the  boss  of  the  chain- wheel 
encircles  this  disk,  and  in  the  recesses  of  the  inclined  planes  which  join  between  the  disk  and  the 


CYCLES.  173 


box,  and  so  lock  them  together  as  long  as  the  axle  is  driving  the  wheel.  Whenever  the  wheel  has 
freed  itself  by  overrunning  the  axle  there  will  always  be  at  least  one  of  the  rollers  ready  (in 
every  position)  to  instantaneously  lock  the  two  together  again  as  soon  as  the  speed  of  the 
wheel  falls  back  to  that  of  the  axle.  The  pedals  can  remain  stationary  whenever  the  gradient 
of  the  road  will  allow  the  machine  to  run  of  itself,  an  advantage  which  economizes  the  ex- 
penditure of  power,  as  the  feet  of  the  rider  can  remain  motionless  for  the  time  being.  The 
brake,  however,  must  be  entirely  relied  on  for  checking  the  speed,  as  it  can  not  be  stopped  by 
back-  pedaling.  A  clutch-driven  machine  can  not  be  driven  backward  without  some  extra 
gearing.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  construct  a  clutch  that  will  drive  automatically 
in  both  directions,  but  the  writer  is  not  aware  that  any  have  proved  successful,  the  reason  o'f 
their  failure  being  that  they  were  not  instantaneous  in  action. 

The  mode  of  double-driving  by  differential  or  balance  gear — so  called  because  the  power  is 
divided  or  "  balanced  "  between  the  two  driving-wheels — employs  an  epicyclic  train  in  which 
the  two  primary  wheels  are  each  connected  directly  or  indirectly  with  one  of  the  driving- 
wheels  of  the  tricycle,  and  also  connected  with  each  other  through  an  intermediate  loose 
train.  One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  differential  gear  somewhat  resembles  an  ordinary  revers  • 
ing  train  :  one  of  the  two  facing  wheels  is  fixed  to  the  hub  of  one  of  the  driving-wheels,  which 
runs  loose  on  the  axle,  and  the  other  facing- wheel  is  fixed  on  the  driving-axle,  on  the  hub  of 
which  is  fixed  the  other  driving-wheel.  Between  the  two  facing-wheels  a  chain-wheel  is 
mounted  loosely  on  the  axle,  and  this  carries  loose  on  a  radial  axis  a  bevel  pinion-gearing  per- 
manently wich  both  facing-wheels. 

When  the  tricycle  is  running  in  a  straight  line,  both  driving-wheels  are  driven  equally  by 
the  chain-wheels,  the  two  facing-wheels  meanwhile  being  drawn  round  by  the  intermediate 
pinion,  which  at  that  time  is  idle. 

But  when  the  tricyle  travels  in  a  curve,  the  inner  driving-wheel  revolves  at  a  slower  rate 
than  the  outer  wheel,  and  consequently  the  outer  driving-wheel  is  driven  through  the  bevel- 
gear  at  a  consequently  higher  speed,  in  whichever  direction  the  machine  is  running,  whether 
forward  or  backward. 

As  already  described  in  regard  to  bicycles,  there  are  two  methods  of  driving  a  tricycle : 
Firstly,  by  rotary  action,  in  which  the  power  is  applied  either  directly  to  a  cranked  axle  carry- 
ing the  driving-wheels,  or  to  a  cranked  pedal-axle  connected  with  the  driving-wheel  axle 
through  an  endless  chain  or  other  means;  and,  secondly,  by  lever-action,  where  the  power  is 
applied  by  reciprocating  pedal-levers,  from  which  the  motion  is  communicated  to  the  driving- 
wheel  axfe  through  cranks  and  coupling-rods,  or  otherwise.  The  lever-action  lends  itself 
most  aptly  to  obtain  varying  power ;  but  in  speed  the  rotary  action  is  superior.  The  reason 
would  seem  to  be  that  in  the  lever-action  the  direction  of  force  is  changed  so  suddenly  that  in 
rapid  pedaling  a  certain  amount  of  back  pressure  is  unavoidable. 

Of  direct-action  or  rotary  tricycles,  the  simplest  form  has  two  driving-wheels  mounted  on 
the  end  of  a  cranked  axle,  and  connected  to  it  by  clutches,  the  rider  driving  the  axle  direct. 
This  arrangement  simplifies  the  construction  and  reduces  the  working  parts ;  but  the  high 
position  of  the  center  of  gravity  offers  an  objection  to  the  stability  of  the  machine. 

The  swinging  pedals  are  sometimes  hung  from  the  cranked  axle,  thus  lowering  the  center 
of  gravity,  and  rendering  the  machine  more  stable. 

A  successful  lever-action  machine  is  called  the  "  Omnicycle,"  which  is  fitted  with  a  vari- 
able-power gear. 

The  pedal  levers  are  connected  by  bands  to  two  expanding  segments  connected  by  clutches 
to  the  driving-axle,  and  to  each  other  by  a  reversing  apparatus,  so  that  the  forward  movement 
of  the  one  produces  the  backward  movement  of  the  other,  thus  the  descending  pedal  raises 
the  other  ready  for  the  next  stroke. 

The  frames  of  tricycles  are  largely  constructed  of  weldless  steel  tube,  and  their  contour  and 
general  arrangement  vary  with  the  different  types  of  machine.  Malleable-iron  castings  have 
been  used  in  many  of  the  solid  parts. 

The  steering-gear  of  such  tricycles  as  have  a  single  steering-wheel  is  usually  the  same  as 
that  of  a  bicycle,  employing  a  transverse  handle-bar ;  but  another  method,  using  a  rack  and 
pinion,  is  frequently  adopted.  The  pinion  is  fixed  to  a  vertical  handle,  mounted  in  bearings, 
so  that  it  can  revolve ;  and  the  rack  forms  part  of  a  light  rod,  the  free  end  of  which  is  con- 
nected with  an  arm  fixed  on  the  fork  of  the  steering-wheel. 

In  each  different  make  of  tricycle  there  is  a  certain  position  for  the  rider's  seat,  in  respect 
both  to  the  axle  of  the  driving-wheel  and  also  to  the  pedal  crank-axle,  so  as  to  permit  the 
rider  to  exert  his  power  to  the  best  advantage.  The  best  position  for  the  seat  on  a  front-steer- 
ing tricycle  is  generally  1£  in.  in  front  of  the  driving-axle,  and  7  in.  behind  the  pedal-axle, 
this  axle,  therefore,  being  8-i-  in.  in  front  of  the  driving-axle. 

The  above-described  tricycles  are  types  of  those  manufactured  and  used  in  England,  where 
such  machines  find  much  more  favor  than  in  the  United  States. 

The  only  form  of  tricycle  which  has  been  extensively  made  and  sold  in  this  country  is 
shown  in  Fig.  6.  It  is  called  the  "  Surprise  Columbia  Tricycle,''  and  has  a32-in.  rear  driving- 
wheel,  operated  from  the  pedals  by  sprocket-wheels  and  a  connecting  chain. 

There  are  two  26-in.  front  steering-wheels,  journaled  on  the  ends  of  a  cross-bar  or  axle, 
forming  part  of  the  frame,  adapted  to  be  adjusted  so  as  to  vary  the  width  of  the  running- 
track  as  well  as  to  be  folded,  to  still  further  reduce  the  width,  in' order  to  enable  the  machine 
to  pass  through  ordinary  doorways.  The  width  is  variable,  between  34  in.  and  29  in.  all 
over. 

The  wheels,  crank-shaft,  and  pedals  are  fitted  with  adjustable  ball-bearings,  and  the  wheels 


174  DIGESTERS,   LIME  SULPHITE   FIBER. 

have  rubber  tires  cemented  into  the  felloes,  and  direct  spokes  headed  at  the  felloe  and  screwed 
into  the  forged  steel  hub-flanges. 

For  steering,  a  lever-arm  at  the  bottom  of  each  steering-head  is  connected  by  a  high  rod 

to  a  lever  pivoted  below  the  main-frame  bracket, 
and  taking  its  motion  through  a  connecting-rod 
attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  handle-bar  up- 
right. The  brake  is  similar  to  that  of  a  bicycle. 
Hand-Power  Tricycles  have  been  introduced 
from  time  to  time,  notably  the  Oarsman  and 
Velociman.  In  both  of  these  driving-power  is 
exerted  by  the  arms  instead  of  the  legs.  Their 
use,  however,  is  very  limited,  being  only  of  service 
in  particular  instances. 

Sociable  Tricycles.— This  type  is  merely  an 
enlargement  of  the  single  form  of  tricycle,  so  as 
to  permit  two  riders  to  sit  side  by  side.  Some 
"  Sociables  "  are  capable  of  being  converted  into 
single  machines. 

Fio.  6.— Tricycle.  Tandem  Tricycles  are  constructed  so  that  the 

riders  sit  one  behind  the  other.  The  tandem 
principle  is  applied  to  most  of  the  principal  forms  of  tricycle,  notably  to  those  differentially 
geared ;  the  front-steering  type,  by  using  an  auxiliary  trailing-frame  with  transverse  and 
vertical  joints  between  it  and  the  front  frame :  and  to  the  rotary  machine  by  the  addition  of 
a  light  frame  fixed  in  the  rear  of  the  front  seat,  to  carry  the  hind  seat  and  pedal  crank-axle 
for  the  rear  rider.  Tandems  of  several  classes  are  made  convertible  into  single  machines. 

Carrier  Tricycles. — The  last  kind  of  tricycles  is  one  capable  of  being  put  to  practical  use 
for  carrying  a  burden.  There  is  one  form  known  in  England  as  the  "  Coventry  Chair,"  where 
a  passenger  is  carried  in  a  comfortable  chair  constructed  in  the  front  part  of  the  machine,  and 
the  driver's  seat  and  driving  mechanism,  similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary  tricycle,  are  located 
between  the  driving-wheels  in  rear. 

(See  Cycling  Art,  Energy  and  Locomotion,  by  R.  P.  Scott ;  and  Construction  of  Modern 
Cycles,  by  R.  E.  Phillips.) 

Damper  Regulator :  see  Regulators. 
Derrick :  see  Crane. 

Diamond  Drill :  see  Drills,  Rock  and  Quarrying  Machinery. 

Dies :  see  Brick-Making  Machinery,  Milling  Machines  and  Pipe  Cutting  and  Threading 
Machines. 

DIGESTERS,  LIME  SULPHITE  FIBER.  Sulphite  fiber,  or  pure  wood  cellulose,  su- 
persedes rag  stock  in  paper-making.  The  wood  in  chips  or  disks  is  boiled  in  great  digesters 
with  a  solution  of  bisulphite  of  lime,  and  the  main  engineering  problem  lies  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  suitable,  economical,  and  lasting  digester. 

The  following  notes  on  digesters  are  condensed  from  a  valuable  paper  on  Lime  Sulphite 
Fiber  Manufacture  in  the  United  States,  by  Major  O.  E.  Michaelis,  U.  S.  A.  (see  /Scientific 
American  Supplement,  No.  732,  1890) :  Exteriorly  all  the  digesters  are  of  metal,  all  of  open- 
hearth  steel  or  iron  plate,  except  the  Schenk,  which  is  of  so-called  deoxidized  bronze.  All 
are  approximately  cylindrical,  except  the  Partington,  which  is  spherical.  The  cylinders  are 
upright  in  the  Ritter-Kellner  and  Schenk  processes;  in  the  Mitscherlich  and  Graham  they 
are  horizontal.  The  digesters  are  fixed,  with  the  exception  of  the  Partington  and  Graham, 
which  revolve,  the  Graham  about  its  longer  axis.  Considered  merely  as  a  vessel  strong 
enough  to  stand  a  given  pressure,  the  only  available  substance  of  which  the  digester  can  be 
made,  looking  from  an  economical  standpoint,  is  iron  or  steel.  The  majority  of  the  digesters 
are  made  of  rolled  iron  plates ;  the  Detroit,  of  open-hearth  steel.  There  is  no  reason  why  our 
gun-iron,  with  a  tensile  strength  approximating  40,000  Ibs.,  should  not  be  available  for  digest- 
ers. They  could  be  turned  out  in  sections  ready  for  assembling ;  the  advantages  of  such  a 
substitution  for  the  complicated  rivet-work  shell  are  evident.  At  remote  inland  points  the 
large  digesters  must  be  assembled  in  situ,  and  boiler-makers  must  now  be  transported  for  the 
purpose.  A  properly  handled  wrench  would  suffice  to  set  up  the  sectional  cast-iron  construc- 
tion. A  14  X  40  ft.  cast-iron  digester  has  been  designed,  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  6,  which 
will  cost  less  than  the  riveted  apparatus,  to  say  nothing  of  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be 
transported  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  assembled  by  unskilled  labor.  We  come  now 
to  the  inside  of  the  digester.  Owing  to  the  well-known  affinity  of  the  bisulphite  solution  for 
iron,  all  digesters  made  of  this  metal  must  be  lined  with  a  resistant,  fluid-tight  material,  as  a 
protection  against  the  solvent  action  of  the  "  acid "  mixture.  The  Schenk  digester,  a  uni- 
metal  construction  of  deoxidized  bronze,  is  assumed  to  be  sufficiently  resistent  to  the  solution 
without  protecting  lining.  The  Graham,  Partington,  and  Ritter-Kellner  digesters  are  all 
lead-lined,  the  Mitscherlich  fire-brick  lined.  The  bricks  used  are  of  special  form,  made  of 
a  German  refractory  clay  the  same  as  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  Nassau  Seltzer  jugs. 

Digester  Linings. — The  vital  point  in  these  sulphite  processes  lies  in  the  ability  of  the 
digester  to  resist  the  erosive  action  of  the  acid  solution  and  its  gaseous  products.  Lead  has 
for  centuries  been  used  as  a  lining  material  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  so  that  its 
application  to  the  present  sulphite  fiber  processes  lay  near  at  hand.  It  is  used  in  the  Graham, 
Partington,  and  Ritter-Kellner  digesters.  In  speaking  of  the  sulphite  process  the  Encyclo- 
paedia, Britannica  uses  the  following  language:  ''The  pulp  or  fiber  produced  by  all  these 


DIGESTEKS,   LIME   SULPHITE   FIBER.  175 

processes  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  can  be  prepared  at  a  cost  greatly  lower  than  the  soda 
process.  The  strength  of  the  fiber  is  maintained  unimpaired  even  after  bleaching,  and  white 
paper  made  solely  from  such  fiber  is  in  every  respect  superior  to  that  manufactured  solely 
from  pulp  prepared  by  boiling  with  caustic  soda.  Dr.  Mitscherlich's  process  has  been  exten- 
sively adopted  in  Germany,  and  there  seems  little  doubt  that  these  processes  will  in  time  sup- 
plant the  use  of  soda  in  the  case  of  wood.  The  great  objection  to  them  all  is  that,  as  they  all 
depend  on  the  use  of  bisulphite,  which,  being  an  acid  salt,  can  not  be  worked  in  an  iron  boiler, 
the  boiler  must  be  lined  with  lead,  and  great  difficulty  has  been  encountered  in  keeping  the 
lead  lining  of  the  boiler  in  repair." 

The  primary,  indispensable  condition  in  protecting  iron  sulphite  boilers  with  lead  is  that 
the  lining  must  be  continuous — that  is,  liquid-tight.  Now,  lead  has  a  linear  coefficient  of  ex- 
pansion much  more  than  double  that  of  iron ;  in  these  processes  it  is  subject  to  a  change  of 
temperature  of  at  least  240°  F.  (300°-60°),  and  the  unavoidable  resulting  flow  of  the  metal  can 
not  be  compensated  for  by  permitting  sections  to  expand  and  to  contract  freely  upon  each 
other,  for  that  would  require  open  joints,  a  violation  of  our  primary  condition.  The  lead 
lining  must  in  some  way  be  attached  to  the  iron  shell,  for  otherwise  it  would  soon  collapse,  or 
go  to  pieces  in  some  other  way.  Only  three  practical  ways  offer  themselves  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  lead  lining  to  the  iron.  It  may  be  bolted  on  at  proper  points ;  it  may  be,  to 
borrow  a  plumber's  phrase,  "  tacked  on  "  at  appropriate  places,  or  it  may  be  completely  sol- 
dered on.  The  first  two  methods  permit,  as  is  evident,  under  variations  of  temperature, 
changes  in  the  superficial  area  of  the  lining ;  the  latter  method  forcibly  resists  this,  and  limits 
the  flow  of  the  lead  during  the  life  of  the  solder  union  to  molecular  expansion  only. 

The  Partington  Boiler  is  spherical ;  the  lead  is  applied  in  spherical  lunes,  clamped  to  the 
iron,  and  burned  to  each  other.  The  theory  is,  that  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  replace  an  injured 
section,  and  thus  to  keep  the  lining  intact  at  comparatively  little  cost. 

The  Ritter-Kellner  Digester,  about  10  X  28  ft.,  is  built  up  of  cylindrical  sections,  4  ft.  wide, 
a  few  inches  apart,  and  fastened  by  heavy  exterior  bands.  The  object  of  this  construction  is 
to  provide  the  means  for  attaching  the  lead  lining  peculiar  to  this  process.  The  spaces  be- 
tween these  sections  form  annular  dovetail  mortises,  which  are  filled  with  an  alloy  of  lead 
and  antimony,  and  at  the  ends  of  a  diameter  meet  similar  vertical  tenons,  to  which  they  are 
attached.  The  lining  is  burned  fast  to  this  semi-cylindrical  frame.  Here,  again,  under  the 
irresistible  force  of  expansion,  these  great  sheets  of  lead,  roughly  speaking  16  X  4  ft.,  must 
theoretically,  if  the  tacking  holds,  "  pucker  up,''  and  again  be  fo'rced  back  against  the  shell 
under  contraction  and  pressure. 

The  Graham  Digester,  7^  X  22  ft.,  is  made  of  sheets  of  boiler-plate,  to  which  the  lead 
lining  is  soldered  before  bending  and  assembling.  The  method  of  doing  this  is  ingenious  and 
simple.  The  sheet  is  cleansed  and  smoothed  by  a  radially  traveling  emery-wheel :  it  is  then 
firmly  fixed  for  half  its  surface  over  a  gas-jet  heater.  The  rectangular  frame  that  holds  it- 
down  is  packed  with  fire-proof  packing  where  it  rests  upon  the  plate,  thus  actually  forming  a 
water-tight  vessel,  of  which  the  iron  to  be  leaded  is  the  bottom.  The  plate  is  copiously  doused 
with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  and,  when  heated  to  the  proper  degree,  molten  lead  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  is  poured  upon  it.  Although  the  promoters  of  this  process  do  not  so  call  it, 
it  is,  nevertheless,  soldering,  which  is  authoritatively  defined  to  be  ''the  process  of  uniting 
two  pieces  of  the  same  or  of  different  metals  by  tne  interposition  of  a  metal  or  alloy,  which, 
by  fusion,  combines  with  each." 

Brick-Lining. — The  Mitscherlich  Digester  is  lined  with  an  acid-proof  brick  of  special  de- 
sign, laid  in  Portland  cement.  Apparently  a  startling  innovation,  reflection  proves  that  this 
method  follows  out  the  direct  line  of  modern  progress.  The  manufacture  of  that  almost  in- 
dispensable article,  sulphuric  acid,  has  in  comparatively  late  years  been  greatly  improved  and 
facilitated  by  the  introduction  of  the  Gay-Lussac  and  Glover  towers,  edifices"  lined,  not  with 
lead,  but  with  acid-proof  tiles  or  brick. 

Unlined  Digesters.— The  Schenk  Digester  is  a  stationary,  upright  cylinder,  7  ft.  in  diameter 
by  22  ft.  height,  and  is  made  in  sectional  castings  of  deoxidized  bronze,  with  planed  flanges, 
which  are  bolted  together  and  lead- jointed  in  assembling.  This  alloy  the  designer  assumes  is 
sufficiently  acid-proof  for  the  purpose,  without  the  protection  of  other  resistant  lining.  It  is 
acknowledged  that  the  deoxidized  bronze  is  acted  upon  by  the  acid  solution,  and  observation 
confirms  this  conclusion;  but  it  is  claimed  that  this  erosion  is  so  slight  that  the  longevity  of 
the  digester  is  not  threatened  thereby. 

Acid  Process. — The  manufacture  of  the  bisulphite  solution  may  be  classified  under  three 
heads :  the  vacuum  process,  the  modified  tower  process,  the  tower  process.  The  vacuum  sys- 
tem is  used  in  connection  with  the  Partington,  the  Schenk,  and  the  Graham  processes,  "it 
requires  large  exhaust-pumps,  a  series  of  tanks  arranged  vertically  in  echelon,  a  lime-mixer, 
etc.,  and  undoubtedly  yields  with  certainty  the  high  solution  required.  It  can  be  used  for  all 
the  processes.  The  modified  tower  system,  in  use  with  the  Ritter-Kellner  process  at  Corn- 
wall, is  a  sort  of  cross  between  the  Mitscherlich  tower  and  vacuum  method.  The  solution  is 
pumped  by  a  battery  of  pumps  into  a  series  of  low  towers  under  cover,  filled  with  limestone. 
The  Mitscherlich  tower  process  is  in  a  measure  automatic,  and  is  certainly  the  most  economi- 
cal. The  sulphurous-acid  gas  is  drawn  up  the  high  towers,  filled  with  limestone,  by  atmos- 
pheric draft,  and  therein  meets  water  trickling  through  the  filling.  Its  main  disadvantage 
is  the  assurance  of  proper  draft.  The  consumption  of  sulphur  varies  from  200  Ibs.  per  ton 
of  fiber  in  the  Mitscherlich  up  to  nearly  600  Ibs.  in  the  others.  In  none  of  the  others  is  it  less 
than  350  to  400  Ibs. 

Mechanical  Preparation  of  the  Wood. — All  the  processes,  except  the  Mitscherlich,  use 


176 


DITC  HING-M  ACHINES. 


chips.    In  this  latter,  disks  cut  out  from  the  log,  1£  in.  deep,  are  used.     Dr.  Mitscherlich 
claims  that  these  disks  afford  a  stronger  fiber,  and  that  more  bulk  can  be  put  into  the  digester 

than  if  loosely  piled 
chips  were  used. 

A  recent  form  of 
digester  of  English 
manufacture  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  1.  It  is 
made  of  Siemens-Mar- 
tin mild  steel  plates, 
H  in.  thick  and  12  ft. 
in  diameter  inside.  The 
rivet-holes  on  the  in- 
side are  countersunk, 
to  present  a  level  sur- 
face to  the  lead  lining, 
which  is  patented. 
The  lining  is  made  in 
large  sheets,  and  is 
held  against  the  steel 
shell  by  means  of  a 
series  of  clamps  fast- 
ened from  the  outside. 
The  digester  is  filled 
through  the  man-hole, 
which  is  2  ft.  in  diam- 
eter, from  a  high  lev- 

Fio.  l.— Wood-fiber  digestor.  el,  with    timber    and 

sulphite    liquor,    and 

steam  passes  in  at  a  pressure  of  70  Ibs.  through  the  trunnions,  while  the  digester  is  slowly  re- 
volved by  means  of  the  bevel  and  worm  gearing,  as  shown  in  the  engraving. 
Disintegrator :  see  Clay- Working  Machinery. 

DITCHING-MACHINES  are  used  for  excavating  ditches  and  trenches  for  drainage,  etc. 
The  Plumb  Ditcher  (Fig.  1)  cuts  the  whole  ditch  in  one  passage  on  the  required  grade.     It 


FIG.  1.— The  Plumb  Ditcher. 


consists  of  an  engine  and  boiler  driving  a  large  cutting-wheel,  all  set  in  one  frame  carried  on 
four  broad-faced  wheels.  The  machine  is  drawn  forward  when  working  by  means  of  a  wire 
cable  passing  through  a  block  anchored  any  distance  ahead  and  winding  on  a  drum  on  the 
front  end  of  the  machine.  The  ditch-cutting  wheel  is  formed  with  rim-scoops,  which  cut  and 
elevate  the  dirt-cutting  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  upward.  The  cutting-wheel  hangs  in  a 


DITCHING-MACHINES. 


177 


swinging  frame  raised  or  lowered  at  will  to  maintain  the  grade  line  required  for  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch,  and  can  cut  to  a  depth  of  4  ft.  It  forms  a  rounded  bottom  to  the  ditch,  suitable 
for  the  reception  of  either  of  the  ordinary  sizes  of  farm  drain-tile.  The  dirt  is  all  discharged 
at  one  side  of  the  ditch,  convenient  for  refilling.  As  the  wheels  are  10  in.  broad,  the  machine 
works  on  soft  ground  as  well  as  hard,  even  where  horses  could  not  be  employed. 

Potter's  Ditcher  (Fig.  2)  is  drawn  by  animals,  and,  being  a  comparatively  light  machine, 
performs  its  work  by  passing  repeatedly  over  the  same  job  until  the  ditch  is  brought  to  the 


required  depth.  The  cutting- wheel  cuts  down  the  sides  of  the  ditch,  and  a  scoop  just  behind 
the  lowest  part  of  the  wheel  pares  off  a  layer  of  dirt,  and  causes  it  to  pass  upward  under  the 
control  of  an  endless  apron,  which  retains  the  earth  in  the  grooved  periphery  of  the  wheel 
until  the  dirt  is  discharged  upon  a  spout  at  the  top  and  dumped  on  both  sides  of  the  ditch. 
The  digging  can  be  interrupted  to  maintain  the  grade  of  the  ditch-bottom.  The  cutting- 
wheel  frame  is  pivoted  above  its  center  of  gravity,  and  maintains  an  upright  position,  cutting 
a  perpendicular  ditch  at  all  times,  whether  the  ground  is  level  or  inclines  to  either  side.  Small 
stones  are  readily  thrown  out,  but  large  ones  the  machine  rejects  and  passes  over,  scraping 
them  bare  of  dirt,  so  that  they  may  be  reached  and  removed  by  other  means. 

Doffing" :  see  Cotton-Spinning  Machinery. 

Dog :  see  Saws,  Wood. 

12 


178 


DREDGES   AND   EXCAVATORS. 


DOVETAILING-MACHINE.  In  the  Knapp  dovetailing-machine  (Fig.  1)  the  work  done 
is  not  strictly  dovetailing  in  the  sense  of  flaring-pins  engaging  any  mortises  of  similar  out- 
line, but  the  general  effect  as  regards  utili- 
ty is  the  same,  and  the  work  is  more  orna- 
mental and  more  rapidly  and  easily  done. 
The  so-called  dovetails  that  it  makes  for 
drawer  fronts  and  sides  are  produced  by 
working  on  the  end  of  the  front  a  series  of 
semi-annular  grooves,  leaving  standing  in 
their  centers  a  series  of  cylindrical  tenons. 
The  end  of  the  drawer-side  is  worked  away 
into  a  series  of  semicircular  scallops,  in  the 
center  of  each  of  which  there  is  a  cylindri- 
cal hole ;  and  the  side  being  driven  on  to 
the  front,  pulling  the  latter  away  from  the 
former  is  prevented  by  the  cylindrical  pins. 

Draft,  Forced  :  see  Engines,  Marine. 

Drawing  Frame  :  see  Cotton-Spinning 
Machines  and  Rope  -  Making  Machines. 
Bolls  :  see  Rope- Making  Machines. 

DREDGES  AND  EXCAVATORS.  I. 
DREDGES.  Dredges  at  the  Panama  Canal. 
— The  dredges  in  use  in  the  excavation  of 
the  Panama  Canal  are:  (1)  American  Her- 
cules dredges,  (2)  French  dredges,  (3)  Bel- 
gian dredges,  (4)  Scotch  dredges. 

The  Hercules  dredge  is  of  the  endless 
chain  of  bucket  type,  using  a  high  tower 
and  long  discharge-pipe.  Practically  the 
whole  work  of  the  machine  is  controlled  by 
one  man,  who  is  stationed  on  the  bow.  A 
system  of  wheels  at  his  hand  connects  with 
the  different  engines — namely,  raising  and 
lowering  the  lever,  controlling  the  main  en- 
gine and  velocity  of  revolution  of  buckets, 
the  gypsy-engine  working  the  side-guys,  the 
spuds  also  being  raised  and  lowered  by 
tackles  on  hoisting-drums.  The  digger  may 
at  a  glance  take  in  the  situation,  and  use 
his  governing  wheels  accordingly. 

The  machine  consumes  about  10  tons  of 
coal  per  day.  Its  capacity  is  estimated  as 
follows  in  cubic  yards  per  day :  Soft,  sticky 
clay — buckets  not  fully  emptying  at  upper 
tumbler— 3,000  to  4,000 ;  hard  clay,  4,000 ; 
sand,  5,000,  allowing  one  day  of  each  week  for  repairs  of  machinery,  and  all  days  regarded 
as  twenty-four  working  hour's.  The  vibrations  of  the  chain  of  buckets  and  links  are  reduced 
to  a  minimum  when  excavating  in  material  not  tenacious,  allowing  buckets  to  revolve  25  to 
30  per  minute.  The  dredges  of  iron-tower  construction  have  done  satisfactory  work,  and  are 
lighter  in  tonnage  and  of  less  draft  than  those  of  wooden  structure,  and  much  more  stiff. 

Scotch  dredges  are  self-propelling,  having  steamed  out  from  Scotland  to  Colon  and  also  to 
Panama,  passing  around  the  Horn.  Their  boilers  are  of  200  horse-power,  and  their  horizontal 
engines  communicate  power  to  a  crank-shaft  on  which  is  a  sprocket-wheel,  The  upper  tum- 
bler-shaft has  also  a  sprocket-wheel,  and  an  endless  chain  communicates  from  the  lower  to  the 
upper  shaft,  transmitting  the  motion.  In  heavy  work  these  teeth  break  at  frequent  intervals. 
The  ladder  is  in  one  section,  requiring  large  construction  of  parts  to  gain  the  required  strength 
for  a  long  member.  If  in  two  sections,  it  might  be  lighter  and  require  less  power  to  raise  and 
lower.  This  dredge  is  more  adapted  for  deep-sea  work  than  attacking  new  banks.  It  dis- 
charges into  clapets,  and  is  controlled  by  fore-and-aft  guys  and  side-guys  wound  on  friction- 
drums.  Its  draft  is  7  to  8  ft.,  and  it  burns  6  tons  of  coal  per  12  working  hours.  In  ordinary 
work  this  dredge  accomplishes  2,000  to  3,000  cubic  metres  per  day  of  12  hours. 

The  French  dredge  (Fig.  1)  is  the  principal  dredge  in  use  along  the  line  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  There  are  different  sizes,  the  one  most  in  use  being  100  ft.  long  by  30  ft.  broad,  and 
having  a  draft  of  7  ft.  of  water.  The  hulls  and  entire  machine  are  constructed  of  iron,  in 
sections,  in  France,  shipped  to  Colon,  and  transhipped  at  different  points  along  the  line  where 
they  are  to  be  used.  The  cost  is,  approximately,  $115,000  at  Colon,  not  including  cost  of 
erection,  which  has  been  an  expensive  work  at  Panama,  some  engineers  estimating  the  cost  of 
erection  at  35  per  cent  on  original  value.  The  tower  is  quite  low,  the  elevation  of  hopper 
below  upper  tumbler  being  only  20  ft.  above  water-level.  The  ladder  is  in  one  section,  sup- 
ported upon  axis  in  tower,  and  varies  in  length  to  the  use  of  dredge  in  attacking  new  banks 
or  in  deepening  channels.  The  buckets  are  of  iron,  wrought  in  one  piece,  the  links  being  an 
integral  part.  The  power  is  derived  from  a  vertical  engine,  having  three  pistons,  which  act 
directly  upward  on  a  crank-shaft,  which  has  a  gear-wheel  at  either  end.  and  large  balance- 


FIG.  1.— Dovetailing-machine. 


DREDGES   AND   EXCAVATORS.  179 

wheels.  These  gear-wheels  connect  through  two  other  gear-wheels  to  the  upper  tumbler-shaft, 
thus  giving  a  positive  power,  and  when  the  machine  is  dredging  in  rock  no  slipping  occurs, 
as  in  a  belt  connection.  The  engines  are  180  horse-power  in  this  sized  dredge,  and  it  forms  a 
most  powerful  machine,  so  that  in  attacking  hard-pan  or  loose  rock  it  receives  such  a  force  as 
to  accomplish  its  work  when  buckets  and  links  do  not  break.  In  ordinary  work  in  sand, 
gravel,  clay,  and  loose  material,  a  positive  force  is  not  necessary,  as  in  rock- work.  The  large 
belt  from  a  horizontal  engine  connecting  with  a  gear  attachment  fitted  with  a  tightener-pul- 
ley, increasing  or  diminishing  the  tension,  has  given  good  satisfaction,  and  controls  the  move- 
ments, except  in  rock-work. 

The  dimensions  of  a  French  dredge  of  large  type  are  as  follows :  Length,  120  ft. ;  breadth, 
28  ft. ;  depth,  10  ft. ;  draft,  7  ft. ;  depth  of  working,  28  ft. :  sheer  fore  and  aft,  10  in. ;  rise  of 
deck,  6  in. ;  height  of  discharge  above  water-line,  20  ft. ;  height  of  top  tumbler  above  water- 
line,  26  ft.  6  in. ;  width  of  bucket-well,  5  ft.  3  in. ;  frames,  4  X  3  X  I  in.,  2  ft.  apart,  with  re- 


FIG.  1.— The  French  dredge. 

verse  angle-irons  3  X  3  X  I  in.,  in  alternate  frames ;  plating  of  bottom  and  bilges,  near  well, 
•fa  in. ;  plating  otherwise,  £  in. ;  plating  of  sides,  6f  in. ;  plating  of  well,  f  in. ;  deck-beams, 
bulb-iron,  8  X  f  in.,  with  double  angle-irons  2i  X  2^  X  f  in. :  floors,  12  X  4  in. ;  angle-irons, 
3x3xf  in. :  length  of  bucket-ladder  between  centers,  64  ft.  6  in. ;  capacity  of  buckets,  16 
cub.  ft.;  diameter  of  pins,  2|  in.;  high-pressure  cylinders,  17  in.  diameter  by  24-in.  stroke; 
low-pressure  cylinders,  34  in.  diameter  by  24-in.  stroke;  ah -pump,  10  in.  diameter  by  15-in. 
stroke ;  circulating  pump,  10  in.  diameter  by  15-in.  stroke ;  boiler  diameter,  10  ft.  6  in. :  boiler 
length,  9  ft.  6  in. ;  boiler  heating-surface,  900  sq.  ft. ;  boiler  working-pressure,  80  Ibs.  per  sq. 
in.:  cost  at  Colon,  $  115,000. 

One  of  these  machines  of  large  type  has  done  valuable  work  at  the  Mindi  Cut,  near  Gatun, 
on  the  Panama  Canal,  in  broken  rock,  stiff  clay,  and  hard-pan.  The  material  excavated  in 
buckets  is  carried  up  into  a  hopper,  discharged  with  water,  pumped  up  hydraulically  suffi- 
ciently to  discharge  it  into  self-dumping  steam-clapets  alongside.  The  capacity  of  these 
dredges  is  variable  in  the  extreme,  no  one  machine  having  done  a  large  amount  of  satisfactory 
work.  A  fair  estimate  is  200  to  250  yards  per  hour  for  12  working  hours. 

The  Belgian  dredge  is  quite  similar  to  the  French  dredge,  deriving  its  power  in  like  man- 
ner by  sprocket  and  chain  connection.  It  is  of  200  horse-power,  has  three  horizontal  return 
tubular  boilers,  and  two  horizontal  engines,  the  pistons  of  which  connect  with  a  crank-shaft, 
on  which  is  a  wheel.  It  discharges  on  each  side  into  clapets.  The  velocity  of  the  buckets  is 
20  to  30  per  minute ;  contents.  £  cubic  metre. 

Dredging  Operations  in  New  York  Harbor  have  been  actively  carried  on  in  order  to  im- 
prove the  channels  leading  from  the  ocean.  The  fleet  of  vessels  employed  by  the  contractors 
comprises  three  propellers,  each  fitted  with  two  Edwards  centrifugal  pumps  and  two  dredg- 
ing-scoops  connected  by  pipes  with  the  pumps.  Each  vessel  (Fig.  2)  is  divided  by  bulkheads 
into  tanks  for  the  reception  of  the  dredged  material.  In  the  bottom  of  each  of  the  tanks  are 
valves,  worked  by  horizontal  valve-wheels.  By  proper  conduits  the  dredged  material  can  be 
delivered  to  any  one  of  the  tanks,  according  to  the  way  in  which  the  chutes  are  set. 

The  estimated  capacity  of  the  plants  per  working-day  are:  Xo.  1,  2,000  cub.  yds. ;  Xo.  2, 
1,500  cub.  yds. :  Xo.  3, 3,000  cub.  ds. :  giving  a  total  capacity  of  6,500  cub.  yds.  All  the  material 
is  taken  outside  of  Scotland  Lightship  and  dumped  at  a  distance  of  about  8  miles  from  the 


180 


DREDGES   AND   EXCAVATORS. 


FIG.  2. — Centrifugal-pump  dredge. 


main  ship-channel,  and  5  miles  from  Gedney's  Channel,  in  not  less  than  14  fathoms  of 
water. 

The  general  operation  is  as  follows :  The  scoop  (Fig.  3)  is  dropped  down  to  the  bottom,  on 
which  it  runs  upon  wheels.     The  pipe  which  connects  it  to  its  pump  is  of  steel,  containing  a 

ball-and-socket    joint, 

H|MH|nHHBB|      and  Deluding  a  short 

length  of  heavy  India- 
rubber  pipe  re  -  en- 
forced with  steel 
bands,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent breakage  when 
the  vessel  is  rolling  or 
pitching  in  a  sea-way. 
By  means  of  a  steam- 
jet  connected  with  the 
top  of  the  centrifugal 
pump,  a  vacuum  is 
produced  within  the 
pump  and  pipe,  under 
the  effects  of  which 
vacuum  water  rises 
through  the  pipes  un- 
til the  pump-chamber 
is  completely  filled. 
Then,  on  starting  the 
pump  and  opening  the 
outlet  -  valve  hitherto 
closed,  it  at  once  be- 
gins to  draw  up  mate- 
rial. At  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  scoop,  a 
foot  or  so  above  tne 

bottom  of  the  water,  a  water-valve  is  arranged  which  may  be  opened  or  closed  by  means  of  a 
small  rope  or  lanyard.  This  is  done  from  the  deck  of  the  propeller,  and  regulates  the  pro- 
portions of  water  and  solid  material.  The  operative  can  tell  by  the  sound  of  the  pump 
whether  it  is  receiving  too  much  or  too  little  solid  material,  and  sets  the  valve  accordingly. 

In  dredging,  the  boat  is  made  to  advance  at  the 
rate  of  from  ^  to  2  miles  an  hour,  while  both  pumps 
are  driven  as  fast  as  may  be.  It  is  very  important 
to  drive  them  to  their  full  capacity,  as  they  possess 
a  critical  speed  below  which  their  efficiency  is  great- 
ly reduced.  The  boat  thus  travels  down  'the  chan- 
nel, dragging  with  it  the  scoops,  which  are  continu- 
ally raking  up  the  ground,  which,  as  fast  as  it  is 
loosened,  is  drawn  up  through  the  pipes  by  the 
pumps.  The  suctions  are  attached  to  the  side  of 
the  boat  about  midship,  so  that  they  are  unaffected 
by  pitching,  while,  owing  to  the  great  width  of  the 
boat,  its  rolling  is  so  slight  that  they  are  not  there- 
by disturbed. 

Dredging  at  Suez. —  The  Kdbnitz  Rock-Break- 
ing Dredge  (Fig.  4)  operates  by  letting  fall  a  heavy, 
suitably  shaped  mass  on  the  surface  of  the  rock, 
which  shatters  it  as  artillery-fire  demolishes  the 
stone  walls  of  a  fortress. 

The  Derocheuse  represented  in  the  engraving 
has  done  important  work  in  the  enlargement  of 
the  Suez  Canal.  The  hull  of  this  rock-cutting  dredger  is  180  ft.  long  by  40  ft.  broad 
and  12  ft.  deep  ;  the  mean  draft  is  9  ft.,  and  there  are  18  water-tight  compartments.  Five 
steel-pointed  rock-cutting  rams,  each  weighing  4  tons,  are  arranged  in  line  on  each  side  of  the 
central  well,  through  which  the  buckets  lift  the  crushed  rock.  Hydraulic  power  raises  them 
to  a  height  of  from  5  to  20  ft.,  and  they  are  then  let  fall  on  the  rock.  These  rams  can  work 
on  each  side  of  the  lower  tumbler,  or  they  can  be  moved  by  steam-power,  either  forward  or 
aft,  to  suit  the  position  of  the  dredging-gear  or  the  requirements  of  the  work.  WTith  the  set 
of  hydraulic  levers  placed  below  the  steam-crane,  between  200  and  300  blows  per  hour  can 
be  delivered  with  one  set  of  five  cutters.  Combined  with  the  rock-cutting  apparatus, 
dredging  machinery,  specially  adapted  for  lifting  broken  rock,  is  provided.  A  guide- 
wheel  is  fitted,  which  supports  the  sa'g  of  the  bucket-chain  when  wear  has  taken  place,  and  re- 
lieves the  strain  on  the  bearings  aud  pins.  With  this  guide- wheel  or  relieving-drum,  the 
maximum  dredging  depth  of  the  machine  is  40  ft. ;  without  it  more  than  30  ft.  would  not  be 
attained. 

For  driving  the  bucket-chain  there  is  a  four-cylinder  two-crank  compound  engine  of  200 
indicated  horse-power,  which  by  special  friction-gear  works  two  steel  pitch-chains  passing 


FIG.  3.— Dredge-scoop. 


DREDGES   AND   EXCAVATORS. 


181 


round  pitch- wheels  connected  to  the  upper  tumbler.     If  the  buckets  catch  on  solid  rock,  the 
friction-gear  slips  until  the  undue  strain  is  relieved. 


FIG.  4.— Kobnitz  rock-breaking  dredge. 

While  at  work,  the  vessel  is  moved  over  the  surface  in  a  series  of  arcs,  by  independent 
winch-motion  arranged  for  swinging  the  vessel  from  side  to  side,  pivoting  on  a  steel  inooring- 
pile,  which  goes  down  through  the  hull  in  the  after  part  of  the  machine. 

A  careful  record  of  the  working  of  this  machine  was  kept  during  16  days  of  Septem- 
ber, 1888,  with  the  following  results :  Amount  of  pure  rock  extracted,  1,000  cub.  yds. ;  tons 
of  clay  extracted,  249:  number  of  hours  of  work,  111 ;  wages  of  crew  at  $2.76  per  hour,  140 
hours,  $387 ;  cost  of  coal  at  $7.29  per  ton,  $153 ;  oil  and  stores,  fresh  water,  sundries,  etc., 
$92 ;  total  expenses  for  1,000  cub.  yds.,  $632 ;  cost  per  cub.  yd.  of  pure  rock,  63-2  cts.  Although 
the  1,000  cub.  yds.  of  hard  rock  were  excavated  at  a  cost  of  63  cts.  per  cub.  yd.,  it  would  be 
quite  wrong  to"  treat  this  figure  as  a  basis  for  continuous  working,  for  at  the  end  of  a  year's 
work  many  parts  of  the  dredger  would  be  worn,  and  the  repairs  required  each  year  would 
probably  double  the  cost  per  cub.  yd.  excavated.  Thus,  the  probable  cost  per  cub.  yd.  would 
be  about  $1.20  for  a  machine  similar  to  the  Derocheuse,  which  could  remove  about  20,000  cub. 
yds.  of  average  rock  in  a  year,  at  a  cost  of  about  $24,000  per  annum.  This  estimate  does  not 
include  the  transport  of  the  broken  rock  in  barges,  nor  the  depreciation,  interest,  and  insur- 
ance of  the  plant. 

The  Jandin  Hydro- Pneumatic  Dredger  is  a  dredger  of  a  new  system  combined  with  a 
forcing  and  conveying  apparatus  carried  upon  a  raft  1,000  ft.  in  length.  It  was  devised  by 
M.  Jandin,  an  engineer  of  Lyons,  for  excavating  a  canal  20  ft.  in  depth,  from  the  city  of 
Uleaborg,  Finland,  to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  in  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ulea,  where  the  depth 
of  water  has  been  reduced  to  about  13  ft.  by  accumulations  of  sand. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  hydro-pneumatic  dredging-pipe,  which  raises  the  mixture  of 
water  and  excavated  material,  and  empties  it  into  a  large  cylindrical  reservoir,  which  con- 
stitutes the  forcing  apparatus.  The  dredging-pipe,  the  orifice  of  which  rests  constantly  upon 
the  bottom,  forms  the  axis  of  a  rigid  frame,  which  is  guided  vertically  by  the  sides  of  a  well 
at  the  extremity  of  the  boat.  Its  upper  part  is  connected  with  a  horizontal  pipe,  which  enters 
the  reservoir  through  a  flexible  elbow.  Near  the  lower  orifice  of  the  dredging-pipe  there  is 
arranged  an  annular  injector,  which  introduces  compressed  air  upwardly  into  the  pipe.  This 
injection  of  air  produces  a  suction,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  forms  in  the  pipe  a  mixture  of 
air,  water,  and  material  carried  along  by  the  water,  a  mixture  whose  density  is  less  than 
that  of  the  water.  It  is  easily  conceived  that,  with  a  given  depth  of  water,  it  is  possible, 
with  the  coefficients  furnished  by  experiment,  to  calculate  the  volume  of  air  necessary  to 
make  the  external  charge  upon  the  orifice  greater  than  the  weight  of  the  column  of  the 
mixture  ascending  above  the  level  of  the  water  to  a  fixed  height.  The  principal  advantage 
of  this  system  is  that  there  is  no  obstruction  possible,  as  the  orifice  presents  a  passage  that 
is  smaller  than  the  constant  section  of  the  pipe,  and  no  parts  in  motion  are  in  contact  with 
the  excavated  material.  In  this  way  there  are  avoided  two  of  the  inconveniences  of  pumps 
applied  to  dredging,  and  which  cause  frequent  stoppages  and  necessitate  costly  repairs. 

Jets  of  compressed  air,  arranged  around  the  orifice  and  directed  against  the  earth,  disin- 
tegrate the  latter,  and  increase  the  proportion  of  the  material  carried  along  by  the  velocity  of 
the  water — a  proportion  which,  in  ordinary  depths  of  20  or  25  ft.,  reaches,  as  regards  sand,  25 
per  cent  of  the  volume  of  water. 


182  DREDGES   AND   EXCAVATORS. 

At  the  spot  where  work  is  being  carried  on  upon  the  pneumatic  foundations  of  the  Morand 
bridge  upon  the  Rhone,  where  a  dredger  of  this  system  is  employed,  it  dredged  in  38  ft.  of 
water  a  bundle  of  chains  1£  in.  in  diameter  and  weighing  110  Ibs.,  the  height  it  was  raised 
above  water  being  about  10  ft.  This  apparatus,  which  is  10  in.  in  diameter,  is  actuated  by  a 
compressor,  which  takes  in  6,100  cub.  in.  of  air  per  sec.,  and  is  situated  at  150  yds. "from  the 
pier  where  the  dredging  is  going  on.  The  forcing  apparatus,  which  is  a  cylindrical  reservoir 
10  ft.  in  diameter  and  22  in  length,  with  convex  ends,  and  having  a  capacity  of  176  cub.  ft., 
receives  the  mixture  of  water  and  material.  The  air  escapes  through  an  opening  above  sur- 
mounted by  an  open  dome,  upon  the  side  of  which  there  is  a  waste-pipe.  When  the  reservoir 
is  full,  and  the  water  is  making  its  escape  through  the  waste-pipe,  a  single  external  lever, 
manoeuvred  by  the  chief  dredgeman,  closes  valves  that  in  turn  close  internally  the  orifice  of 
the  dredging-pipe,  and  open  the  air-port,  and  at  the  same  time  reverse,  through  three-way 
cocks,  a  current  of  compressed  air,  which  is  then  forced  through  distinct  pipes  into  the  reser- 
voir, and  led  to  injection-tubes,  properly  spaced,  in  the  lower  part  of  the  reservoir.  The 
effect  of  the  jets  of  compressed  air,  formed  under  the  mass  of  earth  and  water,  is  to  lift  the 
material  while  mixing  it  with  water  and  throwing  it  toward  the  orifice  situated  at  the  lowest 
point  of  the  excavation.  The  total  time  taken  to  force  to  a  distance  of  1,000  ft.  is  6  min.,  2 
of  which  are  consumed  in  the  passage  through  the  conduit.  The  end  of  the  tubing  is  worked 
by  the  escape,  at  the  end  of  the  conduit,  of  a  wheat-sheaf  jet  of  water  and  air  projected 
through  an  explosion  to  48  ft.  from  the  orifice,  the  conduit  remaining  empty  and  being  cleaned 
out  by  this  final  action  of  the  air.  At  the  same  time,  the  automatic  valve  that  closes  the 
upper  orifice  of  the  reservoir  opens  by  its  own  weight.  The  lever  that  works  the  cocks  is  then 
reversed,  and  the  air  is  sent  to  the  dredging-pipe,  and  another  filling  at  once  occurs.  Thus 
the  dredging  and  forcing  occur  successively  by  periods  of  from  5  to  6  min.,  the  boat  remaining 
immovable  during  the  forcing  period. 

The  Vernaudon  Suction- Dredge  consists  essentially  of  a  dredging-pipe  which  lifts  the  ma- 
terial, and  in  front  of  which  operates  a  shaft  armed  with  knives.  The  pipe  is  connected  with 
a  centrifugal  pump,  which  forces  the  material  into  floating  pipes. 

The  dredging-pipe,  which  is  16  in.  in  diameter,  is  arranged  in  a  well  35  ft.  in  length,  and 
established  in  the  axis  of  the  dredger.  It  is  connected  with  the  conduit  that  leads  to  the 
pump  by  a  hinge-joint,  and  the  conduit  is  provided  with  an  aperture  through  which  a  work- 
man can  quickly,  and  without  stopping  the  pump,  extract  too  large  pieces  of  excavated 
material  or  stones  that  might  damage  the  pump-buckets.  At  its  other  extremity  the  pipe  is 
provided  with  a  box  that  carries  a  frame  cast  in  a  piece  with  it,  and  in  which  are  arranged 
the  bearings  of  the  knife-shaft.  As  the  pipe  has  to  dredge  at  variable  depths,  it  is  capable  of 
being  lifted  by  means  of  a  double-frame  established  on  the  two  sides  of  the  well,  and  the  wind- 
lasses of  which  are  actuated  directly  by  a  small  motor.  In  order  to  secure  the  rigidity  neces- 
sary during  operations,  the  pipe  is* guided  by  a  frame  which  consists  of  uprights  connected 
by  cross-braces,  and  which  moves  in  a  slide  placed  between  the  uprights  of  the  double  frame. 
When  the  apparatus  is  not  working,  the  pipe  and  frame  are  raised.  In  order  to  regulate  the 
admission  of  water  into  the  pipe,  the  latter  is  provided  with  three  slide-valves,  each  sliding 
upon  the  same  plate,  containing  rectangular  orifices.  These  valves  are  actuated  by  hand 
through  a  shaft  parallel  with  the  pipe,  and  which,  through  a  screw-thread,  actuates  the  nuts 
fixed  to  the  valves. 

The  disintegrating  apparatus  has  to  be  modified  according  to  the  ground  operated  upon. 
In  argillaceous  sand  and  sticky  clay,  a  shaft  armed  with  a  double  set  of  knives  is  used.  These 

knives,  which  are  solidly  keyed  to  a  box,  are  helicoidal  in 
form,  and  the  spirals  run  in  opposite  directions,  so  as  to 
bring  the  material  that  they  detach  toward  the  orifice  of 
the  pipe.  In  compact  earth,  where  no  caving  in  is  to  be 
feared,  the  knife-shaft  is  arranged  at  the  extremity  of 
the  pipe.  In  muddy  sand,  it  is  well  to  establish  the 
shaft  at  a  certain  distance  behind  the  orifice.  The 
knife-shaft  receives  its  motion,  through  bevel-wheels, 
from  another  shaft  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  dredge- 
pipe,  and  resting  upon  it  through  the  intermedium  of 
pillow-blocks.  This  shaft  is  actuated  by  the  principal 
motor  through  bevel-wheels.  The  centrifugal  pump  is 
placed  above  the  float  water-line.  The  result  of  this  ar- 
rangement is  that  the  power  necessary  for  suction  de- 
pends in  practice  only  upon  the  difference  in  density  be- 
tween the  surrounding  water  and  the  column  of  liquid 
charged  with  earth,  which  rises  in  the  pipe,  thus  permit- 
ting of  dredging  to  variable  depths  without  sensible  in- 
crease of  motive  power.  The  excavated  matter  passes 
through  the  pump  and  is  forced  into  the  floating  pipes. 
These  are  of  iron  plate,  with  flexible  joints.  The  engine 
is  of  120  horse-power. 

The  Morgan   Grab- Dredger  Bucket,  represented  in 
FIG.  5.— Morgan  grab-bucket.  Fig.  5,  is  employed  in  the  dredging  of  the  Mersey  dock 

at  Liverpool  in  all  dipper-dredgers.     It  is  worked  by  two 

chains  passing  over  the  jib-head  of  the  crane.     The  lifting-chain  is  shackled  to  a  large'cam- 
shaped  ring  or  eccentric  fixed  on  a  sleeve,  which  turns  loosely  on  a  shaft  passing  along  the 


DREDGES   AND   EXCAVATORS.  183 

apex  of  the  bucket  from  one  end  to  the  other ;  to  the  same  sleeve  are  fixed  two  smaller  eccen- 
trics, one  on  each  side  of  the  center,  and  to  these  are  attached  chains  of  fixed  length,  made 
fast  to  an  upper  cross-head,  from  which  connecting-rods  pass  to  the  top  edges  of  the  sides  of 
the  bucket.  The  opening  chain  is  attached  to  the  cross-head  referred  to.  When  the  bucket 
is  open  the  lifting-chain  lies  wound  round  the  large  eccentric.  The  closing  is  effected  by 
hauling  on  the  lifting-chain,  thereby  winding  in  the  chains  on  the  small  eccentrics,  and  so 
pulling  down  the  cross-head,  the  connecting-rods  from  which  iorce  the  sides  of  the  bucket 
together.  The  bucket  opens  when  the  opening-chain  is  held,  and  the  lifting-chain  let  go. 
The  central  shaft  then  lowers  away  from  the  cross-head,  and  the  sides  of  the  bucket  expand, 
until  the  short  chains  between  the  latter  and  the  small  eccentrics  are  fully  unwound ;  at  the 
same  time  a  certain  length  of  the  slack  of  the  lifting-chain  becomes  wound'on  the  large  eccen- 
tric. The  eccentrics  on  the  shaft  are  so  arranged  as  to  give  a  large  power  toward  closing  the 
bucket  at  the  commencement  of  closing,  it  being  then  desirable  that  it  should  dig  into  the 
silt.  Radius- rods  are  put  in  from  the  central  shaft  to  the  top  of  the  sides,  where  the  thrust 
of  the  closing-rods  is  applied.  This  arrangement  maintains  the  sides  in  shape  and  allows  of 
their  being  made  very  light.  To  reduce  weight  also  the  central  shaft  is  made  hollow.  The 
bucket  illustrated  will  clear  a  space  of  about  30  sq.  ft.,  and  will  raise  from  30  cwt.  to  40  cwt. 
of  stuff  per  lift.  Pig.  5  is  prepared  from  a  photograph  of  one  of  these  buckets,  which  has 
dredged  over  half  a  million  tons  of  silt,  and  at  present  is  in  good  condition. 

II.  EXCAVATORS. — Many  varieties  of  bucket-elevators,  using  endless  chains  of  buckets,  are 
in  use  in  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  (for  full  description,  see  Plant  and  Materials 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  by  VV.  P.  Williams,  Trans.  A.  S.  C\  E.,  July,  1888). 

The  operation  of  the  so-called  "  down-digger  "  is  described  as  follows :  The  machine  is 
constructed  on  two  trucks  of  four  wheels  each,  and  of  a  5-ft.  gauge.  When  in  working  con- 
dition, the  base  is  broadened  by  jacking  up  and  throwing  the  weight  on  the  working  side  out 
to  a  third  rail,  7  ft.  distant  from  the  line-rail.  The  ladder  over  which  the  buckets  travel  is 
hung  on  an  axis  on  the  back  of  the  machine,  but  throws  the  center  of  gravity  toward  the 
working  side,  and.  to  offset  this,  ballast  of  railroad-iron  is  loaded  on  the  extension  on  the  back 
of  the  machine  The  boilers  are  usually  horizontal,  giving  a  low  center  of  gravity,  and  the 
water-tank  of  iron  and  a  coal-bunker  of  iron  are  placed  on  the  boiler-end  of  the  platform. 
The  endless  chain  of  buckets  is  operated  on  the  "  over-and-under  "  system.  The  buckets  are 
made  with  a  quadrangular  hemispherical  face  and  no  back.  The  links  are  hung  at  the  rear 
of  the  buckets.  The  ladder  is  suspended  down  the  bank,  and  is  raised  or  lowered  to  give  a 
slight  contact  to  the  cutting  nose  of  the  bucket.  The  latter  becomes  filled  by  gradually  cut- 


FIG.  6. — Osgood  excavator. 

ting  a  slice  all  the  way  up  the  bank.  As  it  pauses  over  the  upper  tumbler,  the  contents  fall 
into  a  hopper,  and  thence  through  a  chute  into  a  dump-car  on  the  second  track,  and  back  of 
the  machine.  The  engineer  of  the  excavator  controls  its  movements  entirely,  raising  and 
lowering  the  ladder,  also  moving  the  excavator  up  and  down  the  track  by  ah  endless  belt 
running  from  a  sprocket-wheel  on  the  crank-shaft  of  the  engine  to  a  sprocket-wheel  on  the 
car-axle.  In  the  "  up-digger,"  the  buckets  have  an  "  under-and-over  "  movement. 

The  Osgood  Excavator  (represented  in  Fig.  6)  is  supported  on  two  trucks  of  5-ft.  gauge, 
and,  when  in  position  for  working,  the  forward  truck  of  the  machine  is  jacked  up.  throwing 
the  weight  off  the  rails,  and  the  outriggers  of  8-ft.  centers  are  used  instead,  giving  a  wider 


184 


DRILLING-MACHINES,   METAL. 


working  base.  The  weight  of  these  large  type  of  machines  is  about  80  tons.  Self- propulsion 
is  gained  by  an  endless-belt  connection  with  the  main  engine-shaft  to  the  rear  axles.  Water- 
tank  and  coal-tank  are  placed  on  the  rear  car  near  the  boiler.  These  machines  will  excavate 
a  cut  up  to  70  ft.  in  width,  and  dump  contents  of  dipper  29  ft.  above  track.  The  mode  of 
action  is  for  the  excavator  to  start  at  the  face  of  the  cut  and  gradually  excavate  forward  and 
on  each  side  of  sufficient  width  for  the  placing  of  two  tracks,  one  on  each  side  of  the  excava- 
tor, which  may  move  forward  in  reaches  of  8  ft.,  each  digging  her  own  track.  Dump-cars  are 
brought  in  alongside  on  either  track  from  the  rear  switches  by  cable  connection  winding 
around  a  drum  on  the  exterior  of  the  body  of  the  excavator.  These  cars  when  filled  are  hauled 
out  on  to  the  main  line,  and  empty  cars  are  in  readiness  to  supply  their  places.  The  dipper 
delivers  first  on  one  side,  then  on  the  other,  the  cars  being  constantly  supplied.  In  sand  and 
loose  gravel,  as  much  as  2,000  yds.  per  day  of  ten  hours  have  been  excavated. 

DRILLING-MACHINES,  METAL.  '  Universal  Radial  Drill— Fig.  1  represents  a  uni- 
versal radial  drill  built  by  the  Niles  Tool  Works,  Hamilton,  Ohio.  A  heavy,  rotating  column, 
mounted  upon  a  long  supporting  sleeve,  which  is  secured  to  the  base-plate,  carries  a  radial 
arm,  which  can  be  clamped  in  any  position.  The  machine  is  driven  from  an  overhead  coun- 
ter-shaft operated  by  bevel-gearing,  and  by  a  central  spur-gear  seen  at  the  top  of  the  column. 
This  also  communicates  motion  through* tumbler-gearing  to  the  screw,  which  is  operated  to 
raise  and  lower  the  arm  by  power.  Motion  is  communicated  to  the  drill-spindle  from  the 
cone,  which  is  strongly  back-geared  by  means  of  spur-gears,  a  splined  shaft,  and  bevel-gear- 


FIG.  1. -Universal  radial  drill. 

ing.  The  arm  is  in  form  similar  to  a  box-girder,  and  is  in  one  piece.  The  drill-head  is  se- 
curely gibbed  upon  the  arm,  and  is  adjustable  to  any  position  thereon.  It  is  also  adjustable 
to  any  angular  position  upon  its  saddle. 

Sensitive  Drill. — Fig.  2  represents  a  sensitive  drill  manufactured  by  W.  F.  &  J.  Barnes, 
Rockford,  111.  By  the  friction-disk,  shown  in  the  cut,  the  speed  of  the  drill-spindle  can  be 
increased  or  diminished,  or  the  motion  reversed,  without  stopping  the  machine  or  shifting 
belts.  The  feed-lever  is  provided  with  a  sensitive  adjustment,  which  makes  it  possible  to  use 
the  smallest  drills.  The  platen  can  be  moved  on  the  column,  and  clamped  at  any  desired 
height. 

Multiple  Traverse  Table- Drill.-— This  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  built  by  the  Niles  Tool 
Works,  and  is  similar  in  design  to  the  usual  pattern  of  multiple  drill,  except  that  it  is  pro- 
vided with  a  table  arranged  to  slide  upon  the  bed.  Machines  of  this  class  are  especially  de- 
sirable when  it  is  required  to  drill  a  number  of  holes  in  heavy  pieces  clamped  together, 'such 


DRILLING-MACHINES,   METAL. 


185 


as  vault-doors,  etc.  In  work  of  this  kind  the  separate  pieces  can 
be  fastened  together  upon  the  table  and  any  desired  part  brought 
under  the  drills.  The  spindles  have  12-in.  travel,  and  each  has  in- 
dependent power-feed  with  three  changes.  They  are  also  arranged 
for  hand-feed,  and  each  is  counterweighted  and  has  quick  return. 
The  machine  is  capable  of  drilling  three  l£-in.  holes  or  two  2-in. 
holes  at  the  same  time  through  steel  plate. 

Bali-Bearings  for  Drill- Presses. — Fig.  4  shows  a  ball-bearing 
used  to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  collar  of  the  spindle  of  a  drill- 
press.  It  consists  of 
two  collars,  one  having 
a  flange  fitting  into  a 
rabbet  turned  on  the 
corner  of  the  other,  to 
prevent  dirt  from  get- 
ting in  from  the  out- 
side, both  the  collars  be- 
ing provided  with  a  half- 
round  groove  turned  on 
their  face,  in  which  the 
balls  revolve.  The  col- 
lars, as  well  as  the  balls, 
are  made  of  fine  steel. 
(See  also  BEARINGS, 
BALL.) 

Leeds'1  Horizontal  and  Radial  Drill— This  machine  (Fig.  5)  is 
designed  to  work  on  or  from  a  drill-press,  and  is  driven  direct  from 
the  drill-press  spindle.     It  is  a  substitute  for  the  hand-ratchet,  and 
is  useful  in  drilling  the  ends  and  diagonal  parts  of  frames ;  it  can 
also  be  mounted  on  the  work  and  driven  by  a  sliding-shaft  and 
universal  joints.     Drilling  in  all  directions  can  be  done,  with  the 
two  taper-shanks  and  the  horizontal  and  vertical  movements,  by  loosening  the  nuts  shown. 
Power  consumed  in  Drilling. — A  study  of  the  power  required  to  drive  an  ordinary  drill- 
press  has  been  made  by  Prof.  Lester  P.  Breckeuridge,  M.  E.,  of  Lehigh  University.     Indicator 


FIG.  4.— Ball-bearings  for  drill-presses. 


FIG.  2.— Sensitive  drill. 


FIG.  3.— Multiple  traverse  table-drill 


186 


DRILLING-MACHINES,   METAL. 


DRILLING-MACHINES,   METAL. 


187 


cards  were  taken  from  an  apparatus,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  consisting  of  a  cylinder  of  cast-iron, 
with  flange  at  the  base,  and  bored  out  to  receive  a  plunger.  The  area  of  this  cylinder  was  10 
sq.  in.  Near  the  bottom  of  the  plunger  three  grooves  -fc  in.  deep  were  cut,  and  about  \  in. 
apart,  in  order  to  prevent  leakage  of  oil,  which  was  placed  in  the  cylinder  below  the  plunger. 
Communication  with  oil  was  then  made  to  a  steam-gauge  on  one  side  and  an  indicator  on 
the  other,  as  shown.  The  details  taken  are  shown  in  the  subjoined  table,  by  means  of  which 
an  accurate  calculation  may  be  made  at  any  time  as  to  capacity  and  time  required  to  do  a 
given  piece  of  work  with  a  given  speed  of  drill : 


Diameter  of 
drill. 


!     Depth  of  hole 
drilled. 


SHORTEST   TIME    REQUIRED   TO 
DRILL,  WHEN   FEEDING. 


By  power. 


drill  while  drilling 
at  start. 


Maximum  pressure  on  drill  when 

working  with  full  diameter 

of  drill. 


Inch.                        Inch. 

Min.     sec. 

Min.     sec. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

i 

i 

0        16 
0      32 

0        14 
0      21 

I           ,00 

350  to  400 

* 
i 

i 

0      32                    0      29 
0      30                    0      45 

900 

800  to  900 

i 

0      42    ' 
1      20 

0      38 
1       06 

1,100 

800  to  900 

1 
1 

i 

0      47 
1      32 

0      48 
1      47 

1,450 

1,000  to  1,150 

3 

>* 

3      24 

1      42 

3      10 

1,800 

1,000  to  1,150 

Side   Elevafu 


Drilling- Machine  for  Boiler  Stayholes. — Fig.  7  represents  a  drilling-machine  built  by 
Thomas  Shanks  &  Co.,  Johnstone,  Scotland,  for  drilling  and  tapping  the  holes  for  screwed 
stays  in  boiler  shells  and  backs.  There  are  two  drills  earned  by  separate  standards,  each 
having  a  traverse  of  20  ft.  The  vertical  range  is  10  ft.  The  spindle  may  be  set  at  an  angle 
of  25°.  The  bed  is  4  ft.  6  in.  wide.  In  the  driving  headstock  are  four  s'peed-cones  and  two 
purchases  of  gearing  for  light  or  heavy  work,  instantly  interchangeable  by  levers.  The  stand- 
ard is  moved  by  a  grooved  driving-shaft  with  fast  and  loose  pulleys,  and  the  reversing  motion 
is  by  bevel-gear  and  clutches  worked  by  hand.  The  vertical  driving-shaft  has  strong  bevel- 
gear  and  clutches  to  stand  the  tear  and  wear  of  reversing,  and  connects  by  the  driving-gear 
to  a  spindle  3|  in.  in  diameter.  Two  bevel-wheels — one  fine  and  the  other  coarse  pitch — are 
keyed  on  the  revolving  tube  carrying  the  spindle.  Quick  motion  is  obtained  through  direct 
gear  and  slow  motion  by  spur-wheel  and  pinion.  The  drill-carriage  is  balanced  and  its  level 
is  alterable  at  will.  There  is  a  second  standard  in  the  machine,  with  a  horizontal  driving- 
shaft  in  the  bed  parallel  to  the  other.  Revolving  cradles  are  placed  in  front  of  the  machine, 
and  these  are  not  only  adjustable  for  different  diameters  and  lengths  of  boilers,  but  also  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  support  a  boiler  with  either  its  back  or  its  side  toward  the  drills,  as  may 
be  required.  When  used  for  the  latter  purpose,  the  cradles  can  be  revolved  by  power,  so  as 
to  bring  a  new  part  of  the  shell  within  range  of  the  machine.  (See  Engineering,  Oct.  24, 
1890.) 

Portable  Hydraulic  Drilling- Machine. — Fig.  8  represents  a  portable  hydraulic  drilling- 
machine  designed  by  M.  Berriere  Fontaine,  of  Toulon,  France,  and  used  in  the  Toulon  dock- 
yard. Such  machines  are  capable 
of  drilling  in  their  place,  and  after 
erection,  nearly  all  the  holes  re- 
quired for  rivets,  bolts,  etc.,  in  all 
kinds  of  iron  or  steel  structures — 
such  as  ships,  bridges,  girders,  and 
boilers — wherever  hydraulic  press- 
ure is  available  for  working  them. 
By  drilling  in  place,  a  single  oper- 
ation serves  to  drill  through  all  the 
superposed  thickness  without  stop- 
ping the  tool ;  whereas,  when  the 
pieces  are  separate,  as  in  the  shop, 
as  many  separate  drilling  opera- 
tions are  required  as  there  are 
pieces. 

Each  drilling-machine  is  com- 
posed of  two  parts :  First,  a  small 
hydraulic  motor  M,  driven  by  wa- 
ter pressure  supplied  from  a  main  FlG  8._Portable  hydraulic  drilling-machine, 
through  flexible  or  jointed  pipes. 

The  discharge  water  is  led  away  through  India-rubber  tubing.  The  motors  are  Brotherhood's 
three-cylinder  engines.  Second,  a  drill-holder,  consisting  of  a  small  frame  F  of  C-shape.  in 
which  are  arranged  the  bearings  of  the  driving-shaft  A  from  the  motor,  and  of  the  hollow 
drill-spindle  D  at  right  angles  to  it.  On  the  motor-shaft  A  is  keyed  a  bevel-wheel  B,  gearing 
with  a  bevel-pinion  P  on  the  drill-spindle  Z>.  At  one  end  of  the  drill-spindle  is  a  socket  S  for 
holding,  and  the  other  end  is  threaded  internally  for  receiving  the  setting-up  screw  T.  which 
is  turned  by  the  hand-wheel  W,  either  to  give  the  feed  while  drilling  or  to  withdraw  the  drill 
when  the  hole  is  finished.  A  longitudinal  slot  L  for  the  key  of  the  bevel-pinion  P  allows 


188 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


the  drill-spindle  to  slide  through  the  pinion  while  the  latter  is  kept  in  place  by  an  annular 
recess  R.  Beyond  the  hand-wheel  W  the  screw  T  terminates  in  a  point  </,  which  can  be 
pressed  against  a  cross-piece  or  frame,  such  as  is  used  for  drilling  with  a  ratchet-brace.  The 
central  part  of  the  frame  F  is  bolted  to  the  flange  of  the  motor  J/,  and  thus  forms  a  long 
bearing  for  the  shaft  A ;  and  small  closed  lubricators  insure  the  bearing  being  properly  oiled, 
in  whatever  position  the  drill  may  be  held.  In  the  base  G  of  the  motor  are  slotted  holes  for 
fixing  it  to  the  structure.  These  machines  are  made  of  steel  and  phosphor  bronze.  The 
weight  does  not  exceed  105  Ibs.  for  the  1  horse- power  drill  and  62  Ibs.  for  the  £  horse-power 
drill.  Trials  made  for  a  lengthened  period  have  proved  that,  in  the  case  of  a  large  armor- 
clad  man-of-war,  built  on  the  cellular  system,  and  consequently  of  very  complicated  design, 
the  number  of  holes  drilled  in  place  by  these  small  hydraulic  machines  is  at  least  25  per  cent 
greater  than  the  number  of  similar  holes  that  can  be  drilled  in  the  same  time  by  stationary 
machines  in  the  shops,  and  is  at  least  six  or  seven  times  greater  than  the  number  of  similar 
holes  that  can  be  drilled  in  place  by  ratchet-braces.  In  the  1  horse-power  machine  the  motor 
makes  90  revolutions  per  minute.  It  drills  holes  from  1£  up  to  2  in.  diameter.  The  |  horse- 
power machines  make  150  revolutions  per  minute  and  drill  holes  up  to  1£  in.  diameter. 

Drill :  see  Coal-Mining  Machines,  Grinding  Machines,  Seeders  and  Drills,  and  Watches 
and  Clocks. 

DRILLS,  ROCK.  I.  DRILLS  DRIVEN  BY  STEAM  OR  AIR.—  The  Sergeant  Tappet- Drill— 
This  machine  has  a  positive  valve,  moved  by  direct  contact  with  the  piston.  It  is  used  in 
quarry-work  where  the  steam  is  wet,  and  where  the  rock  is  reasonably  soft,  such  as  slate,  sand- 
stone," oolitic  limestone,  etc.  The  valve  .is  of  rocker  form,  and  is  moved  by  shoulders  on  the 
piston.  The  valve  and  rocker  are  in  one  piece. 

The  Rand  Drill  Co; s  " Slugger"  Rock- Drill. — In  the  invention  and  design  of  this  ma- 
chine the  object  was  to  obtain  a  better  steam  distribution  than  had  before  prevailed  in  ma- 
chines of  this  class.  The  chief  resulting  differences  between  this  machine  and  others  are  as 
follows : 

1.  In  the  so-called  "  tappet"  machines  the  motion  of  the  piston  is  arrested  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  return  or  inboard  stroke  by  a  live-steam  cushion,  obtained  by  giving  the  valve  a 
great  degree  of  "lead."  In  this  machine  the  piston  is  stopped  (so  far  as* is  possible  so  to  do) 
by  an  exhaust-steam  cushion,  obtained  by  closing  the  exhaust  port  soon  after  the  return  stroke 
has  commenced,  and  the  steam  thus  compressed  forms  a  portion  of  that  used  to  effect  the 
succeeding  striking  stroke.  2.  Jn  "  tappet "  machines  the  steam  is  used  without  expansion. 
In  this  machine  expansion  is  introduced  to  any  desired  extent.  3.  "  Tappet "  machines  strike 
a  cushioned  blow.  This  machine  strikes  an  uncushioned  blow. 

The  cushioned  blow  is  a  necessity  with  "tap  pet  "-valve  gears — this  necessity  arising  from 
the  following  circumstances :  The  length  of  stroke  of  a  rock-drill  is  not  constant.  As  the 
drill  hole  progresses  in  depth  the  cylinder  must  be  correspondingly  fed  forward,  but  to  effect 
this  feed  with  perfect  regularity  is*  found  to  be  an  impossibility.  "The  effect  of  this  irregular 
feed  of  the  cylinder  is  to  vary  the  point  marking  the  end  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston — the  ap- 
proach of  the  piston  to  the  lower  cylinder-head  varying  from  stroke  to  stroke.  Moreover,  in 
starting  a  hole,  and  under  certain  circumstances,  it  is  occasionally  desirable  to  be  able  to  feed 
the  cylinder  forward,  so  as  to  shorten  the  stroke  still  more  than  is  actually  necessary  to  ac- 
commodate the  usual  irregularity  of  feed.  In  brief,  the  machine  must  be  able  to  take  strokes 
of  considerably  less  than  normal  length  without  failure ;  to  trip  its  valve,  in  order  to  continue 
in  uninterrupted  action.  This  circumstance  has  usually  been  provided  for  by  simply  giving 
the  valve  a  great  degree  of  lead  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder,  tripping  the  valve  at  a  point 
previously  decided  upon  as  the  end  of  the  shortest  stroke  to  be  allowed,  and  then  submitting 
from  necessity  to  the  loss  of  power  due  to  the  cushion  thus  introduced  into  all  strokes  of  usual 


Fio.  1.— Steam  drill— valve  motion. 


FIG.  2. — Cross  section. 


length.  In  the  machine  about  to  be  described,  provision  has  been  made  for  this  irregular  feed 
and  length  of  stroke,  but  nevertheless,  when  full-length  strokes  are  made,  the  valve  does  not 
move,  nor  is  steam  admitted  below  the  piston,  until  the  actual  delivery  of  the  blow. 

Figs.  3,  4,  5,  and  6  are  longitudinal  sections  taken  on  the  broken  line  A  B  CD  of  Fig.  2, 
the  piston  and  valve  being  shown  in  a  number  of  successive  positions.  Fig.  2  is  a  cross-sec- 
tion on  the  line  E  F  of  Fig.  3. 

In  Fig.  3  the  piston  has  just  completed  its  striking  stroke  and  is  ready  to  commence  its 
return  stroke.  The  steam  which  effected  the  preceding  striking  stroke  has  been  exhausted 
through  the  opening  h,  which  forms  the  only  exhaust  port  for  the  upper  or  left-hand  end  of 
the  cylinder.  Steam  enters  at  the  supply  nozzle  a,  flows  through  the  longitudinal  groove  b  in 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


189 


the  cylinder  (seen  also  in  Fig.  2)  to  the  broad,  shallow  circumferential  groove  c  in  the  piston. 
The  longitudinal  groove  b  is  of  such  length  as  to  maintain  constant  communication  between 
the  nozzle  a  and  the  circumfer-  £ 

ential  groove  c.     Its  office  is  to  •iTffTi        <s^-— 

lessen  the  otherwise  inconvenient  MuUJTTTin^lf^JiiiiB;  i 

length  of  the  circumferential 
groove  c.  This  in  turn  dimin- 
ishes the  length  of  piston  and 
cylinder,  and  hence  weight  of 
machine.  This  circumferential 
groove  c  forms,  in  effect,  the  steam- 
chest  of  the  machine,  and  from  it 
the  steam  is  distributed  alternate- 
ly to  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
cylinder.  Through  the  passage  d 
steam  pressure  is  maintained  in 
the  lower  end  of  the  valve-chest, 
firmly  holding  the  valve  in  the 
position  shown.  Steam  flows 
through  the  passage  e  e,  and  from 
this  through  the  neck  /  of  the 
valve  to  the  passage  gg,  which  in 
turn  leads  it  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  cylinder.  The  piston  now 
starts'upward,  and  presently  takes 
the  position  shown  in  Fig.  4.  In 


FIGS.  3-6. — Longitudinal  section  showing  valve  in  different 
positions. 


gassing  from  the  position  of  Fig. 
to  that  of  Fig.  4,  the  piston  has 
closed  the  ports  d  eh  and  opened 
ij.  Closing  h  confines  the  ex- 
haust steam  in  the  upper  end  of 
the  cylinder,  forming  an  exhaust 
cushion  before  the  piston,  and  ac- 
complishes the  first  improvement 
named  above.  Closing  d  merely 
isolates  the  steam  already  in  the 
end  of  the  valve-chest.  Closing 
e  cuts  off  the  supply  of  steam  to 
the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder,  and 
for  that  end  effects  the  second  im- 
provement aimed  at.  Opening  i  has  no  effect,  as  its  upper  end  is  still  closed  by  the  valve. 
Opening/  establishes  communication  between  the  lower  ends  of  cylinder  and  valve-chest,  and 
hence,  as  expansion  goes  on  from  the  cut-off,  the  pressure  acting  on  the  end  of  the  valve  will 
gradually  fall.  In  Fig.  5  the  piston  has  ascended  still  farther,  and  uncovered  the  port  k, 
admitting  steam  through  the  passages  I  and  n,  respectively,  to  the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder 
and  valve-chest.  The  former  completes  the  work  of  stopping  the  motion  of  the  piston  ;  the 
latter,  being  opposed  only  by  expanded  steam  at  the  lower  end  of  the  valve,  as  just  ex- 
plained, shifts  the  valve  "downward,  thus  establishing  communication  between  the  port^^r 
and  the  exhaust  passage  o.  The  piston  now  commences  its  descent,  and  closes  and  opens  the 
various  ports  in  the  reverse  order  to  that  just  explained.  Closing  k  has  no  effect,  as  i  being 
now  open,  the  steam  can  pass  through  it  to  the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder.  Closing  i  effects 
the  cut-off  for  the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder,  exactly  as  closing  e  did  for  the  lower  end. 
Opening  e  has  no  effect,  its  upper  end  being  now  closed  by  the  valve.  Opening  h  effects  the 
exhaust.  In  the  actual  machine  a  covered  passage  leads  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  port  h 
to  the  passage  o,  so  that  the  exhaust  from  the  two  ends  of  the  cylinder  escapes  to  the  air 
through  a  single  outlet  w  of  Fig.  2.  In  Fig.  6  the  piston  has  just  uncovered  the  port  d  leading 
to  the  lower  end  of  the  valve-chest,  and  it  has  thus  established  the  conditions  which  will  re- 
verse the  valve  and  insure  the  next  upward  stroke.  As  the  port  d  is  just  uncovered,  and  no 
more,  the  piston  is  at  the  point  marking  the  termination  of  its  shortest  working  stroke. 
Should  the  piston  stop  short  of  the  position  shown  (by  reason  of  excessive  feed),  the  port  d 
would  not  be  uncovered,  the  valve  would  not  reverse,  and  the  machine  would  stop.  As  will 
be  seen,  the  piston  is  at  some  distance  from  the  lower  cylinder-head,  this  distance  represent- 
ing the  latitude  of  irregularity  permitted  in  the  feed.  The  piston  may  stop  anywhere  be- 
tween the  end  of  the  cylinder*  and  the  position  of  Fig.  6,  and  the  action  will  continue.  In 
order  to  effect  the  third  improvement  (the  uncushioned  blow),  it  is  necessary  to  provide  an 
arrangement  which,  notwithstanding  the  passage  d  is  always  opened  at  the  position  shown 
in  Fig.  8,  shall  yet,  when  full-length  strokes  are  made,  permit  the  piston  to  pass  on  and 
complete  its  stroke  without  the  movement  of  the  valve  actually  taking  place  until  the  delivery 
of  the  blow.  This  is  effected  by  simply  constricting  a  portion  of  this  passage  d,  making  it  of 
such  small  size  that  the  passage  through  it  of  the  steam  necessary  to  move  the  valve  shall  be 
delayed  until  the  piston  has  had  time  to  pass  on  and  complete  its  stroke.  In  the  machine  as 
actually  made,  most  of  the  ports  opening  into  the  cylinder  are  arranged  in  pairs,  and  diamet- 
rically opposite  one  another,  to  obviate  side  pressure  on  the  piston. 


190 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


In  Fig.  7  are  shown  indicator  diagrams  taken  with  the  machine  operated  by  compressed 
,  and  photographically  reproduced  from  the  original  pencil-lines,  and  being  taken  at  work- 
ing pressure,  with  wide-open  throttle,  unrestricted  speed,  and  full-length  stroke,  illustrate  the 


action  of  the  machine.     At  p 


T7pper  end 
striking  stroke. 


return  stroke 


in  the  upper  diagram  the  piston  is  in  the  position  of  Fig.  3. 
At  q  the  exhaust  port  h  is  closed  and  compression  begins ; 
at  r  the  port  k  is  opened,  full-pressure  steam  enters,  stops 
the  piston  at  s,  and'  reverses  the  valve ;  at  t  the  port  i  is 
closed  and  expansion  begins ;  at  u  the  port  h  is  opened  and 
exhaust  takes  place.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder  there 
is  no  gradual  rise  of  pressure  like  that  from  q  to  r.  At 
this  end  the  rise  of  pressure  is  practically  instantaneous, 
and  the  result  is  the  undulations  of  the  lower  diagram. 
While,  however,  the  upper  side  of  the  latter  diagram  is 
about  valueless,  the  lower  side  renders  clear  the  action 
which  it  is  desired  to  show;  as  stated,  the  machine  was 
running  at  its  full  stroke — as  near  to  its  lower  head  as 
was  considered  safe — nevertheless,  there  is  no  lead  what- 
ever shown.  At  v  the  exhaust  from  the  upper  end  of  the 
cylinder  occurs,  and  the  crossing  of  the  two  exhausts  pro- 
duces the  flutter  shown.  The  port  d  is  also  opened  at  i\ 
Fia.r.— Indicator  diagram— rock-drill.  but  ^  is  clear  tnat  steam  is  not  admitted  until  the  end  of 

a  the  stroke  is  reached. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  point  of  cut-off  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  ports  e  i, 
lengthwise  in  the  cylinder,  and  can  be  varied  at  will  in  the  design  and  in  the  two  ends  of  the 
cylinder  independently.  The  effect  of  the  cut-off  on  the  striking  stroke  is  to  diminish  the 
force  of  the  blow,  while  the  effect  of  the  absence  of  cushion  is  to  increase  it.  The  former  may 
be  adjusted  to  the  latter,  so  that  the  blow  struck  is  precisely  the  same  as  in  cushioned-blow 
machines,  but  of  course  obtained  with  a  smaller  consumption  of  steam.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  late  cut-off  may  be  employed  on  the  striking  stroke,  thus  giving  the  full  effect  of  the  un- 
cushioned  blow  to  increased  power.  It  is  freely  recognized  that  fuel  is  but  one  of  many  items 
of  expense,  and  that  in  many  situations  speed  of  execution  far  outweighs  any  economy  in  fuel 
that  might  be  realized  through  the  use  of  the  expansion  principle.  To  meet  both  situations 
-J-those  where  economy  and  ca- 
pacity, respectively,  are  lead- 
ing objects — two  classes  of  ma- 
chines are  being  made,  one 
having  cut-off  on  both  strokes 
and  the  other  on  the  up-stroke 
only.  The  first  machine  is 
named  the  "  Economizer  "  and 
the  second  the  "  Slugger,"  and 
either  is  furnished  as  the  situa- 
tion requires. 

Figs.  8  and  9  illustrate  the 


latest  modification  of  the  well- 


FIG.  8.— Little  giant  drill.  FIG.  9.— Section. 

known  Little  Giant  drill.  The  construction  will  be  manifest  from  the  figures.  The  object 
of  this  change  is  to  obtain  renewable  bearings  for  the  rocker-pin,  and  thereby  provide  for 
wear. 

The  Ingersoll  ''•Eclipse "  Rock-Drill  (Fig.  10  and  full  page  plate). — For  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  valve-motion  of  this  drill,  refer  to  the  cut  on  the  following  page.  The  prin- 
cipal parts  of  the  machine  are  the  cylinder  A,  the  piston  It,  the  valve  and  chest  C. 

The  cylinder  A  is  in  form  a  common  steam-cylinder,  with  its  live-steam  ports  P  and  P', 
and  exhaust-port  E.  The  two  dotted  circles  F F'  represent  open  passages  in  the  cylinder, 
which  are  connected  with  the  exhaust  port  E,  and  hence  the  interior  of  the  cylinder  between 
F  F'  is  at  all  times  open  to  the  atmosphere.  The  two  passages  D  D'  are  brass  tubes  opening 
a  passage  from  the  space  in  the  steam-chest  at  each  end  of  the  valves  to  the  interior  of  the 
cylinder  within  the  space  between  F  and  F'.  The  piston  B,  a  common  engine-piston,  moves 
back  and  forth  in  the  cylinder,  and  has  a  stroke  from  X  to  Y.  This  piston  has  a  long  bearing 
in  the  cylinder,  broken  in  its  center  by  the  annular  space  S  S',  making  an  open  space  or 
chamber  all  around  it.  The  length  of  the  space  is  such  that,  wherever  the  piston  may  be  in 
the  cylinder,  this  space  is  at  all  times  open  to  one  of  the  passages  D  D .  and  hence  to  one  of 
the  holes  FF'.  which  leads  by  way  of  the  exhaust  port  E  to  the  open  air.  S  S'  therefore  is 
an  exhaust-chamber  carried  up  and  down  with  the  piston.  When  the  piston  is  on  the  up- 
stroke it  is  open  to  one  of  these  passages,  and  when  on  the  down-stroke  to  the  other.  The 
valve  is  spool-shaped,  and  has  a  hole  through  its  longitudinal  axis,  through  which  passes  the 
bolt  T,  which  serves  to  guide  the  valve  in  its  motion  back  and  forth,  and  which  by  means  of 
a  spline  prevents  its  rolling  on  its  seat.  In  the  bottom  of  the  steam-chest  there  are  two  cored 
passages  connecting  the  tubes  D  and  D'  with  the  ends  R  and  R  of  the  valve.  These  passages 
cross  each  other,  so  that  R  is  connected  with  D'  and  R  with  D.  Now  refer  to  the  above 
illustration.  The  piston  has  completed  the  up-stroke ;  the  valve  has  been  reversed,  and  the 
drill  is  ready  to  strike  a  blow.  We  admit  the  steam  through  the  chest  to  the  valve  at  a  point 
—say  0.  As  the  spaces  at  0  ^Vand  JV'  are  in  one,  the  steam  will  encircle  the  valve,  bearing 
it  down  upon  its  seat  through  the  excess  of  pressure  at  0.  Escaping  over  the  top  of  the  valve- 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


191 


Ingersoll  Rock-Drill. 


192 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


flange  it  will  also  occupy  R.  This  being  connected  with  D,  and  D  being  closed  by  the  lower 
piston-head,  there  is  here  no  outlet.  Now,  R  being  connected  with  Z>',  and  as  D'  is  now  open 
to  the  piston  exhaust-chamber,  the  space  behind  the  valve-flange  at  R  is  free  to  the  exhaust ; 
and  hence  the  steam  pressure  in  R  holds  the  valve  close  at  R  so  long  as  D'  is  open  to  the 


MPftf 


piston  exhaust- 
piston  moves. 


Therefore,  the  valve  must  remain  in  its  present  position  unti 
he  port  P  being  open  to  the  live-steam  chamber  in  the  valve,  and  the  F<*— 
if   i      t    £xhaust'  the  steam  passes  through  P'  into  the  cylinder  at  M,  and  pressing  upon  the 
back  of  the  piston  drives  it  down.    As  the  piston  moves  down,  this  piston  exhaust-passage 


ie  |Wd  ^Jt 


DRILLS,   ROCK.  193 


S  S'  approaches  the  passage  D,  and  when  the  distance  from  D  to  D'  is  traversed,  the  piston 
exhaust-passage  is  open  to  D ;  and  at  the  same  instant  D'  is  shut  off  by  the  upper  piston-head. 
The  result  is  that  1)  is  suddenly  opened  to  the  atmosphere,  and  the  chamber  R',  being  con- 
nected with  it,  is  exhausted.  The  live-steam  around  the  valve  rushes  toward  this  exhaust 
opening,  carrying  the  valve  with  it,  and  pressing  it  against  the  upper  head  of  the  chest  at  R'\ 
thus  the  valve  is  reversed,  the  machine  exhausts,  and  the  motion  of  the  piston  is  reversed.  We 
here  have  an  intermittent  and  reciprocative  action  of  piston  and  valve ;  one  being  dependent 
upon  and  regulated  by  the  other,  yet  each  is  separate  and  removed  from  the  other,  and  with- 
out direct  mechanical  connection.  The  valve  motion  admits  of  a  variable  piston-stroke.  By 
simply  feeding  down  the  cylinder  the  piston  will  work  entirely  in  the  upper  part,  cutting  off 
so  soon  as  the  blow  is  delivered  and  increasing  its  stroke  as  the  hole  is  driven.  This  is  of 
value,  especially  in  starting  or  pointing  holes. 

The  Sergeant  Auxiliary  Valve-Drill  (Fig.  11)  is  strictly  speaking  a  drill  for  hard  rock. 
It  conbines  an  independent  valve  operated  through  an  auxiliary  valve,  and  contains  a  release 
rotation.  These  are  the  two  features  distinguishing  the  Sergeant  from  other  rock-drills. 
The  valve  is  held  in  such  a  position  that  while  the  piston  carrying  the  cutting-tool  is  moved 
toward  the  rock  the  exhaust  remains  open  on  one  end,  while  the  full  pressure  acts  on  the 
other  end  until  the  blow  is  struck,  at  which  time  the  valve  immediately  reverses.  The  aux- 
iliary is  the  trigger  to  the  main  valve.  It  opens  or  closes  the  steam  or  air  passages,  releasing 
the  pressure  from  one  end  or  the  other  of  the  main  valve.  A  new  rotating  device,  with  a 
release  movement,  prevents  twisting  of  the  spiral  bar  or  breaking  of  pawls  and  ratchets. 
When  a  rock-drill  strikes  a  hard  blow  upon  an  uneven  surface  there  is  a  tendency  some- 
times to  twist  the  steel  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  in  which  it  rotates.  The  effect  of 
such  a  blow  on  the  Sergeant  drill  is  simply  to  turn  the  back-head  around,  overcoming  the 
friction  of  the  back-head  springs,  when  with  a  rigid  rotation  it  might  twist  the  rifle-bar  or 
break  the  pawls  and  ratchets. 

The  Githens  Drill.— In  this  drill,  designed  by  Mr.  George  M.  Githens,  of  Xew  York,  a 
positive  motion  is  retained  for  the  valve,  while  at  the  same  time  all  moving  parts  between  the 

Siston  arid  the  valve  are 
one  away  with.  As  shown 
in  Fig.  12,  the  valve  V  itself 
is  placed  in  direct  contact 
with  the  piston  by  which  it 
is  actuated.  Midway,  in  the 
length  of  the  piston,  is  a  wide 
annular  recess  having  a  gen- 
tle inclined  plane  at  each 
end.  The  intervening  annu- 
lar space  round  the  middle 
of  the  piston  forms  the 

FIG.  12.— Githens  drill.  chamber     into    which     thev 

steam  or  air  is  first  admitted. 

The  valve  V  is  over  this  middle  portion,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  segment  of  a  circle,  fitting 
accurately  against  a  cylindrical  face  in  the  valve-chest,  the  axis  of  this  face  being  at  right 
angles  to  that  of  the  drill-cylinder.  In  the  outer  face  of  the  valve  is  provided  a  pair  of  re- 
cesses properly  proportioned  for  admitting  the  air  past  the  valve  to  the  ends  of  the  cylinder 
alternately.  The  air  being  admitted  into  the  middle  chamber  of  the  cylinder,  pres*ses  the 
valve  outward  and  close  up  against  its  cylindrical  face  ;  and  the  piston  being  at  one  end  of 
its  stroke,  the  other  end  of  the  valve  has  been  raised  by  the  inclined  plane,  and  the  valve'has 
been  rotated  over  its  curved  face,  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  open  the  port  for  the  admission 
of  the  air  to  the  end  of  the  cylinder.  The  piston  is  thereby  caused  to  make  its  stroke,  and  TrS 
so  doing  it  reverses  the  valve  by  means  of  the  other  inclined  plane.  At  the  same  time  that 
the  adtnission  is  taking  place  to  "one  end  of  the  cylinder,  the  opposite  end  is  open  to  the  ex- 
haust E  through  the  other  recess  in  the  back  of  the  valve.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  only 
moving  pieces  are  the  piston  and  the  valve. 

McCulloch's  "Rio  Tinto  "  Drill. — In  this  drill,  shown  in  Figs.  13  and  14,  the  two  pistons 
forged  solid  upon  the  piston-rod  perform  the  double  function  of  acting  themselves  as  outlet 
or  exhaust  valves,  and  also  of  actuating  the  inlet  slide-valve  V  through  a  tappet  T,  struck  by 
a  swelling  or  spherical  boss  surrounding  the  piston-rod  midway  between  them.  The  com- 
pressed air  or  steam  for  working  the  drill  is  admitted  to  the  valve-chest,  and  is  distributed  by 
the  slide-valve  through  ordinary  ports  and  passages  to  the  ends  of  the  cylinder  alternately. 
The  exhaust  takes  place  direct  from  the  cylinder  through  two  sets  of  four  holes  E,  which  are 
alternately  covered  and  uncovered  by  the  pistons.  The  further  extremities  of  the  admission- 
passages,  "just  where  they  enter  the  'cylinder,  are  each  fitted  with  a  rectangular  mushroom- 
valve  /.  which  opens  for  admission  into  the  cylinder,  bnt  closes  against  exit  therefrom.  Hence, 
after  the  set  of  four  exhaust-holes  in  front  of  either  piston  has  been  closed  by  the  piston  itself, 
the  exhaust-air  remaining  in  that  end  of  the  cylinder  is  compressed  to  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
thus  forming  a  cushion,  and  preventing  the  piston  from  striking  the  cylinder-cover.  In  the 
forward-stroke,  however,  owing  to  the  position  of  the  exhaust-holes,  the  cushioning  does  not 
offer  any  appreciable  resistance  to  the  force  of  the  cutting  blow,  except  when  the  piston  is 
traveling  too  far,  in  consequence  either  of  a  soft  place  in  the  rock  or  of  the  drill  not  being 
kept  in  its  proper  working  position.  When  the  exhaust-air  is  being  compressed  in  either  end 
of  the  cylinder,  it  presses  the  non-return  mushroom-valve  /tighter  upon  its  seating;  whereas 

13 


194 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


the  corresponding  valve  at  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder  is  full  open  for  the  admission,  the 
driving  air  pressure  being  greatly  in  excess  of  the  strength  of  the  light  spring  that  tends  to 
close  the  non-return  valve.  This  action  takes  _ 

place  alternately  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder. 
When  the  inlet  slide-valve  V  has  been  moved  by 
the  tappet  to  either  end  of  its  travel,  so  as  to 
close  one  of  the  admission-ports  and  open  the 
other,  it  is  retained  in  that  position  by  the  air- 
pressure  acting  upon  its  admitting  end,  and  any 
movement  is  thereby  prevented  during  the  time 
that  the  boss  on  the  piston-rod  is  not  in  contact 
with  the  tappet.  The  slide-valve  is  cylindrical, 
and  the  cylindrical  casing  or  chest  in  which  it 
slides  is  provided  with  an  oil-hole  on  the  outer 
side,  and  on  the  inner  side  has  a  longitudinal  slot 
in  which  the  arm  of  the  tappet  moves.  At  each 
extremity  of  its  travel  the  slide-valve  is  pressed 
by  the  tappet  against  a  stop,  consisting  of  a  steel- 
disk  Z)  with  India-rubber  backing.  When  de- 
sired, both  the  valve  and  the  tappet  can  be  re- 
versed end  for  end,  for  equalizing  their  wear. 
During  the  inward  or  return  stroke  of  the  drill, 
it  is  caused  to  rotate  through  rather  less  than  a 
quarter  of  a  turn  by  means  of  a  rifled  spindle  S 
fitted  into  the  back-cylinder  cover,  and  carrying 
a  ratchet-wheel  R  with  pawls  held  up  by  springs, 
which  allows  it  to  rotate  in  one  direction  only. 
On  the  spindle  works  a  corresponding  bush,  fitted 
in  the  back  end  of  the  piston-rod,  in  which  is 
also  made  a  cavity  long  enough  to  receive  the 
spindle  when  the  piston-rod  is  at  the  extremity 
of  its  inward  stroke.  When  the  drill  is  making 
its  forward  or  cutting  stroke,  the  ratchet-wheel 
and  rifled  spindle  are  rotated  freely  by  the  bush 
in  the  piston-rod;  while  in  the  return-stroke 
they  are  held  by  the  pawls  from  rotating,  and 


FIGS.  13, 14.— "Rio  Tinto"  rock-drill. 


consequently  the  drill  is  now  rotated  by  the  bush  through  the  extent  of  the  turn  provided  in 
the  rifling  of  the  spindle.  The  drill-cylinder  is  cast  with  V-shaped  projections  sliding  in  cor- 
responding grooves  in  the  cradle  C  in  which  it  is  mounted.  The  feed  is  given  by  a  screw 

worked  by  hand.  The  cylinder  is  3|  in.  diameter  with 
a  stroke  of  5  in. ;  and  the  weight  of  the  drill  unmounted 
is  308  Ibs. 

Stephens'  "  Climax  "  Drill. — In  the  construction  of 
this  drill  (shown  in  Fig.  15),  one  of  the  principal  feat- 
ures is  the  reversible  tappet-valve  F,  which  is  a  flat 
plate  rocking  on  a  center  pin,  and  actuated  by  a  spher- 
ical boss  on  the  piston-rod,  midway  between  the  two 
pistons.  The  valve  contains  a  pair  of  admission-ports 
A.  and  a  pair  of  recesses  or  exhaust-ports  E,  which 
control  two  corresponding  pairs  of  ports  in  the  valve- 
chest  face,  communicating  with  the  ends  of  the  cylinder 
and  with  the  atmosphere.  On  the  back  of  the  valve  is 
another  pair  of  recesses  or  exhaust-ports,  corresponding 
with  those  on  the  face,  so  that  when  worn  the  valve 
can  be  reversed  back  and  face  and  upside  down  ;  it  is 
then  practically  as  good  as  a  new  valve  and  new  tappet. 
A  second  feature  is  the  twisting  or  rotating  device 
on  the  rifled  spindle  in  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder, 
which  consists  of  a  crown  ratchet-clutch  R,  whereby 
the  use  of  pawls  is  dispensed  with.  The  strain  which 
would  come  upon  a  single  pawl  and  tooth  for  rotating 
the  drill,  or  upon  a  pair,  is  here  distributed  equally 
over  15  catches,  which  all  act  at  the  same  time,  the 
sliding  half  of  the  clutch  being  all  in  one  piece,  and 
pressed  forward  against  the  rotating  half  by  a  single 
spring.  This  arrangement  admits  of  the  clutch  being 
from  1  in.  to  \\  in.  larger  in  diameter  than  a  ratchet- 
wheel  in  the  same  cylinder-cover,  because  no  space  is 
required  for  pawls  and  springs  outside  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  ratchet.  The  strain,  therefore,  besides  being 
distributed  over  a  much  larger  number  of  teeth,  is  also 
removed  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  center.  An- 
FIG.  15.— " Climax  "  drill.  other  feature  is  the  insertion  of  loose  adjusting  liners 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


195 


L  in  the  cradle  C,  which  are  so  arranged  that  any  movement  of  the  cylinder  in  the  cradle  can 
be  readily  adjusted  in  a  few  minutes  by  these  loose  liners ;  and  provision  is  made  for  them  in 
the  construction  of  the  cradle.  The  feed  is  given  by  a  screw  worked  by  hand.  A  3-in.  drill 
unmounted  weighs  about  240  lb.,  and  a  3$-in.  about  280  Ib. 

DRILLS  DRIVEN  BY  HAND-POWER. — Ingersoll  Hand- 
Power  Drill  (Pig.  16). — This  consists  of  a  strong  cast- 
iron  cylinder,  shown  in  Fig.  16,  in  which  works  a  steel 
rod  R  in  place  of  a  piston-rod,  carrying  the  drilling- 
tool  at  its  outer  extremity  by  means  of  a  suitable  clip. 
Across  the  cylinder  at  about  midway  in  its  length  is 
fixed  a  shaft,  carrying  two  fly-wheels  W,  with  handles, 
and  two  hardened  steel  cams  (7,  each  of  which  has  3 
points,  thereby  producing  3  blows  at  each  revolution. 
As  the  cams  revolve  they  alternately  lift  and  release  a 
steel  cross-head  If,  which  is  fixed  by  a  collar  on  the 
working-rod  R,  and  projects  on  each  side  of  the  cylin- 
der, and  is  surmounted  by  a  strong  volute  spring  in- 
d°se<i  in  the  cylinder.  The  spring  is  compressed  by 
*ne  ^ting  of  the  cross-head,  and  its  recoil  on  release 
produces  the  blow,  which  is  delivered  dead  on  the  stone 
without  shock  to  the  men.  The  spring  ordinarily  sup- 
plied for  a  drill  to  be  worked  by  two  men  is  compressed 
to  200  Ibs.,  and  produces  with  the  momentum  of  the 
working-rod  and  drill  a  blow  of  about  300  Ibs.  The 
rotation  of  the  drill  is  provided  for  by  a  ratchet-wheel 
with  oblique  teeth  fixed  on  the  working-rod,  into  which 
engages  a  long  oblique  spring-blade  or  feather-pawl  P, 
fixed  in  the  thickness  of  the  cylinder,  whereby  a  partial 
turn  is  produced  in  the  backw'ard  stroke  ;  while  in  the 
forward  stroke  the  rod  goes  free,  without  any  impedi- 
ment to  the  blow.  The  automatic  feed  is  effected  by 
the  tail  end  of  the  working-rod,  which  projects  through 
the  back  cylinder-cover,  and  is  tapered  off  in  a  cone  at 
its  extremity.  As  the  work  progresses,  this  cone  grad- 
ually comes  within  the  cover,  and  permits  the  inward 
movement  of  a  small  radial  lever  L,  to  which  is  jointed 
a  pawl  that  works  into  a  ratchet-wheel  nut  running  on 
the  feed-screw.  In  the  backward  stroke  of  the  work- 
ing-rod its  thicker  part  below  the  cone  pushes  the  lever 


FIG.  16.— Hand-power  drill. 


FIG.  17. 


outward,  whereby  the  pawl  is  thrust  into  the  ratchet,  thus  giving  it  a  turn  on  the  screw  and 
feeding  the  machine  forward.  This  feed  adapts  itself  exactly  to  the  rate  of  penetration.  It 
can  be  thrown  out  of  gear  when  desired.  The  length  of  the  stroke  is  3£  in.,  and  the  weight 
of  the  machine  is  300  Ibs. 

III.  DRILLS  DRIVEN  BY  HYDRAULIC  PRESSURE. — The  Brandt  Drill  operates  through  a 
hydraulic  pressure  of  from  100  to  120  atmospheres,  and  pierces  the  hardest  rocks  after  the 
manner  of  diamond 
rock-drills,  but  with 
the  use  of  steel  tools. 
The  drilling  -  tool, 
which  is  annular  in 
form,  is  given  a  ro- 
tary motion  while  be- 
ing held  firmly 
against  the  rock.  The 
pressure  of  the  tool 
against  the  latter  re- 
sults from  the  action 
of  water  compressed 
in  a  cylinder  forming 
a  continuation  of  the 
tool-carrier.  In  the 
interior  of  this  cylin- 
der there  is  a  plunger 
which  abuts  against 
the  column  that 
serves  as  a  support 
to  the  apparatus.  A 
rotary  motion  is  given 
the  tool  by  a  cog- 
wheel keyed  to  the 

cylinder  and  actuated  by  a  transverse  endless  screw  set  in  motion  by  two  small  hydrometers 
placed  on  either  side.  The  number  of  revolutions  of  the  drill  varies  from  5  to  12  per  min- 
ute, according  to  the  nature  of  the  rock.  In  the  hardest  rocks  the  drilling  is  effected  at  the 


FIG.  19. 
FIGS.  17-20.— Brandt  drill— details. 


FIG.  20. 


196 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


rate  of  5  revolutions  per  minute,  and  allows  of  an  advance  of  4  millimetres  per  revolution  be- 
ing made.  The  drilling-machine  proper  consists  of  a  cylinder  and  a  piston  (Fig.  17) ;  the 
cylinder  carrying  the  drill-rod.  By  introducing  water,  under  pressure,  into  the  cylinder, 
the  same,  and  with  it  the  drill-bit,  is  pressed  against  the  rock.  The  rotary  motion  of  the 
drill  is  imparted  by  two  small  hydraulic  engines,  coupled  together  under  90°,  with  differential 
pistons,  and  fastened  to  either  side  of  the  cylinder.  The  valve-motion  of  these  engines  is  so 
arranged  that  the  right-hand  one  steers  the  left-hand  one,  and  vice  versa.  These  engines  turn 
a  worm,  and  by  it  a  worm-wheel,  which  is  connected  with  the  rear  end  of  the  cylindrical  shell 
surrounding  the  pressure-cylinder.  This  shell  carries  at  its  farther  end  the  drill-rod,  rotates 
with  the  worm,  and  therefore  causes  the  drill-bit  to  rotate  also.  The  continuous  advance  of 
the  drill  is  effected  by  the  direct  hydraulic  pressure  on  the  cylinder.  The  cleaning  of  the 
drill-hole  is  done  by  the  water  escaping  from  the  hydraulic  engine,  and  led  through  the  hol- 
low drill-rod  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole. 

As  further  illustrating  the  principles  of  the  Brandt  drill,  the  following  description  is  given, 
reference  being  had  to  the  accompanying  engravings : — Fig.  17  is  a  longitudinal  section  of 
the  cylinder,  with  the  piston  and  a  cross-section  of  column.  The  back  part  of  the  cylinder  is 
uninterruptedly  connected  with  the  pressure- water  through  the  port  a.  Now,  if  pressure-water 
is  admitted  through  b  into  the  other  part  of  the  cylinder  and  the  exit  at  c  is  closed,  the  cylin- 
der and  with  it  the  drill-rod  and  bit  is  pressed  forward  by  a  pressure  corresponding  to  differ- 
ence of  the  areas  of  the  piston.  With  b  shut  and  c  open,  the  cylinder  moves  backward  with  a 
pressure  corresponding  to  the  annular  area  of  the  piston.  With  b  and  c  both  closed,  the  cylin- 
der remains  stationary.  Fig.  18  explains  the  principle  of  the  small  hydraulic  engines,  turning 
the  drill.  The  working-piston  is  a  differential  piston.  The  fore  part  of  the  cylinder  is  con- 
tinuously connected  with  the  pressure- water  through  e.  The  distribution  of  the  pressure- 
water  takes  place  only  in  the  back  part  of  the  cylinder  by  means  of  a  piston-valve.  The  water 
used  runs  off  through  a.  Fig.  19  shows  the  accumulator.  The  pressure-water  is  admitted 

uninterruptedly  into  the  cylinder  through  the 
port  a.  If  the  pumps  deliver  more  water 
than  used,  the  piston  of  the  accumulator  rises 
above  the  upper  section  of  the  cylinder,  allow- 
ing the  water  to  escape  through  b.  The 
weight  is  regulated  by  the  addition  of  iron 
plates.  The  whole  machine  is  supported  by  a 
column  (Fig.  20).  This  is  constructed  after 
the  principle  of  the  hydraulic  press,  with  dif- 
ferential plunger-piston. 

Diamond  Prospecting  Drills.  —  The  late 
improvements  in  these  drills  relate  chiefly  to 
the  feeding  mechanism,  of  which  two  kmds 
are  now  in  use,  the  differential  and  the  hy- 
draulic feed : 

1.  The  differential  feed.  For  this  feed  the 
machines  have  a  shaft,  5  to  7  ft.  in  length,  of 
heavy  hydraulic  tubing,  with  a  deep  screw 
cut  on  the  outside.  The  shaft  is  feathered  to 
the  lower  sleeve-gear.  This  is  a  double  gear, 
connecting  by  its  upper  teeth  with  a  beveled 
driving-gear,  and  by  its  lower  teeth  with  the 
release-gear — a  frictional  gear  at  the  bottom 
of  the  short  feed-shaft.  At  the  upper  end  of 
the  feed-shaft  another  gear  is  feathered,  con- 
necting with  an  upper  gear  on  the  screw-shaft. 
This  last  gear  is  attached  to  the  feed-nut,  in 
the  thread  of  which  runs  the  screw  of  the 
screw-shaft,  and  as  the  gear  of  the  feed-shaft 
has  one  or  more  teeth  than  that  of  the  feed- 
nut,  the  nut  makes  fewer  revolutions  in  a 
given  time  than  the  screw-shaft,  thus  produc- 
ing the  differential  feed.  The  frictional  gear 
on  the  bottom  of  the  feed-shaft  combines  with 
this  a  frictional  feed,  making  the  drill  sensi- 
tive to  the  character  of  the  rock  through 
which  it  is  passing,  by  maintaining  a  uniform 
pressure.  The  severe  and  sudden  strain  upon 
the  cutting  points  incidental  to  drilling 
through  soft  into  hard  rock  with  a  positive 
feed  is  thus  avoided. 

The  tubular  drill-rod  passes  through  the 
screw-shaft  and  is  held  firmly  by  a  chuck,  the 
FIG.  21.— Diamond  drill.  motion  of  the  screw-shaft  being  thus  com- 

municated to  the  drill-rods  and  bit. 

In  order  to  run  the  screw-shaft  back  after  it  has  been  fed  forward  its  full  length,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  release  the  chuck  and  to  loosen  the  nut  on  the  frictional  gear,  thus  allowing  the 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


197 


gear  to  run  loose ;  then  the  screw-shaft  will  run  up  with  the  same  motion  which  carried  it 
down,  but  with  a  velocity  sixty  times  greater — that  is,  the  speed  with  which  the  screw-shaft 
feeds  up  is  to  the  speed  with  which  it  fed  the  drill  down  as  sixty  to  one — the  revolving  veloci- 


cessive  lengths  being  quickly  coupled  together  by  an  inside  shoulder-nipple  coupling,  and 
having  a  hole  bored  through  the  center  to  admit  of  the  passage  of  the  water.  In  order  to 
withdraw  the  drill-rods,  they  are  uncoupled  below  tlfe  chuck;  the  swivel-head,  which  is 
hinged,  is  unbolted  and  swung  beck — thereby  moving  the  screw-shaft  to  one  side,  and  afford- 
ing a  clearance  for  the  rods  to  be  raised  by  the  hoisting-gear  on  the  machine,  without  moving 
the  latter  from  its  place. 

2.  The  hydraulic  feed  is  illustrated  in  the  form  of  diamond  drill  shown  in  Fig.  21.  This 
is  an  improved  method  which  is  substituted  for  the  gear  or  differential  feed,  described  above. 
The  feed-motion  here  is  accomplished,  as  its  name  indicates,  by  hydraulic  pressure,  through 
the  medium  of  two  small  cylinders  and  pistons,  the  piston-rods  being  connected  by  a  suitable 
cross-head  to  the  plain  hollow  spindle,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  screw-shaft  of  the  differ- 
ential feed,  and  carries  the  drill-rod.  Both  ends  of  the  hydraulic  cylinders  are  connected  by 
a  system  of  pipes  and  hose  to  the  pumps  that  supply  the  water  necessary  in  drilling  with  the 
dia'mond  bit.  The  quantity  of  water  admitted  to  the  cylinders  is  controlled  by  a  four-way 
cock,  which  also  admits  water  to  either  end  of  the  cylinders,  as  the  operator  may  require. 
Thus,  it  will  be  readily  understood,  the  amount  of  pressure  on  the  bit  is  directly  under  the 
control  of  the  operator,  and  only  limited  by  the  water-pressure  from  the  supply-pumps;  the 
range  being,  in  ordinary  cases,  from  nothing  up  to  4,000  Ibs.  The  changes  through  the  whole 
range  of  pressure,  and"  also  the  reversing  the  motion  of  the  feed,  are  accomplished  by  simply 
moving  a  small  lever  while  the  machine  is  running  at  full  speed.  A  pressure-gauge  is  placed 
on  the  pipe  leading  to  the  hydraulic  cylinders,  so  that  the  operator  can  at  all  times  see  just 
how  much  pressure  there  is  on  the  bit.  With  any  constant  pressure  this  feed  gives  an  auto- 
matic adjustment  of  the  speed  with  which  the  drill  is  fed  forward,  the  rate  of  progression 
depending  upon  the  hardness  of  the  material,  being  from  frequently  less  than  1  in.  per  minute 
in  very  hard  rock  to  over  2  ft.  per  minute  in  a  soft  substance  like  coal.  The  operator,  after 
some  experience,  can,  by  comparing  the  pressure  shown  by  the  gauge  with  the  rate  of  pene- 
tration of  the  drill,  tell"  about  what  kind  of  material  the  bit  is  boring  through,  and  can  make 
use  of  the  knowledge  thus  obtained  either  for  speed  or  for  safety.  The  method  of  coupling 
the  drill-rods  and  of  withdrawing  them  is  similar  to  that  already  described. 

IV.  DRILLS  ACTUATED  BY  ELECTRICITY. — The  principle  underlying  this  form  of  drilling 
apparatus  is  fully  set  forth  under  ELECTROMOTIVE  ENGINES.  Various  types  of  electric  drills 
are  in  use,  but  none  of  them  can  fairly  be  said  to  go  beyond  the  stage  of  experiment,  nor  to 
have  given  uniformly  economical  and  efficient  results. 

The  Marvin  System  of  Electric  Percussion  Tools  is  diagrammatically  represented  in  Fig. 
22.  Fastened  upon  a  suitable  tripod  or  column  is  a  piece  of  boiler-tube  7  in.  in  diameter  and 
about  2£  ft.  long.  In  the  forward 
half  of  this  casing  are  placed  two  cyl- 
indrical coils  of  wire  in  the  form  of 
solenoids,  each  about  8-J-  in.  long,  hav- 
ing an  outside  diameter  of  about  6f 
in.,  so  as  to  make  a  loose  fit  with  the 
casing  and  an  inside  diameter  of  about 
2^  in.  These  two  solenoids  are  placed 
so  as  to  be  against  each  other  and  to 
end  in  the  casing.  The  bit-plunger 
plays  freely  through  the  center  of 
these  solenoids,  and  is  supported  by 
two  bearings  placed  just  beyond  the 
outside  ends  of  the  two  solenoids,  re- 
spectively. The  back  portion  of  the 
casing  contains  a  spiral  spring  of  the 
form  frequently  used  for  car-springs. 
The  plunger  is  composed  of  a  central 
portion  made  of  wrought-iron  about  14  in.  long,  and  both  the  forward  and  back  portion  of 
the  plunger,  which  are  made  of  aluminium-bronze,  are  rigidly  fastened  to  this  iron  portion. 
The  forward  portion  is  about  13  in.  long  and  carries  the  bit-socket.  The  back  portion  is 
spirally  milled  for  a  length  of  about  9  in.,  so  that  the  cross-section  of  this  portion  is  hexago- 
nal. At  the  extreme  back  end  is  a  steel  buffer,  which  strikes  against  the  cushioning  spring. 

The  spirally  milled  portion  of  the  plunger  is  similar  to  that  used  in  other  percussion-drills, 
and  causes  the  drill  to  revolve  upon  its  axis  £  of  a  complete  turn  with  each  stroke.  The  ends 
of  the  coils  of  wire  are  brought  to  contact  with  pieces  at  the  top  of  the  adjacent  ends  of  the 
two  solenoids,  where  there  is  a  socket  for  receiving  the  terminals  of  the  cable,  and  thus  making 
electrical  connection  with  the  drill.  There  are  three  conductors  leading  from  the  generator 
to  the  drill,  one  of  which  is  connected  with  one  terminal  of  each  of  the  solenoids  and  the  other 
two  conductors  are  connected  to  the  two  remaining  terminals  of  the  solenoids,  respectively. 
The  generator  is  of  the  simplest  kind,  the  coils  on  the  armature  having  their  terminals  con- 
nected with  two  insulated  collars  on  the  shaft.  One  collar  is  a  continuous  metallic  ring,  and 


FIG.  22. — Marvin  percussion-drill. 


198 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


upon  this  one  rests  a  brush  which  is  connected  with  the  conductor,  which  is  common  to  both 
solenoids.  The  other  collar  is  metallic  for  half  of  the  circle,  and  the  remaining  half  is  in- 
sulated from  the  armature  wires.  Upon  this  half  ring  rest  two  brushes  diametrically  oppo- 
site each  other,  and  each  brush  is  connected  with  one  of  the  two  remaining  conductors  leading 
to  the  solenoids  in  the  drill.  If  we  now  revolve  the  armature  of  our  generator  in  a  separately 
excited  magnetic  field,  an  electric  current  will  flow.  Let  us  say,  from  the  armature  to  the 
half  ring,  then  through  one  of  the  two  brushes  which  happens  at  the  instant  to  be  in  contact 
with  the  half  ring  along  the  corresponding  conductor  to  one  terminal  of  one  solenoid,  let  us 
suppose  the  rear  one.  Then  through  the  rear  solenoid  itself  and  back  along  the  mutual  wire 
to  the  continuous  ring,  and  then  to  the  armature  again.  This  current  in  passing  through  the 
rear  solenoid  makes  a  powerful  magnet  of  it,  and  this  tends  to  pull  the  plunger  back  into  a 
position  such  that  the  center  of  its  iron  portion  shall  be  in  the  center  of  the  rear  solenoid. 

When  the  armature  moves  forward  a  half  revolution  the  polarity  of  its  wires  is  reversed, 
and  the  other  brush  with  its  conductor  is  now  in  contact  with  the  half  circle.  Consequently, 
the  current  in  the  mutual  wire  will  be  in  the  reverse  direction  from  that  of  the  former  wave ; 

the  rear  solenoid  and  its  conductor,  formerly  active,  are  now 
out  of  circuit,  and  the  circuit  is  made  through  the  other 
conductor  and  its  corresponding  solenoid — that  is,  the  for- 
ward solenoid.  The  magnetic  action  of  this  solenoid  now 
tends  to  make  the  plunger  move  forward,  so  that  the  center 
of  the  iron  portion  shall  be  in  the  center  of  the  forward 
solenoid.  Thus  we  get  a  reciprocating  action  of  the  plunger, 
and  every  revolution  of  the  armature  of  the  generator  will 
cause  a  complete  stroke  of  the  drill.  By  varying  the  speed 
of  revolution  of  the  generator  we  can  make  the  drill  strike 
any  number  of  blows  per  minute  we  choose.  In  usual  prac- 
tice 600  blows  per  minute  are  found  to  give  good  results. 
An  exterior  view  of  a  rock-drill  of  this  type  is  given  in  Fig. 
23.  The  drills  are  operated  in  parallel ;  three  wires  lead  from 
the  two  drill-coils  to  the  generator,  comprising  two  distinct 
circuits,  each  circuit  including  similar  coils  in  the  drills. 
Over  these  two  circuits  electrical  impulses  are  sent  in  alter- 
nation. One  impulse  moves  the  iron  bar  or  plunger  back, 
and  the  next  moves  it  forward ;  thus  the  drills  all  move  to- 
gether and  in  synchronism  with  the  generator.  The  drill 
makes  about  600  strokes  per  minute,  and  the  stroke  of  the 

§  lunger  is  from  3  to  4£  in.    The  heaviest  single  parts  of  the 
rill  are  the  tripod-weights,  which  are  about  100  Ibs.  each. 
:ht  are  the  two  coils,  which  weigh  about  60  Ibs.  each.     The 
>  the  cylindrical  casing,  which  is  38  in.  long  by  about  7  in.  in 


FIG.  23.— Electric  rock-drill. 


Next  to  these  in  order  of  wei 
largest  piece  in  the  entire  drill : 
diameter. 


The  Van  Depoele  Electric  Percussion  Rock-Drill  consists  of  two  or  more  coils  of  copper 
wire  inclosed  in  an  iron  tube,  and  a  wrought-iron  core  moving  within  them.    To  one  end  of 


FIG.  24.— Electric  diamond-drill. 


the  core  is  fastened  a  rifle-bar  rotating  the  drill,  to  the  other  a  rod  carrying  the  drill-chuck. 
Ihe  action  of  the  drill  depends  upon  the  following  experimental  fact:  An  iron  bar  placed 


DRILLS,   ROCK. 


199 


within  a  coil  of  copper  wire  through  which  a  current  of  electricity  is  flowing  will,  if  free  to 
move,  take  up  a  central  position  in  the  coil  or  solenoid.  If  two  coils  are  placed  side  by  side, 
and  the  current  allowed  to  flow  first  through  one  coil,  then  through  the  other,  a  reciprocating 
motion  will  be  imparted  to  the  bar.  The  drill  makes  about  400  strokes  per  min.,  and  the 
length  of  the  stroke  is  from  4  to  5  in.  Both  speed  and  length  of  stroke  may  be  varied  to  suit 
the  character  of  the  rock  by  adjustment  of  the  dynamo.  The  short  stroke  necessary  on  start- 
ing the  bit  is  obtained  by  feeding  the  drill  close  up  to  the  face  of  the  rock. 

The  Electric  Diamond-Drill  (Fig.  24)  is  a  representation  of  a  class 
of  electric  drills  differing  widely  from  those  above  described.  The 
drill  is  rotated  by  suitable  gearing  communicating  with  a  rotary  elec- 
tro-motor. A  current  of  sufficient  capacity  to  deliver  3  horse-power 
at  the  drill-motor  is  required.  The  motor  is  mounted  on  the  same 
frame  as  the  drill,  together  with  the  pump  and  hoisting-drum  with 
wire  rope.  The  claimed  capacity  of  this  machine  is  a  hole  300  f  c. 
deep,  H  in-  in  diameter ;  the  core  produced  being  if  in.  in  diameter. 

Fig.  25  represents  an  Improved  Lifting-Jack  for  Use  in  Diamond- 
Core  prilling,  which  is  operated  as  follows :  The  two  levers  to  which 
the  rings  of  chain  are  attached  are  cam-shaped.  By  pressing  down 
on  them  the  jaws  are  forced  apart  by  a  pair  of  springs,  and  pass  over 
the  end  of  the  drill-rod.  The  operator  then  starts  his  hoisting-ma- 
chine, bringing  a  strain  on  the  two  pieces  of  chain,  drawing  ends  of 
levers  together,  and  throwing  the  cam-faces  against  the  jaws,  which 
come  in  contact  with  the  drill-rod,  gripping  it  firmly.  The  jaws 
have  teeth  or  serrated  faces,  which  prevent  their  slipping  on  the  rods, 
and  the  action  of  the  double  cams  is  such  that,  the  greater  the  strain 
upon  the  ring  above,  the  tighter  they  close  upon  the  rods.  When 
the  rod  is  hoisted  to  the  required  height,  the  safety-clamp  is  tight- 
ened below,  and  the  strain  on  the  rope  is  withdrawn ;  the  ends  of  the 
levers,  thus  being  allowed  to  drop  back  to  a  horizontal  position,  re- 
lease the  jaws  from  the  rod.  The  lifting-jack  is  slipped  off  from  the  end  of  this  rod  and 
lowered  to  take  hold  of  the  next  length  of  rod. 


FIG.  23.-Lifting-jack. 


FIG.  26.— Drill  carriage. 

Fig.  26  represents  a  new  carriage  support,  designed  by  Mr.  Richard  Schram  to  carry  four 
of  his  drilling-machines.  The  carriage  carries  two  stretcher-bars,  each  of  which  supports  two 
drilling-machines,  the  arrangement  of  the  carriage  and  bars  being  such  that  trucks  for  the 
removal  of  debris,  etc.,  can  be  run  right  through  it,  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  provide 
any  sidings  in  which  to  run  the  carriage  when  the  removal  of  spoil  becomes  necessary.  This 
arrangement  has  the  further  advantage  that  the  drilling  machinery  can  be  brought  up  to  the 


200 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


working  face  before  all  the  debris  has  been  removed.  In  cases  where  timbering  is  necessary,  and 
the  stretcher-bars  have  to  be  lowered  to  clean  up,  arrangement  is  made  whereby  these,  with 
their  machines,  can  be  turned  back  down  on  to  the  carriage.  The  small  receiver  shown 
on  top  of  the  carriage  is  for  the  distribution  of  air,  and  it  has  two  inlets  and  four  outlets, 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  drills.  The  tanks  shown  on  each  side  are  the  water- 
injectors,  the  injection  being  effected  by  admitting  air  under  pressure  above  the  surface 
of  the  water. 

Rock-drills  are  mounted  in  various  ways  for  different  classes  of  work.     The  full-page 
plate  of  Niagara  Tunnel  (see  Niagara,  Utilization  of)  illustrates  the  Rand  drill  adapted  to 


Fro.  28. 


Fio.  27. 


FIG 


Fio.  29. 
FIGS.  27-30.— Rand  drill— detail  of  mountings. 

various  classes  of  work.  Figs.  27  to  30  illustrate  various  features  of  these  mountings,  the  chief 
requirement  in  all  cases  being  universal  adjustability.  Fig.  27  illustrates  the  universal  joint 
of  the  Rand  machine  as  mounted  upon  its  tripod ;  Fig.  28  the  universal  joint  by  which  the 
front  leg  of  this  tripod  is  attached  to  the  rest  of  the  structure ;  Fig.  29  illustrates  the  corre- 
sponding universally  adjustable  parts  of  the  tunnel  column ;  and  Fig.  30  the  same  parts  of 
the  shaft-bar. 

Dryer,  Ore :  see  Mills,  Silver. 

Duster :  see  Milling  Machinery,  Grain. 

Dynamite  Gun  :  see  Gun,  Pneumatic. 

DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MACHINES.  The  various  types  of  modern  machines  differ 
from  those  of  ten  years  ago  in  details  of  construction  and  improvements  brought  about  by  a 
more  thorough  recognition  of  the  theory  of  such  machines,  and  the  application  of  well-defined 
methods  for  their  calculation  in  advance  of  construction. 

PARTS  OF  DYNAMO-MACHINES. — The  principal  organs  of  all  dynamos  are  the  armature  in 
which  the  currents  are  generated,  and  which,  as  a  rule,  forms  the  moving  or  driven  part  of 
the  machine ;  and  the  field  magnets,  which  create  the  magnetic  field  through  which  the  arma- 
ture-conductors pass.  To  these  principal  organs  we  may  add  the  commutator,  or  collector, 
into  which  the  currents  generated  in  the  armature  are  led,  and  the  brushes  which  bear  upon 
the  commutator,  and  are  connected  with  the  external  circuit. 

ARMATURES. — Various  constructors  have  adopted  different  forms  of  armatures,  which, 
however,  may  be  grouped  under  four  general  heads,  as  follows  : 

1.  Cylindrical  or  Drum-Armatures,  in  which  the  coils  are  wound  longitudinally  over  the 
surface  of  a  drum  or  cylinder.     This  type  of  armature  is  shown  diagrammatically'in  Fig.  1, 

which  illustrates  a  4-part  drum-armature  with  closed  coil.  In  prac- 
tice, of  course,  the  coils  thus  wound  may  reach  several  hundreds  in 
number,  with  a  corresponding  number  of  commutator-bars.  Arma- 
tures of  this  type  are  employed  in  the  machines  of  Edison,  Weston, 
Siemens  (Alteneck),  Stanley  (alternating),  and  a  large  number  of 
others.  A  modified  form  of  the  drum-armature  is  employed  in  the 
Thomson-Houston  arc-light  dynamo  (see  below)  which  has  a  spheri- 
cal shape. 

Drum-armatures,  a  typical  form  of  which  (Weston)  is  shown  in 
Figs.  54  and  55,  are  usually  built  up  of  disks  of  the  softest  charcoal- 
iron,  insulated  from  each  other  by  layers  of  tissue-paper,  and  screwed 
together  to  form  a  solid  cylinder,  which  is  keyed  to  the  shaft.  The 
coro  thus  formed  is  covered  with  canvas  soaked  in  shellac,  and 
upon  it  the  insulated  wires  are  wound.  The  object  of  building  up  the  core  with  thin  disks 
is  to  avoid  the  formation  of  Foucault  or  "  eddy  "  currents,  which  absorb  power,  and  which 
would  quickly  heat  the  armature  and  destroy  the* insulation  of  the  wires.  In  the  early  types  of 
these  armatures  teeth  were  generally  employed  on  the  periphery,  but  were  later  on  abandoned ; 
practice,  however,  at  present  tends  strongly  to  their  re-employment,  as  they  serve  to  decrease 
the  resistance  of  the  magnetic  circuit  and  to  aid  largely  in  holding  the  wires  firmly  in  place. 

2.  Ring- Armatures. — In  these  the  coils  are  wound  around  an  iron  ring,  usually  mounted 


FIG.  1.— Drum-armature. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES.  201 

on  a  spider  of  brass  or  gun  metal  keyed  to  the  shaft.     This  type  is  shown  diagrammatically  in 

Fig.  2.     This  illustrates  the  usual  type  of  Gramme  armature,  and,  as  will  be  seen,  the  coils  form 

one  continuous  winding,  which  is  tapped  at  the  proper  intervals, 

and    connected  by  short  wires  to   the   commutator-segments, 

against  which   the   brushes  bear.     Ring-armatures  have  been 

adopted  by  a  large  number  of  constructors,  among  them  Paci- 

notti  (who  was  the  first  to   use  a  ring-armature  with  teeth), 

Gramme,  Brush,  Schuckert,  Fein,  etc.     This  type  of  armature  ^ 

is  coming  more  and  more  into  general  use,  on  account  of  its 

simple  construction;  repairs  are  made  easy,  owing  to  the  in-  UG.  A— Ring-armature. 

dependence  'of  each  coil,   which  can  be  removed   without  interfering  with  the  others. 

Various  methods  have  been  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  iron  core  in  ring-armatures. 
In  order  to  avoid  the  generation  of  Foucault  currents,  Gramme  employed  a  ring  built  up  of  iron 
wire  covered  with  a  Japan  compound,  so  as  to  insulate  the  convolutions  from  each  other.  Later 
constructors  have  used  hoop  or  band  iron  wound  as  a  continuous  spiral,  the  layers  of  which 
are  insulated  by  paper.  The  most  recent  machines  of  approved  type  have  cores  built  up  of 
ring-shaped  soft  iron  disks,  insulated  from  each  other,  and  pressed  together  to  form  a  hollow 
cylinder.  The  wires  are,  as  a  rule,  wound  on  the  surface  of  the  core,  but  in  some  recent 
machines,  such  as  those  of  Brown  and  Wenstrom,  the  wires  are  led  through  holes  close  to  the 
periphery  of  the  armature,  being  thus  entirely  imbedded  in  the  iron.  This  avoids  the  use  of 
the  band"  wires  usually  employed  to  hold  the  wires  in  place,  and  allows  the  iron  of  the  armature 
to  be  brought  close  to  that  of  the  pole-pieces,  thus  reducing  the  magnetic  resistance. 

3.  Pole- Armatures. — In  this  type  the  generating  coils  are  wound  on  iron  cores  projecting 
radially  from  the  axis.  This  type  has  been  employed  by  Lontin,  Gramme,  and  others,  and  by 
Weston  in  his  electroplating  machines.  It  is  now  practically  obsolete  for  large  direct-cur- 
rent machines,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  constructing  it  sufficiently  strong,  as  the  cores  require 
to  be  laminated.  Besides  this,  the  number  of  poles  which  can  be  employed  is  limited,  and 
when  closely  crowded  they  react  injuriously  upon  each  other. 

Disk- Armatures. — These  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  (a)  Those  in  which  a  number  of 
independent  coils  wound  on  bobbins,  either  with  or  without  iron  cores,  are  placed  side  by  side 
in  a  circle,  and  revolve  under  the  influence  of  a  number  of  poles  of  successively  opposite 
polarity.  This  type  is  specially  adapted  for  the  generation  of  alternating  currents,  and  has 
been  successfully  employed  by  Wilde,  Holmes,  Siemens — who  used  iron  cores  for  the  coils — 
and  in  the  more  modern  machines  of  Mordey  and  Ferranti  (see  below),  in  which  iron  cores  are 
discarded,  (b)  Those  in  which  the  cores  overlap  a  considerable  angle  of  the  periphery,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  78  (see  below),  which  represents  the  arrangement  adopted  in  the  Desroziers 
machine.  Similar  arrangements  have  been  adopted  by  Edison,  Pacinotti,  Ayrton  and  Perry, 
Jehl  and  Rupp,  and  more  recently  by  Fritsche,  the  latter  machine  being  known  as  the  "  wheel 
dynamo,"  on  account  of  its  peculiar  shape.  (For  practical  examples  of  machines  employing 
these  various  types  of  armatures  see  below.)  In  general,  care  must  be  taken  to  reduce 
the  length  of  an  armature  conductor  as  much  as  possible,  in  order  to  reduce  the  in- 
ternal resistance  of  the  machine,  to  overcome  which  involves  the  consumption  of  power.-  In 
some  machines  the  low  resistance  of  the  armature  is  the  very  basis  of  its  regulating  properties, 
as,  for  instance,  in  the  shunt-machine  (see  below).  Theoretically  the  form  of  armature  re- 
quiring the  smallest  length  of  wire  for  a  given  surface  of  magnetic  induction  is  the  circle. 
This  has  been  carried  out  in  the  Thomson-Houston  machine  (old  type),  and  is  also  followed  in 
the  cores  of  some  armatures  of  the  ring  type.  But  the  advantages  gained  are  not  commen- 
surate with  the  difficulties  encountered  in  construction,  and  the  rectangular  form  of  section  is 
now  generally  adopted.  Only  the  best  quality  of  copper  with  the  lowest  resistance  should  be 
employed,  for  reasons  similar  to  those  stated  above. 

The  number  of  armature  sections  or  coils  to  be  employed  varies  considerably  with  different 
conductors ;  their  number  should,  however,  never  be  so  small  as  to  cause  an  appreciable  fluc- 
tuation in  the  strength  of  the  current.  Armatures  should  be  designed  so  as  to  avoid  excessive 
heating  in  the  conductors;  on  account  of  the  constant  ventilation  to  which  they  are  subjected 
they  are  capable  of  carrying  a  far  heavier  current  than  conductors  placed  in  moldings,  and 
without  access  to  the  circulating  air.  Thus,  while  in  the  latter  case  a  current  of  1,000  amperes 
per  sq.  in.  of  copper  would  be  a  safe  limit,  in  a  well-ventilated  armature  a  current  density  of 
2,500  amperes  per  sq.  in.  is  permissible.  According  to  Ayrton  and  Perry,  the  permissible 
continuous  output  of  a  machine  is  a  maximum  when  the  thickness  of  the  winding  on  the 
armature  is  such  that  the  magnetic  resistance  of  the  air-space  occupied  by  the  winding  on  the 
armature  is  equal  to  the  resistance  of  the  rest  of  the  magnetic  circuit.  Modern  practice  points 
to  the  following  proportions  in  ring-armatures:  The  thickness  of  external  armature  winding 
is  from  7  to  11  per  cent  of  the  diameter  of  the  iron  core,  and  in  drum-armatures  from  9  to  13 
per  cent.  (For  actual  windings,  etc.,  adopted,  see  description  of  machines  below.) 

Open  and  Closed  Coil-Armatures. — According  to  the  nature  of  their  winding  and  their 
connection  with  the  commutator,  armatures  are  divided  into  open  and  closed  coil  types.  In  the 
open  coil  type,  of  which  the  Brush  dynamo  is  an  example,  the  opposite  coils  are  connected 
together  and  joined  to  two  commutator  segments,  and  form  an  independent  circuit,  there  being 
an  open  circuit  between  them  and  the  remaining  coils.  In  the  closed  circuit  type  (see  Fig.  2) 
such  as  the  Gramme  and  Siemens  drum-type,  each  coil,  besides  being  connected  to  the  com- 
mutator-strips is  connected  directly  to  its  neighbor,  and  forms  one  continuous  winding,  the 
coils  forming  a  closed  circuit.  The  former  construction  allows  of  the  cutting  out  of  circuit  of 
those  armature-coils  which  are  not  doing  useful  work  when  out  of  the  influence  of  the  mag- 


202 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


netic  field.  This  serves  to  reduce  the  internal  resistance  of  the  machine,  and  to  increase  its 
efficiency  somewhat.  Open-coil  machines  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  constructions  in  which 
it  is  desired  to  secure  high  potentials  rather  than  heavy  currents,  as  in  arc-light  machines. 

ARMATURE  WINDINGS. — In  the  ring,  disk,  and  pole  type  of  armature  the  winding  or  wind- 
ings are  practically  continuous  and  symmetrical,  but  in  the  drum-armature  there  is  much 
scope  for  devising  combinations,  in  order  to  secure,  first,  an  equal  length  of  wire  in  each  coil ; 
and,  second,  the  shortest  length  of  wire  capable  of  giving  the  required  E.  M.  F.  Figs.  3,  4,  5, 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4.  FIG.  5. 

FIGS.  3-6. — Armature  windings. 


FIG.  6. 


6,  and  7  show  various  methods  of  armature-winding  employed  by  different  constructors.  The 
early  armatures  of  Hefner-Alteneck  (Fig.  4)  were  wound  unsym  metrically,  on  account  of  the 
simple  construction,  and  better  insulation  of  which  it  permitted.  Subsequently  Froelich  in- 
vented a  symmetrical  winding  (Fig.  3).  Breguet  has  designed  a  large  number  of  windings, 
among  them,  Figs.  5  and  6,  and  showed  that  with  eight  commutator  segments  eight  different 
symmetrical  windings  were  possible ;  that  winding  should,  of  course,  be  selected  which,  with 
the  same  inductive  capacity,  will  have  the  shortest  length  of  wire.  Breguet  calculates  that 
for  the  ends  of  the  drums  the  following  lengths  of  wire  are  necessary  for  the  various  systems : 
Froelich  winding,  30-8 ;  Hefner-Alteneck  winding,  30-5  ;  Breguet  winding,  26 ;  Breguet  (an- 
other) winding,  28'4;  Fig.  7  shows  one  style  of  winding  of  the  Edison  armature  which  is 


v 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  8. 
FIGS.  7-9.— Armature  windings. 


FIG.  9. 


symmetrical,  but  which  has  an  uneven  number  of  divisions.  Fig.  8  shows  a  diagram  of  one 
type  of  the  Weston  winding,  and  Fig.  9  a  section  through  the  armature  :  it  will  be  noted  that 
the  layers  of  wire  successively  change  from  outer  to  inner,  thus  equalizing  the  potential  gen- 
erated in  each. 

There  are  also  various  methods  of  winding  closed  coil  ring  armatures.  The  simplest,  of 
course,  is  to  wind  as  many  sections  as  there  are  collector-rings,  and  connect  the  junction  of  con- 
tiguous coils  to  each  bar.  Another  method  is  to  wind  twice  as  many  sections  as  there  are  bars  in 
the  collector,  each  section  being  united  either  in  series  or  parallel  with  that  diametrically  oppo- 
site it,  and  the  pair  so  united  being  treated  as  a  single  section  in  the  coupling  up  of  the  ring. 
When  ring-armatures  are  employed  in  multipolar  fields,  a  variety  of  methods  of  connection 
are  possible.  That  of  Mordey  is  shown  "in  Fig.  10.  It  consists  in 
adding  to  the  usual  Gramme  winding  a  system  of  cross-connections 
between  those  portions  of  the  armature-circuit  which  arrive  simulta- 
neously at  equal  potentials.  This  may  be  clone  by  cross-connecting 
either  the  bars  of  the  collector  or  the  wires  of  the  winding.  In  4- 
pole  machines  each  bar  must  communicate  with  that  situated  180° 
from  it;  in  6-pole  machines,  with  those  situated  at  120°  from  it. 
Mordey's  method,  as  applied  to  a  4-pole  machine,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
10,  which  shows  connections  of  a  simple  8-part  ring.  It  will  be 
noted  that  only  two  brushes,  and  these  at  90°  apart,  are  required  to 
collect  the  currents. 

Another  method  suggested  by  Prof.  Perry,  in  1882,  is  applicable 
only  to  armatures  wound  with  an  odd  number  of  sections.  The  dia- 
gram in  Fig.  11  relates  to  an  11-part  armature  in  a  4-pole  machine.  In  this  method  the  suc- 
cessive sections  of  the  coil  are  not  connected  together,  as  in  Gramme's  winding,  but  each  coil 


FIG.  10. — Mordey  armature. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES.  203 

is  connected  across  to  that  coil  which  lies  nearest  the  diametrically  opposite  point,  or,  if  there 

are  c  sections,  each  section  is  connected  to  the  sections  ($c  —  1)  beyond.     The  coils  still  form 

a  closed  circuit,  but  the  total  electromotive  force  from  brush  to 

brush  is  the  sum  of  the  electromotive  forces  in  half  the  coils,  while 

in  Mordey's  method  it  is  but  one  quarter.    Mordey's  method  has 

the  contrary  advantage  of  reducing  the  resistance  to  one  quarter, 

and  is  preferable  for  low  potential  machines. 

FIELD  MAGNETS. — While  the  employment  of  permanent  mag- 
nets, as  in  the  older  types  of  machines,  would  involve  no  expendi- 
ture of  energy  in  order  to  obtain  the  required  magnetic  field,  they 
are  now  practically  discarded,  as  the  field  which  can  be  produced 
by  them  is  weak,  compared  with  that  which  can  be  produced  by 
electro-magnets.  In  all  modern  machines,  therefore,  the  latter  are 
employed.  In  the  construction  of  magnets  for  dynamos,  iron 
alone  can  be  employed,  on  account  of  its  high  magnetic  suscep-  FlG  n  _Perry 
tibility.  Present  practice  is  now  tending  largely  to  the  employ- 
ment of  wrought  iron,  on  account  of  the  greater  magnetic  power  developed  in  it  for  a  given 
current.  The  softer  the  iron  the  greater  its  magnetic  susceptibility,  the  ratio  of  cast  iron  to 
wrought  iron  being,  approximately,  as  2  to  3  ;  that  is,  a  given  magnetizing  force  will  create  50 
per  cent  more  lines  of  force  in  wrought  than  in  cast  iron.  In  designing  field-magnets  care 
should  be  taken  to  make  them  of  ample  size,  so  that  they  may  not  become  too  quickly  satura- 
ted ;  and  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  magnet  as  thick  as  possible,  so  that  it  may  react  slowly  to 
changes  in  the  main  circuit,  and  thus  steady  the  current  induced  in  its  field.  Magnets 
should,  theoretically,  be  so  constructed  that  they  may  receive  the  highest  magnetizing  effect 
with  the  shortest  possible  winding ;  this  is  the  case  when  the  magnet  is  circular  in  shape. 
Some  constructors,  however,  employ  rectangular  slabs  of  wrought  iron,  as  they  are  cheaper 
than  circular  cores  of  equal  cross-section.  In  the  design  of  field-magnets,  care  should  be 
taken  to  avoid  all  sharp  corners,  as  the  magnetism  strays  or  escapes  from  such  points  into  the 
air  and  is  wasted.  The  laws  of  distribution  of  magnetism  follow  closely  those  of  static  elec- 
tricity. 

The  Magnetic  Circuit. — As  in  the  construction  of  the  armature  it  is  desirable  to  reduce 
the  length  of  the  conductors  as  much  as  possible  and  thus  the  electric  resistance ;  in  a  similar 
manner  it  is  advisable  to  reduce  the  length  of  the  magnetic  circuit.  The  magnetic  circuit  in 
a  dynamo  is  made  up  of  two  principal  components,  namely,  the  iron  and  the  air-gap.  The 
modern  theory  of  construction  of  the  dynamo  is  based  largely  on  the  recognition  of  this 
important  fact :  As  the  magnetic  resistance  of  the  air  is  over  TOO  times  greater  than  that  of 
soft  iron,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  bring  the  iron  of  the  field-magnets  as  close  as 
possible  to  that  of  the  armature-core.  Constructors  are  evidently  limited  in  this  direction  by 
the  clearance  necessarv  between  the  revolving  armature  covered  with  conductors  and  the  pole- 
pieces.  To  reduce  this  clearance,  some  constructors  place  the  conductors  of  the  armature 
below  the  periphery  of  the  armature,  so  that  the  latter  can  be  run  to  within  -^  in.  of  the  pole 
piece.  Another  general  method  of  reducing  the  magnetic  resistance  is  by  the  employment  of 
pole-pieces.  The  latter,  frequently  made  of  cast  iron,  encircle  a  greater  or  less  portion  of  the 
armature,  and  afford  a  proper  path  for  the  passage  of  the  lines  of  force.  In  all  cases  the  grain 
of  the  wrought  iron  employed  should  lie  in  the  direction  of  the  path  of  the  lines  of  force,  pass- 
ing through  it,  and  joints  in  the  magnetic  circuit  should  as  far  as  possible  be  avoided. 

Forms  of  Field- Magnets. — The  design  of  field-magnets  permits  of  great  variations,  and 
the  machines  of  different  constructors  are  characterized  principally  by  the  type  or  shape  of 
field-magnet  adopted  in  their  machines.  The  principles  of  construction  above  enumerated 
may  be  taken  as  a  general  guide.  While  it  has  been  pointed  out  that,  theoretically,  it  is  better 
to  employ  one  magnetic  circuit  instead  of  two  or  more,  modern  constructors  are  largely 
employing  multipolar  machines  both  for  continuous  and  alternating  current  work,  the  object 
being  to  reduce  the  speed  of  the  machines,  especially  those  of  higher  powers.  Again,  in  many 
cases  the  double  circuit  or  consequent  pole  type  of  field-magnet  is  preferable  from  a  mechani- 
cal standpoint. 

The  accompanying  engravings  (Figs.  12,  13.  and  14)  show  the  principal  forms  of  magnets 
employed  at  the  present  time  (Thompson).  No.  1  in  these  illustrations  shows  the  form  adopted 
by  Wilde  for  use  with  the  shuttle-wound  armature  of  Siemens.  Two  slabs  of  iron  are  con- 
nected at  the  top  by  a  yoke,  and  are  bolted  below  to  two  massive  pole-pieces.  There  are  four 
joints  in  the  magnetic  circuit,  in  addition  to  the  armature-gaps,  and  the  yoke  is  insufficient. 
No.  2  shows  the  form  adopted  in  the  latest  Edison  dynamos  (American  pattern).  The  upright 
cores  are  stout  cylinders.  The  yoke  is  of  immense  thickness,  the  pole-pieces  are  massive,  but 
their  useless  corners  are  cut  away.  There  are  as  many  joints  as  in  Wilde's  form,  but  such  a 
circuit  would  possess  a  far  higher  magnetic  connectivity  than  Wilde's,  owing  to  the  greater 
cross-section.  One  difficulty  with  such  single  circuit  forms  is,  how  to  mount  them  upon  a 
suitable  bed-plate.  If  mounted  on  a  bed-plate  of  iron,  a  considerable  fraction  of  the  magnet- 
ism will  be  short-circuited  away  from  the  armature ;  hence,  an  intermediate  bed-plate  of  zinc 
some  inches  deep  is  interposed.  In  the  larger  form  (No.  10)  used  by  Edison  in  his  "steam 
dynamos  "  (old  type)  this  difficulty  is  partially  obviated  by  turning  the  magnets  on  one  side. 
The  favorite  type  of  field-magnet,  having  a  double  magnetic  circuit  with  closed  poles,  is 
represented  in  No.  3  :  it  was  introduced  by  Gramme.  It  maybe  looked  upon  as  the  combina- 
tion of  two  such  forms  as  No.  1,  with  common  pole-pieces.  Nos.  3  to  9  may  be  looked  upon 
as  modifications  of  a  single  fundamental  idea.  No.  4  gives  the  form  used  in  the  Brush  dyna- 


204 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


FIG.  12.— Field-magnets. 


mo,  the  two  magnetic  circuits  being  separated  by  the  ring-armature.    The  diagram  will  serve 
equally  for  many  forms  of  flat-ring  machine ;  but  in  most  of  these  the  poles  at  the  two  flanks 

of  the  ring  are  joined  by  a  com- 

+^^  *••*••§>      •"••••I          -^X__       mon  h°ll°w  pole-piece,  embracing 

BkB9    ^^TT  |_  . |  4  5  C^CZl      a  portion  of  the  periphery  of  the 

I  ,    I  jUol^J'      t«ti"J  ri  ".-•    No.  5  shows  the  well-known 

* """        •  W*l      form  of  Siemens,  with  arched  ribs 

I-  -i      iffr^m   MHtMiM      j0**fii*N^     •••••I      of  wrought  iron,   having  conse- 

€LjP      m^^  ^I*f   •     C          Zl      ^!*N  quent    poles   at  the  arch.     The 

"fftl**.  **«  ^  circuit  is  here  of  insufficient  cross- 
section.  No.  6  depicts  the  form 
adopted  by  Weston  ;  and  very 
similar  forms  have  been  used  by 
Crompton,  and  by  Paterson  and 
Cooper.  There  is  a  better  cross- 
section  here.  No.  7  is  a  form  used 
by  Biirgin  and  Crompton,  and 
differs  but  slightly  from  the  last. 
It  has  one  advantage,  that  the 
number  of  joints  in  the  circuit  is 
reduced.  No.  8  is  a  form  used  by 
Crompton,  Kapp,  and  by  Paterson 
and  Cooper.  No.  9  is  the  form 
adopted  in  the  little  Griscom  mo- 
tor. No.  18  is  a  further  modifica- 
tion due  to  Kapp.  No.  19,  which 
also  has  consequent  poles,  is  used 
by  McTighe,  by  Joel,  and  by  Hop- 
kinson  ("  Manchester  "  dynamo) 
(see  below),  by  Clark,  Muirhead  & 
Co.  (4i  Westminster  "  dynamo),  by 
0.  E.  Brown  (Oerlikon)  (see  be- 
low), by  Blakey,  Emmott  &  Co., 
and  in  some  of  Sprague's  motors, 
but  with  slight  differences  in  pro- 
portions of  the  details.  The  main 
difference  between  No.  19  and  No. 
6  lies  in  the  position  selected  for 
placing  the  coils,  No.  19  requiring 
two,  No.  6  four.  No.  20,  which  is 
the  design  of  Elwell  and  Parker, 
is  a  further  modification  of  No.  3.  In  No.  3  (Gramme)  it  is  usual  to  cast  the  pole-pieces 
and  end-plates,  but  to  use  wrought  iron  for  the  longitudinal  cores.  The  requisite  polar 
surface  must  be  got  by  some  means,  and,  when  the  core  was  made  thin,  the  two  courses  open 
were  either  to  fasten  upon  the  core  a  massive  pole-piece  (Nos.  1,  3.  4,  6,  7,  19,  20),  or  else  to 
arch  the  core  No.  5  so  that  its  lateral  surface  was  available  as  a  pole.  Now,  however,  that 
it  is  known  that  massive  cores  are  an  advantage,  the  requisite  polar  surface  can  be  obtained 
without  adding  any  polar  expansion  or  "  piece,"  but  by  merely  shaping  the  core  to  the  requi- 
site form  (No.  8).  This  must  not  be  regarded  as  a  mere  thinning  of  the  magnet ;  for,  though 
mere  reduction  of  cross-section  at  any  part  of  the  circuit  would  reduce  the  magnetic  conduc- 
tivity, reduction  of  the  thickness  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  armature  more  closely  into 
the  circuit  will  have  quite  the  opposite  effect.  Nos.  11  to  15  illustrate  forms  of  field-magnet 
having  salient  as  distinguished  from  consequent  poles.  No.  11  is  the  double  Gramme  machine 
designed  by  Deprez.  Nos.  12  and  13  are  two  of  the  innumerable  patterns  due  to  Gramme 
himself.  These  are  both  of  cast  iron ;  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  No.  13  there  are  no  joints, 
it  being  cast  in  one  piece.  No.  14  is  the  form  used  by  Hochhausen,  and  is  practically  identical 
with  21,  save  in  the  position  of  the  axis  of  rotation.  The  iron  flanks  of  No.  14,  however,  tend 
to  produce  a  certain  short-circuiting  of  the  magnetism  by  their  proximity  to  the  poles.  No. 
15.  used  by  Van  Depoele,  is  similar.  No.  16  is  the  form  used  by  Sylvanus  Thompson  in 
small  motors,  and  is  cast  in  one  piece.  The  semicircular  form  adopted  for  the  core  was  in- 
tended to  reduce  the  magnetic  circuit  to  a  minimum  length.  No.  17  illustrates  the  form  used 
by  Jiirgensen,  having  salient  poles  re-enforced  by  other  electro-magnets  within  the  armature. 
No.  21  shows  in  section  the  double  tubular  magnets  of  the  Thomson-Houston  dynamo,  the 
spherical  armature  being  placed,  as  in  Nos.  12,  14,  and  15.  between  two  salient  poles.  There 
is  a  curious  analogy  between  Nos.  21  and  19 ;  but  they  differ  entirely  in  the  position  of  the 
coils.  No.  22  is  a  design  by  Kapp,  in  which  there  are  two  salient  poles  of  similar  polarity, 
and  two  consequent  poles  between  them,  one  pair  of  coils  sufficing  to  magnetize  the  whole 
quadruple  circuit.  Almost  identical  forms  have  been  employed  by  Kennedy  ("  iron-clad  " 
dynamo),  and  by  Lahmeyer  and  by  Wenstrom.  No.  23  (Fig.  13)  is  a  type  which,  used  long 
ago  by  Sawyer  and  by  Lontin,  has  recently  become  &  favorite  one,  having  been  revived  almost 
simultaneously  by  Gramme  ("  type  superieur  "),  by  Kapp,  by  Siemens  ("  F  "  type),  by  Cabella 
("  Technomasio  "),  and  lately  by  Paterson  and  Cooper.  No.  24  is  Brown's  very  massive  form. 
No.  25  is  a  design  by  Kennedy,  known  as  the  "  iron-clad  "  dynamo  ;  the  iron  cores  are  forged 


FIG.  14.— Field-magnets. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES.  205 

to  shape.  No.  26  is  designed  by  Prof.  George  Forbes.  The  iron-work  is  in  two  halves  ;  the 
coils,  which  are  entirely  inclosed,  are  so  placed  as  to  magnetize  the  armature  directly,  one 
coil  occupying  all  the  available  space  between  the  field-magnet  and  the  upper  half  of  the 
armature,  the  other  the  similar  space  around  the  other  half.  No.  27  is  the  4-pole  form 
adopted  by  Elwell  and  Parker  in  some  of  their  larger  machines.  No.  28  is  a  multipolar  form 
used  by  Wilde,  Gramme,  and  others,  the  poles  which  surround  the  ring  being  alternately  of 
opposite  sign.  In  No.  29,  a  modification  of  this  design  by  Thury,  for  use  with  a  drum-arma- 
ture, the  six  inwardly  directed  poles  are  magnetized  by  coils  wound  upon  the  external  hex- 
agonal frame.  No.  30  is  a  sketch  of  the  latest  form  adopted  by  Siemens  and  Halske,  wherein 
an  external  ring  rotates  outside  a  very  compact  and  substantial  4-pole  electro-magnet  (see 
below).  A  similar  6- pole  machine  has  been  designed  by  Ganz,  of  Buda-Pesth,  and  a  4-pole 
also  by  Fein.  Another  recent  form  of  field-magnet  is  shown  in  No.  31.  This,  which  is  a 
single  horseshoe  with  but  one  coil  upon  it,  was  designed  by  S.  P.  Thompson  early  in  1886 ; 
and  a  similar  form  was  independently  designed  by  Messrs.  Goolden  and  Trotter  about  the  same 
time.  One-coil  machines  have  also  been  recently  designed  by  Schorch,  of  Darmstadt,  and  by 
R.  Kennedy,  of  Glasgow,  by  Iinmisch,  and  by  J.  G.  Statter  &  Co.  No.  32  represents  also  a 
machine  requiring  but  one  coil,  and  is  of  the  iron-clad  type.  It  was  devised  by  McTighe  in 
1882.  and  has  been  recently  revived  by  Messrs.  Stafford  and  Eaves.  No.  33  represents  the  latest 
machine  of  Messrs.  Fein,  of  Stuttgart,  with  inward-pointing  poles. 

The  amount  of  magnetic  leakage  that  takes  place  in  the  various  forms  of  field-magnet 
differs  greatly  in  different  forms.  No  doubt  there  is  least  waste  field  in  those  machines  which 
have  the  mo'st  compact  magnetic  circuits,  fewest  joints,  and  fewest  protruding  edges  and 
corners.  The  magnetic  lines  of  the  waste  field  sometimes  takes  curious  forms,  which  have 
been  experimentally  explored,  in  various  types  of  machines,  by  Mr.  Carl  Hering.  (See  Bering's 
Principles  of  Dynamo-Electric  Machine*;) 

It  was  stated  above  that,  theoretically,  the  best  cross-section  for  field-magnet  cores  was 
circular,  as  this  gave  the  greatest  area  for  least  periphery,  and  therefore  presumably  would 
for  a  given  lengh  of  wire  in  the  coil  give  the  largest  amount  of  iron  to  be  magnetized.  This, 
of  course,  means  that  if  the  length  of  wire  and  the  number  of  turns  be  given,  a  core  of  this 
section  will,  of  all  possible  shapes  of  core,  take  the  greatest  number  of  amperes  to  bring  it  to 
the  diacritical  point  of  semi-saturation.  Prof.  S.  P.  Thompson  discovered,  in  1884,  that  either 
the  electromotive  force  or  the  current  of  every  dynamo  is  proportional  to  that  number  of 
ampere-turns  which  will  bring  its  core  to  this  diacritical  point.  This  discovery,  according  to 
Thompson,  renders  it  more  than  ever  needful  in  designing  dynamos  to  adhere  as  closely  as 
possible  to  the  rule  to  make  the  core  of  circular  section  whenever  the  constniction  will  admit 
of  it.  Again,  as  was  pointed  out  by  Ropkinson,  it  is  a  mistake  to  construct  a  field-magnet 
with  two  or  more  parallel  cores  uniting  at  a  common  pole-piece ;  for  not  only  is  the  wire  be- 
tween the  two  cores  useless,  it  is  worse,  because  it  offers  wasteful  resistance.  To  divide  the 
iron  that  might  be  in  one  solid  cylindrical  core  into  two  parallel  cylindrical  cores  implies,  of 
course,  that  for  every  turn  of  wire  two  turns  must  be  used,  each  of  which  is  more  than  half 
as  long  as  the  original  one,  the  total  length  being  increased  as  V2: 1,  while  the  magnetizing 
power  is  actually  reduced.  The  following  calculations  of  Thompson  are  added,  which  show 
the  area  (in  square  centimetres)  inclosed  in  a  number  of  different  forms  of  section,  the  total 
periphery  of  each  one  being  one  metre: 

Circle 796 

Square 625 

Rectangle,  2:1 555 

Rectangle,  3:1 469 

Rectangle,  4:1., 400 

Rectangle,  10 : 1 236 

Oblong,  made  of  square  between  two  semicircles 675 

Oblong,  made  of  two  squares  between  two  semicircles 548 

Two  circles  (section  of  two  parallel  cores,  as  in  Edison  '  L "  and  Siemens 

"F34"  machines) 398 

Three  circles  (section  of  three  parallel  cores,  as  in  Edison  "  K  "  and  early 

Weston  dynamo) 265 

Four  circles'(section  of  four  parallel  cores,  as  in  Gramme  vertical  dynamo)..  199 
Eight  circles  (section  of  eight  parallel  cores,  as  in  Edison  "  Jumbo""  steam- 
dynamo)  99 

Commutator  or  Collector. — These  are  usually  built  up  of  segments  of  copper  or  phosphor- 
bronze,  insulated  from  each  other  as  well  as  from  the  shaft.  The  insulation  now  generally 
preferred  to  separate  the  segments  is  mica,  though  in  some  recent  machines  of  Siemens  the 
collector-bars,  made  of  iron,  are  separated  by  air-spaces.  The  air-space  was  adopted  by  a 
number  of  constructors  in  the  early  stages  of  electric  lighting,  among  them  Weston  and 
Hochhausen,  but  was  discarded  on  account  of  the  liability  to  the  settling  of  dust  and  the 
bridging  of  copper  particles  across  the  air-space,  resulting  in  the  short-circuiting  of  the  arma- 
ture. Connection  between  commutator  and  armature  wires  should  in  all  cases  be  soldered, 
as  screws  are  apt  to  work  loose.  The  commutator  requires  constant  care,  and  should  not  be 
allowed  to  wear  into  grooves  or  ruts,  which  eventually  give  rise  to  destructive  sparking.  For 
lubrication,  oil  is  avoided  if  possible,  as  it  is  apt  to  settle  among  the  bars,  harden,  and  carbon- 
ize, and  finally  short-circuit  the  bars.  For  that  reason  French  chalk  is  frequently  employed ; 


206 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


but  more  recently  the  application  of  carbon  brushes  has  overcome  many  diffi- 
culties connected  with  the  commutator.  Another  class  of  commutator,*  some- 
times employed  for  self-exciting,  alternate-current  machines,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
15. 

Brushes. — These  are  employed  to  take  the  current  from  the  commutator- 
bars  and  deliver  it  to  the  working-circuit.     Various  forms  are  employed, 
among  them  those  shown  in  Fig.  16.     The  object  in  all  cases  is  to  secure  as     Flo  15._Com. 
good  a  contact  as  possible  between  commutator  and  brush,  and  hence  the  lat-         mutator. 
ter  has  been  given  the  forms  shown.     In  A  a  number  of  copper  wires  are 
grouped  into  a  brush  soldered  together  at  their  ends.     In  B  a  flat  strip  is  slit  longitudi- 
nally, while  in  C  a  series  of  strips  are  soldered  together  and 
bear  edgewise  on   the  commutator.     Within   the  past   few 
years  ''carbon  brushes,"  as  they  are  called,  have  come  into 
extensive  use,  especially  in  connection  with  motors.     They 
are  made  up  of  a  pressed  mass  containing  coke  and  a  certain 
percentage  of  plumbago,  which  gives  them  excellent  lubri- 
cating qualities.     Their  great  merit,  however,  lies  in  the  fact 
that  they  do  not  burn  perceptibly,  and  hence  have  a  long  life, 
at    the  same    time   protecting   the  commutator   from   wear. 
Brushes  made  of  copper  wire-gauze  are  also  largely  in  use. 

Method  of  connecting  Armature  and  Dynamo. — Excitation. 
— Governing. — The  methods  of  the  connection  of  the  armature 
to  the  field-magnet,  as  well  as  the  mode  of  excitation  of  the 
dynamo-machine,  are  most  intimately  connected  with  its  regu- 
lating properties.  Magnetism  may  be  excited  in  the  field- 
magnets  in  various  ways. 

1.  Magneto- Dynamo. — This  type,  shown  in  Fig.  17,  is  the 
oldest  employed,  and  has  permanent  steel  magnets.  This  form 

FIG.  16.— Brushes.  *s  st^  use(*  *n  small   machines  for  special   purposes,  as  in 

magneto-calls,  telephones,  etc.,  and   for  experimental  work, 

but  has  long  been  discarded  in  large  machines  on  account  of  the  great  weight  of  the  machine 
for  a  given  output,  and  also  because  the  permanent  magnets  gradually  diminish  in  strength, 
and  thus  reduce  the  output  of  the  machine.  On  account  of  their  simplicity,  however,  perma- 
nent magnets  are  still  employed  in  machines  of  the  De  Meritens  type,  intended  for  light- 
house work.  (See  Alliance,  Pixii,  and  other  magneto-machines,  pp.  519,  520,  old  edition.) 

2.  Separately  Excited  Dynamo. — This  type  was  employed  by  Faraday  and  later  by  Wilde 
in  1866  (see  p.  522,  old  edition).    This  machine,  as  well  as  the  magneto-dynamo,  has  the  field- 


FIG.  17. 


Fia.  18.  FIG.  19. 

FIGS.  17-2  \-Types  of  dynamos. 


FIG.  20. 


magnetism  constant,  and  hence  the  E.  M.  F.  generated  is  independent  of  changes  in  the  ex- 
ternal circuit.  Both  the  preceding  types  of  machines  may  be  regulated  either  by  altering  the 
speed  or  by  varying  the  magnetism  passing  through  the  armature.  Fig.  18  shows  the  method 
of  connection. 

3.  Series- Dynamo. — This  is  the  type  of  machine  now  generally  employed  for  arc-lighting, 
and  which  is  specially  adapted  to  furnish  currents  of  constant  strength.     As  shown  in  Fig. 
19,  the  armature,  the  external  circuit,  and  the  field-magnet  windings,  are  all  connected  in 
series,  so  that  the  current  is  of  equal  strength  in  all  parts  of  the  circuit.     This  type  of  ma- 
chine does  not  begin  to  generate  current  until  it  has  attained  a  certain  "  critical '"  speed,  as 
below  this  speed  the  magnets  do  not  become  excited ;  this  speed  depends  upon  the  resistance 
of  the  circuit.     This  type  of  machine  is  also  liable  to  have  its  polarity  reversed  ;  hence,  it  is  not 
employed  in  electro-plating  or  charging  storage-batteries. 

4.  Shunt-Dynamo. — This  type  is  the  one  most  generally  employed  at  the  present  time  for 
constant  potential  machines,  such  as  are  used  for  incandescent-lighting.     The  connections  are 
shown  in  Fig.  20.     The  armature  here  feeds  two  independent  circuits :  (a)  the  main  circuit, 
which  connects  with  the  lamps,  and  is  indicated  by  the  heavy  line  and  arrow ;  (b)  the  shunt 
circuit,  which  energizes  the  field-magnets.     The  shunt  circuit  consists  of  fine  wire,  usually 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


207 


measuring  several  hundred  times  the  resistance  of  the  armature,  and  is  so  arranged  that  it 
takes  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  current  of  the  machine  (usually  not  exceeding  from  3 
to  5  per  cent).  According  to  theory,  a  machine  of  this  type,  having  no  resistance  in  the  arma- 
ture and  an  infinite  resistance  in  the  shunt  circuit,  ought  to  be  self -regulating — that  is,  when 
kept  at  constant  speed,  the  potential,  or  E.  M.  F.,  remains  constant,  no  matter  what  the  load 
on  the  external  circuit.  In  practice  these  conditions  are,  of  course,  impossible  to  carry  out. 
But  machines  are  now  frequently  built  in  which  the  ratio  of  armature  resistance  to  shunt  re- 
sistance is  so  great  that  the  regulation  is  practically  perfect. 

5.  Separate- Circuit,  Self-Exciting  Dynamo. — Another  type  of  self-exciting  machine  is  one 
so  arranged  that  a  set  of  'coils,  either  wound  on  the  same  core  as  the  main  armature  or  con- 
stituting a  separate  armature,  but  rotating  in  the  same  field,  feed  the  exciting  field-magnets. 
This  method  has  been  applied  for  exciting  alternate-current  machines,  and  more  recently  by 
Thomson  and  Lahmeyer  for  motor-dynamo  distribution.     It  has  also  been  proposed  by  Edi- 
son for  low-tension  electric  railways,  with  the  rails  as  conductors. 

6.  Combination  Methods  of  Field  Excitation. — Besides  the  above  simple  methods  of  field 
excitation,  a  variety  of  plans  have  been  invented  for  securing  absolute  regulation  without  ex- 
ternal means.     These  methods  consist  in  various  combinations  of  the  series — shunt,  separate, 
and  magneto  methods.    Among  these  is  the  series  and  shunt,  or  "  com- 
pound "  dynamo.     In  this  method,  patented  by  Brush  in  this  country, 

and  shown  in  Fig.  21,  the  field-magnets  have  both  a  series  and  a  shunt 
winding.  The  action  produced  by  this  combination  is  to  keep  the  field- 
magnets  of  constant  strength  at  all  external  loads.  In  the  plain  shunt- 
machine  the  current  in  the  shunt  diminishes  as  the  current  in  the  ex- 
ternal circuit  increases,  or,  to  put  it  in  another  way,  as  the  resistance  of 
the  external  circuit  decreases.  By  adding  the  series  winding,  the  cur- 
rent passing  around  the  field-magnets  is  increased  to  the  same  amount 
as  that  in  the  shunt  decreases;  hence,  the  magnetism  remains  constant. 
There  are  two  ways  of  connecting  the  shunt  to  the  series-circuit,  the 
one  just  described  and  the  series  and  long  shunt.  The.  latter  has,  how- 
ever, not  been  put  into  practice.  The  compound-machine  is  in  extensive 
use  for  incandescent-lighting,  especially  on  shipboard,  and  is  specially 
adapted  for  maintaining  constant  potential.  Various  combinations  have 
also  been  designed  to  obtain  constant  current  automatically,  among 
them  the  shunt  and  separate,  invented  by  Deprez ;  the  shunt  and  mag- 
neto, invented  by  Perry ;  and  the  shunt  and  series,  by  S.  P.  Thompson. 
Although  theoretically  possible,  the  methods  of  compounding  for  con- 
stant current  are  not  as  a  rule  carried  out  in  practice,  the  methods  of  regulation  employed 
being  applied  by  external  regulators,  the  principal  ones  being  described  below. 

7.  Other  Methods  of  Regulation. — The  method  of  regulation  most  generally  employed  in 
series  (arc-light,  constant-current)  machines  consists  in  shifting  the  brushes  so  as  to  reduce 
or  increase  the  potential  in  proportion  to  the  resistance  of  the  internal  circuit.     At  the  posi- 
tion of  maximum  load  the  brushes  make  contact  at  or  very  close  to  the  "  neutral  point,"  but  as 
the  load  decreases  the  brushes  are  shifted  away  so  that  they  approach  nearer  and  nearer  a  posi- 
tion of  right  angles  to  the  first  position.    This  method  of  regulation  is  carried  out  in  the  Thom- 
son-Houston, Wood,  Hochhausen,  Maxim,  and  Western  Electric  Co.'s,  and  a  number  of  other 
arc-machines.    (For  details  of  operation,  see  the  description  of  these  machines  given  below.) 

The  automatic  regulator  of  Brush  employs  a  variable  shunt  resistance  connected  to  the 
terminals  of  the  field-magnet  (Fig.  22),  the  resistance  of  the  shunt  being  controlled  by  an 
electro-magnet  placed  in  the  main  circuit.  The  dynamo  at  D  pours  its  current  into  the  cir- 
cuit, leaving  the  commutator  by  the  upper  brush,  whence  it  flows  through  the  field-magnets 
F  Mt  and  round  the  circuit  of 'lamps  L  L,  back  to  the  negative  terminals.  Suppose,  now, 
some  of  the  lamps  to  be  extinguished  by  switches  which  short-circuit  them ;  the  resistance  of 
the  circuit  being  thus  diminished,  there  will  be  at  once  a  tendency  for  the  current  to  increase 
above  its  normal  value,  unless  the  electromotive  force  of  the  dynamo  is  at  once  correspond- 


FIG.  21. — Compound 
dynamo. 


FIG.  22. — Shunt  regulator. 


FIG.  23.— Rheostat  regulator. 


ingly  reduced.  This  is  done  by  the  solenoid  B  in  the  circuit.  When  traversed  by  the  normal 
current,  it  attracts  its  armature  A  with  a  certain  force  just  sufficient  to  keep  it  in  its  neutral 
position.  If  the  current  increases,  the  armature  is  drawn  upward,  and  causes  a  lever  to  com- 
press a  column  of  retort  carbon-plates  C,  which  is  connected  as  a  shunt  to  the  field-magnet. 


208  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 

These  plates  when  pressed  together  conduct  well,  but  when  the  pressure  is  diminished  their 
imperfect  contact  partially  interrupts  the  shunt  circuit  and  increases  its  resistance.  When  A 
rises  and  compresses  (7,  the  current  is  diverted  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  from  the  field-mag- 
nets, which  are  thus  under  control. 

For  regulating  the  potential  of  constant  potential  (incandescent-light)  shunt-machines, 
Edison  first  employed  a  variable  resistance  placed  in  series  with  the  field-magnet  coils.  The 
arrangement  is  shown  in  Pig.  23.  As  the  potential  increases,  resistances  are  thrown  by  mov- 
ing the  handle  of  the  rheostat  R,  which  diminishes  the  current  in  the  field-magnet  coils,  and 
hence  their  magnetic  power,  and  thus  reduces  the  potential  of  the  machine  to  its  normal 
value.  On  a  decrease  of  potential,  due  to  increased  load,  the  rheostat  resistance  is  reduced, 
which  reverses  the  action  just  stated.  The  operation  of  the  rheostat  has  also  been  carried  out 
automatically  in  various  ways.  Besides  the  methods  just  enumerated,  others  have  been  em- 
ployed. In  Lane- Fox's  regulator,  a  high-resistance  relay  is  connected  as  a  shunt  to  the  mains, 
and  actuates  the  rheostat  as  described  above.  Regulation  can  also  be  effected  by  winding  the 
field-magnets  in  sections,  and  cutting  these  sections  in,  or  out,  in  proportion  to  the  load.  This 
method  has  been  employed  by  Deprez,  Brush,  Hochhausen,  Van  Depoele,  and  others.  Still 
another  method  consists  in  placing  a  magnetic  shunt  across  the  field-magnets,  and  thus 
diverting  the  lines  of  force  from  the  armature  as  the  load  decreases.  This  has  been  carried 
out  by  Goolden  and  Trotter  in  their  constant-current  machine  (see  below). 

Regulation  can  also  be  effected  by  governing  the  steam-engine,  so  that  its  speed  is  exactly 
proportional  to  the  load.  In  Richardson's  electric  governor  (Fig.  24)  the  valve  which  admits 
steam  to  the  engine  is  a  double-beat  equilibrium  valve  E\  its  stalk  passes 
upward  and  is  acted  upon  by  a  plunger  R,  which  is  pressed  down  by  the 
shorter  arm  of  a  lever  L,  which  is  in  turn  connected  with  a  long  vertical 
spindle  having  a  weight  C  at  its  lower  end,  and  at  its  upper  end  carrying 
the  iron  core  J5,  surrounded  by  the  solenoid  A.  A  spring  S  counterpoises 
the  slight  upward  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the  valve.  When  the  cur- 
rent passes  through  the  solenoid  A  it  lifts  the  core  B  to  a  certain  height, 
and  admits  to  the  engine  a  sufficient  quantity  of  steam  to  drive  the  en- 
gine at  the  speed  requisite  to  maintain  the  current.  Should  the  resist- 
ance of  the  circuit  be  increased  by  the  introduction  of  additional  lamps, 
the  core  B  will  fall  a  little,  thereby  turning  on  more  steam,  until  the 
speed  has  risen  to  that  now  necessary.  For  additional  safety  a  separate 
electro-magnet  a  is  added,  which,  when  in  action,  holds  up  the  heavy 
iron  block  b.  Should  the  circuit  from  any  cause  be  broken,  the  block  b 
instantly  descends  and  cuts  off  the  steam.  Similar  engine-governors 
have  been  devised  by  Willans,  Jamieson,  and  others.  Further  informa- 
tion respecting  electric  governors,  and  their  actual  applications  in  vari- 
ous installations  of  electric-lights,  may  be  found  in  the  following  papers: 
A.  Jamieson,  Electric-Lighting  for  Steamships,  Proc.  Inst.  Civ.  Engrs., 
vol.  Ixxix,  session  1884-'85,  Part  I :  F.  W.  Willans,  The  Electric  Regula- 
Fl°- 24.-Electnc  tion  of  fche  gpeed  of  steam-Engines,  Proc.  Inst.  Cir.  Engrs.,  vol.  Ixxxi, 
session  1884-'85,  Part  III.  (See  also  Thompson's  Dynamo- Electric  Ma- 
chinery.} Dynamo-metric  governing  has  also  been  proposed,  the  regulation  being  effected 
by  the  action  due  to  the  variation  in  torque  with  varying  load.  Governing  by  steam-pressure 
has  also  been  proposed.  In  this  system  the  steam-pressure  is  kept  constant,  and  equal  quanti- 
ties of  steam  admitted  in  each  stroke  between  the  speed.  The  principles  above  enumerated 
have  been  carried  out  in  a  large  number  of  designs  of  machines,  each  having  its  special 
peculiarities  and  advantages.  For  the  sake  of  obtaining  a  better  understanding  of  the  vari- 
ous types,  we  have  in  the  following  grouped  dynamo-electric  generators  primarily  into  two 
divisions:  continuous-current  and  alternate-current  dynamos. 

1.  CONTINUOUS-CURRENT  DYNAMOS. — These  may  be  divided  into  (a)  constant  current  and 
(b)  constant  potential  machines ;  the  former  were  those  first  brought  to  practical  perfection, 
and  hence  we  shall  take  them  in  that  order,  giving  examples  of  the  machines  in  most  general 
use,  together  with  the  regulating  methods  employed  for  keeping  the  current  constant. 

The  Brush  Arc-Light  Machine. — The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  Brush  machine 
(see  p.  527,  old  edition)  lies  in  the  form  and  construction  of  its  armature,  which  consists  of  a 
built-up  iron  ring,  the  cross-section  of  which  is  generally  rectangular,  but  in  the  direction  of 
its  circumference  it  is  alternately  wide  and  narrow,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  which  represents  the 
iron  armature-ring  and  explains  its  construction.  On  reference  to  this  figure  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  ring  is  divided  up  into  as  many  sectors  as  there  are  bobbins  to  be  wound  by  a 
number  of  rectangular  depressions  or  grooves;  in  these  the  coils  of  insulated  copper  wire  are 
wound  until  the  groove  is  filled  up,  and  the  flat,  converging  recesses  become  flush  with  the 
face  of  the  intermediate  thicker  portions  or  pole-pieces,  by  which  they  are  separated  from  one 
another.  All  the  coils  are,  like  those  in  the  Gramme  machine,  wound  in  the  same  direction. 
Fig.  26  is  a  diagram  illustrative,  not  only  of  the  distribution  of  the  coils  around  the  ring,  but 
of  the  method  by  which  the  connections  are  made ;  the  inner  ends  of  each  of  the  coils  is  con- 
nected by  a  wire  to  the  inner  end  of  the  corresponding  coil,  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  same 
diameter  of  the  ring,  and  the  outer  ends  of  all  the  coils  are  brought  through  the  shaft  of  the 
machine,  and  are  connected  to  corresponding  portions  of  the  commutator,  where  the  currents 
are  collected  by  suitably  placed  copper  plates.  Referring  to  the  diagram,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  inner  end  A1  of  the  coil  1  is  connected  to  A5,  which  is  the  inner  end  of  the  coil  5 ;  A9  is 
connected  to  A6,  Az  to  A1,  and  so  on  round  the  ring,  and  the  outer  ends,  B*  J52  B3,  etc.,  are 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


209 


FIG.  25. 


FIG.  26. 


FIG.  27. 


FIGS.  25-27.— Armature— Brush  dynamo. 


all  connnected  to  the  commutator  by  conducting  wires  insulated  from  one  another.     The  two 
free  ends  of  each  pair  of  diametrically  opposed  coils  are,  after  passing  through  the  shaft  of 
the  machine,  attached  respectively  to  two  diametrically  opposite  segments  of  the  same  com- 
mutator, which  segments  are  insulated  from  one  an- 
other and  from  any  other  pairs  of  coils.    The  com- 
mutator which  is  attached  to  and  rotates  with  the 
driving-shaft  of  the  machine  consists  of  a  set  of 
separate  copper  rings  or  flat  cylinders,  of  which 
there  are  as  many  on  the  shaft  as  there  are  pairs 
of  coils  on  the  armature,  and  each  of  these  cylinders 
consists  of  two  segments  insulated  from  one  another 
on  one  side  of  the  shaft  by  a  small  air-space  about 
£  in.  wide,  and  on  the  other  by  a  piece  of  copper 
separated  from  the  segments  by  two  smaller  air- 
spaces.   The  ar- 
,r— -^          rangement       is 
shown    in    Fig. 
27,  in  which  A 
and  B  are   the 
two      segments 
connected,      re- 
spectively,      to 
corresponding 
coils    on    oppo- 
site sides  of  the 

armature,  and  attached  by  an  insulating  material  to  the  shaft  S;  C  is  the  copper  insulat- 
ing piece,  the  object  of  which  is  to  separate  either  of  the  flat  copper  brushes  or  collectors, 
which  press  upon  the  periphery  of  the  commutator,  from  either  of  the  segments  during 
the  interval  occupied  by  one  pair  of  coils  passing  the  vertical,  or,  in  other  words,  through 
the  neutral  portion  of  the  magnetic  field ;  this  occurs  twice  in  each  revolution  of  the  arma- 
ture, and  therefore  of  the  commutator.  At  the  time  when  any  pair  of  bobbins  is  in  this  way 
cut  out  of  the  general  circuit,  their  own  circuit  is  open,  so  that  no  current  can  circulate  or  be 
induced  in  them.  By  this  arrangement  each  pair  of  coils  has  in  succession,  in  each  revolu- 
tion, a  period  of  rest'equal  to  one  quarter  of  a  revolution,  and  has  a  current  passing  through 
it  for  only  75  per  cent,  of  the  time  the  machine  is  running ;  to  it  is  in  a  great  measure  due 
the  very  s'mall  development  of  heat  in  the  working  of  the  Brush  machine ;  and  it  presents 
also  another  important  element  of  efficiency  to  the  machine,  namely,  that  each  pair  of  bobbins 
as  it  passes  the  neutral  portion  of  the  magnetic  field,  and  is  therefore  incapable  of  doing  work 
and  contributing  electro-motive  force  to  the  general  current,  is  itself  cut  out  of  the  circuit. 

Fig.  28  is  a  diagram  illustrating  the  connection  between  the  armature-bobbins  and  the 
magnet-coils  at  the  time  when  the  commutators  are  placing  them  in  the  same  circuit.  Re- 
ferring to  this  diagram.  M  M  and  M r  M  are  the  two  magnets  having  their  similar  poles  pre- 
sented toward  one  another  on  opposite  sides  of  the  armature- 
coils  A  A*.  Thus,  the  coil  A  is  under  the  influence  of  a  mag- 
netic field  produced  by  the  two  north  poles  N  A1,  while  at  the 
same  time  its  corresponding  bobbin  A1  is  under  the  influence 
of  the  two  south  poles  S  S1.  A  current  is  therefore  induced  in 
the  pair  of  bobbins  A  A1  which  is  transmitted  by  wires  passing 
through  the  shaft  S  to  the  commutators  Cl  C*,  whence  it  is 
collected  by  the  brushes  B1  and  B*.  and  by  them  transmitted 
to  the  magnet-coils,  which  are  all  connected  together  in  series, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  other  portions  of  the  commutators 
(which  are  in  connection  with  the  other  armature-bobbins) 
are  in  contact  with  the  brushes  .B3  and  B*,  by  which  they  are  placed  in  the  external  circuit  of 
the  machine. 

One  of  the  most  original  features  of  the  Brush  machine  is  the  commutating  apparatus, 
which  collects  and  distributes  the  currents  from  the  active  armature-coils,  and  cutting  out  of 
circuit  the  armature-coils  one  by  one  as  they  pass  through  the  neutral  regions  between  the 
poles.  The  commutating  apparatus  consists  of  two  pairs  of  rings  attached  to  and  revolving 
on  the  main  shaft,  and  therefore  their  position  is  fixed  with  respect  to  the  revolving  armature 
of  the  machine.  On  to  the  cylindrical  circumferences  of  these  rings  are  placed  two  pairs  of 
copper-collecting  brushes,  which  run  tangentially  against  the  commutator  rings,  one  pair 
pressing  above,  and  the  other  pressing  below,  a  line  forming  the  points  of  contact  being  a 
diameter  of  the  ring.  The  copper  brushes  are  flat  strips  of  elastic  copper  about  2  in.  wide, 
cut  at  the  ends  which  press  against  the  rings  into  8  tongues,  so  as  somewhat  to  resemble  a 
grainer's  comb,  and  each  comb  or  brush  is  wide  enough  to  cover  or  be  in  contact  with  two 
armature-rings ;  and  in  this  way,  although  two  of  the  coils  are  insulated  twice  in  each  revo- 
lution, the  main  circuit  is  never  interrupted.  The  disposition  of  the  brushes  with  respect  to 
the  commutators  will  clearly  be  understood  by  comparing  Fig.  28. 

The  Thomson- Houston  Arc-Light  Machine. — This  machine,  probably  the  most  extensively 
employed  arc-dynamo  at  the  present  time,  is  the  joint  invention  of  Profs.  Elihu  Thomson 
and  E.  J.  Houston,  although  many  of  the  details  embodied  in  the  recent  machines  are  due  to 
Prof.  Thomson  solely.  The  general  appearance  of  the  complete  machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  29. 

14 


FIG.  28.— Brush  dynamo. 


210 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


The  field-magnets  consist  of  two  large  hollow  castings.     The  large  flanged  portions  of  the 
castings  are  united  magnetically  by  a  series  of  bars  of  soft  iron,  and  are  firmly  held  in  place 

by  bolting  to  the  side-frame, 
which  also  affords  feet  for  the 
machine  and  sustains  the  shaft 
in  its  bearings. 

The  armature,  spherical  in 
form  (Fig.  80)  is  nearly  inclosed. 
The  commutator  and  air-blast 
mechanism,  therefore,  occupy 
positions  upon  that  portion  of 
the  shaft  outside  the  bearing. 
The  wires,  three  in  number, 
from  the  armature  helices  are 
brought  out  through  the  hol- 
low shaft  and  connected  to  the 
commutator  at  the  end  of  the 
shaft.  The  armature-core  con- 
sists of  an  iron  shell,  having  the 
form  of  an  oblate  spheroid, 
mounted  centrally  upon  the 
shaft,  as  seen  in  Fig.  31,  the 
shaft  H  H  passing  through  the 
axis  of  the  spheroid.  The  po- 
lar portions  are  formed  of  two 
thin  iron  castings,  placed,  as 
shown,  at  G  (f,  and  keyed  firm- 
ly to  the  shaft.  Between  these 
flanges,  and  supported  by  them, 
but  insulated  therefrom,  are  a  series  of  cast-iron  bridges  Z>,  generally  12  in  number,  and 
placed  at  equal  distances  apart.  The  bridges  are  formed  with  feet  that  enter  corresponding 
grooves  in  the  internal  faces  of  the  flanges.  Outside  the  bridges  is  wound  a  quantity  of  well- 
annealed  soft-iron  wire  /,  scaled  by  heat  and  shellacked.  The  depth  of  the  wire  varies  with 


FIG.  29.— Thomson-Houston  dynamo. 


FIGS.  30,  3!.— Thomson  Houston  armature. 

the  capacity  of  the  machine,  and,  when  all  on,  completes  the  form  of  the  spheroidal  arma- 
ture. The  core  is  covered  with  several  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  then  is  wound  with  in- 
sulated copper  wire.  To  facilitate  this  winding,  hard- wood  pins  P  P  are  carried  by  being  in- 
serted into  openings  in  the  flanges  near  their  periphery.  The  core  so  formed  is  wound  with 
three  helices  crossing  one  another  at  the  polar  portions,  and  being  divided  centrally  by  the 
shaft  in  its  passage  through  the  core.  To  secure  mechanical  and  electrical  equality  of  the 
three  coils  or  helices,  the  following  procedure  is  adopted:  The  first  half  of  the  first  coil  is 
wound ;  the  first  half  of  the  second  coil  is  next  wound ;  the  whole  of  the  third  coil  is  then 
wound ;  the  second  half  of  the  second  coil  is  then  wound  ;  finally,  the  second  half  of  the  first 
coil  finishes  the  winding,  and  produces  an  approximately  spherical  outline,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
30.  The  coils  are  thoroughly  insulated,  and  are  interwoven  with  tapes,  wherever  necessary  to 
keep  them  in  place.  Finally,  a  strong  brass-wire  binding  is  applied,  consisting  of  two  central 
bands  b  b  and  two  lateral  bands  d  d,  wound  around  the  armatures  circumferentially. 

The  three  ends  from  the  inner  ends  of  the  coils  are  joined  together  permanently  at  a, 
while  the  three  outer  ends/ are  carried  through  the  shaft  to  the  commutator.  By  this  wind- 
ing the  highest  differences  of  electric  potential  are  found  only  upon  the  outside  wires,  tne 
result  being  greatly  in  favor  of  retention  of  insulation  under  all  conditions.  The  position  of 
the  coils  upon  the  armature  is  such  that  they  follow  each  other  in  similar  electrical  sequence 
at  120°  of  a  revolution  apart,  an  arrangement  which  gives,  with  the  small  number  of  generat- 
ing helices,  an  approximate  continuity  of  effect.  The  three  free  ends  are  carried  out  through 
the  shaft,  and  kept  well  insulated  while  passing  to  their  connections  at  the  commutator  near 
the  end  of  the  shaft. 

The  commutator  consists  of  a  copper  ring,  slit  into  three  segments  of  120°  nearly.  These 
segments  are  independently  mounted  upon  a  metal  frame,  which  gives  the  segment  its  posi- 
tion. The  three  metal  frames  Gr  G  (r  (Figs.  32  and  33),  for  the  support  of  the  segments,  are 
mounted  in  two  metal  flanges  J  J,  but  thoroughly  insulated  from  them.  The  flanges  JJ  are 
themselves  borne  upon  the  shaft  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  vulcanite.  The  segments  are 
readily  detachable  by  removal  of  screws  passing  through  lateral  ears  extending 'from  each 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


211 


FIGS.  32,  33. — Dynamo-frame. 


side  of  a  segment,  K.    The  wires  from  the  shaft  connect  to  each  framework  G  G  G  respectively, 
and  consequently  there  is  one  wire  electrically  connected  to  each  segment. 

Fig.  34  shows  diagrammatically  the 
winding  of  the  armature  and  also  the 
manner  of  applying  the  brushes  to  con- 
duct the  current  to  the  circuit.  There 
are  usually  two  pairs  of  brushes,  formed 
of  comb-like  copper  springs,  the  brush- 
es of  each  pair  being  diametrically  op- 
posite, and  the  two  brushes  that  are 
positive  or  negative  set  so  as  to  bear 
upon  the  commutator  at  points  about 
60°  apart,  as  shown.  The  figure  also 
shows  at  C  C  the  relation  of  the  field- 
coils  to  the  rest  of  the  circuit  L  L  L. 

The  commutator-brushes  are,  how- 
ever, made  movable,  those  diametrically  opposite  being  mounted  upon  yokes  in  insulated 
holders,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  movement  around  the  commutator-shaft.     The  purpose  of  this 

arrangement  is  to  permit  the  automatic 
setting  of  the  brushes  to  maintain  a  stand- 
ard current,  irrespective  of  changes  of 
speed  and  of  resistance  in  the  circuit. 

The  brush-holder  yokes  are  connected 
to  a  lever  and  connecting  rods  L,  Fig.  35, 
so  that  the  brushes  R  R  receive  a  move- 
ment backward  3£  times  as  great  as  that 
imparted  to  S  S  forward  during  regula- 
tion. This  movement  is  effected  by  an 

attachment  to  the  connecting  arm  A  from 
FIG.  34.-Thomson-Houston  commutator.  th?  motor  magnet  lever  ^  ^ig  36      The 

motor-regulator  magnet  is  constructed  of  a  stout  U-shaped  iron 
frame,  to  the  center  of  which  is  bolted  a  bar  of  iron,  surrounded 
by  a  magnetizing  coil,  K,  of  low  resistance.  The  polar  extremity 
of  this  bar,  P,  is  a  projection  having  an  approximately  paraboloi- 
dal  form,  and  its  armature,  A,  is  provided  with  a  circular  open- 
ing, the  edges  of  which  are  rounded  so  as  to  move  over  the  pole 
without  contact.  The  armature  is  swung  upon  pivots  at  U,  be- 
tween the  legs  of  the  U-frame.  The  construction  is  such  that 
the  ends  of  the  armature  move  at  equal  distances  relatively  from 
the  frame  at  each  end,  leaving  the  pivots  U  without  strain.  A  dash-pot,  Z>,  is  provided,  to 
prevent  too  sudden  movements.  The  attraction  exerted  by  such  a  magnet,  when  a  constant 
current  flows  through  its  coils,  is  practically  constant  in  all  positions  of  the  armature  within 
its  prescribed  range.  It  is  seldom,  however,  sufficiently  sensitive  to  current  fluctuations  to 
serve  alone  as  a  means  of  regulation.  It  is  therefore  put  under  the  control  of  a  shunting  con- 
tact, operated  by  what  is  termed  a  current-controller  magnet.  The  controller-magnet  (Fig. 
37)  is  constructed  of  two  helices  C  C,  placed  side  by  side  and  serving  as  solenoids  attracting 
into  their  interior  a  double-core  B,  the  parts  of  which  are  yoked  together  and  suspended  by 
an  adjustable  spring,  S,  from  the  support  above.  The  yoke  carries  a  contact-point  on  its  un- 
der side,  and  a  stationary  contact-point,  0,  is  mounted  immediately  thereunder.  When  these 
contact-points  are  touching  each  other  they  complete  a  shunt-circuit  of  practically  no  resist- 
ance around  the  coil  K  of  the  regulator-motor  magnet  (Fig.  36).  To  avoid  sparks  at  the  con- 
tacts, a  permanent  shunt  of  carbon  coils,  inclosed  in  glass  tubes,  is  connected  around  the 
contacts.  The  connections  are  exhibited  in  Fig.  38,  where  K  is  the  commutator,  C  C  the  mag- 


FIG.  35.— Brush-holder. 


FIGS.  36,  37.— Regulator-motor  magnet. 


FIG.  38. — Connections. 


net-coils,  A  the  motor-regulator,  R  the  controller,  B  the  contact-points,  E  the  carbon  resist- 
ance. Every  slight  fluctuation  of  the  line-current  is  felt  by  the  controller-magnet,  and  the 
result  is  that  when  set  for  normal  current  a  tremor  of  the  contact-surfaces  is  constantly 
taking  place,  so  that  the  magnet  A  (Fig.  38)  is  maintained  at  such  a  state  of  excitation  as  will 
ciuse  it  to  move  and  maintain  the  brushes  at  those  positions  corresponding  to  a  predetermined 
current  under  variations  of  speed  and  of  resistance,  even  down  to  a  short  circuit.  The  regu- 


212 


DYNAMO-ELECTBIC   MACHINES. 


FIG.  39. -Air-blast. 


lation  is  effected  so  promptly  that  a  machine  may  have  all  its  lights  shunted  at  once  without 
damage.  Unsteady  power  does  not  practically  injure  the  steadiness  and  uniformity  of  the 
lights  or  current. 

One  of  the  novel  features  of  the  machine  is  the  air-blast  attachment  to  the  commutator. 
It  was  invented  for  the  purpose  of  permitting  the  use  of  electromotive  forces  up  to  2,000  volts 
and  over,  while  a  free  oiling  of  the  commutator-surfaces  is  still  permissible  for  diminishing 
wear,  a  single  commutator  being  used,  and  that  containing  but  three  segments.  It  is  based 
upon  the  discovery  by  Prof.  Thomson  that  a  strong  jet  of  air  of  small  amount  can  effectually 
break  any  conducting  line  of  particles  tending  to  bridge  the  commutator-slots,  and  cause  the 
local  discharge  termed  "  flashing."  Small  nozzles  are  mounted  directly  opposite  the  tips  of 
the  foremost  positive  and  negative  commutator-brush.  At  the  moment  the  slot  in  the  com- 
mutator passes  the  tips  of  the  brush,  a  puff  of  air  is  sent  through  the  slot  and  repeated  at 
every  slot.  These  small  puffs  are  furnished  at  the  proper  instant  by  a  small  rotary,  positive- 
blast  mechanism  (Fig.  39),  which  is  mounted  upon  the  journal-box  at  the  commutator  side  of 
the  machine,  and  within  which  are  carried  by  a  slotted  hub  H  (rotated 
by  the  shaft  S)  a  set  of  three  hard-rubber  wings  loosely  placed  in  the 
slots  in  the  hub  at  R  R  R,  120°  apart.  An  inclosing  case  of  interior 
elliptical  outline  is  divided  by  the  hub  H  into  two  lune  or  crescent- 
shaped  chambers,  into  which  the  rubber  wings  are  thrown  by  centrifu- 
gal force  during  rotation.  Inlet  openings  are  provided  at  //,  covered 
with  fine  wire  gauze  to  exclude  particles.  The  outlets  are  at  «/</,  and 
communicate  with  the  nozzles  over  the  commutator-slots.  By  this  con- 
struction, when  the  parts  are  correctly  set,  six  puffs  of  air  are  obtained 
at  every  rotation,  three  from  each  nozzle,  alternating  in  succession  from 
the  nozzles,  and  corresponding  to  the  times  of  passage  of  the  commuta- 
tor divisions  or  slots  past  the  ends  of  the  forward  brushes.  The  ad- 
vantages obtained  by  the  use  of  the  air-blast  for  high  electromotive-force  currents  are  great. 
It  removes  all  that  sensitiveness  to  oil  which  is  generally  present  in  such  cases.  The  Thom- 
son-Houston machine  can  be  run  with  a  steady  stream  of  oil  pouring  upon  the  commutator, 
and,  there  being  no  carbonizable  material  collecting  at  the  commutator  segments,  no  fear  of 
short  circuits  of  armature-coils  need  be  apprehended  from  that  cause. 

When  used  as  a  generator,  the  armature-coils  successively  traverse  the  opposed  field-spaces, 
and  the  impulses  so  produced  in  them  find  connection  through  the  commutator-brushes  to  the 
circuit.  The  armature-helices  act  for  a  portion  of  the  time  in  multiple  arc  of  two  coils,  as 
when  they  are  traversing  field-spaces  where  the  impulse  is  considerably  below  the  maximum, 
and  act  alone  or  in  series  with  the  other  coils,  when  they  are  producing  their  maximum  im- 
pulse. These  actions  necessarily  result  from  the 
three^coil  or  three-branched  armature  system.  The 
mode  of  application  of  the  brushes  is  such  that 
when  the  electromotive  force  of  one  branch  or  coil 
has  fallen  below  that  of  the  branch  or  coil  which 
follows  it  in  sequence  during  rotation,  the  current 
is  transferred  to  the  latter,  and  the  former  coil, 
although  it  has  not  yet  reached  neutrality,  is  in- 
stantly put  by  the  commutator  into  connection 
with  the  opposite  commutator-brushes,  there  to 
act  in  supplanting  that  branch  which  is  about  to 
leave  said  brushes.  This  mode  of  carrying  off  the 
currents  will  be  understood  by  reference  to  Fig. 
34.  It  possesses  the  apparent  anomalous  condi- 
tion of  putting  a  coin  imitator  segment,  just  before  the  coil  or  branch  to  which  it  is  attached 
has  reached  neutrality  of  electrical  action,  into  momentary  contact  or  electrical  connection 
with  both  positive  and  negative  brushes  of  the  machine.  This  condition,  however,  gives  rise 

to  no  perceptible  in- 
convenience, and 
this  latter  fact  is  ac- 

„_  counted  for  by  the 

i  j 
I 


powerful  effect  of 
the  field-magnet  he- 
lices in  preserving 
the  volume  and  di- 
rection of  the  cur- 
rent at  the  instant 
of  the  connection 
just  referred  to. 

During  regula- 
tion the  positions  of 
the  brushes  are  so 
altered  as  to  enlarge 
this  period  of  con- 
nection, and  so  di- 
minish  the  available 
electromotive  force 


FIG.  40.— Ring-armature. 


FIG.  41.—  Outline  of  Thomson-Houston  dynamo. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


213 


of  the  machine.  At  the  same  time,  also,  the  total  resistance  in  circuit  being  lessened  by  ex- 
tinction of  lights  or  removal  of  resistance,  while  the  current-strength  remains  constant,  the 
energy  represented  in  the  main  circuit  falls  in  proportion,  and  the  mechanical  energy  expended 
in  producing  the  current  fails  in  nearly  the  same  proportion.  Speed  variations  are  compen- 
sated for  by  the  regulator  controlling  the  brushes,  as  in  cases  of  variations  of  resistance  in 
circuit. 

In  the  machines  for  35  and  50  2,000-candle-power  arc-lights  the  ring-armature  shown  in 
Fig.  40  has  recently  been  adopted,  as  it  offers  many  advantages  in  better  ventilation  and 
higher  insulation,  and,  besides,  permits  of  repairs  more  readily  than  the  older  form.  The 
accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  41)  and  table  give  the  various  dimensions,  weights,  and  capaci- 
ties of  the*  Thomson-Houston  machines : 


CLASS. 

C 

E 

H 

K 

L 

M 

P 

LD 

MD 

Weight 

725 

1  450 

2200 

3500 

4025 

4200 

5725 

5200 

5  975 

Speed  

1,250 

1,000 

950 

900 

850 

850 

800 

820 

820 

Lights,  1,200  candle-power 

'    4 

9 

18 

30 

45 

50 

Lights  2000      " 

3 

6 

12 

20 

25 

30 

45 

35 

50 

Watts  

1,500 

3,000 

6,000 

10,000 

12,500 

15,000 

22,500 

17.500 

25000 

A       

291 

35* 

40} 

43* 

45} 

45* 

47* 

46} 

47 

B                    

25} 

31 

35* 

38 

39} 

40 

42* 

41} 

41} 

C... 

51 

32 

36 

37} 

39} 

39} 

41* 

39} 

39* 

D    . 

27 

34 

38} 

39} 

41* 

41* 

43* 

4H 

411 

E 

17i 

23* 

28* 

32} 

35} 

36* 

39} 

36 

37 

F 

CJL 

13 

14} 

l~i 

18* 

19} 

20} 

m. 

19} 

G 

19} 

25 

28} 

33 

34} 

35} 

37* 

35} 

35* 

H 

32* 

39* 

44* 

45* 

47} 

47} 

50} 

47} 

I... 

8 

45* 

50* 

51* 

52} 

52} 

55} 

ggi 

52} 

K  

5i 

4 

5» 

f)i 

6f 

ef 

6f 

61 

4 

L 

33} 

43} 

50| 

60} 

64} 

63* 

73 

64 

64* 

M... 

14} 

19 

21* 

27} 

28} 

28* 

30} 

27* 

28 

N  .... 

8 

10 

12 

15 

15 

15 

18 

16 

18 

O' 

4* 

5 

| 

g 

s 

g 

10 

g 

10 

O"  ... 

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p. 

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23i 

26* 

33* 

36* 

set 

40} 

36* 

36} 

R 

21 

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30* 

38} 

41} 

411 

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s  

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42* 

42* 

The  Hochhausen  Dynamo. — The  latest  type  of  this  machine,  intended  for  arc-lighting,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  42.  The  magnetic  frame  consists  of  two  field-cores  connected  by  a  cast-iron 
yoke  at  one  end  and  provided  with 
pole-pieces  at  the  other,  which  en- 
circle the  armature  on  three  sides. 
The  armature,  it  will  be  noted,  is 
placed  with  its  shafts  in  bearings 
which  are  on  the  interior  of  the 
machine,  so  that  the  armature,  as 
exhibited  in  Fig.  43,  can  be  entire- 
ly exposed.  This  is  facilitated  by 
the  pole-pieces,  which  are  hinged, 
as  shown,  and  which  can  be  turned 
out  so  as  to  show  the  armature 
completely,  and  allow  it  to  be 
drawn  out  a  sufficient  distance  for 
thorough  repair,  if  necessary,  with- 
out removing  the  shaft  from  the 
journal-bearings.  The  armature- 
core  is  built  up  of  iron  wire,  in- 
sulated by  paper,  the  wire  being 
wound  on  a  cast-iron  frame  or 
skeleton  having  a  T-section,  which 
divides  the  core  into  two  parts. 
The  arms  of  the  spider  which 
holds  the  armature  are  insulated 
from  the  core  and  frame,  and  fit 
into  notches  which  are  cut  taper- 
ing from  both  sides  toward  the 
center,  so  as  to  keep  the  hole  con- 
centric. The  coils  of  the  arma- 
ture, which  are  rectangular  in  sec- 
tion, are  wound  automaticallv  upon  the  core  by  an  ingenious  machine  devised  by  Mr.  Hoch- 
hausen for  that  purpose.  When  placed  upon  the  armature-core  the  coils  are  separated  on 
the  outer  circumference  by  wooden  wedges,  which  are  secured  to  the  cast-iron  skeleton  of  the 
armature,  and  they  are  held  in  position  by  sections  of  fiber-band  which  are  screwed  into  the 
wooden  wedges  just  referred  to. 

The  regulation  of  the  machine  is  a  development  of  the  methods  heretofore  employed 
by  Mr.  Hochhausen,  and  is  very  ingeniously  carried  out.  consisting  in  the  shifting  of  the 
brushes  in  conjunction  with  a  regulating  resistance,  both  of  which  are  simultaneously  operated 


FIG.  42.— Hochhausen  dynamo. 


214 


DYNAMO-ELECTKIC   MACHINES. 


by  an  old  device  originated  by  Mr.  Hochhausen— namely,  a  small  auxiliary  motor.  This 
motor,  which  is  entirely  hidden  from  view,  is  situated  in  the  hub-like  projection  bearing  on 
the  arms  which  span  the  two  pole-pieces  beside  the  end  of  the  armature-shaft,  and  which 
might  be  mistaken,  except  on  closest  scrutiny,  for  the  bearing  of  the  shaft.  This  small  motor 
is  fixed  in  a  magnetic  field,  which  is  produced  by  attaching  the  cast-iron  arms  shown,  to  each 
pole-piece  and  bringing  them  together,  so  as  to  surround  the  armature  of  the  small  motor.  It 
might  be  thought  for  an  instant  that  such  a  bridging  of  the  magnetic  circuit  would  take  a 
large  number  of  the  magnetic  lines  of  force  away  from  the  armature,  but  this  has  been  pro- 
vided for  by  mounting  the  cast-iron  arms,  not  directly  on  the  pole-pieces,  but  by  separating 
the  two  iron  surfaces  by  a  good  thickness  of  hard  rubber,  so  as  to  make  a  considerable  break 
in  the  magnetic  circuit.  The  magnetism  passing  through  the  arms,  therefore,  is  very  weak, 
but  nevertheless,  sufficiently  strong  to  produce  a  field  for  the  small  regulating-motor,  which 
acts  with  the  greatest  promptness.  The  regulation  of  the  machine  is  effected  in  a  very  in- 
genious manner  by  means  of  a  wall-regulator,  which  serves  as  a  controller  for  the  regulating 

motor.  The  method  employed  is  very 
clearly  shown  in  the  diagram,  Pig.  44. 
Here,' it  will  be  seen,  MB  are  the  main 
brushes  mounted  upon  a  rocker -arm, 
which  is  provided  with  a  circular  rack 
which  meshes  with  a  pinion  attached  to 
the  end  of  the  shaft  of  the  small  motor- 
regulator.  Starting  from  the  positive 
terminal  of  the  machine  P,  the  current 
is  led  to  the  binding-post  4  on  the  wall- 
controller,  and  from  there  passes  into 
the  controller  -  magnets  M  M.  After 
traversing  these  magnets  the  current 
enters  the  armature  A,  and  after  pass- 
ing through  the  resistance  Rl  goes  to 
line  and  the  external  circuit  to  the  neg- 
ative terminal  JV  and  main  brush  of  the 
machine.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that 
the  end  of  the  controller  armature  A 
bears  against  two  contact-points  CC1, 
which  are  connected  through  points  2 
and  3  to  the  brushes  of  the  small  regu- 
lating motor  on  the  machine.  At  the 
same  time  the  two  latter  circuits  are 
tapped  at  points  P2  and  P3,  and  con- 
nected through  German  -  silver  resist- 
ances R*  R*  to  the  terminal  1.  Now, 
the  regulating  magnet  M  M  is  so  ad- 
justed that  when  the  normal  current 
passes  over  the  line,  the  armature  A 
stands  horizontal  and  makes  contact 
with  both  points  C  6n,  which  are  fixed 
at  the  end  of  the  lever  B.  The  current 
entering  the  armature  A  from  the  mag- 
nets MM,  therefore,  besides  passing  to 
line  through  the  resistance  R},  has  two 
other  paths  open  to  it  through  contacts 
C  C1  to  the  brushes  of  the  small  regulat- 
ing motor  via  points  2  and  3.  But  it 
will  be  remarked  that  the  currents  in  these  two  circuits  are  in  the  same  direction,  when 
they  meet  at  the  regulating  motor  opposite  each  other,  with  the  result  that  they  have 
no  effect  on  the  little  motor,  the  armature  of  which  remains  stationary.  It  will  also  be  noted 
that  a  part  of  the  regulating  current  passes  to  line  through  .ft2  and  R3.  Now,  if  from  any 
cause  an  increase  of  current  takes  place  above  the  normal,  the  armature  A  of  the  wall-con- 
troller is  drawn  down  out  of  its  horizontal  position,  by  which  action  the  contact  at  C  is 
broken,  while  that  at  C1  is  still  maintained.  The  regulating  'current  now  has  only  one 
path  open  to  it,  from  C1  to  2  2,  etc.,  to  the  left-hand  brush  of  the  motor-regulator,  thence 
through  the  armature  to  the  other  brush  to  points  3  3  P3,  and  out  to  line  through  the  resist- 
ance R*.  This  affords  a  complete  and  continuous  path  for  the  regulating  current,  and  the 
motor  armature  at  once  starts  to  revolve  and  to  turn  the  brushes  of  the  machine  in  the 
corresponding  direction  for  cutting  down  the  current;  at  the  same  time  the  rod  FF  acts 
upon  the  field-switch  S,  which  assists  the  brushes  in  reducing  the  current  by  cutting  out  sec- 
tions of  the  field-magnets.  When  the  normal  current  has  again  been  established  the  con- 
troller armature  re-establishes  contact  C  and  the  regulating  motor  stops.  A  diminution  of 
the  current  from  the  normal  causes  the  breaking  of  the  contact  6T1,  which  sends  the  regulating 
current  through  the  motor  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  just  described,  and  with  a  corre- 
sponding -effect.  It  will  be  evident  that  at  all  times  the  resistances  Rl  R*  and  R*  are  in  cir- 
cuit, and  as  the  last  two  points  form  constant  shunts  to  the  points  C  and  C'1,  no  sparking 
whatever  takes  place  when  contact  is  broken  at  either  of  those  points.  The  result  of  this  is, 


FIG.  43.— Hochhausen  dynamo. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


215 


that  upon  any  variation  in  the  current,  not  only  are  the  brushes  revolved  in  a  corresponding 
direction  by  the  regulating  motor,  but,  as  will  be  noted,  the  field-switch  S  is  operated,  to  cut 
sections  in  or  out,  by  means  of  the  connecting  arm  F  F\  both  these  methods  of  regulation, 
acting  in  conjunction,  serve  to  bring  the  machine  instantly  into  its  normal  state.  The  switch 
Sl  is  provided  fcr  the  purpose  of  cutting  out  the  regulating  motor  when  adjusting  the  position 
of  the  magnets  M  31,  while  the  switch  /S2  is  employed  for  short-circuiting  the  field-magnets 
when  shutting  down  the  machine.  As  the  potential  employed  on  the  largest-sized  machine 
approaches  the  neighborhood  of  5,000  volts, 
extra  precaution  must  be  taken  for  insula- 
tion of  the  various  parts,  which  is  made 
specially  necessary  by  the  static  charge, 
which  has  opportunity  to  accumulate  from 
the  friction  of  the  belt.  The  jumping  of 
the  spark,  due  to  this  accumulation,  is  apt 
to  be  followed  by  the  current  from  the  ma- 
chine. To  avoid  this  the  armature  is  thor- 
oughly insulated  with  mica  from  the  spider 
which  holds  it,  and  the  bearings  are  also  in- 
sulated from  the  main  body  of  the  dynamo, 
and  the  latter,  again,  from  the  iron  skids 
upon  which  it  is  mounted.  Various  sizes 
of  this  machine  have  been  built — the  largest, 
designed  for  125  1,200-candle-power  lamps, 
or  for  100  2,000-candle-power  lamps.  The 
diameter  of  the  armature  of  this  machine 
is  30  in.  and  has  36  coils  wound  upon  it, 
each  8  in.  square.  One  hundred  and  sixty 
pounds  of  Xo.  17  B.  &  S.  wire  are  wound 
on  the  armature  for  the  1,200-candle-pow- 
er lamps,  which  require  seven  amperes,  and 
the  same  weight  of  Xo.  16  wire  where  the 
2.000  -  candle  -  power  lamps  are  employed, 
which  take  ten  amperes.  The  speed  of"  the 
machine  is  700  revolutions  per  minute,  and 
its  total  weight  5?500  Ibs.  The  field  is 
wound  with  1,300  Ibs.  of  Xo.  8  wire,  divided 
into  two  sections.  One  of  these  is  wound 
unbroken,  while  the  other  is  tapped  at  equal 
intervals  by  20  wires,  which  are  connected 
to  the  field-switches  and  controlled  by  the 
brush-rocker  in  the  manner  described  above. 
The  second  size  of  this  machine  constructed 
is  designed  for  50  lights  of  2,000  candle- 
power  each,  and  has  90  Ibs.  of  wire  on  the 
armature  and  870  on  the  field.  The  third 
size,  designed  for  30  lights,  has  55  Ibs.  of 
wire  on  the  armature  and  400  Ibs.  on  the 
field. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  machine, 
it  will  be  noted,  is  exceedingly  compact,  and 


FIG  44  —Regulating  apparatus. 


the  open  construction  adopted  allows  of  ready  access  to  every  part  for  examination  and  repair, 
if  necessary.  The  machines  have  already  been  placed  in  several  stations,  where  their  operation 
has  been  attended  with  marked  success.  The  following  data  refer  to  a  machine  of  this  type 
designed  to  operate  100  arc-lights  in  series:  Current.  10  amperes:  E.  M.  F.,  5,000  volts;  re- 
sistance of  field.  14  ohms;  resistance  of  armature,  13  ohms;  ampere  turns  in  field,  42,400: 
ampere  turns  in  armature.  40.500 ;  number  of  sections  in  armature.  36.  of  225  turns  each ;  size 
of  wire  on  field,  Xo.  8  B.  &  S. :  size  of  wire  on  armature,  Xo.  15  B.  &  S. ;  speed,  750  revolu- 
tions per  minute :  weight,  6,300  Ibs. 

The  Sperry  Dynamo.— In  the  rotary  movement  of  a  ring-armature  between  opposite  ex- 
ternal pole-pieces,  the  lines  of  force,  according  to  one  theory,  enter  the  armature-core  and 
traverse  the  coils,  producing  an  equal  magnetic  effect  on  every  portion  of  each  coil,  interior 
as  well  as  exterior.  According  to  another  theory,  only  the  exterior  portion  of  the  coils  cuts 
the  lines  of  force ;  the  interior  portion,  as  well  as  that  on  the  ends,  being  practically  idle, 
serving  only  as  a  conductor  of  the  electricity  generated  in  the  exterior  portion.  To  bring  this 
idle  portion  into  action,  the  field-magnets  of  the  Sperry  dynamo  are  constructed  with  interior 
as  well  as  exterior  pole-pieces,  the  flat  ring-armature  being  nearly  inclosed  between  them,  by 
which  means,  it  is  claimed,  about  92  per  cent  of  the  armature-wire  is  rendered  effective,  while, 
without  interior  pole-pieces,  only  30  to  54  per  cent  becomes  effective.  Fig.  45  represents  the 
field-magnets  complete.  They  consist  of  four  magnets,  the  four  cores  being  attached  to  a 
heavy  iron  yoke.  From  each"  core  two  pole-pieces,  like  the  tongs  of  a  tuning-fork,  project 
horizontally,  eight  in  all — four  interior  and  four  exterior — the  two  sets  being  arranged  in  two 
concentric  "circles,  as  shown,  leaving  an  annular  space  between  them.  The  armature,  shown 
in  Fig.  46,  rotates  in  this  space,  its  position  being  reversed,  and  its  shaft  passing  through  the 


216 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


center  of  the  magnet-yoke.     Its  core  has  the  same  construction  as  that  of  others  already  de- 
scribed—thin, flat,  sheet-iron  rings,  insulated  with  paper  and  bolted  together,  without  air- 


FIG.  45.— Field-magnet. 


FIG.  46.— Armature. 


spaces.  It  is  attached  at  the  commutator  end  to  a  brass  support  called  the  spider,  connected 
with  the  shaft.  It  is  series-wound,  in  one  closed  circuit,  with  insulated  copper  wire  of  suitable 
size,  the  coils  being  connected  by  radial  arms  with  the  commutator  in  the  usual  manner;  the 
ring  complete  being  8|  in.  wide  in  the  35-arc-light  machine.  The  shaft  with  the  armature 
attached  can  be  moved  horizontally  by  means  of  a  screw,  and  the  armature  drawn  out  of  the 
inclosing  pole-pieces,  and  consequently  out  of  the  magnetic  field,  to  any  required  extent, 

thereby  reducing  the  magnet- 
ic and  electric  intensities.  A 
special  feature  of  the  new 
Sperry  dynamo  is  the  auto- 
matic regulator.  The  brushes 
consist  of  overlapping  flat 
copper  strips  attached  to  a 
movable  yoke,  which  is  con- 
nected by  means  of  an  arm  to 
an  electro-magnetic  regulator 
placed  in  the  lamp-circuit. 
Any  variation  in  the  electri- 
cal resistance  of  the  lamp- 
circuit  operates  the  keeper  of 
the  electro-magnet.  By  an 
ingenious  ratchet  -  and  -  pawl 
device  this  movement  adjusts 
the  current  of  the  dynamo  in 
proportion  to  the  variation  in 
the  resistance  of  the  lamp- 
circuit.  It  is  claimed  that  75 
per  cent  of  the  total  number 
of  arc-lamps  may  be  instantly 
switched  out  without  the  least 
danger  to  the  machine.  Fig. 
47  shows  the  machine  in  per- 
spective. 

Fig.  48  is  a  diagram  of  the 
Waterhouse  dynamo,  with  a 
closed  -  circuit  armature  A. 
Fig.  49  shows  the  Waterhouse  dynamo,  type  No.  3,  on  which  the  regulator  is  used.  On  the  com- 
mutator C  are  three  brushes :  a  and  &  are  the  main  circuit  brushes,  and  c  the  auxiliary  brush. 
From  the  positive  brush  a  the  current  passes  on  the  conductor  around  the  field-magnets  f  to 
the  resistance  R.  The  current  from  the  auxiliary  brush  c  passes  directly  to  resistance  R, 
leaving  the  field-magnets  out  of  circuit.  The  currents  from  both  circuits  (field  and  local)  join 
at  R,  and  pass  to  the  lamps,  the  current  on  the  lamp-line  being  the  sum  of  the  two.  The 
amount  of  current  in  the  field  and  local  circuits  is  in  proportion  to  the  resistance  R  in  each. 
The-brushes  have  a  fixed  position.  There  is  in  every  dynamo  a  point  of  maximum  commuta- 
tion on  the  armature  which  changes  with  the  resistance  on  the  lamp-line,  moving  with  the 
rotation  (toward  brush  c)  when  the  resistance  decreases,  and  back  when  it  increases.  This 
affects  the  current  in  the  local  and  field  circuits  as  follows :  When  lights  are  turned  out,  the 
line  resistance  is  decreased,  and  the  maximum  point  moves  forward  and  forces  more  current 
out  of  brush  c  and  less  out  of  brush  a.  This  reduces  the  current  in  the  field-magnets  and  the 
E.  M.  F.,  and  consequently  the  power  required  to  operate  the  dynamo,  but  the  current  on  the 


FIG.  47. — Sperry  dynamo. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


217 


lamp-line  remains  constant  because  the  local  circuit  is  increased  proportionally  to  the  de- 
crease of  the  field  circuit.  The  remaining  lamps,  therefore,  retain  their  full  brilliancy,  while 
the  current  can  not  increase  and  de- 
stroy the  apparatus.  The  regulator  is 
illustrated  diagrarnmatically  in  Fig.  48. 
It  is  operated  by  the  slide,  which  is 
controlled  by  a  solenoid.  Any  tenden- 
cy of  the  current  to  increase  raises  the 
contact,  and  the  result  is  a  decrease  of 
resistance  in  the  local  circuit  and  an 
increase  of  resistance  in  the  field  cir- 
cuit. More  current  will  therefore  flow 
through  the  local  circuit  and  less 
through  the  field  circuit.  The  gener- 
ating capacity  of  the  dynamo  is  in- 
stantly reduced,  and  any  tendency  to 
produce  a  current  above  the  standard 
is  overcome.  Should  the  tendency  of 
the  current  be  to  decrease,  say  by  a 
reduction  of  the  speed  of  the  armature, 
the  slide  lowers,  increasing  the  resist- 
ance in  the  local  and  reducing  it  in  the 
field  circuit.  More  current  will  then 
flow  around  the  field-magnets  and  less  FIG.  48.— Waterhouse  dynamo-connections, 

out  on  the  local  circuit.    The  gener- 
ating capacity  of  the  dynamo  will  therefore  increase  to  maintain  the  current  at  standard. 
It  was  stated  above 'that  regulation  could  be  effected  in  a  dynamo  by  shunting  the  lines 

of  force  around  the  armature. 
This  has  been  carried  out  in  the 
Goolden  and  Trotter  dynamo 
(Fig.  50).  The  double-magnet 
type  of  dynamo  is  very  suitable 
for  this  purpose,  for  one  half  of 
the  machine  may  be  constantly 
magnetized  to  the  desired  point 
of  saturation,  while  the  other  half 
acts  as  a  keeper.  The  former 
may  be  called  the  constantly  mag- 
netized limb,  and  the  latter  the 
keeper.  They  are  similarly  wound 
with  exciting  coils.  If  the  con- 
stantly magnetized  limb  is  fully 
excited  by  the  usual  current 
through  its  coils,  and  no  current 
is  passed  through  those  of  the 
keeper,  the  latter  will  act  as  a 
magnetic  shunt,  and  nearly  all 
the  lines  of  force  will  pass  round 
and  round  in  a  closed  circuit  of 
iron  :  little  or  no  polarity  will  be 
found  at  the  pole-pieces,  and 
there  will  be  a  minimum  effect? 
on  the  armature.  By  allowing  a 
weak  current  to  pass  round  the  keeper,  the  diversion  of  the  lines  of  force  through  it  will  be 
partially  obstructed,  and  the  rest  will  take  their  usual  path  through  the  armature.  With  a 
certain  strength  of  current  this  obstruction  will  be  complete,  no 
lines  will  pass  in  either  direction,  and  the  magnetic  effect  is  the 
same  as  though  the  keeper  had  been  entirely  removed  from  the 
dynamo.  The  strength  of  the  field  and  its  action  on  the  arma- 
ture is  the  same  as  though  the  dynamo  were  provided  with  one 
magnet  only.  If  now  the  current  through  the  coils  on  the 
keeper  be  increased  beyond  its  neutral  point,  it  will  assist  the 
permanent  magnet,  the  lines  of  force  in  the  former  will  be  re- 
versed, and  finally,  when  the  whole  current  passes  round  it.  the 
volts  are  at  the  maximum,  and  the  dynamo  works  as  an  ordi- 
nary series-wound  machine.  It  was  soon  found  in  practice  that, 
owing  to  the  complete  magnetic  circuit  formed  by  the  pair  of 
magnets,  the  changes  in  the  strength  of  the  field  were  some- 
what sluggish.  This  was  remedied  by  making  a  gap  in  the 
magnetic  circuit,  by  boring  out  the  yoke  on  the  side  where  the 
magnet-bars  passed  through,  and  bushing  them  with  brass, 

using  brass  washers  also  on  the  ends  of  the  bars  and  under  the      FlQ  ^     Gooiden  an(i  Trotter 
nuts.     A  practical  application  has  been  made  of  this  method  for  dynamo. 


FIG.  49.  —  Waterhouse  dynamo. 


218 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


the  purpose  of  running  Bernstein  incandescent  lamps  arranged  in  series,  and  a  dynamo  con- 
trolled on  this  system  by  an  automatic  regulator  enables  the  lamps  to  be  extinguished  by  short- 
circuiting. 

The  Edison  Dynamo.— The  early  form  of  the  Edison  dynamo  consisted  of  a  drum-armature 
built  up  of  laminated  iron,  and  revolving  in  a  field  consisting  of  one  or  more  long  cylindrical 
electro-magnets,  according  to  the  output  of  the  machine.  The  most  powerful  machines  of 
this  type  were  those  constructed  for  the  first  Edison  central  stations  in  Pearl  Street,  New 
York,  1882,  and  Milan,  Italy,  illustrated  in  Fig.  51. 


\  \\\ 

Fia.  51. — Edison  dynamo. 

The  armatures  of  these  machines  are  27*3  in.  in  diameter,  and  61  in.  long.  The  shaft  is 
of  steel,  7f  in.  in  diameter,  and  of  a  total  length  of  10  ft.  3  in.  Provision  is  made  for  an  air- 
blast  to  keep  the  armature  cool. 
The  armature  is  driven  direct  by 
a  Porter-Allen  steam-engine  run- 
ning at  350  revolutions  per  min., 
and  having  a  piston-speed  of  133 
ft.  per  min.  Machines  of  this 
type  are  still  operated  in  the 
Edison  station,  Milan,  Italy,  but 
their  use  has  been  abandoned  in 
New  York,  on  account  of  the  in- 
creased efficiency  of  the  improved 
type  of  Edison  machine  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  52. 

In  this  machine  the  magnets 
are  greatly  shortened,  and  con- 
sist of  circular  wrought  -  iron 
cores  mounted  on  heavy  cast- 
iron  pole-pieces,  which  surround 
the  armature.  The  machine  rests 
upon  a  cast-iron  bed-plate,  which 
carries  the  armature  bearings,  but 

A-**^1^  ""•^^^^HsK^'-'Slf  ""••••i  llf$r:t"     *n  or(^er  t°  avoid  short-circuiting 

fe      of  the    magnetic    lines  around 
the  armature,  which  would  ensue 
if  the  pole-pieces  rested  directly 
in   contact   with   the   iron   bed- 
Fro.  52.— Edison  dynamo,  improved.  plate,    the    latter    is    separated 

from  them  by  the  zinc  castings 

shown.  The  magnetic  yoke  between  the  tops  of  the  field-magnets  consists  of  a  massive 
block  of  wrought  iron,  and  upon  it  are  mounted  the  contacts  and  switch  for  opening  and 
closing  the  circuit  to  the  machine. 

These  machines  are  built  in  sizes  ranging  from  a  few  horse-power  to  over  250  horse-power, 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC    MACHINES. 


219 


and  the  following  data  refer  to  three  sizes,  the  K.  W.,  or  Kilowatt,  being  equivalent  to  1*33 
horse-power : 


SIZE  OF   MACHINE. 


6  K.  W. 

25  K.  W. 

100  K.  W. 

External  diameter  of  armature  in  inches 

Ciin. 

&Jin. 

17  f  in 

Speed  of   machine  as  dynamo  revolutions  per 

1,800  revs. 

1,300  revs. 

650  revs 

Number  of  commutator  sections  

58 

66 

48 

Number  of  turns  per  section 

3 

1 

E  M  F  generated  

125  volts 

125  volts 

125  volts 

Resistance  of  field  winding  shunt  machine  
Ampere  turns  in  field-winding  at  full  load 

54'4  ohms 
8.650 

37  ohms 
14300 

16'4  ohms 
24  250 

Diameter  of  wire  on  field-  winding 

•042  in. 

•065  in 

'109  in 

Resistance  of  armature  

•116  ohm 

'0167  ohm 

'00515  ohm 

Gauge  of  wire  used  for  winding  armature  
The  weight  of  machine  complete 

No.  12  B.  W.  G. 
830  Ibs 

Two  No.  8  B.  \V.  G. 
3  570  Ibs 

Four  No.  3  B.  and  S. 

16  200  Ibs 

Fig.  53  shows  the  general  type  of  Weston  machine  for  arc  and  incandescent  lighting. 
Probably  the  most  strikingly  distinctive  feature  of  the  Weston  machine  is  the  sectional  arma- 


FIG.  53. — Weston  dynamo. 

ture.  The  armature-core  (Fig.  54)  is  built  up  of  iron  disks  of  the  form  shown.  These  are 
secured  together  upon  the  armature-shaft,  but  separated  somewhat  from  each  other,  so  as  to 
leave  spaces  between  them.  These  spaces  serve  to  break  up  the  continuity  of  the  core,  and 
thus  prevent  the  formation  of  induced  currents ;  they  also  form  ventilating  spaces.  By  a 
very  ingenious  arrangement,  the  armature  is  made  to  act  as  a  centrifugal  blower,  to  main- 
tain a  circulation  of  air  through  the  core  and 
about  the  coils,  and  thus  whatever  heat  may 
be  generated  in  them  is  dissipated.  The  coils 
are  spread  apart,  where  they  pass  across  the 
heads  of  the  armature,  by  flanged  plates 
(shown  somewhat  removed  from  the  head  of 
the  armature  in  Fig.  54),  so  as  to  leave  an 
opening  about  the  shaft  for  the  admission  of 
air,  which  is  taken  into  the  interior  of  the 
armature  and  thrown  out  between  the  coils 
FIG.  54.-Weston  armature.  by  centrifugal  force<  With  a  sectional  arm- 

ature and   this   system    of    ventilation,   no 

trouble  whatever  is  experienced  from  heating  of  the  core  or  coils.     The  armature  complete 
is  shown  in  Fig.  55. 

The  cores  and  pole-pieces  of  the  field-magnets  are  made  very  heavy,  so  as  to  maintain  an 
extremely  intense  field  with  comparatively  little  expenditure  of  cur  rent -energy,  and  the  pole 
projections  on  the  armature  being  almost  "directly  in  contact  with  the  pole-pieces,  concentrate 
the  lines  of  force  of  the  field 
directly  upon  the  armature.  All 
of  these  features  of  construc- 
tion contribute  to  produce  the 
requisite     electromotive    force 
with  very  low  internal  resist- 
ance and  low  speed. 

In  a  Weston  machine,  de-  Fia.  55.-Weston  armature. 


220 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


for  200  incandescent  lamps,  199  could  be  turned  out  without  materially  affecting  the 
brilliancy  of  the  remaining  one.  The  data  of  this  machine  are  as  follows:  Weight,  2,836 
Ibs.  ;  length,  62-5  in.  ;  breadth,  53  in.  ;  height,  25-75  in.  ;  resistance  of  external  circuit,  0'4 
ohm  ;  resistance  of  arma- 
ture, -008  ohm';  resistance 
of  field-coils,  24-1  ohm  ; 
E.  M.  F.,  67  volts;  num- 
ber of  revolutions  per 
min.,  960;  diameter  of 
armature  -  wire,  0'24  in. 
The  ratio  of  armature  to 
shunt  resistance  in  this 
case  was  therefore  1  to 
3,000.  This  high  rate 
is,  however,  rarely  at- 
tained. 

Fig.  56  illustrates  the 
Thomson  -  Houston  Dy- 
namo for  incandescent 
lighting.  It  resembles  in 
general  design  the  arc- 
machine  ;  its  distinguish- 
ing feature,  however,  is 
the  method  employed  for 
obtaining  constant  poten- 
tial automatically  without 
the  use  of  external  resist- 
ances. This  is  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  set 
of  "  series  -  coils  "  placed 
at  an  inclined  position 


around  the  armature,  as 
shown,  which  react  upon 
the  armature  so  as  to 


Fm.  56.— Thomson-Houston  dynamo, 
point-  of    commutation    fixed    at 


„„    „„    _    maintain    the    point  -  of    commutation    fixed    at    all    loads. 

Fi<r.  57  shows  the  Eickemeyer  Dynamo,  which  claims  attention  on  account  of  its  novel 

construction.  The  object  sought 
to  be  obtained  by  the  inventor 
is  to  concentrate 'the  full  excit- 
ing force  of  the  field-coils  upon 
the  armature-core,  and  he  ac- 
complishes this  by  encircling 
the  armature-core  with  an  ex- 
citing helix,  and  then  inclosing 
the  whole  within  an  iron  shell. 
The  latter  is  provided  with 
pole-faces,  and  thus  completes 
the  magnetic  circuit  which  in- 
cludes the  armature-core  and 
the  cheeks. 

Fig.  58  shows  a  longitudi- 
nal section  of  one  form  of  the 
machine,  and  Fig.  59  a  trans- 
verse section  with  the  armature 
removed.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  shell  of  iron  inclosing  the 
armature  is  built  up  of  a  lami- 
nated mass  of  sheet-iron,  to 
which  end-pieces  of  cast  iron 
are  added,  the  whole  being 
bolted  together.  The  iron 
sheets  are  stamped  out  circu- 
larly with  a  longitudinal  exten- 
sion on  the  upper  and  lower 
halves.  The  rectangular  space 


thus  formed  is  occupied  by  the 
field-coils,  which  are  wound  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  wires 
of  the  armature,  and  are  divided 
so  as  to  leave  a  space  for  the  passage  of  the  armature-shaft.  The  armature  is  placed 
within  the  exciting  coils,  and  is  completely  surrounded  by  the  coils  above  and  below  and 
by  the  iron  at  the  sides.  The  magnetic  circuit  thus  formed  is  a  complete  one,  and  not 
the  slightest  evidence  of  external  magnetism  is  perceptible.  As  regards  the  output  of  this 
machine,  it  may  be  remarked  that  Mr.  Eickemeyer  has  made  the  experiment  of  plac- 


Fio.  57. — Eickemeyer  dynamo. 


DYXAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


221 


ing  the  armature  of  an  old  form  of  machine  within  the  field,  such  as  he  uses,  and  by 
employing  the  same  amount  of  field-wire  as  was  used  on  the  older  form  he  succeeded  in 
increasing  the  out-put  of  the  armature  nearly  twice.  More  recent  machines  are  built  of  solid 
cast  steel. 

In  the  Kennedy  Dynamo  (Fig.  60)  the  field-magnet  is  made  of  three  pieces,  with  only  one 
field-bobbin.  The  core  of  the  bobbin  is  made  of  hammered  scrap-iron,  and  measures  10  in.  in 
diameter  and  14  in,  in  length ;  the  pole-pieces  are  of  soft  cast  iron,  and  are  of  much  greater 


O) 


FIG  58.— Section. 


FIG.  59.— Section. 


cross-section  than  the  core  of  the  bobbin.  This  construction  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity, 
combined  with  compactness  and  low  magnetic  resistance.  The  armature  is  built  of  charcoal- 
iron  disks,  and  the  core  is  turned  true,  outside  and  inside,  and  mounted  on  metal  spokes  on  a 
steel  shaft.  The  outsides  of  the  armature  are  usually  turned  up  true  on  the  shaft.  The 
armature-core  of  this  machine  is  12 
in.  long,  10  in.  in  diameter  outside, 
and  6  in.  inside  diameter,  the  depth 
of  core  being  thus  2  in.  The  arma- 
ture is  wound  with  flat  wire  5  mm. 
by  3-5  mm.,  one  layer  outside.  The 
current  allowed  for  this  armature 
running  constantly  for  long  runs  is 
90  amperes.  The  commutator  is 
made  of  solid  drawn  copper  sec- 
tions, insulated  with  mica,  and  is  of 
large  size.  The  brushes  are  adjust- 
able in  all  directions,  and  the  press- 
ure on  the  commutator  is  adjusted 
by  springs.  The  brushes  require  a 
slight  adjustment  for  varying  loads, 
but  at  a  speed  of  about  900  revolu- 
tions the  machine  gives  102  volts  at 
the  terminals.  According  to  the 
tests  of  Prof.  Andrew  Jamieson.  the 
dynamo  gave  an  output  of  10,850 
watts,  or  108*5  amperes,  and  100 
volts  at  620  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  peripheral  speed  of  the  arma- 
ture is  1,900  ft.  per  minute.  The 
following  are  the  data  of  construc- 
tion and  operation  of  the  machine : 
Resistance  of  armature,  warm,  =  '04 
ohm ;  resistance  of  magnet-shunt, 
warm,  =  20  ohm  ;  resistance  of  mag- 
net main  coil,  warm,  =  '03  ohm ; 
current  in  working  circuit  =  108*5 
amperes ;  current  in  shunt-magnet  coils  =  5  amperes ;  difference  of  potential  at  dynamo-ter- 
minal =  100  volts;  difference  of  potential  at  brushes  =  103  volts;  speed  in  revolutions  per 
minute  =  620 ;  temperature  of  air  =  60°  F. ;  highest  temperature  of  armature  =  140°  F. ; 
highest  temperature  of  magnet-coils  =  125°  F. 

The  Mather  and  Hopkinson  Dynamo,  an  excellently  designed  machine,  is  illustrated  in 
Figs.  61  and  62.  The  armature,  designed  by  Dr.  J.  Hopkinson,  F.  R.  S.,  and  Dr.  Edward 
Hopkinson,  is  a  modified  Gramme,  with  low  resistance  and  careful  ventilation.  The  collector 
is  unusually  substantial,  and  consists  of  40  bars  of  toughened  brass  insulated  with  mica.  It 
is  usual  in  "these  machines  so  to  shape  the  pole-pieces  that  there  is  a  smaller  clearance  oppo- 
site the  highest  and  lowest  points  of  the  armature ;  this  concentrates  the  magnetic  field,  and 
helps  to  prevent  its  distortion  by  the  armature-current.  In  a  24-unit  machine  (designed  for 
300  lamps)  of  this  pattern  the  armature-cores  are  12  in.  long  and  12  in.  in  diameter,  with  120 
turns  of  wire.  The  resistances  are :  Armature,  '023  ohm ;  shunt,  19*36  ohms ;  series-coil, 


FIG.  60. — Kennedy  dynamo. 


222 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


•012  ohm  With  a  speed  of  1,050  revolutions  per  minute  the  current  was  220  amperes,  the 
machine  being  nearly  self-regulating  for  111  volts.  This  machine  is  known  as  the  "Man- 
chester "  dynamo.  Its  efficiency  is  90'9  per  cent. 


FIG.  61.— Mather  and  Hopkiuson  dynamo. 


FIG.  62. — "  Manchester  "  dynamo. 


FIG.  63.— Brown  dynamo. 


The  Brown  Dynamo  (Fig.  63),  designed  by  C.  E.  L.  Brown,  of  the  Oerlikon  Works,  near 
Zurich,  Switzerland,  closely  resembles  the  ':  Manchester "  type  (Fig.  62),  but  is  even  more 

massive.  The  illustration  represents  the  ma- 
chine designed  to  give  450  amperes  at  a  115 
volts  at  350  revolutions  per  minute.  The  di- 
mensions of  it  are  as  follows :  Diameter  of 
ring,  61-4  cms.;  length  of  ring,  55  cms. ;  length 
of  shaft,  196  cms. ;  total  height  of  machine, 
120  cms. ;  wrought-iron  cores,  60  cms.  long,  40 
cms.  diameter ;  cast-iron  yokes,  30  cms.  thick. 
44  cms.  broad ;  diameter  of  pulley,  60  cms. ; 
total  weight,  6.5  tons ;  ampere  turns  at  full  ex- 
citation, 35,000. 

The  armature  of  Brown's  dynamo  differs 
in  one  respect  from  those  of  the  preceding  ma- 
chines. It  is  built  up  of  thin  iron  disks,  but 
these,  instead  of  being  toothed  as  in  the  Paci- 
notti  forms,  are  perforated  with  a  peripheral 
series  of  holes,  as  in  the  Wenstrom  dynamo,  to 
receive  the  armature  conductors,  which  lie  thus  about  1  mm.  below  the  periphery.  This 
construction  reduces  the  magnetic  resistance  of  the  air-gap  to  an  exceedingly  small  quantity, 
and  there  is  no  tendency,  as  with  most  toothed  armatures,  to  undue  heating  of  the  pole- 
pieces. 

Fig.  64  represents  the  general  type  of  incandescent  machine  designed  by  Mr.  William 
Hochhausen  for  the  Excelsior  Electric  Co.  The  armature  is  supported  by  two  arms,  which 
project  from  the  neutral  points  of  the  mag- 
net-frame at  its  base.  The  magnet-cores 
are  composed  of  solid  wrought  iron.  The 
following  data  give  a  good  idea  of  the  elec- 
trical design  of  the  machine  capable  of 
feeding  600  incandescent  lamps:  Current, 
360  amperes;  E.  M.  F.,  110  volts;  resist- 
ance of  field,  18  ohms ;  resistance  of  arma- 
ture, -005  ohm ;  ampere  turns  in  field,  22,- 
420 ;  ampere  turns  in  armature,  8,820 ;  size 
of  conductors  on  field,  No.  10  B.  &  S. ;  size 
of  conductors  on  armature,  bundle  of  four 
No.  5  B.  &  S.  wires ;  number  of  sections  on 
armature,  49,  of  one  turn  each ;  speed,  750 
revolutions  per  minute ;  weight,  6,500  Ibs. 
Dynamos  for  Electrolytic  Purposes. — 
These  machines  do  not  differ  materially 
from  the  general  type  of  generators,  but 
are  specially  constructed  for  delivering 
heavy  currents  at  very  low  voltage.  In 
these  machines  it  is  specially  desirable  to 
obtain  as  low  an  internal  resistance  in  the 
armature  as  possible,  and  frequently  they 
are  wound  with  heavy  copper  bars.  The 
latest  form  of  Hochhausen's  plating-ma- 
chine resembles  closely  the  type  of  his  in-  FIG.  64.— Hochhausen  dynamo, 
candescent  machine,  Fig.  64.  The  machine 

is  so  wound  and  connected  that  it  can  be  made  to  deliver  two  potentials  with  corresponding 
strengths  of  current.  The  following  table  gives  the  capacity  and  dimensions  of  these  ma- 
chines in  inches : 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


223 


NUMBER. 

Volts. 

Amperes. 

Horse- 
power. 

Floor-space. 

Height. 

Pulley. 

Speed. 

Weight. 

Lbs.  of  copper  de- 
posited per  hcur. 

«  \ 

82            ...\ 

2'5 
5 
2-5 

250 
125 

500 

;•  ' 

'        2 

21*  x  1C! 
2£f  x  19* 

Ml 

1£* 

4x2 
5  xx* 

2,100 
2000 

137 
270 

4 

8 

< 
83  -} 

5 
2'5 

250 
1,000 

f 

!-    4 

29fx2£* 

20| 

6x3 

1,800 

450 

16 

I 

«  ] 

86  j 

2-5 
5 
2'5 

2,000 
1,000 
6,000 

[    8 

|-     22 

37x32* 
5Sf  x29 

29 
33 

8x5 
14x10 

1,600 
1  000 

930 
2500 

32 
96 

88  

16 

2,400 

) 
55 

66x37 

45 

20  x  12 

800 

4  000 

288 

»  •: 

16 
32 

5,000 
2,500 

f» 

89*x52 

56 

30x16 

600 

7,000 

576 

Fis.  65.— Turbo-electric  generator. 


The  following  data  relate  to  a  Hochhausen  machine  capable  of  reducing  and  depositing 
7,000  Ibs.  of  copper  per  day  of  24  hours :  Current,  2,400  amperes ;  E.  M.  F.,  16  volts ;  resist- 
ance of  field,  '285  ohm  ;  resist- 
ance of  armature,  -00025  ohm; 
ampere  turns  in  field,  39,300; 
ampere  turns  in  armature,  10,- 
800 ;  number  of  sections  in 
armature.  9,  of  one  turn  each  ; 
size  of  conductors  on  field,  Xo. 
10  B.  &  S.  wires  in  multiple; 
size  of  conductors  on  armature, 
36  Xo.  8  B.  &  S.  wires  in  mul- 
tiple ;  speed,  700  revolutions 
per  minute ;  weight,  6,800  Ibs. 
The  Turbo-Electric  Gener- 
ator of  Messrs.  Clarke,  Chap- 
man &  Parsons  has  been  spe- 
cially designed  for  compact  ma- 
rine installations.  The  combi- 
nation consists  of  a  steam-tur- 
bine, or  rotary  engine,  of  novel 

construction,  connected  directly  with  a  dynamo.     Fig.  65  shows  the  machine  in  perspective, 
and  Fig.  66  shows  the  engine  taken  apart,' so  as  to  expose  the  interior  of  the  "  turbine." 

As  will  be  seen,  the  steam  enters  the  barrel  at  the  center,  passes  through  the  succession  of 
turbines  to  either  end,  whence  it  passes  through  a  steam-way  cast  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
barrel,  and  finally  exhausts  at  the  center  just  below  the  admission  port.  The  spindle  is  of 
steel  and  carries  a  number  of  brass  disks,  reduced  near  the  periphery,  where  the  blades  are 
cut  to  half  the  thickness  they  possess  at  the  center.  The  projecting  ring  thus  formed  has 
helical  teeth  cut  upon  it,  constituting  the  moving  blades,  the  pitch  of  the  teeth  varying  along 

the  length  of  the  barrel  to  al- 
low of  the  expansion  of  the 
steam.  The  disks  are  made  of 
such  diameter  as  just  to  turn 
freely  with  the  spindle  within 
the  barrel  without  risk  of  con- 
tact with  the  interior  of  the 
rings  which  carry  the  fixed 
blades.  The  spindle  is  made 
very  stiff,  so  as  to  allow  the 
clearance  to  be  made  exceeding- 
ly small,  as  it  is  found  that  the 
loss  of  power  due  to  the  fric- 
tion of  the  spindle  and  its  bear- 
ings is  exceedingly  small,  and 
it  is  very  desirable  to  prevent, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  passage 
of  steam  between  the  barrel 
and  the  disks.  Between  each 
of  these  disks  there  is  an  annu- 
lar wheel,  with  helical  teeth,  corresponding  to  those  on  the  disk,  but  sloping  in  the  other  di- 
rection. These  form  the  fixed  or  guide  blades.  The  annular  wheels  are  fitted  closely  within 
the  barrel,  the  teeth  projecting  from  one  half  of  their  width  only,  and  it  is  within  the  smooth 
cylindrical  portions  of  these  annular  wheels  that  the  moving  'blades  or  teeth  of  the  disks 
actually  turn.  The  barrel  thus  contains  a  double  series  of  sirens  very  similar  in  principle  to 
Helmholtz's  double  siren,  only  that  the  axis  is  horizontal  instead  of  vertical.  The  holes  in 
the  disks  are  cut  around  the  periphery,  and  there  are  a  great  number  of  pairs  of  disks, 
sometimes  45  or  more,  on  each  side  of  the  center.  One  of  the  most  ingenious  features  of 
the  generator  is  the  magnetic  governor.  The  field-magnet  is  shunt-wound,  but  not  nearly 


FIG  66.— Turbo  electric  generator— details. 


224 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


saturated.  Hence,  any  increase  of  the  E.  M.  F.  of  the  dynamo  increases  the  magnetism 
of  the  field-magnet.  Above  the  yoke  is  pivoted  a  bent  iron  bar,  which  is  attached  to  a 
spring  similar  to  the  hair-spring  of  a  watch,  so  that  this  bar  is  mounted  exactly  like  the 
balance-wheel  of  a  watch.  Projecting  from  this  iron  bar,  at  an  angle  of  45°,  is  a  gun-metal 
fork,  the  extremities  of  which  are  formed  with  sharp  edges  and  move  immediately  in  front  of 
the  opening  of  the  small  copper  tube  which  is  seen  in  the  upper  part  of  the  figure.  This  tube 
communicates  with  a  small  circular  bellows,  shown  above  the  left  end  of  the  turbine  barrel. 
The  bellows  are  kept  distended  by  a  spring,  but  a  small  turbine  on  the  spindle  of  the  motor 
tends  to  exhaust  the  air  and  make  the  bellows  collapse  under  the  atmospheric  pressure.  The 
throttle-valve  which  regulates  the  steam-supply  is  connected  with  the  movable  back  of  the 
bellows,  the  rod  passing  through  a  gland  in  the  fixed  front.  When  the  iron  bar  above  the 
field-magnet  is  inclined  about  45°  to  the  axis  of  the  machine,  the  end  of  the  copper  tube  is 
fully  open,  and  air  enters  the  bellows  as  fast  as  it  is  exhausted  by  the  turbine,  and  the  throttle- 
valve  remains  fully  open.  If  the  E.  M.  F.  increases,  the  iron  bar  turns  in  the  direction  of  the 
lines  of  force  against  the  constraint  of  the  "  hair-spring,"  the  end  of  the  fork  closes  the  air- 
pipe,  the  bellows  collapse  under  the  exhaust  of  the  little  turbine,  and  the  steam  is  shut  off  by 
the  throttle-valve.  The  action  of  this  governor  is  so  prompt,  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the 
moving  parts  of  the  machine  being  so  small  that  nearly  all  the  load  may  be  turned  off  the 
machine  with  scarcely  a  perceptible  change  in  the  brightness  of  the  lamps  remaining.  It  will 
be  seen  from  the  figure  that  the  commutator  is  made  of  very  great  length.  The  brushes  are 
of  wire  and  press  nearly  "  end  on  "  to  the  commutator.  The  four  brushes  can  be  shifted  into 
any  position,  so  as  to  keep  the  wear  of  the  commutator  even.  The  armature  is  of  the  cylin- 
der type.  The  core  is  built  up  of  thin  charcoal-iron  plates,  separated  from  each  other  by 
thin  disks  of  paper.  The  disks  are  clamped  up  tight  by  two  brass  disks  threaded  on  the 
shaft.  The  coils,  which  are  laid  in  channels  cut  in  the  iron,  are  30  or  40  in  number,  of 
stranded  or  solid  copper  wire,  and  each  makes  one  complete  turn.  The  whole  is  bound  round 
with  steel  piano-wire.  The  commutator-segments  are  connected  each  to  the  ends  of  two  ad- 
jacent coils,  connected  up  in  parallel.  There  are,  therefore,  15  or  20  commutator-bars.  The 
speed  varies,  according  to  the  size  of  the  machine,  from  9,000  to  about  10,000  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  loss  of  power  in  the  armature  and  field-magnet  coils  on  the  large  machines 
amounts  to  only  about  1£  per  cent,  the  high  speed  allowing  exceedingly  small  resistance  to  be 
employed  in  the  armature.  A  machine  with  an  output  of  32  electrical  horse-power  in  the 
outer  circuit  is  about  10  ft.  6  in.  in  length  and  1  ft.  6  in.  in  breadth.  A  small  machine,  run- 
ning a  lamp  of  1.000  candle-power,  besides  a  number  of  smaller  lamps,  was  exhibited  in  the 
Newcastle  Exhibition,  1888,  suspended  by  three  wires.  The  exhaust-pipe  was  of  India-rubber, 
and  the  steam-pipe  was  provided  with  a  flexible  joint,  so  that  the  machine  could  be  shaktn 
about  while  running. 

MULTIPOLAR  MACHINES.  —  As  the  E.  M.  F.  generated  in  dynamo-electric  machines  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  rate  of  change  of  the  cutting  of  the  lines  of  force,  the  speed  of  the  machine 

can  evidently  be  reduced  by  increasing  the 
number  of  poles  presented  to  the  armature. 
Modern  electrical  engineering  is  tending  strong- 
ly to  the  adoption  of  multipolar  machines,  as 
they  allow  of  more  ready  direct  .connection 
with  the  driving-engines. 

The  full-page  illustration  shows  the  latest 
type  of  Edison  Multipolar  Constant  Potential 
Generator,  direct  connected  to  triple-expansion 
engines,  one  at  each  end  of  the  driving-shaft.  In 
this  type,  it  will  be  noted,  the  armature  rotates 
within  a  field-magnet  having  10  poles.  The 
frame  of  the  field-magnet  consists  of  but  a  sin- 
gle casting,  and  a  very  ingenious  method  has 
been  designed  by  Mr.  Edison  for  winding  on 
the  magnetizing  coils.  The  Gramme  ring  type 
of  winding  is  employed,  but,  instead  of  using 
coils  of  a  number  of  convolutions  connected  to 
each  segment  of  the  commutator,  in  this  type 
of  machine  each  convolution  is  connected  di- 
rectly with  the  commutator-bar.  For  this  pur- 
pose bare  copper  strips  of  U-shape  are  slipped 
over  one  side  of  the  core,  insulated  from  one 
another,  and  each  succeeding  U-shaped  bar  of 
this  character  is  connected  direct  by  a  commu- 
tator-bar. The  brushes  bear  upon  the  commu- 


FIG. 67.— Siemens  ring-dynamo. 


tator  in  a  vertical  plane.  This  construction  with  bare  conductors  is  permissible  on  account  of 
the  very  small  difference  of  potential,  1£  volt  existing  between  each  bar.  The  number  of  bars 
employed  in  this  type  of  machine  is  944,  and  hence  an  equal  number  of  commutator-bars  is 
employed.  Each  bar  is  therefore  equivalent  to  a  coil  of  the  usual  type  of  Gramme  winding, 
but  the  absence  of  contiguous  layers  entirely  avoids  self-induction,  and  hence  sparking,  the 
machine  operating  without  the  slightest  indication  of  such  a  disturbance.  Eight  brushes  are 
employed,  which  can  be  shifted  simultaneously  by  means  of  the  hand-wheel  shown,  and 
which  can  also  be  lifted  at  once  from  the  surface  of  the  commutator.  The  resistance  of  the 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC    MACHINES. 


225 


close   proximity   of 
magnet-cores    near 


armature  is  '006  ohm,  and  that  of  the  field  8'45.  Each  dynamo  is  designed  for  150  volts 
pressure  and  a  capacity  of  666  amperes.  The  design  has  been  so  well  worked  out  that  a 
variation  of  three  quarters  of  the  load  can  be  made  without  requiring  the  slightest  change  in 
the  position  of  the  brushes. 

The  Siemens  Multipolar  Dynamo. — Figs.  67  and  68  show  the  Siemens  ring-dynamo.  In 
this  machine  the  armature  completely  surrounds  the  fixed  poles ;  hence,  there  is  practically 
no  waste  of  lines,  and  the 

the 

the 

axis  insures  a  much 
shorter  magnetic  circuit 
than  is  obtained  in  a 
dynamo  of  the  usual 
type.  Practical  experi- 
ence has  shown  that  the 
radial  depth  of  the  ring 
should  be  very  small, 
that  only  one  layer  of 
wire  should  be  wound  on 
the  armature,  and  that 
the  commutator  must 
contain  a  very  large 
number  of  sections.  The 
armature  of  the  machine 
illustrated  is  25  in.  in- 
ternal diameter,  8  in. 
long,  and  the  total 
weight  of  the  machine 
is  1  ton  4  cwt.  At  350 


FIG.  68. — Siemens  ring-dynamo. 


revolutions  per  rain,  the  output  was  found  to  be  16  kilo-watts,  and  at  480  revolutions  it  rose 
to  25  kilo- watts.  Assuming  about  20  kilo- watts  as  a  safe  load  for  continuous  working,  the 
weight  of  this  machine  is  less  by  one  third  than  that  of  the  usual  type  made  by  Messrs.  Sie- 


FIG.  69.— Siemens  direct-driven  steam-dynamo. 


mens  &  Halske.     In  addition  to  this  saving  of  weight,  the  machine  has  the  advantage  of  be- 
ing easily  repaired,  since  the  armature  is  outside,  and  can  be  slipped  off  the  shaft  in  situ  with- 
15 


226 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


out  any  danger  of  the  wires  chafing  against  the  field-magnets.  After  several  of  these  ma- 
chines had  been  made,  Messrs.  Siemens  &  Halske  proposed  to  utilize  the  design  for  direct- 
driven  steam-dynamos.  It  is  evident  that  a  machine  with  stationary  field  and  overhanging 
external  armature  is  not  suitable  for  small  sizes,  and  that  its  greatest  advantage  and  power  of 
competing  with  existing  designs  will  be  in  such  cases  where,  on  account  of  the  motor,  the 
speed  is  limited.  Fig.  69  shows  the  arrangement  adopted  in  connection  with  a  pair  of  open, 
direct-acting  steam-engines.  The  field-magnets  are  attached  to  the  end  of  the  engine  bed- 
plate, and  the  crank-shaft  is  prolonged  so  as  to  carry  the  overhanging  armature.  Outside  the 
armature  there  is  no  bearing,  but  only  the  attachment  for  the  brushes,  which  is  secured  by 
means  of  two  columns,  also  fixed  to  the  engine  bed-plate.  Messrs.  Siemens  &  Halske  have 
built  several  sizes  of  this  dynamo,  among  which  are  four  large  machines  for  the  installation 
at  the  railway  station  in  Frankfort-on-theMain.  Each  of  these  machines  is  intended  for  an 
output  of  75  kilo- watts,  at  a  speed  of  150  revolutions  per  min.  Large  dynamos  built  on  this 
principle  are  also  in  operation  at  the  Berlin  electric-light  station,  working  up  to  1,500  horse- 
power. 

Fig.  70  shows  a  view  of  a  250  horse-power  Westinghouse  electric-railway  generator.     There 
are  four  pole-pieces,  and  over  each  one  is  slipped  a  metal  bobbin,  which  is  secured  in  place  by 


FIG.  70.— Westinghouse  generator. 

bolts.  These  bobbins  carry  the  shunt  and  series  coils,  which  are  put  on  side  by  side  and  do 
not  overlap.  The  pole-pieces  are  laminated,  being  built  up  of  thin  sheet-iron  plates  cast  into 
the  cylindrical  yoke.  The  bearings  and  this  cylindrical  yoke  part  along  a  horizontal  plane 
throiigh  the  armature-shaft,  thus  giving  ready  access  to  the  field-coils  and  armature.  Each 
brush  is  held  in  an  independent  holder,  so  that  any  one  can  be  raised  from  the  commutator 

without  disturbing  the  others;  and  each 
brush  has  its  own  spring,  which  permits  of 
perfect  adjustment.  The  diametrically  op- 
posite brushes  are  of  the  same  polarity',  and 
are  connected  to  the  same  terminal  of  the 
dynamo.  The  core  of  the  armature  is  built 
up  of  a  large  number  of  thin,  soft-iron  disks, 
which  are  forced  together  under  great  press- 
ure, and  rigidly  fastened  to  the  shaft.  This 
iron  core,  after  having  been  completely  cov- 
ered with  special  insulating  material,  forms 
the  foundation  on  which  the  wires  of  the 
armature  are  laid.  The  Westinghouse  500 
horse-power  railway-generator  is  designed 
on  lines  similar  to  the  machine  just  de- 
scribed, but  with  six  poles. 

Ganz   &   Go's   MuUipolar   Continuous- 
Current  Dynamo, — In  order  to  construct  a 
machine  which  should  have  a  large  output 
FIG.  71.— Ganz  multipolar  dynamo.  ^ith  a  comparatively  small  weight  of  mate- 

rial, Messrs.  Ganz  &Co.,  of  Buda-Pesth,  have 

designed  the  machine  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  71).  As  will  be  seen,  the 
machine  consists  of  six  fixed  electro-magnets,  which  are  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  journal- 
bearing,  while  the  ring,  supported  on  one  side  only,  rotates  over  and  around  the  field-mag- 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


227 


nets.  The  armature,  which  is  destined  for  a  6-pole  machine,  is  wound  so  that  one  sixth  of 
the  number  of  coils  will  generate  the  necessary  difference  of  potential  of  1,500  volts.  These 
six  sections  are  then  joined  in  parallel  in  order  to  obtain  a  current  of  35  amperes.  Each  of 
these  six  sections  consists  of  56  coils,  having  12  convolutions  each,  so  that  the  commutator 
has  56  X  6  =  336  sectors  or  bars.  The  sixth  corresponding  commutator-bars  are  all  jointly 
connected,  so  that  the  current  is  taken  off  by  a  single  pair  of  brushes  instead  of  six. 

The  most  recent  form  of  this  machine  when  running  at  1,000  revolutions  per  min. 
generates  a  current  of  35  amperes  at  1,500  volts;  and  the  following  data  of  its  construction 
are  of  interest : 

Resistance  of  armature 0'97  ohm. 

"  magnets , 0-28      " 

Weight  of  copper  on  armature 23'5  kilogrammes. 

58-5 

According  to  the  above  data,  the  total  output  of  the  machine  is  52,500  watts ;  this  gives 
640  watts  per  kilogramme  (about  290  watts  per  Ib.)  of  copper,  the  total  weight  of  the  machine 
being  685  kilogrammes.  The  electrical  efficiency  of  the  machine  is  97'2  per  cent,  according 
to  the  above  data,  which  is  an  unusually  high  figure,  and  its  commercial  efficiency  is  also 
high.  The  machine  was  specially  designed  for  the  transmission  of  power  where  small  weight 
and  large  capacity  are  desired. 

The  Wenstrom  Dynamo. — This  machine,  in  its  improved  form,  is  shown  in  perspective  in 
Fig.  72,  and  in  longitudinal  section  in  Fig.  73.  It  is  a  4-pole  machine,  but  so  constructed 


FIG.  72.— Wenstrom  dynamo. 

that  two  exciting  coils  are  sufficient,  the  JV-poles  being  energized  direct,  and  the  two  consequent 
$-poles  by  induction.     The  brushes  are  placed  at  an  angle  of  90°  on  the  commutator. 

Usually  the  space  between  the  magnet-poles  and  core  of  the  armature  must  be  sufficient 
not  only  for  the  safe  revolving  of  the  armature  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  but  also  for  the  con- 


FIG.  73.— Wenstrom  dynamo— section, 
currents  are   induced.     This  gap  introduces  a  very  high  magnetic 


ductors  in  which  the  currents  are 

resistance  in  the  circuit  for  the  magnetic  induction. 


To  avoid  this,  therefore,  the  conductors 


228 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


are  buried  in  grooves  or  holes  (Fig.  74).  The  distance  between  the  poles  and  the  core  is  thus 
limited  to  the  small  gap  required  for  the  safe  revolving  of  the  armature.  The  magnetic 
resistance  and  the  magnetic  circuit  are  by  this  means  reduced  in  a  high  degree,  and  con- 
sequently the  magnetizing  power  necessary  for  creating  the  required  magnetism  in  the 
armature  is  also  decreased. 


FIG.  74.— Multipolar  armature. 

A  test  made  by  Dr.  Louis  Duncan,  Dr.  G.  A.  Liebig,  and  Mr.  W.  F.  Hasson,  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  on  a  400-ampere  110- volt  dynamo  of  this  type,  gave  the  following  results. 
The  machine  was  built  for  400  revolutions  per  min.,  and  weighed  7,100  Ibs. ;  in  the  test  it 
was  run  at  330  revolutions : 


Current,  amperes. 

E.  M.  F.,  volts. 

Horse-  power. 

Dynamometer, 
horse-power. 

Loss. 

Losses,  friction 
reversals. 

C2R. 

Efficiency, 

per  cent. 

134-8 
194-1 
371-6 
400 

114 
115-6 
98-3 
110 

20-6 

30-1 
49 
58-9 

24-97 
35-3 
54-5 
64-7 

4-4 
5-2 

5-5 
5-8 

4-4 
4-5 
3-5 
4-1 

0-17 
0-52 
1-30 
1-50 

82-5 
85-2 
89-9 
91 

The  Bradley  Multipolar  Dynamo. — The  armature  of  this  machine  has  the  conductors 
wound  upon  it  in  one  continuous  course,  so  that  the  distance  between  each  two  successive 
induced  portions  of  the  conductors  is  greater  or  less  than  that  between  the  poles  of  the  field- 
magnets,  according  to  the  formula : 

n  n 

D  =  d ;  or,  D  = a. 

P  P 

The  induced  current  flows  from  one  brush  to  the  other  through  the  whole  system  of  con- 
ductors in  such  manner  that,  however  simple  or  complex  the  system  of  conductors  may  be, 

the  average  value  of  the  dis- 

3  w  Ih  tance  d  between  every  two  in- 

duced parts  which  follow  next 
to  one  'another  always  con- 
forms to  the  condition, 


FIG.  75. — Bradley  multipolar  dynamo. 


where  u  =  average  circumfer- 
ence of  armature,  n  =  num- 
ber of  segments  of  the  collec- 
tor, p  =  any  number  of  field- 
magnets  not  less  than  four. 

In  the  machine  shown  in 
the  engraving  (Fig.  75)  there 
are  74  slots  cut  in  the  arma- 
ture 1  jV  in.  deep,  T\,%  in.  wide 
at  the  circumference,  and 
ToVo  in-  wide  at  the  bottom. 
This  leaves  the  iron  the  same 
thickness  between  the  slots  at 
the  bottom  as  at  the  top,  the 
aim  being  in  these  machines 
to  have  the  magnetic  circuit 
the  same  in  cross-section  in 


all  its  parts.  The  sectional  area  of  the  yokes,  cores  of  the  magnets,  and  the  sum  of  the 
cross-sections  of  the  bodies  of  iron  between  the  slots  which  are  under  the  pole-pieces  at  any 
one  time,  are  approximately  equal.  Two  bars  are  placed  in  each  slot,  the  top  one  being 
longer  than  the  bottom  one,  so  as  to  project  beyond  it  at  each  end  to  join  the  connectors. 
The  top  bar  is  ^f0%  in.  wide  and  the  bottom  fiffl>ff  in.,  so  each  has  the  same  sectional  area. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


229 


The  connectors  (Fig.  76)  are  clamped  firmly  to  the  side  of  the  bar  and  soldered,  and  then  the 
clamp  is  removed,  the  surfaces  soldered  being  much  larger  than  the  sectional  area  of  the  bars. 
Mica  insulation  is  used  between  and  at  the  side  of  the  bars.  The  slot  is  ^  in.  deeper  than 
the  bars,  so  that  it  leaves  a  space  below  the  same  to  insulate 
them  from  the  iron.  There  are  74  bars  in  the  commutator, 
each  connector  on  one  end  :of  the  armature  leading  to  a  bar. 
The  brushes  may  be  placed  60°  or  180°  apart.  On  the  ma- 
chine shown,  they  have  been  placed  60°  apart,  but,  all  things 
considered,  180°  is  preferable. 

The  iron  of  the  armature  runs  in  such  close  proximity  to 
the  field-magnets  (the  clearance  necessary  for  rotation  being 
the  only  gap  in  the  magnetic  circuit)  that  the  expenditure 
of  energy  on  the  field-magnets  is  very  small,  being  less  than 
1-&  per  cent  of  the  total  when  the  machine  is  fully  loaded. 
This  must  be  conceded  to  be  a  remarkably  good  result  when 
the  slow  speed  of  the  machine  is  taken  into  consideration. 

The  following  table  gives  the  results  of  a  test  of  the  ma- 
chine illustrated,  made  by  Dr.  W.  E.  Geyer  and  D.  Gr.  Jacobus,  M.  E.,  at  the  Stevens  Institute 
of  Technology : 


FIG.  76. — Connectors. 


NUMBER  OF  TEST. 

Speed  of  armature, 
revolutions  per  minute. 

Volts. 

Ampere*. 

Efficiency,  per  cent. 

1 

556-6 

50 

134-40 

84-1 

2 

547'2 

50'1 

136-94 

84'5 

3  

546-3 

51'5 

138-59 

83-9 

4         

559-2 

45 

253'82 

86-3 

5  ... 

581-4 

51 

271-34 

86 

The  base  of  the  machine  is  31  X  31  in.,  and  it  stands  26  in.  high.  The  diameter  of  the 
armature  is  12f  in.,  and  the  length  of  its  core  6  in.  The  following  table  gives  the  weights  of 
iron  and  copper  employed  in  its  construction : 

Lbs        Lbs 

Field— Iron,  soft  Norway 340 

"    cast 28 

Brass 23-5 

391-5 

Wire , 108-0 

Bed,  standards,  bolts,  etc 235-3 

"        Brush-holder,  brass 10- 7 

Armature — Iron  (sheet) 153 

•*  "    cast  end-plates 14'2 

Steel  shaft 36 

203-2 

Copper  in  armature 59 

"       "   commutator 13 

72 

Brass  commutator-core ...  5 


Total  weight  of  machine. 


1,025-7 


The  Desrozier  Mult i polar- Disk  Dynamo  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  79.  The  winding,  which  char- 
acterizes the  Desrozier  machine,  is  shown  in  Figs.  77  and  78,  and  is  arranged  for  an  armature 
divided  into  52  sections.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  space  between  the  poles  is  fully 
utilized ;  each  section  has  a  well-defined 
position,  and  an  armature  so  constructed 
affords  every  facility  for  repairs  and  for 
inspection  while  at  work.  By  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  collector  and  its  connections, 
M.  Desrozier  has  avoided  an  increase  in 
the  number  of  coils.  He  connects  each 
triple  coil  not  to  a  single  bar  but  to  three, 
120°  apart  in  the  case  of  a  6-pole  machine. 
The  brushes,  in  lieu  of  uniting  the  ends 
of  a  triple  coil,  only  unite  the  ends  of  a 
single  coil,  and  each  single  coil  is  short- 
circuited  several  times  under  each  brush 
at  every  revolution.  This  method  of  con- 
necting up  will  be  understood  on  examin- 
ing Figs.  77  and  78.  The  connections 
would  be  inextricable  if  the  inventor  had 
not  made  use  of  the  properties  of  the  in- 
volute.  The  wires  are  therefore  all  united  FIGS.  77-78.— Plan  of  winding. 


FIG.  78. 


230 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


with  a  special  piece  of  apparatus,  called  the  analyzer,  and  which  is  placed  beween  the  disk  and 
the  collector.     The  three  wires  of  each  coil  come  from  the  center  of  the  armature  to  an  insu- 

lated disk  :  wire  1  passes  on 
straight  to  the  collector-bar; 
wire  1'  is  wound  in  involute 
on  one  side  of  the  disk,  and 
runs  thus  to  bar  1'  ;  wire  1" 
passes  through  the  disk,  is 
wound  backward  through 
120°,  and  terminates  at  bar  1*. 
In  this  way  all  the  wires  are 
arranged  side  by  side  on  either 
face  of  the  analyzer,  and  no 
mistakes  are  to  be  feared.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  enlarge 
further  upon  the  practical  ad- 
vantages of  these  arrange- 
ments, allowing  as  they  do 
very  satisfactory  working  of 
the  collector.  It  would  be 
impossible  otherwise  to  stop 
sparking  without  increasing 
the  number  of  coils,  or  in- 
creasing the  distance  between 
the  successive  poles.  Several 
Desrozier  machines  have  been 
built  by  the  firm  of  Breguet, 
and  placed  on  board  the 
French  ironclad  Formidable. 
These  machines  weigh  2,640 
J*»-  «**>  run  at  350  revolu- 
tions, and  have  an  output  of 


FIG.  79.    Desrozier  dyuamo. 


175  amperes  at  70  volts  ;  their  electrical  efficiency  is  82  per  cent,  and  their  commercial  effi 
ciency  is  79  per  cent.     It  varies  very  little  with  the  work.     According  to  the  inventor,  it  is 
very  probable  that  the  efficiency  of  the  Desrozier  dynamo  would  be  considerably  higher  if 
constructed  to  meet  ordinary  commercial  requirements. 


FIG.  80.— Fritsche  and  Pischon  dynamo 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


231 


The  Fritsche  and  Pischon  Dynamo  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  80,  and  is  known  as  the 
dynamo,  owing  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  armature. 

The  armature-bars  consist  of  specially  shaped 
punchings  of  sheet-iron  and  sheet-copper,  which  are 
riveted  together.  They  are  long  and  thin,  and  are 
illustrated  in  Fig.  80A.  *  The  punchings  are  soldered 
and  riveted  at  the  top  and  bottom  to  the  specially 
shaped  brass  castings  A  and  B.  Copper  bars  are 
screwed  on  to  the  castings  A,  which  are  then  turned 
off  on  the  circumference  and  serve  as  commutator- 
blocks.  As  the  armature-loops  are  connected  in 
series,  two  sets  of  brushes  only  are  required.  The 
lower  castings  B  are  mortised  on  both  sides,  and 
by  this  means  the  whole  armature  is  clamped  to- 
gether with  strong  cast-iron  hubs,  C,  which  have 
brass  end-rings,  D,  in  order  to  magnetically  insu- 
late the  hub  from  the  armature-bars.  Pressed- 
board  insulation,  E,  is  used  between  the  ring  D  and 
the  armature-spokes.  The  largest  machine  that  is 
being  built  at  present  is  designed  for  180  K.  W.,  and 
the  following  data  regarding  it  will  be  interesting  : 

Output 150  volts  1,200  amperes. 

Speed 100  revolutions  per  minute. 

Weight  of  armature 8,800  Ibs. 

Weight  of  copper  on  fields 1,080  Ibs. 

Total  weight  of  machine  complete . .       20,240  Ibs, 
Loss  in  magnet  and  armature  con- 
ductors   3'5  per  cent. 


wheel 


.fc.cc.  -e^r,  A\  T. 

FIG.  80A.— Armature-bar. 


The  following  is  a  table  of  sizes  and  general  data  of  the  standard  Fritsche  machines : 


Output  in 
kilowatts. 

Volte. 

Ampere.. 

Speed. 

Number  of 
poles. 

plete  in  Ibs. 

Exhibition  machine  -< 

32 

48 

160 
160 

200 
300 

400 
140 

4 

8 

5,280 

8,800 

180 

150 

1,200 

100 

12 

0".-,>4" 

UNIPOLAR  DYNAMOS. — These  machines  are  constructed  so  that  the  conductor  in  which  the 
currents  are  generated  (armature)  effects  a  continuous  increase  in  the  number  of  magnetic 

lines  cut,  by  arranging  one  part  of  the  con- 
ductor to  slide  on  or  around  the  magnet. 
Sturgeon's  wheel  and  Faraday's  disk  are 
types  of  these  machines.  Messrs.  Siemens  & 
Halske  have  constructed  a  unipolar  dynamo 
for  electro-deposition  (Fig.  81).  In  this  re- 
markable dynamo  there  are  two  cylinders  of 
copper,  both  slit  longitudinally  to  obviate 
eddy-currents,  each  of  which  rotates  round 
one  pole  of  a  U-shaped  electro-magnet.  A 
second  electro-magnet,  placed  between  the 
rotating  cylinders,  has  protruding  pole-pieces 
of  arching  form,  which  embrace  the  cylinders 
above  and  below.  Each  cylinder,  therefore, 
rotates  between  an  internal  and  an  external 


pole  of  opposite  polarity,  and  consequently 
cuts  the  lines  of  force  continuouslv  bv  slid- 


FIG.  81.— Unipolar  dynamo. 


ing  upon  the  internal  pole.  The  currents 
from  this  machine  are  of  very  great  strength, 
but  of  only  a  few  volts  of  electromotive  force. 
To  keep  down  the  resistance,  many  collect- 
ing-brushes press  on  each  end  of  each  cylin- 
der. This  dynamo  has  been  used  at  Oker 
for  electroplating. 

Ihe  Forbes  Dynamo  has  also  attracted  considerable  attention,  on  account  of  its  enormous 
current  output  for  a  given  weight.  Originally  Prof.  Forbes  began  by  employing  an  iron  disk 
which  rotated  between  two  cheeks  of  opposite  polarity,  the  current  being  drawn  from  its 
periphery.  He  then  doubled  the  parts.  The  next  stage  was  to  unite  the  two  disks  into  one 
common  cylinder,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  8*2.  Here  the  coils  lying  in  their  cases  are  shown  in 
section,  the  dotted  lines  indicating  the  direction  of  the  lines  of  magnetic  force  induced  in  the 
iron.  These  are  practically  closed  on  themselves,  so  that  there  is  no  external  field  at  all.  For 
this  reason  the  inventor  prefers  to  call  this  type  of  dynamo  i;  non-polar."  A  rubbing  contact, 
for  which  purpose  Prof.  Forbes  at  one  time  used  carbon  "  brushes,"  and  at  another  a  number 


232 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


FIG.  82. — Forbes  dynamo. 


of  springy  strips  of  metal-foil,  is  maintained  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  periphery.     One  of 
the  earlier  forms  of  machine,  with  a  single  disk  18  in.  in  diameter,  was  stated  to  give  d,117 

amperes  at  a  potential  of  5-8  volts  when  running 
at  1,500  revolutions  per  min.  One  of  the  later 
machines,  in  which  the  "  armature  "  is  a  cylinder 
of  iron  9  in.  in  diameter  and  8  in.  long,  is  designed 
to  give,  at  1,000  revolutions  per  min.,  a  current  of 
10,000  amperes  at  a  potential  of  1  volt.  The 
electromotive  force  of  such  machines  increases  as 
the  square  of  the  diameter.  The  theory  of  the 
unipolar  disk  machine  has  been  given  by  Sir  W. 
Thomson,  who  has  shown  that  such  a  machine  is 
not  self-exciting  except  above  a  certain  critical 
speed,  dependent  on  the  resistance  of  the  circuit. 

ALTERNATING-CURRENT  MACHINES. — In  general 
the  methods  of  mechanical  construction  adopted 
in  these  machines  do  not  differ  materially  from 
those  of  the  continuous  machine.  In  the  alter- 
nating machine,  however,  the  use  of  the  commu- 
tator becomes  superfluous,  the  current  generated 
in  the  armature  being  led  merely  to  a  pair  of  rings 
attached  to  the  shaft,  and  upon  which  the  brushes 
bear.  Special  precautions,  however,  are  necessary  to  avoid  piercing  of  the  insulation  on  the 
armatures  of  such  machines,  and  for  that  purpose  mica  is  now  almost  exclusively  employed. 
In  these  machines,  also,  thorough  lamination  is  imperative. 

According  to  Kapp,  if  we  calculate  out  the  E.  M.  F.  of  an  alternate-current  machine  by 
applying  to  it  the  now  well-known  formulae  for  continuous-current  dynamos,  there  will  then 
be  a  certain  numerical  coefficient  by  which  the  B.  M.  F.  thus  found  must  be  multiplied  in 
order  to  obtain  the  actual  mean  alternating  E.  M.  F.  of  the  machine.  The  value  of  this  co- 
efficient, K,  depends  chiefly  upon  the  relative  width  of  the  field-magnet  poles  and  space  be- 
tween, and  also  upon  the  amount  of  the  surface  of  the  armature  which  is  covered  with  wire. 
The  following  table  gives  the  value  of  K  for  different  cases : 

1.  Width  of  poles  equal  to  pitch,  toothed  armature  and  winding  con- 

centrated in  the  recesses K  =  2-000 

2.  Width  of  poles  equal  to  pitch,  smooth  armature  and  winding 

spread  over  the  whole  surface K  =  1*160 

3.  Width  of  poles  equal  to  pitch,  smooth  armature   and  winding 

covering  only  one  half  the  surface K  =  1-635 

4.  Width  of  poles  equal  to  half  the  pitch,  smooth  armature  and 

winding  spread  over  the  whole  surface K  =  1*635 

5.  Width  of  poles  equal  to  half  the  pitch,  smooth  armature  and 

winding  covering  only  one  half  the  surface K  =  2-300 

6.  Width  of  poles  equal  to  one  third  the  pitch,  smooth  armature  arid 

winding  covering  only  one  third  of  the  surface K  =  2-830 

According  to  the  ordinary  sine  formula,  the  coefficient  is  K  =  2*220,  and  this  agrees  fairly 
well  with  case  5,  which  is  the  one  most  frequently  met  with  in  actual  practice. 

The  Westinghouse  Alternating-Current  Dynamo  (Incandescent). — The  machine  at  present 
very  largely  employed  in  the  United  States  for  incandescent  lighting  on  the  alternating  sys- 
tem is  that  of  the  Westinghouse  Electric  Co.,  shown  in  perspective,  with  its  exciter,  in  Fig. 
83.  The  Westinghouse  Co.  makes  five  sizes  of  dynamo,  of  which  the  following  particulars 
are  of  interest : 


DYNAMO  NUMBER 

I 

II 

III 

E.  M.  F  

1  050 

1  050 

1  050 

Current  

35 

65 

130 

Resistance  (armature)  at  30°  C.  .  .  . 

'70 

'37 

'15 

"          (fields)  at  30°  C 

14'5 

7 

3'6 

Weight  of  wire  in  armature  

17 

30 

60 

"         fields  

420 

Total  weight 

4  800 

9  000 

Number  of  lights  

650 

l'300 

2,600 

The  No.  Ill  has  an  armature  about  2  ft.  in  diameter  and  2  ft,  long.  It  has  16  poles,  and 
runs  at  1,000  revolutions  per  rnin.  The  armature  plates  have  each  six  large  holes  for  ventila- 
tion and  lightness.  The  weight  of  armature  is  2.000  Ibs.  The  insulation  is  mica  and  copal 
varnish,  which  is  found  to  be  much  superior  to  shellac  or  any  other  material  tried. 

Fig.  84  is  a  side  view  and  Fig.  85  is  an  end  view,  from  which  the  construction  will  be 
easily  understood.  The  field-magnets,  bolted  to  the  external  frame  of  the  machine,  form  a 
circle,  radiating  inward  toward  the  armature,  which  is  mounted  in  the  center  on  standards 
rising  from  the  base.  They  are  of  elliptical  form,  the  longer  axis  of  a  cross-section  of  each 
core  being  parallel  to  the  armature-shaft,  as  shown  at/  and  gg,  Fig.  84,  the  edges  of  the 


234 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


cores  being  shown  at  //,  Fig.  86.     The  winding  of  each  magnet  is  opposite  to  that  of  the 
adjacent  one,  so  as  to  produce  north  and  south  polarity.     The  coils  are  slipped  on  the  cores 

after  being  wound.  The  arm- 
ature-core is  composed  of 
sheet-iron  disks,  insulated  by 
paper,  and  having  tubular 
openings  for  ventilation  pa- 
rallel to  the  axis  ;  a  great 
number  of  these  being  laid 
together,  the  openings  regis- 
tering to  form  the  tubes,  and 
then  bolted  together  by  end- 
plates,  as  shown.  The  wind- 
ing differs  from  that  of  the 
Gramme  armature  in  having 
no  interior  wire.  The  coils 
consist  of  single  layers  of 
wires  wound  on  the  external 
surface  of  the  core  and  looped 
around  projections  ml  m*  at 
the  ends,  attached  to  non- 
magnetic rings  o1,  so  that 
\ 


FIG.  86.  FIG.  87. 

FIGS.  84-87.— Westinghouse  dynamo— details. 


O1,    SO 

the~planes  of  the  coils  are  at 
right  angles  to  the  radii  of 
the  armature,  and  there  are 
no  crossing  wires  at  the  ends, 
as  in  the  Siemens,  nor  wire 
in  the  interior  of  the  ring,  as 
in  the  Gramme  ;  the  ends 
being  exposed  for  ventilation 
through  the  tubular  open- 
ings in  the  core.  Adjacent 
coils  being  wound  opposite- 
ly, as  in  the  field-magnets,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  87,  generate 
alternating,  opposite  cur- 
rents. The  coils  are  insu- 
lated from  the  core  with  mi- 
ca, and  also  covered  exter- 


nally with  the  same  material, 
and  firmly  bound  with  the  bands  jljl.  The  space  between  the  armature  and  the  field-mag- 
nets being  only  tV  in.,  and  there  being  only  a  single  layer  of  wire  on  the  armature  surface, 
both  the  coils  and  the  core  are  in  close  proximity  to  the  field-magnets,  and  hence  the  mag- 


FIG.  88. — Thomson-Houston  alternating  current  dynamo. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC    MACHINES. 


235 


netic  and  electric  reciprocal  actions  are  at  the  maximum,  and  there  is  no  dead  or  partially 
inactive  wire  in  the  interior ;  all  the  wire,  except  a  very  small  percentage  on  the  ends,  being 
exposed  to  the  full  action  of  the  magnetic  field.  A 
Stanley  direct-current,  shunt-wound  dynamo  is  used  as 
an  exciter. 

The  Alternating-Current  Machine  of  the  Thomson- 
Houston  Electric  Co.,  designed  by  Prof.  Elihu  Thom- 
son, is  illustrated  in  Fig.  88.  Its  distinguishing  feature 
is  its  self-regulating  property,  by  which  a  constant  po- 
tential is  maintained  at  all  loads.  This  is  accomplished 
by  an  arrangement  of  the  coils  on  the  field-magnets  of 
the  dynamo,  called  a  "  composite  field,"  in  which  prac- 
tically the  same  methods  are  employed  as  in  the  direct- 
current  incandescent  dynamo  of  Prof.  Thomson  (see 
above).  As  shown  in  the  diagram  (Fig.  89),  a  part  of 
the  magnetic  field  is  maintained  by  means  of  current 
from  a  separate  exciting  dynamo.  If  the  load  upon 
the  outside  circuit  is  increased,  it  is  necessary  to  in- 
crease the  magnetism  of  the  field  in  order  that  the  ma- 
chine may,  in  turn,  supply  the  increased  demand  in  the 
circuit,  and  the  lights  remain  steady.  This  is  usually 
accomplished  by  varying  the  current  on  the  field-mag- 
nets by  a  rheos'tat  or  variable  resistance  operated  by 
hand.  In  the  dynamo  under  consideration,  however, 
the  same  result  is  obtained  entirely  automatically  by 
passing  the  greater  portion  of  the  main  current  through 
the  field-magnets,  thus  energizing  the  machine  in  exact  accordance  with  the  demands  made 
upon  it.  As  an  alternating  current  is  not  suitable  for  magnetizing  the  fields,  it  is  necessary 
to  change  the  character  of  the  current  produced  in  the  armature  to  a  direct  current  before 
passing  it  through  the  special  winding  on  the  field,  and  this  is  done  by  a  commutator  at  the 
end  of  the  shaft.  By  this  regulation  the  attention  required  at  the  dynamo  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  while  at  the  same  time  the  efficiency  of  the  machine  is  increased,  and  any  number 
of  lamps  from  one  to  the  full  capacity  may  be  thrown  on  or  off  without  in  any  way  affecting 
the  steadiness  and  brilliancy  of  those  remaining.  To  allow  for  a  predetermined  percentage 
of  loss  in  the  wiring,  it  is  necessary,  as  the  load  is  increased,  that  there  should  be  a  definite 
amount  of  increase  in  potential,  which  is  accomplished  by  placing  around  the  field-winding  for 
the  main  current  a  resistance  which  shunts  that  portion  of  current  not  required  for  regulation. 


FIG.  89.— Connections. 


FIG.  90.-Detail  diagram. 


The  coils  for  the  field-magnets  are  wound  on  spools  which  are  slipped  over  the  castings 
and  fastened  firmly  in  position.  These  being  well  protected,  the  liability  of  mechanical  in- 
jury is  reduced  to"  a  minimum.  In  case  it  is  necessary  to  replace  a  coil,  or  to  remove  the 


236 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


armature,  the  upper  half  of  the  field-casting  can  be  readily  removed,  leaving  the  parts  easily 
accessible.  For  the  purpose  of  energizing  the  field-magnets  the  dynamos  are  furnished  with 
small  exciting  dynamos  of  the  direct-current  type.  It  has  been  found  desirable  in  some 
special  cases  to  make  the  smaller  sizes  of  alternating-current  dynamos  self-exciting,  and  to 
this  end  the  armatures  are  wound  with  an  extra  or  special  coil  for  furnishing  current  to  ener- 
gize the  fields.  The  exciter  is  usually  placed  as  shown  in  Fig.  88,  behind  the  alternating 
dynamo,  driven  by  a  belt  from  a  small  pulley  attached  to  the  armature-shaft.  One  exciter  is 
usually  employed  with  each  alternating-current  dynamo,  but  when  several  dynamos  are  oper- 
ated in  the  same  station  it  is  often  found  more  convenient  to  employ  exciters,  any  one  of 
which  is  of  sufficient  capacity  for  all  the  machines.  By  this  arrangement  an  accident  to  one 
exciter  need  not  affect  the  general  service. 

The  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  90)  and  table  give  the  various  dimensions,  weights,  ca- 
pacity, etc.,  of  these  machines : 


CLASS. 

A,  18. 

A,  35. 

A,  70. 

CLASS. 

A,  18. 

A,  35. 

A,  70. 

*2  100 

*3  570 

*8270 

c 

IS 

67 

85 

Weight  of  base  

150 

615 

1,245 

D  

13 

13 

18 

Wood 

Iron 

Iron 

E  

6 

10 

13 

Speed 

1  500 

1  500 

1  070 

F 

2* 

Lights 

'300 

650 

1,300 

G  

23* 

33J 

30 

65 

130 

H..  .     .            

555 

73i 

Watts 

18  000 

35  000 

70000 

I 

42 

47 

61* 

Poles 

'  10 

10 

14 

K  

48 

67 

86 

A. 

44 

47J 

til} 

L            

t41| 

t58 

g 

23i 

21  J 

2ft 

M 

t31i 

+  39i 

Ganz  &  Co's  Alternating-Current  Dynamo. — A  type  of  alternating-current  dynamo  very 
largely  employed  in  Europe  is  that  built  by  Messrs.  Ganz  &  Co.,  of  Buda-Pesth,  Hungary.  In 
its  early  form  the  Ganz  alternator  had  a  star-shaped  field-magnet  of  non-laminated  iron  re- 
volving within  a  cylindrical  armature,  the  core  of  which  was  composed  of  thin  ring-shaped 
iron  plates  held  in  a  frame.  The  armature-coils  were  flat  bobbins  laid  upon  the  inner  surface 
of  the  armature-core  side  by  side,  with  insulated  filling-in  pieces  interposed.  The  magnetic 
resistance  of  the  interpolar  spaces  was  in  this  arrangement  necessarily  high,  and  in  the  later 

machines  this  difficulty  has  been 
overcome  by  employing  an  ar- 
mature-core with  a  series  of  in- 
ternal Pacinotti  projections. 
These  projections  form  the  cores 
of  the  armature-bobbins,  and  to 
avoid  the  heating  of  the  pole- 
pieces,  the  field -magnets  are 
now  built  up  of  U-shaped  iron 
plates  jP,  as  shown  in  Fig.  91. 
These  plates  are  laid  upon  each 
other,  and  arranged  round  the 
spindle  so  as  to  form  a  star, 
alternate  layers  being  arranged 
to  break  joint,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines  in  the  illustration. 
The  plates  are  fastened  together 
by  insulated  bolts  B,  and  the 
existing  coils  are  wound  upon 
separate  formers,  slipped  over 
the  magnet-cores,  and  held  in 
position  by  bobbin-holders  and 
screws  strong  enough  to  resist 
the  action  of  centrifugal  force. 
The  armature-core,  which  for- 
merly was  continuous,  is  in  the 
new  machines  subdivided  into 
a  number  of  T-shaped  sections, 

FIG.  91.— Ganz  &  Co.'s  alternating-current  dynamo.  tne  central  stem  of  tne  T  form- 

ing the  Pacinotti  projection  A, 

being  very  short,  and  of  equal  width  and  length  with  the  magnet.  These  sections  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  each  with  its  armature-bobbin  can  be  removed  without  disturbing  the  rest  of  the 
machine.  The  illustration  also  shows  the  construction  of  the  armature-sections,  and  the  man- 
ner of  supporting  them.  The  frame  of  the  machine  consists  of  two  ring-shaped  castings  held 
together  by  strong  bolts,  and,  in  addition,  there  are  iron  traversers  to  which  the  segments  are 
bolted.  In  the  figure,  the  section  at  I  is  taken  close  to  one  of  the  cast-iron  rings,  showing  the 
internal  flange  to  which  the  traversers  are  bolted.  The  section  at  II  is  taken  at  some  inter- 
mediate point,  showing  the  traversers  and  the  plates  of  the  armature-core ;  and  the  series  at 
LI  is  taken  at  another  intermediate  point,  showing  the  method  by  which  the  armature-core  is 


*  Without  base. 


t  Approximate. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


237 


bolted  to  the  traversers.  The  armature-plates  are  held  together  by  ribbed  bronze  plates,  which 
also  serve  to  hold  the  armature-coil  in  its  place.  In  larger  armatures  bronze  plates  are  also 
inserted  at  intermediate  points,  and  they  serve  for  the  attachment  of  the  armature-section  to 
the  traversers  by  means  of  insulated  bolts  and  nuts,  as  shown  at  III. 

Fig.  92  shows  a  complete  machine  intended  for  an  output  of  80  kilowatts.  In  this  ma- 
chine there  are  14  poles  and  14  armature-sections,  which  can  be  coupled  to  give  a  pressure  of 
either  2,000  or  4,000  volts 
with  a  current  of  respect- 
ively 20  or  40  amperes. 
The  speed  of  the  machine 
is  360  revolutions  per  rnin., 
giving  5,040  reversals,  or  a 
frequency  of  42.  The  to- 
tal weight  of  the  iron  core, 
both  in  field- magnets  and 
armatures,  is  1  ton  7  cwt., 
and  the  total  weight  of 
copper  is  980  Ibs.  The  re- 
sistance of  the  armature  is 
1-038  ohms  for  a  2,000-volt 
machine,  giving  a'  loss  of 
2'08  per  cent  by  ohmic  re- 
sistance in  the  armature 
circuit.  The  resistance  of 
the  field-magnet  circuit  is 
3'24  ohms,  and  a  current 
of  28-7  amperes  is  required 
at  full  output,  entailing  a 
loss  of  3-33  per  cent  for 
excitation.  Some  experi- 
ments were  made  with  this 
machine  to  ascertain  the 
various  losses.  When  driv-  Fl°-  ^  ~Ganz  &  Co  's  alternating-current  dynamo, 

en  in  a  non-excited  field  by 

a  belt  at  the  normal  speed,  4-07  horse-power  was  consumed  in  journal  friction  and  windage. 
The  field-magnets  were  then  excited  so  as  to  produce  a  terminal  pressure  of  2,000  volts,  but 
no  current  was  allowed  to  flow  through  the  armature.  Under  these  conditions  the  power  ab- 
sorbed was  9-81  horse-power,  showing  that  hysteresis  and  Foucault  currents  absorbed  5'74 
horse-power.  The  total  commercial  efficiency,  including  the  power  required  to  excite  the 
machine,  is  at  full  output  87  per  cent ;  and  this  figure  is  somewhat  increased  when  the  ma- 
chine is  direct  driven  by  a  steam-engine.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  cleaning  of  the  arma- 
ture-coils, Messrs.  Ganz  &  Co.  have  from  the  very  first  arranged  the  frame  of  the  arma- 
ture in  such  a  way  that  it  could 
be  shifted  longitudinally  beyond  the 
space  occupied  by  the  field-magnets, 
so  as  to  expose  the  whole  of  the  in- 
ternal surface,  and  make  it  easily  ac- 
cessible, both  for  cleaning  and  for  the 
renewal  of  a  coil  should  it  have  been 
damaged.  In  the  new  type  of  ma- 
chine, the  armature  itself  is,  how- 
ever, kept  fixed,  and  the  magnet- 
wheel  is  arranged  to  slide  longitu- 
dinally, for  which  purpose  one  of  the 
standards  is  fitted  similarly  to  the 
slide-rest  of  a  lathe.  In  order  to 
slide  back  the  magnets,  the  pulley 
must  be  removed,  and  the  standard 
on  the  opposite  side  can  then  be 
drawn  back  by  means  of  a  ratchet- 
bar,  screw,  and  nut  to  its  outermost 
position. 

The  Ferranti  Alternating  Ma- 
chine is  shown  in  perspective  in  Fig. 
93,  and  Fig.  94  shows  the  construc- 
tion of  the  field-magnet  frame.  The 
machine  illustrated  is  designed  for 
an  electrical  output  of  150  horse- 
power, and  is  therefore  capable  of 
feeding  3.000  10-candle-power  35- 
watt  lamps.  As  will  be  seen,  there 
are  20  magnets  on  each  side  of  the  armature,  the  distance  between  the  pole-faces  being  |  in. 
Between  the  magnets  the  armature,  which  is'i  in.  wide  and  has  a  diameter  of  4  ft,  makes  400 


FIG.  93.— Ferranti  alternating-current  dynamo. 


238 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC    MACHINES. 


revolutions  per  min.,  and  has  a  peripheral  speed  of  4,800  ft.  per  min.  The  diameter  of  the 
armature-shaft  is  4J  in.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  pulley  is  placed  between  two  bearings  and 
that  the  armature  is  overhung. 

Machines  of  this  type  are  now  in  course  of  construction  (August,  1891)  capable  of  furmsh- 
in/current  for  200  000  lamps.  They  will  be  installed  at  the  Deptford  station  in  London. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  details  of  the  Ferranti-Deptford  dynamos:  The  small  ma- 
chines are  12  ft.  6  in.  high,  15  ft.  over  all ;  the  large  machines  will  be  45  ft.  high  over  all, 
and  will  weigh  500  tons  each.  The  number  of  alternations  of  current  will  be  4,000  complete 
cvcles  oer  min  (67  per  second)  in  all  machines.  In  the  small  machine  there  will  be  48 

poles,  and  the  speed  168  revolutions 
per  min.  The  large  machines  are  to 
be  coupled  direct,  and  the  speed  is  60 
revolutions  per  min.  only,  the  periphe- 
ral speed  being  obtained  by  the  large- 
ness of  their  diameter.  The  coils  of 
the  dynamos  are  built  up  in  the  same 
manner  as  an  ordinary  dynamo's,  each 
coil  generating  125  volts.  These  are 
very  strongly  mounted  mechanically, 
and  most  carefully  insulated,  the  prin- 
ciple being  to  bury"  the  conductors  in 
the  insulation.  The  insulation  used  is 
sulphur,  specially  treated,  and  is  so 
hard  that  in  one  case  where  some  met- 
al was  found  to  be  mixed  with  the 
sulphur  it  took  two  days  to  chip  out 
one  coil.  The  sulphur  eats  partially 
into  the  cast  iron  and  bronze,  and 
makes  a  thorough  joint.  Besides  this, 
the  surface  insulation  is  carefully  ar- 
ranged to  be  of  porcelain  throughout. 
The  electrical  efficiency  of  the  arma- 
ture is  very  great,  two  volts  being  ob- 
tained for  every  foot  of  copper. 

The  Mordey  Alternating  Dynamo. 
— This  excellent  machine  was  designed 
by  Mr.  William  M.  Mordey  for  the 
Brush  Electrical  Engineering  Co.  of  London,  and  possesses  a  number  of  valuable  character- 
istics. Fig.  95  shows  the  machine  complete,  and  Fig.  96  the  armature,  which  is  stationary, 
and  consists  of  a  number  of  coils  of  narrow  copper  ribbon,  wound  on  cores  of  non-conduct- 
ing material.  Each  coil  is  bolted  between  two  brackets,  the  ends  of  the  conductors  being 
brought  out  through  porcelain 
insulators.  The  brackets  are 
then  bolted  to  a  gun-metal  sup- 
porting ring,  being  placed  out- 
side of  the  magnetic  field  so  as 
to  avoid  loss  from  eddy  -  cur- 
rents, which  are  still  further  re- 
duced by  the  employment  of 
German  silver  for  the  brackets 
and  bolts.  The  gun- metal  sup- 
porting ring,  which  is  bolted  to 
the  bed-plate  of  the  machine,  is 
in  two  portions,  being  divided 
in  a  vertical  diametrical  line. 
These  two  parts,  after  having 
received  the  coils,  are  bolted  to- 
gether and  to  the  bed-plate,  the 
field-magnet  being  first  placed 
in  position.  This  design  pro- 
vides ample  facilities  for  repairs, 
as  it  allows  not  only  of  single 
coils  of  the  armature  being 
quickly  removed  and  replaced, 
but  also  renders  it  easy  to  take 
out  one  half  or  the  whole  of  the 
armature. 

The  field-magnet,  shown  in 
Fig.  97,  consists  of  a  single  elec- 
tro-magnet, built  up  as  follows :  A  short  cylinder  of  iron,  through  the  axis  of  which  the  shaft 
passes,  forms  the  core  of  the  magnet,  and  round  this  core  is  wound  the  exciting  coil.  Against 
each  end  of  this  cylinder  is  placed  a  cast-iron  piece,  of  a  form  which  will  be  best  understood 
from  Fig.  97.  Each  casting  has  a  number  of  horns  or  arms  which  radiate  from  the  shaft 


FIG.  94.— Ferranti  dynamo. 


- 


FIG.  95. — Mordey  alternating  dynamo. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


239 


FIG.  96.— Mordey  armature. 


and  central  part  of  the  casting,  and  then  bend  over,  forming  nine  pole-pieces  on  each  side  of 
the  armature.  These  horns  on  one  side,  as  will  be  seen,  approach  within  a  very  short  distance 
of  those  on  the  other  side  of  the  armature,  and  in  this  very  narrow  polar  gap  or  slit  the  arma- 
ture is  held,  the  entire  field-magnet  revolving  with 
the  shaft  on  which  it  is  mounted.  The  ends  of 
the  exciting  coil  are  connected  to  "collector" 
rings  on  the  shaft,  which  are  shown  to  the  right 
of  the  illustration.  It  will  be  observed  that  this 
form  of  field-magnet  is  very  simple.  A  single  ex- 
citing coil  suffices  for  a  machine  of  any  size,  speed, 
or  number  of  alternations.  Besides  its  pecul- 
iarity of  form  it  differs  from  the  usual  arrange- 
ments in  that  it  has  poles  of  one  sign  only  on  each 
side  of  the  armature ;  thus  the  magnetic  leakage 
between  adjacent  poles  on  each  side  is  absolutely 
nil.  By  revolving  the  field-magnet,  instead  of 
the  more  delicate  armature,  safety  and  steadiness 
of  running  are  secured,  the  heavy  magnet  acting 
as  an  excellent  fly-wheel,  and  effectually  neutral- 
izing any  pulsation  due  to  irregularity  in  the 
stroke  of  the  engine. 

The  machine  is  very  nearly  self-regulating  in 
itself.  It  is  therefore  not  considered  necessary  or 
desirable,  except  under  special  circumstances,  to 
provide  other  than  a  simple  hand-regulation  at 
the  dynamo  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  the 
potential  difference.  By  the  arrangement  of  the 
armature-coils  it  is  easy  to  obtain  various  combi 
nations  if  desired.  This  circumstance  is  made 
use  of  for  simplifying  the  measurement  of  the 
potential.  Instead  of  taking  the  reading  across  the  terminals,  which  would  necessitate  the 
use  of  an  electrometer,  or  a  very  high  resistance  voltmeter,  an  ordinary  voltmeter,  indicating 
to  100  or  150  volts,  is  placed  across  one  of  the  coils,  the  machine  being  fitted  with  a  special 
pair  of  voltmeter  terminals  for  this  purpose.  The  indication  thus  obtained,  multiplied  by 

the  total  number  of  armature-coils,  gives 
the  potential  difference  between  the  arma- 
ture terminals.  The  voltmeter  may,  if 
desired,  have  its  dial  marked  to  directly  in- 
dicate the  total  potential  difference.  It  is 
said  that  this  dynamo  of  50  to  60  horse- 
power— the  first"  of  its  type — was  built  di- 
rectly from  the  first  design,  without  re- 
course to  any  preliminary  experiments. 
The  machine  illustrated  has  an  output  of 
40,000  watts,  at  a  potential  of  2,000  volts, 
and  a  speed  of  650  revolutions  per  min.  In 
the  latest  type  of  this  machine  a  separate 
exciter  for  the  revolving  field-magnets  is 
employed,  coupled  directly  to  the  same 
shaft. " 

The  Westinghouse  Alternating-Current 
FIG.  9?.— Field-magnet.  Arc  -  Light    (Constant  -  Current)    Dynamo 

(Fig.  98)  resembles  very  closely  the  West- 
inghouse alternating  incandescent  machine  in  outward  appearance,  but  its  operation  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  former,  and  is  effected  by  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  armature,  which 
is  designed  so  as  to  cause  the  machine  to  deliver  a  current  of  constant  strength  at  all  loads 
automatically.  The  armature  is  shown  in  perspective  in  Fig.  99,  and  in  longitudinal  and 
transverse  sections  in  Figs.  100  and  101.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  armature-coils  are  not,  as 
in  the  incandescent  machine,  in  the  shape  of  flat  coils  placed  on  the  periphery,  but  consist  of 
oblong  coils,  which  are  wound  separately,  as  shown  in  Fig.  102,  and  then  by  means  of  the 
clamping-tool  (Fig.  103)  are  clamped  in  position  around  the  cores  of  the  armature-projections, 
which  are  provided  with  overlapping  teeth.  After  the  coils  have  been  placed  in  position 
the  spaces  between  the  teeth  are  filled  out  with  wooden  wedges,  which  are  dovetailed  and  slid 
in  from  the  side,  so  that  no  further  fastening  is  required  to  keep  the  coils  or  the  wedges 
themselves  in  position.  The  peculiar  construction  of  the  armature  with  the  overlapping 
teeth  has  the  effect  of  maintaining  the  current  constant  at  all  loads,  so  that  there  is  no  regu- 
lating apparatus  whatever  required  for  that  purpose.  The  armature  is  built  up  of  thin 
wrought-iron  sheets  stamped  out  to  the  required  shape,  and  the  teeth  are  so  designed,  and  are 
of  such  length,  that  they  slightly  overlap  the  distance  between  two  consecutive  pole-pieces, 
so  that  one  tooth  is  not  out  of  the  field  of  any  one  magnet  before  another  enters  that  field. 

At  the  side  of  the  dynamo  in  Fig.  98  there  will  be  noted  an  apparatus  consisting  of  a 
solenoid  with  a  single  core.  It  is  a  short-circuiting  apparatus,  and  its  object  is  to  protect  the 
machine  from  the  results  of  a  break  in  the  line.  In  the  continuous-current  machine  a  break 


240 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC    MACHINES. 


FIG.  103. 
FIGS.  98-103.—  Westinghouse  alternating-current  arc-light  dynamo. 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


241 


in  the  line  is  generally  followed  by  the  cessation  of  current  in  the  armature  when  a  series- 
machine  is  employed ;  but  in  this  system  a  break  in  the  external  circuit  causes  the  generation 
of  a  heavy  current  in  the  armature,  which,  if  not  prevented,  would  eventually  cause  its 
destruction.  To  avoid  this,  the  apparatus  shown  is  employed,  and  its  function  is  to  short- 
circuit  the  armature.  By  this  means  the  counter-electromotive  force  generated  in  the  arma- 
ture is  such  as  to  cut  down  the  heavy  current  to  the  normal  strength,  so  that  no  dangerous 
heating  of  the  armature-coils  can  take  place.  The  apparatus  is  so  constructed  that  an  excess 
of  electromotive  force  generated  in  the  armature,  such  as  would  be  caused  by  a  break  in  the 
line,  causes  a  spark  to  pass  between  two  points ;  this  allows  sufficient  current  to  pass  to  ener- 
gize the  solenoid,  which  pulls  up  its  core  and  makes  contact  between  two  points  that  short- 
circuit  the  armature.  Normally,  the  distance  apart  of  these  points  is  so  regulated  that 
any  excess  of  current  beyond  12  amperes  causes  the  spark  to  jump  and  effect  the  short- 
circuiting. 

There  is  still  another  safety  device  of  the  same  nature,  which  consists  of  two  metal  points 
placed  opposite  each  other  on  the  armature-shaft,  and  connected  respectively  to  the  collector- 
rings.  Upon  the  current  exceeding  a  certain  value  the  spark  formed  between  these  two  points 
causes  a  short-circuiting  of  the  machine,  and  a  consequent  cutting  down  of  the  current  due 
to  the  increased  self-induction. 

The  machines  built  vary  in  capacity  from  25  lights  to  240  lights,  and  the  table  shows  their 
various  sizes  and  capacity.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  speeds  of  these  machines  are  consider- 
ably lower  than  those  employed  in  the  incandescent  system,  and  that  the  number  of  alterna- 
tions per  second  is  also  far  below  that  of  the  former,  the  average  number  approximating  7,500 
alternations  per  min.,  as  compared  with  16,000  for  the  incandescent  machines.  The  machines 
Nos.  2  and  3  are  provided  with  two  sets  of  windings  connected  to  two  pairs  of  collectors,  so 
that  two  independent  circuits  can  be  run  from  one  machine. 

Size*  and  Capacity  of  Westinghouse  A.  C.  Arc-Dynamos. 


Number  of 
lights. 

Number  of 
coils  on  arm. 

Number  of 
pole-pieces. 

Speed. 

Amperes. 

No.  00.  . 

25 

6 

6 

1,275 

10 

No.  0.  .  . 

40 

8 

8 

950 

10 

No  1 

60 

10 

10 

760 

10 

No.  2  

120 

12 

12 

650 

301  „    . 

No.  3  

240 

16 

16 

480 

gj-  2  circuits. 

Kingdon  Inductor  Dynamo. — This  dynamo  (Fig.  104)  has  been  designed  to  meet  the  wants 
of.  electric-supply  stations  employing  the  alternating  transformer,  or  the  alternating  direct 
system.  The  main  feature  of  the  "  induct®!  "  dynamo  is  that  all  the  bobbins  of  electric  con- 


FIG.  104.— Kingdon  inductor  dynamo. 

ducting  wire  are  fixed ;  there  are  therefore  no  brushes  or  loose  contacts.  The  number  of 
bobbins  in  use  may  be  easily  varied  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  supply ;  another  ad- 
vantage is  that,  owing  to  the  bobbins  being  fixed,  even  with  high-tension  currents,  there  is 
very  small  risk  of  destroying  the  insulation  of  the  machine.  An  "  inductor "  dynamo  of 

16 


242 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


normal  size— i.  e.,  50  kilowatts— has  32  coils  wound,  and  mounted  on  32  cores  (radial),  which 
are  composed  of  plates  of  thin,  very  soft  charcoal-iron,  magnetically  insulated  one  from  the 
other.  Sixteen  of  these  coils  represent  the  field-magnets  of  the  dynamo,  while  the  remaining 
16  intermediate  ones  correspond  to  the  armature-bobbins  of  other  machines.  The  cores  and 
poles  of  both  field-magnets  and  armature-bobbins  are  arranged  radially,  surrounding  the  only 

moving  part  of  the  dynamo,  which  is  called 
the  "  inductor-wheel "  (Fig.  105),  which  is  the 
rotating  part  of  this  dynamo.  It  consists  of 
16  masses  of  laminated  soft  charcoal-iron, 
called  inductor-blocks,  also  mechanically  insu- 
lated, which  are  mounted  on  the  circumference 
of  gun-metal  fliers  or  wings,  which  in  turn  are 
clamped  between  two  steel  plates,  mounted  on 
a  boss  keyed  on  to  the  main  driving-shaft. 
Each  indicator-block  is  just  long  enough  to  be 
embraced  by  the  poles  of  one  field-magnet  and 
one  armature-bobbin.  The  field-magnets  are 
separately  excited.  The  energy  consumed  for 
this  purpose  does  not,  as  a  rule,  exceed  2  per 
cent  of  the  maximum  output  of  the  machine. 
By  rotating  the  soft-iron  inductor-blocks  be- 
fore the  respective  poles  of  the  field-magnets 
Fio.  105.— Inductor-wheel.  and  armature-bobbins,  rapid  periodic  rever- 

sals of  the  polarity  of  the  armature  bobbin- 
pole  are  effected.  This  produces  alternating  currents  in  the  armature-coils.  Between  the  in- 
ductor-blocks and  the  above-mentioned  pole-pieces  there  is  only  just  sufficient  clearance  to 
allow  of  free  rotation  ;  consequently  the  resistance  of  the  magnetic  circuit  of  the  air-space  is 
a  minimum,  while  the  soft  character  of  the  iron  in  the  inductor-blocks  and  the  magnet  and 
armature-cores  tends  also  to  make  this  loss  as  small  as  possible,  thus  producing  a  very  efficient 
machine  at  a  low  speed. 

Fig.  106  illustrates  the  Kennedy  alternator.    The  machine  very  much  resembles  a  trans- 
former in  its  parts,  and  is  about  as  simple  in  construction.    The  iron  field-magnet  portions 


Fio.  lOti.-  -Kennedy  alternator. 

surround  the  copper  coils,  which  are  simple  rings  of  insulated  wires  ;  the  inductors  are  carried 
on  gun-metal  wheels,  and  in  revolving  alternately  open  and  close  the  magnetic  circuit  round 
the  copper  coils,  thus  inducing  current  in  them.  There  is  no  reversal  of  magnetism  in  any 
part  of  the  operation  of  the  machine,  only  a  simple  rising  and  falling  of  the  magnetic  flow 
without  reversal.  The  iron  is  made  of  very  ample  sections,  so  that  the  induction  is  never 
high,  and  never  falls  to  zero.  The  excitation  is  constant,  but  the  induction  varies  with  tho 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


243 


position  of  the  inductors.  There  are  two  pairs  of  coils  in  the  machine,  and  two  sets  of  in- 
ductors, placed  as  shown  in  Fig.  107.  The  generating  coil  is  wound  first  and  insulated,  then 
the  exciting  coil  is  wound  over  that,  and  the  whole  is  insulated  and  fixed  in  the  machine  in 
the  recesses  formed  in  the  field-blocks.  By  using  two  pairs  of  coils  and  two  sets  of  inductors, 
and  exciting  the  coils  so  that  the  field-blocks  are  magnetized  with  a  pole  in  the  middle  and 
similar  poles  at  each  end,  when  the 
two  exciting  coils  are  in  "series" 
with  each  other,  any  inductive  effects 
on  the  one  exciting  coil  are  exactly 
and  entirely  neutralized  by  those 
effects  on  the  other  exciting  coil. 
The  two  generating  coils  can  be 
coupled  either  in  series  or  in  parallel, 
but  the  exciting  coils  must  always 
be  in  series.  This  machine  is  very 
simple  and  inexpensive  to  build,  and 
there  is  no  difficulty  with  insulation 
or  in  constructing  them  for  any 
pressure  or  frequency  required.  In 
large  dynamos  there  are  four  pairs  of 
coils  and  four  sets  of  inductors.  In 
the  machine  illustrated  the  inductors  are  21  in.  in  diameter,  the  coils  being  21f  in.  inside 
diameter ;  the  electromotive  force  of  the  generating  coil  is  about  1*35  volts  per  ft.,  working 
at  very  moderate  inductions  and  at  moderate  speed,  and  this  can  be  safely  raised  to  2 
volts  per  ft.  For  low-pressure  alternating  currents  this  machine  is  equally  applicable.  A 
machine  with  inductors  4  ft.  in  diameter  gives  an  output  of  150,000  watts  (100  volts  1,500 
amperes)  at  a  speed  a  little  over  200  revolutions  per  min.  This  is  suitable  for  low-pressure 
distribution  near  the  station,  and  high-pressure  at  a  distance  by  means  of  step-up  trans- 
formers. 

Machines  in  which  iron  masses  alone  and  no  conductors  are  moved  have  also  been  con- 
structed by  Wheatstone,  Henley,  Elihu  Thomson,  Forbes,  Klimenko,  and  others. 

The  Oerlikon  Three-Phase  Alternator.— This  machine  (Fig.  108),  designed  by  Mr.  C.  E.  L. 
Brown,  was  employed  as  the  generator  in  the  celebrated  installation  of  power-transmission 


FIG.  107.— Kennedy  inductors  and  coils. 


FIG.  108.— Oerlikon  three-phase  alternator. 

between  Frankfort-on-the-Main  and  Lauffen-on-the-Xeckar.  1891,  a  distance  of  112  miles. 
The  machine  was  designed  for  300  horse-power,  running  at  a  speed  of  150  revolutions  per 
min.  The  armature-circuits  are  arranged  to  give  three  alternating  currents,  lagging  120°,  one 
behind  the  other.  Each  of  the  three  circuits  of  the  machine  is  wound  for  a  pressure  of  50 
volts  and  a  current  of  1.400  amperes.  The  current  output  being  large,  rubbing  contacts  have 
been  avoided  by  making  the  armature  stationary  and  the  field-magnets  revolve.  The  anna- 


244 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC   MACHINES. 


ture-conductors  are  29  mm.  in  diameter,  and  consist  of  massive  bars  of  copper  insulated 
inside  with  asbestos  tubes,  and  buried  in  holes  punched  out  of  the  iron  close  to  the  internal 
periphery  Foucault  currents,  which  would  attain  enormous  values  in  such  large  copper  con- 
ductors if  they  were  arranged  in  the  ordinary  way,  are  by  "this  device  avoided;  m  fact, 
experiments  made  with  "buried"  conductors,  50  mm.  in  diameter,  did  not  show  that 
any  power  was  lost  by  Foucault  currents.  This  method  of  arranging  the  armature- 
conductors  is  mechanically  strong,  and,  as  it  enables  asbestos  to  be  used  as  an  insulator, 
results  in  an  armature  which  is  absolutely  incombustible.  Moreover,  the  reduction  m  the 
air-space,  and  the  consequent  improvement  of  the  magnetic  circuit,  reduces  the  exciting 

Corresponding  to  the  32  poles  of  the  field-magnet,  each  circuit  of  the  armature  has  32 
copper  bars,  connected  in  series  by  transverse  pieces.  There  are  therefore,  in  all,  96  (3  X  32) 
bars  on  the  armature.  The  three  circuits  are  joined  up  to  each  other  m  a  manner  similar  to 
the  three  circuits  of  the  Thomson-Houston  arc-machine.  The  armature-core  is  surrounded 
by  a  cast-iron  frame,  and  the  whole  can  be  moved  along  the  bed-plate  for  cleaning  and  other 
purposes,  leaving  the  field-magnet  open  to  view,  as  shown  m  Fig.  109. 


FIG.  109.— Armature  and  field-magnet. 

The  exciting  circuit  is  coiled  round  a  sort  of  cast-iron  pulley.  Two  steel  rims,  each  armed 
with  16  horns  forming  pole-pieces,  are  bolted  on  to  the  pulley,  one  on  either  face,  in  the 
manner  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  110.  This  arrangement  permits  of  the  maximum  utilization 
of  the  magnetic  flux,  and  both  the  copper  and  the  exciting  current  are 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  construction  of  a  field-magnet  of  this 
type  is  very  simple,  the  32-pole  magnet  being  in  only  four  separate  parts 
— a  great  advantage  in  a  piece  of  moving  mechanism  subject  to  heavy 
stresses.  The  exciting  current  is  taken  to  the  field-magnets  by  means 
of  two  metallic  bands,  each  of  which  passes  round  a  grooved  ring  on  the 
spindle,  and  round  a  pulley  connected  to  a  terminal.  (See  Fig.  108.) 
The  armature  is  overhung,  the  massive  spindle  being  carried  on  a  dou- 
ble bracket  bolted  to  the  bed-plate.  A  machine  of  this  type  can  work 
equally  well  as  a  synchronizing  motor,  but  it  differs  from  an  ordinary 
alternate-current  motor,  inasmuch  as  it  can  be  made  to  start  without 
difficulty. 

The  total  weight  of  copper  on  the  field-magnet  is  only  300  kilogrammes.  To  excite  the 
machine  so  as  to  give  50  volts  on  open  circuit,  only  100  watts  are  required :  that  is  to  say,  ^jj- 
per  cent  of  the  output.  At  full  load,  owing  to  the  reaction  of  the  armature,  this  amount  is 
slightly  increased,  but  it  never  exceeds  a  fraction  of  1  per  cent.  At  full  speed  and  with 
normal  volts  the  friction  losses  amount  to  3,600  watts,  about  1-6  to  !•?  per  cent  of  the  maxi- 
mum output.  The  <72  R  loss  in  the  armature-conductors  at  full  load  is  3,500  watts.  This 
gives  a  total  efficiency  of  96  per  cent.  The  total  weight  of  the  machine  without  bed-plate  is 
9,000  kilogrammes. 

The  efficiency  of  the  dynamo  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  converter  of  energy.  The 
test  of  such  machines,  made  by  a  committee  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  in  connection  with  the 
Electrical  Exhibition  of  1884,  gave  the  following  results : 


FIG.  110.— Detail. 


DYNAMOMETERS. 


245 


Volts. 

Am- 
pfcss. 

Weight. 

TOTAL  EFFICIENCIES. 

COMMERCIAL  EFFICIENCIES. 

Full 
load.* 

flMd. 

ilo*L 

ilMd. 

Fall 
load.* 

iload. 

ita* 

ilMd. 

Edison  No.  4  .  . 
Edison  No.  5  .  . 
Edison  No.  10  ... 
Edison  No.  20.   .. 
Weston6M  
Westou  7  M  
Weston  6  W.  I.   .  . 

125 
125 
125 
125 
120 
160 
130 

80 
100 
200 
400 
80 
125 
100 

1.470  Ibs. 
2,475  " 
4.710  " 
8.341   " 
2,000  " 
3.300  " 
2,100  " 

94-45 
96-01 
94-68 
96-65 
94-67 
96-56 
96-20 

93-26 

92:44 
95-46 
96-53 
96-38 
94-06 

89-65 

90:55 
92-77 
94-84 
94-84 
92-89 

83-89 

83:32 
88-80 
89-33 
90-08 
91-64 

88-44 
89-19 
89-61 
91-96 
87-66 
89-37 
90-85 

87-40 

83-65 

76-40 

88-23 
91-19 
90-10 
90-49 
89-22 

86-12 
88-93 
89-23 
89-57 
87-32 

77-53 
83-76 
88-W 

84-37 
84-07 

For  more  complete  and  detailed  descriptions  of  dynamos,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  fol- 
lowing: Prof.  Sylvanus  P.  Thompson,  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery;  Dredge,  Electric  Illumi- 
nation ;  Esson,  Magneto-  and  Dynamo- Electric  Machines  ;  Schellen,  Magneto-  and  Dynamo- 
Electric  Machines;  Atkinson,  Electric  Lighting;  Kapp,  Electric  Transmission  of  Energy; 
Fleming,  The  Alternate-Current  Transformer ;  Kapp,  Alternate-Current  Machinery ;  Mordey, 
Alternate-Current  Working,  Jour.  Inst.  Elec.  Eng.,  London,  vol.  xviii.,  p.  583,  et  seq. ;  Kapp, 
Predetermination  of  the  Characteristics  of  Dynamos,  Jour.  Soc.  Tel.  Eng.,  1886 ;  E.  Hop- 
kinson,  The  General  Theory  of  Dynamo  Machines,  British  Assoc.,  Manchester  meeting,  1887  ; 
J.  Hopkinson,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  1885,  Part  II.  See  also  Trans,  of  the  Am.  Inst.  of  Elect.  Eng., 
Jour.  Inst.  of  Elect.  Eng.,  London  ;  and  to  the  files  of  The  Electrical  Engineer,  N.  Y.,  Elec- 
trical World,  Electrician,  Electrical  Review,  La  Lumiere  Electrique,  and  other  electrical 
journals. 

DYNAMOMETERS.  Alden's  Absorption  Dynamometer.— Mr.  George  I.  Alden  (Trans. 
A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  xi)  describes  a  new  automatic  absorption  dynamometer,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  as 
follows : 

*'  This  dynamometer  is  essentially  a  friction-brake,  in  which  the  pressure  causing  the  fric- 
tion is  distributed  over  a  comparatively  large  area,  thus  giving  a  low  intensity  of  pressure 
between  the  rubbing 
surfaces.  The  pressure 
is  produced  by  the  ac- 
tion of  water  from  the 
city  pipes.  Enough 
water  is  allowed  to  pass 
through  the  machine  to 
carry  off  the  heat  due 
to  the  energy  absorbed. 
The  rubbing  surfaces 
are  finished  smooth  and 
run  in  a  bath  of  oil.  A 
valve  operated  by  the 
slight  angular  motion 
of  the  dynamometer  va- 
ries the  supply  of  water, 
and  consequently  the 
pressure  between  the 
frictional  surfaces,  thus 
securing  automatic  reg- 
ulation. 

"Referring    to  Fig. 

1,  A  is  an  iron  disk  keyed  to  the  crank-shaft.  The  sides  of  this  disk  are  finished  smooth,  and 
each  side  has  one  or  more  shallow  radial  grooves,  as  shown  at  X.  The  outer  shell  consists 
of  two  pieces  of  cast  iron  C  C  bolted  together,  but  held  at  a  fixed  distance  apart  by  an  iron 
ring  and  by  the  edges  of  the  copper  plates  E  E.  Each  of  these  plates  at  its  inner  edge  makes 
with  the  cast-iron  shell  a  water-tight  joint,  so  that  between  each  copper  plate  and  its  cast- 
iron  shell  there  is  a  water-tight  compartment,  into  which  water  from  the  city  pipes  is  ad- 
mitted at  Gr,  passes  to  the  opposite  compartment  and  is  discharged  through  a  small  outlet. 
The  inner  chamber  is  filled  with  oil,  which  finds  its  way  along  the  grooves  in  the  disk  A.  The 
shaft  is  free  to  revolve  in  the  bearings  of  the  cast-iron  shell  C  C.  The  shell  has  an  arm  carry- 
ing weights,  which  has  its  angular  motion  limited  by  stops  at  P  and  Q.  An  automatic  valve 
regulates  the  supply  of  water  to  the  machine  and  is  "so  adjusted  that  a  slight  angular  motion 
of  the  brake  varies  the  free  water  passage  through  it.  The  outlet  aperture  being  small  and 
constant,  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  the  compartments  is  thus  automatically  varied. 

"The  dynamometer  is  operated  as  follows:  The  inner  chamber  being  filled  with  oil. 
weights  are  suspended  from  the  arm  to  give  the  desired  load.  The  engine  is  started,  and 
when  up  to  speed  a  valve  is  suitably  opened  in  the  water-pipe  leading  to  the  automatic  valve, 
which  latter,  being  open,  allows  water  to  pass  to  the  outer  compartments.  The  pressure  of 
this  water  forces  the  copper  plates  against  the  sides  of  the  revolving  disk  A — with  which  they 
were  already  in  contact — causing  sufficient  friction  to  balance  the  weights  upon  the  arm, 
which  then  "rises.  This  motion  operates  the  automatic  valve,  checking  the  flow  of  water  to 


FIG.  1.—  Alden's  absorption  dynamometer. 


*  Average  of  full  load  measurements. 


246 


EJECTOR,   PNEUMATIC. 


the  brake  and  regulating  the  moment  of  the  friction  on  the  disk  to  the  moment  of  the  weights 

applied  to  the  arm  of  the  brake." 

The  Richards  Absorption  Dynamometer,  designed  by  Mr.  C.  B.  Richards,  consists  of  a 

tank  A  B  (Fig.  2)  within  which  two  paddle-wheels  revolve  in  dil,  thus  producing  a  resistance 

and  a  tendency  to  rotate  the  whole  tank,  which  is  mounted  on  friction-rollers.    This  tendency 

to  rotate  is  measured 
by  the  lever-arm  act- 
ing on  a  platform 
scale.  By  means  of  a 
valve  the  oil  in  the 
tank  can  be  allowed 
to  circulate  with 
greater  or  less  free- 
dom ;  by  closing  the 
valve  a  pressure  is 
brought  to  bear  on 
the  oil  in  the  tank,  so 
that  the  resistance  to 
the  rotation  of  the 
inner  wheels  thus  be- 
comes a  drag  on  the 
driving  power ;  when 
the  maximum  resist- 
ance is  obtained  with- 


FIG.  2.— Richards's  absorption  dynamometer. 


out  decreasing  the  number  of  revolutions  per  min.  of  the  shaft,  the  force  of  resistance,  meas- 
ured on  the  scale-beam,  will  enable  us  to  calculate  the  horse-power  consumed.  In  order  to 
prevent  any  change  of  temperature  in  the  oil,  a  constant  stream 
of  water  is  discharged  on  to  the  tank  through  a  perforated  pipe 
P  above  it.  Beneath  the  tank  proper  a  metal  receiver  R  catches 
the  water,  which  is  then  carried  off  by  the  waste-pipe  W,  shown 
at  the  bottom  of  the  receiver. 

Tatham's  Belt  Dynamometer  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  In  this  ap- 
paratus the  difference  in  tension  of  the  slack  and  driving  sides 
of  the  belt  is  exerted  to  vibrate  a  system  of  lever-arms  and  scale- 
beam.  The  belt  from  the  shaft  drives  the  dynamometer  in  the 
direction  indicated  by  the  arrows,  a  and  a'  being  respectively 
the  tight  and  loose  belts,  or  rather  sides  of  the  belt,  driving  the 
pulleys  E  and  E'  on  the 
vibrating  frame  B.  The 
vibrating  frame  B  is  bal- 
anced upon  knife-edges  at 
(7,  and  is  provided  with 
similar  knife-edges  at  ZT, 
which  engage  the  links  of 
the  scale-beam.  The  dis- 


FIG.  3.— Belt  dynamometer. 


tance  from  C  to  H  is  equal  to  the  effective  diameter  of 
the  pulleys  E  and  E'  upon  the  vibrating  frame ;  a  pulley 
M  keyed  to  lower  shaft  communicates  motion  to  the  ma- 
chine to  be  tested,  the  direction  of  belt  being  as  shown. 

Amsler's  Recording  Dynamometer  (Fig.  4)  consists 
of  two  arms,  one  of  which  is  keyed  on  the  driving-shaft 
and  the  other  on  the  following-shaft,  the  two  shafts  be- 
ing in  line  end  to  end.  The  arms  are  connected  by 
spiral  springs,  the  compression  of  which  measures  the 
effort  transmitted,  and  to  avoid  violent  vibrations  a 
dash-pot  is  fitted  inside  the  coils  of  one  of  the  springs. 
To  record  the  compression  of  the  springs  the  arm  of 
the  dynamometer  carries  a  set  of  three  drums,  from  the 
first  of  which  a  roll  of  paper  is  gradually  unwound  as 
the  dynamometer  revolves,  and  passing  over  the  second 
drum  is  recoiled  on  the  third.  A  pencil  connected  with 
one  of  the  two  spiral  springs  marks  the  paper  as  it 
passes  over  the  second  drum.  The  method  adopted  for 
working  the  drums  is  peculiar.  A  weighted  lever  vi- 
brates on  its  center  through  a  limited  arc  as  the  dyna- 
mometer revolves,  thus  actuating  a  ratchet,  which  in 
turn  moves  the  drums  forward  step  by  step ;  this  sim- 
ple device  has  been  found  to  act  most  satisfactorily  up 
to  a  speed  of  150  revolutions  per  minute. 

Ejector  :  see  Harvesting  Machines,  Grain  and  Injectors. 

EJECTOR,  PNEUMATIC.  An  apparatus  for  removing  sewage  used  in  the  so-called 
Shone  system.  The  sewage  from  a  given  district  is  finally  collected  into  one  pipe,  shown  at 
the  left  of  Fig.  1,  and  flows  into  the  ejector  at  the  bottom. 


FIG.  4. — Amsler's  recording 
dynamometer. 


ELEVATORS. 


247 


When  the  ejector  is  filled,  an  automatic  action  is  established  which  admits  compressed  air, 
brought  to  the  ejector  from  a  central  compressing  station,  which  may  be,  as  at  Eastbourne] 
England,  three  miles  away.  The  compressed  air  acts  on  the  contained  sewage  in  the  air-tight 
ejector  with  the  requisite  pressure, 
driving  it  out  of  the  ejector  into  the 
sewage-main,  no  matter  how  high  the 
latter  may  be  above  the  ejector  level. 
The  sewage  being  ejected,  the  action 
of  the  automatic  gearing  is  reversed, 
which  cuts  off  the  supply  of  compressed 
air,  and  permits  the  air  in  the  ejector 
to  escape  into  the  sewers,  to  aid  in 
their  ventilation.  The  sewage  then 
flows  in  again,  and  the  action  is  re- 
peated as  often  as  is  necessary,  depend- 
ing entirely  upon  the  volume  of  flow. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  com- 
pressed air  is  not  admitted  until  the 
ejector  is  full,  and  the  air  is  not  al- 
lowed to  exhaust  until  the  ejector  is 
emptied  down  to  the  discharging  level. 
In  consequence  of  these  actions  the 
sewage  is  got  rid  of  just  as  fast  as  it  is 
produced. 

The  air  is  compressed  in  a  central 
station  by  the  use  of  steam-boilers  or 
gas-engines,  the  air,  after  compression, 
being  stored  in  iron  receivers  or  in  the 
air-mains  themselves,  if  of  sufficient 
length.  It  is  carried  to  each  ejector  in 
small  iron  pipes. 

By  the  use  of  the  pneumatic  ejec- 
tor, basements  can  be  drained  even 
when  far  below  the  main  sewer. 

It  may  also  be  used  to  raise  water  to  tanks  on  the  tops  of  large  buildings,  for  elevator  and 
domestic  supplies. 

With  regard  to  the  economy  of  pumping  with  compressed  air,  the  following  table  gives 
the  percentage  of  useful  effect  which,  it  is  claimed,  can  be  obtained  in  the  ejectors  for  various 
heads : 


FIG.  1.— Shone's  pneumatic  ejector. 


Head. 
20 
40 
50 


Percentage  of 
useful  effect. 

61 

52 

49 


Head. 

60 

80 
100 


Percentage  of 
useful  effect. 

45  5 

42 

38-5 


It  is  also  stated  that,  from  actual  diagrams  taken  from  a  pair  of  small  steam-cylinders  10| 
in.  in  diameter,  compressing  air  in  a  pair  of  14-in.  cylinders  to  a  pressure  of  24  Ibs.  to  the  sq. 
in.,  which  corresponds  to  a  head  of  55  ft.,  50  per  cent  of  the  total  indicated  horse-power  exerted 
in  the  steam-cylinder  has  been  got  in  actual  work  in  the  ejector. 

Electric  Coal-Mining:  see  Coal-Mining  Machines.  Electric  Crane:  see  Cranes. 
Electric  Elevator:  see  Elevators.  Electric  Locomotive:  see  Electric  Motors.  Electric 
Production  of  Aluminium  :  see  Aluminium.  Electric  Pump  :  see  Pumps.  Reciprocating. 
Electric  Railway  :  see  Railways,  Electric.  Electric  Regulator  :  see  Car-Heating.  Elec- 
tric Riveting :  see  Welding,  Electric.  Electric  Rock  Drill :  see  Drills,  Rock.  Electric 
Sole  Sorter  :  see  Leather  Working-Machines. 

Elevators  :  see  Mills,  Silver  and  Ore-Dressing  Machinery. 

ELEVATORS.  These  may  be  divided  into  lifting  devices  (1)  for  passengers  and  freight ; 
(2)  for  grain  and  coal ;  and  (3)  for  canal-boats.  Passenger  and  freight  elevators  may  be  classed 
with  relation  to  their  motive  power  as  steam  elevators,  hydraulic  elevators,  and  electric  eleva- 
tors. In  addition,  under  the  generic  term  may  be  included  numerous  devices  for  special  lift- 
ing purposes,  which  are  not  CRANES  (which  see). 

I.  PASSENGER  AND  FREIGHT  ELEVATORS.  STEAM  ELEVATORS. — A  simple  form  of  steam 
freight  elevator,  manufactured  by  Otis  Brothers  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  is  represented  in  Fig.  1. 
It  is  particularly  adapted  to  buildings  where  high-pressure  steam  is  available,  and  is  intended 
for  handling  heavy  freight.  IF  is  the  steam  hoisting-engine,  B  the  elevator  platform,  C  the 
overhead  sheave,  and  L  the  pipes  leading  steam  from  boiler  to  engine.  The  arrangement  of 
the  vertical  inverted  engines  and  hoisting-drum  of  this  elevator  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

The  Belt  Elevator  System  is  represented  in  Fig.  3.  A  is  the  elevator,  B  the  platform,  E 
the  motor-engine,  and  C  the  overhead  sheave. 

Elevating  Deck  Ferry-Boat. — Figs.  4  and  5  illustrate  a  novel  ferry-boat  of  English  con- 
struction, in  which  the  entire  deck  is  elevated.  The  deck  is  actuated  by  bevel  and  worm 
gearing,  so  that  at  any  state  of  the  tide  it  may  be  brought  to  the  same  level  as  the  quay  for 
the  shipment  of  vehicles,  etc.  The  elevating  deck  is  78  ft.  long  and  32  ft.  broad.  The*  ele- 


248 


ELEVATOKS. 


vator  apparatus  is  worked  by  triple-expansion  engines,  which  actuate  shafting  geared  to  each 
of  the  vertical  screws.     The  lift  is  14  ft.     (See  Engineering,  Sept.  5,  1890.) 

II.  HYDRAULIC  ELEVATORS. — Figs.  6, 
7,  and  8  represent  the  principal  types  of 
these  machines  as  made  by  Otis  Brothers 
&  Co.  Fig.  6  shows  the  street-pressure 
system  adapted  to  cities  where  there  is  a 
steady  water-pressure  in  the  mains.  A  is 
the  hydraulic  cylinder,  B  the  elevator-car, 
C  the  overhead  sheave,  and  D  the  con- 
trolling rope.  The  arrangement  of  water- 
supply  and  waste-pipe  will  readily  be  un- 
derstood. For  use  in  cities  where  there  is 
no  public  water-supply  under  pressure,  the 
apparatus  represented  in  Figs.  7  and  8  are 
provided,  in  Fig.  7  known  as  the  pressure- 
tank-in-basement  system.  A  is  the  hy- 
draulic cylinder,  B  the  car,  G  the  over- 
head sheave,  D  the  controlling  rope,  E  a 
pump  (steam  or  gas),  F  a  tank  in  the 
basement  to  receive  the  discharged  water 
from  the  cylinder,  O  an  iron  pressure- 
tank,  H  the  supply-pipe  to  the  cylinder 
through  the  valve,  /  the  water-pipe  from 
the  pump  which  fills  the  pressure-tank,  K 
the  cylinder  discharge-pipe,  and  L  the 
steam-pipes  leading  from  pump  to  boiler. 

Fig.  8  shows  a  combined  gravity  and 
pressure-tank-on-roof  system,,  which  dif- 
fers from  that  last  described  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  tank  G  on  the  roof  instead  of 
in  the  basement,  and  the  consequent  utili- 
zation of  the  gravity  of  the  descending 
water. 

The  latest  form  of  Otis  hydraulic  eleva- 
tor is  illustrated  in  Fig.  9.  The  principal 
novel  features  here  are  the  pilot- valve  and 
the  port-stop.  A  lever  in  the  car  is  con- 
nected by  a  suitable  device  with  the  valve- 
sheave,  so  that  a  movement  of  the  lever 
gives  a  corresponding  movement  of  the 
sheave,  and  through  it  to  the  pilot-valve. 


Fia.  1. — Steam  freight  elevator. 


The  valve  operates  in  the  following  manner: 

The  area  of  the  upper  piston  is  twice  that  of  the  lower  piston ;  therefore,  when  the  small 

pilot-valve  is  raised  by  the  lever 
(thus  opening  communication  be- 
tween the  upper  part  of  the  large 
valve-cylinder  and  the  discharge- 
tank)  the  main  valve  will  move 
up:  but  the  moment  the  valve 
begins  to  move,  it  commences  to 
close  the  pilot- valve  port,  thus 
cutting  off  the  discharge  at  a 
point  proportionate  to  the  move- 
ment of  the  lever  in  the  car.  By 
lowering  the  pilot-valve,  water  is 
admitted  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  large  cylinder,  and  the  valve 
descends  in  the  same  manner  as 
above.  The  port  or  apron  stop 
consists  of  aprons  on  top  and 
bottom  of  piston,  with  holes 
drilled  in  them  in  a  progression 
such  that  when  the  apron  ad- 
vances over  the  upper  or  the 
lower  port  the  area  for  the  out- 
flow of  water  is  gradually  di- 
minished, in  a  ratio  such  that  the 
retardation  of  the  piston  is  uni- 
form throughout  the  length  of 
stop,  therefore  bringing  the  car 
to  a  gradual  stop. 

The  Hydraulic  Elevators  in 
FIG.  2. -Elevator  engine.  the  Eiffel    Tower.  —  The  Eiffel 


ELEVATORS. 


249 


Tower  is  erected  on  the  Champs-de-Mars, 
Paris,  and  originally  formed  one  of  the 
buildings  of  the  French  Exposition  of 
1889.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  pyramid 
composed  of  four  great  curved  columns  in- 
dependent of  one  another,  and  connected 
only  by  belts  of  girders  at  the  different  sto- 
ries until  they  unite  toward  the  top  of  the 
structure,  where  they  are  joined  by  ordina- 
ry bracing.  The  material  used  in  the  con- 
struction is  iron.  The  principal  data  con- 
cerning this  building — at  the  time  of  its 
erection  the  most  lofty  in  the  world — are 
as  follows :  Total  height,  984  ft. ;  weight 
of  iron  used,  7,300  tons ;  number  of  pieces 
of  iron  of  different  forms  employed,  about 
12,000 ;  total  thrust  on  foundations,  565 
tons — or,  under  maximum  wind- pressure, 
875  tons. 

The  elevators  used  in  the  Eiffel  Tower 
are  arranged  in  the  following  manner :  Two 
elevators  on  the  Roux,  Combaluzier,  and 
Lepape  system,  with  chains  of  jointed  rods, 
lift  from  the  ground  to  the  first  platform, 
working  alongside  the  staircases  in  the  east 
and  west  piers.  Two  elevators  on  the  Otis 
plan  work  in  the  north  and  south  piers, 
starting  likewise  from  the  ground  and  ris- 
ing to  the  second  platform  at  380  ft.  height, 
with  option  of  stopping  at  the  first  plat- 
form. Lastly,  by  an  elevator  on  the  Edoux 
system,  placed  vertically  in  the  center  of 
the  tower,  visitors  are  raised  from  the  sec- 
ond platform  to  the  third  at  a  height  of 
906  ft.  above  the  ground. 

The  Roux  elevator  follows  a  curved 
path,  and  therefore  the  otherwise  rigid 
actuating  piston  is  replaced  by  a  jointed 

one,  which  may  be  compared  to  a  vertebral  column.  It  is,  in  fact,  composed  of  a  series  of 
links  having  the  form  of  connecting  rods,  attached  to  each  other  by  knuckle-joints.  These 
links  are,  besides,  furnished  with  two  guiding  friction-rollers  at  each  point  of  attachment, 

The  link,  thus  articulated,  is  in- 
troduced into  a  round  or  square 
guide-way,  in  which  it  runs  easi- 
ly, and  follows  all  sinuosities  as 
well  as  if  it  were  a  chain  worked 
by  traction.  By  fixing  a  link  of 
this  chain  to  the  floor  of  an  or- 
dinary elevator-cage,  and  impel- 
ling the  flexible  chain  by  means 
of  a  suitable  wheel,  driven  by 
any  motive-power  whatever  situ- 
ated at  the  bottom  of  the  eleva- 
tor, it  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
chain  will  follow  the  cage  wher- 
ever its  guides  will  permit  it  to 
run.  By  joining  the  two  ex- 
tremities of  the  flexible  chain,  it 
forms  an  endless  chain  of  rods 
moving  over  two  encaged  wheels. 
The  lower  wheel  applies  the 
power,  and  the  upper  one  acts 
as  a  simple  pulley-wheel  to  ena- 
ble the  chain  to  circulate. 

The  Otis  elevator  is  of  the 
hydraulic  type  described  else- 
where, the  power  being  derived 
from  a  hydraulic  cylinder  36  ft. 
long,  having  a  38-in.  piston  with 
two  4|-in.  rods,  the  upper  ends 
of  which  are  fastened  to  a  truck 
Y  carrying  six  grooved  pulleys 
FIG.  4.-Elevating  deck  ferry-boat.  5  ft.  in'diameter.  The  hydraulic 


250 


ELEVATOKS. 


FIG.  5. -Elevating  deck  ferry-boat. 


cylinder  is  single-acting,  water  being  admitted  to  the  top  only.     The  cabin,  truck,  and  safety 
appliances  make  up  a  weight  of  23,900  Ibs. 

The  Edoux  elevator  has  a  pair  of  cabins  working  vertically  and  balancing  one  another. 

The  hydraulic  cylinder  is  verti- 
cal, and  about  230  ft.  long.  The 
upper  cabin  is  carried  on  two 
hydraulic  rams. 

For  full  details  of  the  Eiffel 
Tower  elevators  see  Proc.  Inst. 
of  Mech.  Eng.,  July  2,  1889. 

Electric  Elevator. — The  elec- 
tric elevator,  as  made  by  Otis 
Brothers  &  Co.,  simply  consists 
in  the  application  of  an  electric 
motor  to  the  hoisting-gear  of 
the  apparatus.  The  motor  is  so 
arranged  as  to  start  and  stop 
with  a  gradual  movement,  and 
to  consume  power  only  in  pro- 
portion to  the  load.  The  con- 
struction is  clearly  shown  in 
Fig.  10. 

III.  GRAIN  ELEVATORS. — 
The  elevator  known  as  elevators 
A  and  B,  belonging  to  the  Armour  Elevator  Co.,  of  Chicago,  111.,  and  receiving  grain  from 
the  St.  Paul  road,  is  the  largest  elevator  in  the  world  under  a  single  roof.  Elevator  D  and 
its  annex,  belonging  to  the  Armour  Company,  surpass  it  in  capacity,  but  are  not  a  single, 
unbroken  structure.  It  is  rated  at  a  storage  capacity  of  2,500,000  bushels,  can  unload  500  cars 
per  day,  and  deliver  100.000  bushels  per  hour  to  cars  and  boats.  Cars  enough  to  keep  it  at 
work  for  four  days  can  be 
accommodated  in  the  great 
yard  annexed  to  it.  The 
building  proper  is  550  ft. 
long  and  156  ft.  high.  An 
engine  of  1,200  horse- power 
is  employed  in  driving  the 
elevating-belts. 

The  general  features  of 
its  construction  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  It  comprises  a 
main  building  surmounted 
by  what  is  termed  the  cupo- 
la. The  main  driving-en- 
gine is  situated  on  about  the 
ground  level,  at  one  end  of 
the  building.  Along  the  top 
of  the  cupola  a  counter- 
shaft, the  full  length  of  the 
building,  is  carried.  This 
is  driven  by  the  engine. 
The  main  belt  is  of  India- 
rubber  and  canvas,  8-ply  in 
thickness  and  60  in.  wide. 
This  runs  very  nearly  verti- 
cally from  the  engine  driv- 
ing-pulley to  the  pulley  on 
the  counter-shaft  150  ft. 
above  it.  All  along  the 
countershafts  are  the  driv- 
ing-pulleys for  working  the 
28  elevator  -  belts.  These  • 
belts  are  made  also  of  India- 
rubber  belting,  and  carry 
steel  buckets  riveted  at  reg- 
ular intervals  along  their 
outside  face.  As  the  belt 


travels  up   on   one  side  it 
carries  up  full  buckets.     At 


FIG.  6. — Hydraulic  elevator— street-pressure. 


the  top  these  pass  over  the  driving-pulley  and  are  emptied  as  thev  turn  over,  and  then  thev 
descend  empty  on  the  other  side  of  the  belt.  From  the  point  of  delivery  of  the  belt  the  grain 
passes  by  gravity  through  inclined  chutes  to  the  main  body  of  the  elevator,  and  is  directed  by 
one  or  the  other  of  the  chutes  to  any  desired  point.  The  grain  from  the  elevating-belt  falls 
into  the  mouth  of  a  chute  which  rotates  on  a  vertical  axis,  whose  prolongation  would  pass 


ELEVATORS. 


251 


FIG.  7.  —Hydraulic  elevator — basement-pressure. 


FIG.  8.— Hydraulic  elevator— gravity-  and  roof -pressure. 


252 


ELEVATORS. 


through  its  receiving  end  or  mouth.  Thus,  when  swung  around  on  its  pivot,  its  receiving  mouth 
remains  unchanged  in  position.  The  open  ends  of  a  number  of  chutes  leading  to  the  garners 

corresponding  to  respective  bins  be- 
low are  arranged  in  a  circle  around 
the  revolving  chute  or  "  revolver." 
Each  is  numbered  in  accordance  with 
the  bin  it  leads  to.  The  revolver 
can  be  swung  so  as  to  connect  with 
any  one  of  these.  In  this  way  one 
elevator  is  made  to  feed  a  number 
of  bins. 

Below  the  chutes  on  the  next  floor 
are  what  are  known,  and  have  just 
been  referred  to,  as  garners.  These 
are  simply  square  bins  holding  1,000 
bushels  each.  Immediately  under 
each  is  a  platform-scale,  with  its  bin 
of  the  same  size  as  the  garner  above 
it,  and  receiving  grain  from  the  gar- 
ner when  desired.  Here  the  grain  is 
weighed.  The  garner,  it  will  be  seen, 
can  receive  grain  during  the  opera- 
tions of  weighing  and  discharging 
the  weighing-bin,  and  when  the  lat- 
ter is  emptied  can  at  once  refill  it. 
From  each  weighing-bin  the  grain  is 
delivered  into  the  bins  and  pockets 
that  completely  fill  most  of  the 
height  of  the  main  building.  These 
range  in  size  from  500  to  7,000  bush- 
els capacity,  so  as  to  suit  every  re- 
quirement. Much  of  the  grain  re- 
ceived is  simply  graded,  and  an 
equivalent  weight  of  grain  of  the 
same  grade  is  delivered  when  called 
for.  Other  grain  is  to  be  received 
with  its  "identity  preserved."  In 
this  case  the  specific  grain,  and  no 
other,  must  be  delivered  on  call. 
The  great  variety  in  size  of  bins 
adapts  the  elevator  to  this  work. 
The  garners,  weighing-bins,  and  stor- 
age-bins have  sloping  bottoms,  so 
that  no  grain  lodges  in  them.  An 
inclination  of  6  in.  in  a  foot  is  suffi- 
cient to  insure  this.  Grain  is  weighed 
when  received  and  when  delivered. 
Each  weighing  operation  involves 
the  elevation  of  the  grain  from  the 
lower  floor,  where  the  bins  deliver  it 
clear  to  the  top  of  the  building,  for 
delivery  through  the  revolver  and 
fixed  chute  to  the  proper  scale. 
Transfer-elevators  are  employed  to 
effect  the  transfer  of  grain  from  one 
bin  to  another.  These  elevate  it  so 
that  it  can  descend  through  inclined 
chutes  in  the  desired  direction.  If 
the  chute  does  not  carry  it  far  enough, 
one  or  more  additional  elevators  and 
chutes  are  called  into  requisition. 
One  function  of  the  elevator  is  the 
cleaning  of  grain.  Some  of  the  bins, 
termed  cleaning-bins,  are  equipped 
with  winnowing-fans  for  blowing  out 
dust  and  chaff,  and  with  screens 
through  which  the  grain  has  to  pass. 

FIG.  9.-Hydraulic  passenger  elevator.  The  1^ter  remove  the  coarser  parti- 

cles.   The  winnowed  and  sifted  gram 

then  falls  into  the  bin.  The  bins  all  terminate  some  distance  above  the  ground-level.  A 
train  of  cars  has  ample  head-room  below  them.  From  the  level  of  the  bottoms  of  the  bins 
to  the  weighing-floor  the  entire  area  is  devoted  to  the  honeycomb  of  bins,  except  the  few 
small  trunks  through  which  the  elevator-belts  travel,  or  through  which  grain  descends  from 


ELEVATORS. 


253 


one  tier  of  bins  to  the  tier  below.  A  space  at  one  end  is  also  free  for  the  great  driving-belt 
to  travel  in.  The  elevator-belts  descend  into  hoppers  below  the  ground-surface,  into  which 
grain  to  be  elevated  is  delivered.  At  intervals  along  the  platforms  forming  the  bottom  floor 
are  trap  doors  giving  access  to  these  hoppers.  Grain  does  not  remain  in  these  hoppers ;  it  is 
at  once  elevated. 

To  deliver  the  grain  from  the  cars  into  the  elevator-hoppers  there  is  used  a  scraping  shovel 
about  3  ft.  sq..  to  which  a  rope  is  attached.  The  rope  leads  to  a  steam  apparatus,  by  which  it 
is  taken  in  at  the  proper  time,  as  if  on  a  windlass.  The  operator  draws  the  shovel  back  into 


FIG.  10.— Electric  elevator. 

the  car  of  grain,  and  holds  it  nearly  vertical  and  pressed  down  into  the  grain.  The  rope 
draws  along  the  shovel  with  the  grain  in  front  of  it,  and  a  number  of  bushels  are  delivered  at 
each  stroke.  In  this  way  a  couple  of  men  can  very  quickly  empty  a  car.  The  movements  of 
the  shovels  succeed  one  another  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  keep  the  men  in  active  movement. 
One  of  the  features  of  this  elevator  is  the  use  of  the  electric  light,  which  is  arranged  to  light 
the  interior  of  cars,  so  that  night-work  can  be  carried  on.  In  the  recent  heavy  grain  deliv- 
eries it  was  found  necessary  to  work  day  and  night. 

The  portion  of  such  elevators  containing  the  bins  is  built  without  framing.  Planks  are 
laid  flatwise  upon  each  other  and  spiked  through  to  the  layer  below.  In  this  way  the  outer 
walls  and  the  bin  divisions  are  built  up,  giving  immense  strength  and  power  to  resist  lateral 
thrust.  A  usual  timber  for  the  sides  is  2  X  8  in.  spruce,  giving  8-in.  walls,  and  for  the  bins 
2  X  6  in.  is  often  employed.  The  Armour  elevator  contains  over  8,000,000  ft.  of  wood,  and 
about  4,000  kegs  of  nails  were  used  in  its  construction.  The  main  building  is  bricked  in  out- 
side of  the  timber  walls,  and  the  roofs  and  cupola  walls  are  covered  with  tin.  It  was  erected 
between  June,  1887,  and  March,  1888,  being  put  in  operation  on  the  last-named  date.  It  cost 
about  $600,000. 

The  elevator  described  represents  one  of  many  similar  structures  situated  in  the  principal 
cities  of  the  United  States,  and  designed  to  handle  the  enormous  grain  crops  of  the  Western 
States  and  Territories.  To  give  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  business  in  our  cities,  the  fol- 
lowing statement  of  number  of  elevators  and  their  capacity  for  some  leading  cities  will  be  of 
interest: 


NAME  OF  CITY. 

Number  of  sta- 
tionary elevators. 

Capacity  in 
bushels. 

NAME  OF  CITY. 

Number  of  sta- 
tionary elevators. 

Capacity  in 
bushels. 

New  York 

27 

27  275  000 

St  Louis 

12 

11,950.000 

Chicago 

26 

28  675000 

9 

5.430.000 

Duluth  

14 

19200000 

Detroit 

4 

2.900.000 

Minneapolis  

16 

13  290  000 

Peoria 

5 

2,150.000 

254 


ELEVATORS. 


Coal-Hoist  (Fig.  11)  represents  a  novel  form  of  coal-hoist,  constructed  by  the  Philadelphia 
and  Reading  Railroad,  for  coaling  locomotives. 


The  lower  side  of  an  endless-link  carrier,  a,  runs  in  a  trough,  t,  which  extends  from  the 
coal-pit,  d,  to  the  top  of  the  pockets.  To  this  carrier,  at  intervals  of  about  30  in.,  buckets — or 
rather  scrapers — are  attached,  which  are  shaped  to  fit  the  interior  of  the  trough.  A  coal-car 
is  pushed  over  the  pit  and  dumped,  and  the  coal  runs  by  gravity  through  a  chute  at  d  in  the 
end  of  the  pit  upon  the  carrier.  There  are  three  pockets  in  line,  the  center  one  being  filled 
directly  from  the  main  trough,  while  the  coal  is  carried  into  the  others  by  short  movable 
chutes,  leading  from  the  upper  end  of  the  main  trough.  Coal  of  any  size  is  handled  by  the 

carrier.  The  engine  is  15  horse-pow- 
er. Power  is  transmitted  from  the 
engine  by  a  link-belt  to  a  geared  pul- 
ley at  the  top  of  the  hoist.  This  pul- 
ley engages  with  a  sprocket-wheel 
which  bears  the  carrier.  The  hoist- 
ing capacity  is  stated  to  be  90  tons  of 
coal  per  hour.  The  usual  load  is  60 
tons  per  hour ;  100  locomotives  can 
be  coaled  daily. 

IV.  CANAL  ELEVATORS. — The  ele- 
vator for  canal-boats  at  Les  Fonte- 
nelles,  near  St.  Omer,  on  the  Neuffosse 
Canal,  is  the  greatest  hydraulic  work 
ever  undertaken  in  France.  It  is 
capable  of  lifting  boats  of  300  tons. 
Hitherto  the  largest  canal  elevator 
has  been  that  constructed  on  the 
Trent  and  Mersey  Canal  in  England, 
which  lifts  boats  of  80  tons.  The  ap- 
paratus, as  shown  in  Fig.  12,  is  essen- 
tially formed  of  two  portions  of  a  ca- 
nal in  plate-iron,  called  lock-cham- 
bers. Each  of  these  rests  at  its  cen- 
ter upon  the  head  of  a  piston  which 
works  in  the  cylinder  of  a  hydraulic 
press,  placed  in  the  center  of  a  well. 
The  two  presses  communicate  through 
a  pipe  provided  with  a  sliding  valve, 
which  permits  of  isolating  or  con- 
necting them.  When  the  valve  is 
open,  we  have  a  true  hydrostatic  bal- 
ance. If  one  of  the  chambers  is  more 
heavily  loaded  than  the  other,  it  de- 
scends, and  forces  the  lighter  one  to 
ascend.  Such  is  the  apparatus  as  a 
whole.  The  stroke  of  the  pistons  is 
equal  to  the  diderence  of  level  between  the  canals— say  43  ft.  The  chambers  are  of  sufficient 
size  to  receive  the  largest  boats  that  navigate  the  canals  of  the  north.  Their  length  is  130 
ft.,  their  width  19,  and  their  depth  7.  The  weight  of  such  a  chamber,  full  of  water,  is  800 
tons,  and  a  mass  of  1,600  tons  is  therefore  in  motion  at  every  manosuvre.  Let  us  suppose  the 
piston  of  one  of  the  presses  is  at  the  top  and  that  of  the  other  at  the  bottom  of  its  travel,  and 
that  the  valve  is  closed ;  111  such  a  position,  the  chamber  on  the  head  of  the  piston  that  is  out 


FIG.  12.— Canal-boat  elevator. 


ENGINES,   AIR. 


255 


of  its  press  will  be  on  a  level  with  the  upper  canal,  while  the  other  will  be  on  a  level  with  the 
lower  one.  Let  us  introduce  a  boat  into  each  of  the  chambers  and  close  their  gates  and  those 
of  the  canals,  so  as  to  isolate  the  chambers  completely,  and  we  shall  not  affect  the  equilibrium 
of  the  system,  which  will  remain  immovable.  If,  now,  we  open  the  sliding  valve,  the  upper 
chamber  will  descend  and  the  lower  will  rise,  and  this  motion  will  proceed  until  the  two  cham- 
bers are  on  the  same  level.  At  this  instant  the  two  chambers  will  be  at  the  center  of  their 
travel  and  in  equilibrium  upon  their  presses,  which  contain  the  same  height  of  water.  In 
order  to  force  the  chamber  that  was  on  a  level  with  the  upper  reach  to  descend,  instead  of 
giving  it  the  same  quantity  of  water  as  is  given  the  lower  chamber,  it  is  supercharged  in  the 
beginning  with  a  weight  of  water  equal  to  that  contained  in  a  press,  so  that,  instead  of  stop- 
ping in  the  middle  of  its  travel,  it  continues  its  motion  until  it  reaches  the  level  of  the  lower 
canal. 

The  presses  are  55  ft.  in  height  and  6i  ft.  in  diameter.  They  resist  an  internal  pressure 
of  27  atmospheres.  They  are  made  of  rolled  steel  rings,  superposed  and  set  into  a  groove, 
to  prevent  them  from  moving  laterally.  In  order  to  render  the  interior  of  the  press  abso- 
lutely tight,  it  is  lined  with  copper  ^  in.  thick,  in  a  single  piece  applied  by  a  mallet 
against  the  sides.  A  section  of  one  of  these  presses  has  supported  an  internal  pressure  of  175 
atmospheres  without  distortion. 

The  largest  canal  lift  in  the  world  is  at  La  Louviere,  Belgium.  The  height  to  which  the 
boats  are  raised  is  50  ft.  6±  in.  Two  huge  troughs,  141  ft.  long  by  19  ft.  broad  with  8  ft. 
draught  of  water,  receive  the  boats,  and  are  themselves  carried  on  a  ram  6  ft.  6f  in.  in  diam- 
eter and  63  ft.  9|  in.  long  working  in  a  cast-iron  press.  The  pressure  used  is  470  Ibs.  per  sq. 
in.  Time  of  operation,  2  minutes. 

Eliminator  :  see  Separators,  Steam. 

Emery- Wheels  :  see  Grinding  Machines. 

ENGINES,  AIR.  The  air-engine  described  below,  built  by  the  Ticonderoga  Machine 
Co.,  at  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  is  based  on  the  well-known  Stirling  principle,  in  which  the 
working  -  air  is  confined  to 
the  machine,  and  originally 
compressed  to  a  high  press- 
ure. Fig.  1  is  a  perspective 
view,  and  Fig.  2  is  a  sectional 
elevation.  For  the  purpose 
of  making  its  operation  easily 
understood,  Fig.  3  is  intro- 
duced, which  is  a  sketch  of 
the  simplest  form  of  single- 
acting  erfgines  on  the  same 
principle. 

A  is  the  furnace,  of  simple 
and  common  form,  with  door, 
ash-pit,  flue,  and  grate,  on 
which  a  fire  is  built  to  heat 
the  lower  end  of  the  reverser, 
which  stands  above  the  fur- 
nace. The  bottom  of  the  re- 
verser-cylinder  S,  called  the 
"  heater,"  is  made  of  special 
form,  shown  in  Fig.  2.  and  of 
a  special  metal,  and  is  ar- 
ranged to  be  separately  re- 
newed. The  top  of  the  re- 
verser is  a  common  cylinder- 
head.  The  reverser  consists 
of  two  cylinders,  one  within 
the  other,  and  having  the 
same  vertical  axis.  The  inner  cylinder  is  fitted  with  a  valveless  piston  having  a  piston-rod. 
This  piston  is  moved  by  the  engine,  and  does  no  work  on  its  crank-arm.  The  inside  cylinder 
of  the  reverser  does  not  extend  to  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  outside  cylinder,  and  has  no 
heads,  so  that  there  is  free  communication  from  below  the  piston  to  the 'top  at  all  times,  no 
valves  at  any  time  intervening.  It  will  be  seen  that  by  the  upward  stroke  of  the  piston  the  air 
is  forced  by  way  of  the  annular  space  between  the  two  cylinders  to  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder, 
and  the  downward  stroke  of  the  reverser-piston  produces  the  reverse  motion  of  the  air  to  the 
top  of  the  cylinder  via  the  same  annular  space.  The  upper  portion  of  this  annular  space  is 
partitioned  horizontally,  and  made  into  a  water-jacketed  condenser  or  cooler  F.  having  verti- 
cal copper  tubes  surrounded  by  flowing  water,  the  tubes  allowing  the  air  to  pass  freely 
through,  as  forced  by  the  piston,  without  coming  in  contact  with  the  water.  The  annular 
space  E  E  below  the  cooler  extending  down  into  the  heater,  or  lower  end  of  the  reverser-cyl- 
inder,  is  occupied  by  a  regenerator  of  wire-screen  cloth.  When  the  air  is  moving  upward, 
having  just  come  from  the  hot  surface  B,  on  account  of  the  air  being  warmer  than  the  wire, 
the  wire  receives  a  portion  of  the  heat  of  the  air,  and  the  air  as  it  goes  upward  becomes  cooled, 
first  by  the  wire,  then  by  the  water-cooled  pipes.  The  heat  which  the  running  water  takes  up 
is  lost,  but  the  heat  in  the  regenerator  is  utilized  in  reheating  the  air  on  its  return  to  the  bot- 


Fio.  1. — Air-engine. 


256 


ENGINES,   AIR. 


FIG.  a. — Air-engine—section. 


torn  of  the  regenerator.     These  operations  go  on  at  each  stroke  of  the  piston.     If  the  piston  of 

the  reverser  is  forced  downward,  the  air  in  the  reverser  is  cooled  ;  if  it  is  forced  upward,  the  air 

is  heated.     It  is  found  that  it  does  not  matter 

how  quickly   this    stroke  is  made,   or  what 

the  pressure  of  the  air  inside  the  reverser. 

When  a  fire  is  made  and  the  heater  properly 

heated,  and  the  water  running  through  the 

cooler,  the  air  when  at  the  lower  end  of  the 

reverser  is  at  600°  P.  ;  and  as  the  pressure  is 

the  same  on  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  re- 

verser-piston  at  any  instant,  all  the  power  re- 

quired to  move  the  piston  is  that  necessary 

to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  air  in  the  re- 

generator and  cooler.     Some  of  these  engines 

have  run  200  turns  per  rain.,  so  that  the  air  is 

200  times  heated  and  200  times  cooled  per 

min.    The  engine  is  designed  upon  the  well- 

known  principle  that  if  a  volume  of  air  at  any 

pressure  is  confined,  and  its  volume  not  al- 

lowed to  increase,  while  its  temperature  is  in- 

creased 480°,  the  pressure  will  be  doubled.     On 

the  temperature  being  decreased  480°  again, 

the  pressure  decreases  to  the  original  pressure. 

It  is  found  that  but  little  more  coal  is  required 

to  keep  up  heat  when  using  four  atmospheres 

than  in  carrying  one  atmosphere-pressure  in 

the  reverser.     The  advantage   of  using  the 

higher  pressure  is  very  great,  notably  in  effi- 

ciency of  engine,  less  bulk,  weight,  and  cost  of 

manufacture,  and  operation      As  shown  in 

Fig.  1,  the  reverser  is  connected  by  a  pipe 

with  a  cylinder  containing  a  working-piston, 

and  the  two  pistons  are  connected  by  mechan- 

ism in  such  a  way  that  the  reverser-piston  is  90°  ahead  of  the  working-piston,  and  makes  a 

stroke  for  each  stroke  of  the  working-piston.     This  arrangement  produces  pressure  in  the 

working-cylinder  varying  between  the  pressure  due  to  120°  F.  temperature  and  that  due  to 

600°  F.  temperature  in  the  reverser.     When  the  engine  is  started  it  is  run  on  common  air 

until  a  small  pump  which*  it  carries 
compresses  enough  air  into  the  en- 
gine, say  45  Ibs.  above  atmosphere  ; 
from  that  time  on  this  air-pump  is 
only  called  on  to  supply  whatever 
the  leakage  may  be.  An  air-tank  is 
connected  with  the  engine,  to  store 
a  small  quantity  of  air  for  starting 
the  engine  when  under  load. 

The  best  results  have  been  ob- 
tained from  making  the  engine  in 
the  form  shown  in  the  perspective 
view  —  that  is,  with  two  reverser-cyl- 
inders  and  two  double-acting  work- 
ing-cylinders. The  reverser-pistons 
are  connected  and  balanced  by  a 
walking-beam,  as  shown  on  the  right, 
and  are  reciprocated  by  an  over- 
hanging side-lever,  which  is  con- 
nected to  the  crank-arm  by  its  con- 
necting-rod. The  working-pistons 
are  connected  by  another  walking- 
beam,  and  drive  the  engine  by  means 
of  a  connecting-rod  joined  to  the 
third  arm  of  the  working-side  walk- 
ing-beam. A  common  ball-governor 
is  used  to  actuate  a  by-pass  valve, 
which  when  open  tends  to  equalize 
the  pressure  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
pigton?  in  thftt  wa  relliatin  the 


FIG   3.-Air-engine-detail. 

speed  of  the  engine.  Instead  of  one  outlet  from  the  reversers  to  the  working-cylinders  there 
are  two,  and  two  for  each  of  the  working-cylinders.  Each  reverser  is  connected  from  the 
under  side  of  the  reverser-piston  to  the  under  side  of  the  working-piston  directly  opposite 
by  a  pipe  without  valves,  and  the  top  of  each  reverser  is  connected  with  the  top  of  the  work- 
ing-cylinder diagonally  opposite  by  a  suitable  pipe  :  thus  the  pressure  from  each  reverser  is 
exerted  on  the  lower  side  of  the  working-piston  directly  opposite  and  on  top  of  the  working- 


ENGINES,   BLOWING. 


257 


piston  diagonally  opposite  at  the  same  time,  at  the  proper  moments,  to  produce  motion  to 
rotate  the  wheel.    By  this  arrangement  only  cooled  air  comes  in  contact  with  the  portion  of 


JTo  / 


FIG.  4.— Air  engine— indicator  card. 

the  cylinder  where  the  piston-rings  slide,  and  with  the  piston-rods  and  boxes,  so  that  there  is 
no  trouble  in  packing  or  lubricating. 

In  the  perspective  view  the  reversers  are  shown  on  the  right  with  their  two  furnaces,  the 
walking-beam  connecting  the  two  reverser  pistons  and  the  overhanging  side-lever  with  its 
connecting-rod.  These  working  parts  are  all  driven  by  the  crank,  as  shown.  The  working- 
cylinders  on  the  opposite  side  are  not  visible  in  the  picture,  but  their  walking-beam  and  the 
piston-rods  show  their  position.  This  walking-beam,  as  is  seen,  has  a  third  arm,  which  is  by 
a  connecting-rod  joined  to  the  working-side  crank-arm,  which  drives  the  shaft  carrying  the 
fly-wheel.  The  small  air-pump  is  shown  on  the  eccentric. 

In  a  test  of  one  of  these  engines,  made  in  March,  1889,  by  George  H.  Barrus,  the  following 
results  were  obtained  :  The  average  indicated  horse-power  was  31-18,  and  the  average  brake 
horse-power  19'92.  The  amount  of  gas-house  coke  used  in  10  hours'  run,  including  the  wood 
and  coke  required  to  start  the  fire,  beginning  with  a  cold  engine,  was  1-91  Ibs.  per  indicated 
horse-power  per  hour,  and  2'98  Ibs.  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour.  On  the  same  test,  for  a 
period  of  6£  hours,  after  the  engine  had  attained  its  normal  conditions  of  work,  the  quantity 
of  coke  consumed  was  1'54  Ibs.  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour,  and  2'37  Ibs.  per  brake 
horse-power  per  hour.  The  quantity  of  water  which  passed  through  the  coolers  amounted  to 
an  average  of  3,612  Ibs.  per  hour,  which  is  equivalent  to  7'2  gallons  per  min.  This  water  was 
supplied  at  a  temperature  of  36°,  and  discharged  at  a  temperature  of  102'8°. 

A  test  with  George's  Creek  Cumberland  coal  gave  a  result  of  1-62  Ibs.  of  coal  per  indicated 
horse-power  per  hour,  and  2'48  Ibs.  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  pair  of  diagrams  taken  during  these  tests.  The  line  at  the  bottom  is  the 
line  of  atmospheric  pressure.  The  scale  of  the  diagram  being  40  Ibs.  to  the  in.,  it  is  seen  that 
the  air  is  worked  between  the  pressures  of  about  65  and  45  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  The  mean  effective 
pressure  in  No.  1  cylinder  is  12-3  Ibs.,  and  in  No.  2  cylinder  13  Jbs. 

ENGINES,  BLOWING.  No  important  improvement  in  type  of  blowing-engines  used 
at  blast-furnaces  has  been  brought  into  use  in  this  country  in  "recent  years,  it  having  been 
generally  considered  that  as  the  fuel  used  to  drive  these  engines  was  the  furnace-gas  which 
would  otherwise  go  to  waste,  attempts  to  economize  this  fuel  were  unnecessary.  The  com- 
bining of  blast-furnaces  with  steel-works,  however,  by  which  arrangement  surplus  fuel-gas  at 
the  blast-farnace  may  be  used  to  drive  the  rolling-mills  and  other  machinery,  is  likely  to  lead 
ere  long  to  the  adoption  in  blowing-engines  of  those  principles  which  have  contributed  to  the 
economy  of  steam  in  other  engines,  such  as  compounding,  the  balancing  of  strains  through 
the  multiple  cranks,  instead  of  equalizing  them  in  enormous  fly-wheels,  and  increasing  the 
speed  of  rotation.  Two  cylinder  compound  blowing-engines  with  cranks  at  90°  have  already 
been  built  in  England,  but  three  cylinders  with  cranks  at  120°  would  probably  be  a  better 
arrangement.  Much  attention  has  been  given  to  improvements  of  the  air-valves  of  blowing- 
engines  for  blast-furnaces,  in  order  to  diminish  the  air  leakage  and  the  resistance  to  the  flow 
of  air  through  the  valve  passages,  and  at  the  same  time  to  increase  the  rapidity  of  the  action 
of  the  valves,  so  as  to  allow  greater  piston-speed  of  the  engine.  These  improvements  have 
generally  taken  the  form  of  an  increase  in  the  number  and  a  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  valves. 
The  Weimer  Machine  Works,  of  Lebanon,  Pa.,  builds  blowing-engines  with  valves  which  are 
simply  rectangular  pieces  of  leather,  about  7  by  2  in.,  stiffened  by  a  metal  plate.  Each  valve 
covers  an  opening  of  a  slightly  smaller  size  in  a  vertical  iron  grating  forming  the  valve-seat, 
and  is  free  to  move  to  and  from  this  grating  at  each  reversal  of  the  movement  of  the  piston. 
Positive  valves  operated  by  links  attached  to  some  moving  part  of  the  engine  have  been 
introduced  to  a  limited  extent,  but  their  merits  have  not  yet  been  proved.  The  vertical  type 
of  engine  is  now  generally  used  for  blast-furnaces.  Horizontal  engines,  however,  are  still  in 
use  for  blowing  Bessemer  converters. 


Reynolds's  Double,  Vertical  Blowing-Engine. — Fig.  1  represents  a  style  of  blowing-engii 
recently  introduced  by  the  E.  P.  Allis  Co.,  of  Milwaukee.    The  chief  feature  of  novelty  of  the 


258 


ENGINES,  FIRE,   CHEMICAL. 


engines  lies  in  the  construction  of  the  frame.  They  are  a  pair  of  wrought-iron  frame  vertical 
engines  with  an  air  cylinder  placed  over  each  steam-cylinder ;  the  air-piston  of  each  air-cylin 
der  is  actuated  by  a  piston-rod,  which  is  attached  to  the  steam-piston  directly  underneath.  The 
Reynolds-Corliss  valve-gear  is  used  on  both  steam-cylinders ;  the  air-cylinders  being  furnished 
with  air- valves,  conveniently  arranged  in  chambers  which  are  cast  on  each  end  of  the  cylinder 
and  extend  completely  around  it.  The  method  of  securing  the  valves  in  these  chambers 
renders  each  one  accessible  and  exposed  to  view  when  the  engines  are  running.  Any  one  of 
them  can  be  removed  and  replaced  by  a  new  one  at  any  time  without  dismounting  the  engine 


FIG.  1. — Allis  blowing-engine. 

or  disturbing  any  other  valve.  The  first  pair  of  this  type  of  blowing-engine  was  placed  in  the 
Bessemer  department  of  the  Joliet  Steel  Works,  Joliet,  111.,  in  1881. 

See  AIR-COMPRESSORS.  BLAST-FURNACE,  BLOWERS,  and  STOVES,  HOT-BLAST. 

ENGINES,  FIRE,  CHEMICAL.  Apparatus  for  projecting  a  fire-extinguishing  fluid. 
Two  classes  may  be  recognized  : 

I.  Those  which  project  a  stream  of  water  permeated  with  carbon  dioxide,  usually  produced 
by  the  addition  of  an  acid  to  a  solution  of  soda  carbonate. 

II.  Those  which  project  a  liquid  which,  when  subjected  to  high  temperature,  will  liberate 
a  fire-extinguishing  gas. 

Each  of  these  classes  may  be  subdivided  in  portable  and  stationary  machines. 

The  Babcock  and  many  other  well-known  forms  of  "  fire-extinguishers  "  belong  to  the  first 
class  above  noted.  As  an  improved  example  of  a  portable  engine  of  notable  capacity,  the 

Holloway  Chemical  Fire-Engine  is  here  presented  (Fig.  1).  Tn  this  machine  the 'principal 
improvements  are  in  constructive  detail.  The  tanks  (double)  are  of  heavy  polished  copper, 
and  are  bolted  on  wrought-iron  frames,  and  braced  one  to  the  other.  The  hose-gallery  and 


ENGINES,    FIRE,   CHEMICAL. 


259 


automatic  reel  are  carried  over  the  frame-arch.  The  acid-chamber  is  lined  with  glass,  and  is 
supported  above  and  outside  of  the  tanks.  In  the  tanks  are  agitators  turned  by  handles  on 
the  outside,  the  purpose  of  which  is  thoroughly  to  dissolve  the  soda. 


FIG.  1.— Hollo  way  chemical  fire-engine. 

The  discharge-pipes  on  the  tanks  are  very  short  and  without  bends,  allowing  the  free  and 
unresisted  passage  of  the  solution  from  the  tank  to  the  hose.  The  double-tank  engines  are 
arranged  to  give  a  continuous  stream  without  moving  the  hose.  While  one  tank  is  being 
discharged  the  other  is  replenished,  and  so  on, 
or  both  tanks  can  be  discharged  simultaneous- 
ly, thus  playing  two  streams.  An  automatic 
hose-reel  is  connected  to  the  tanks  by  a  short 
pipe,  and  the  hose  is  attached  to  it.  By  the 
use  of  this  reel  the  hose  is  always  ready  for 
instant  service,  as  the  solution  passes  from 
the  tank  into  the  reel  and  through  the  hose. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  draw  off  the  required 
length  of  hose  to  reach  the  fire,  the  balance 
remaining  on  the  reel,  thus  obviating  the  de- 
lay of  unreeling  the  hose  and  making  connec- 
tions to  the  tanks.  A  pressure-gauge  shows 
the  amount  of  gas  generated  within  the  tank, 
and  also  enables  the  person  operating  the  en- 
gine to  determine  how  fast  the  tank  is  being 
emptied. 

A  stationary  apparatus  of  the  same  gener- 
al type  is  represented  in  Fig.  2.  The  recep- 
tacle for  the  chemicals  and  water  is  located  in 
the  cellar  of  the  building,  and  supported  on 
an  axis  in  a  suitable  frame,  so  that  it  can  eas- 
ily be  rotated  to  produce  intermingling  of  the 
gas  -  forming  substances.  Communicating 
with  the  receptacles  are  stationary  pipes  lead- 
ing to  various  parts  of  the  building,  and  pro- 
vided with  hose.  The  pressure  of  the  gener- 
ated gas  forces  the  mingled  gas  and  water 
through  the  pipe-system. 

An  example  of  a  chemical-engine  of  the 
second  class  is  given  in  Fig.  2.  which  repre- 
sents the 

Lindgren-Mahan    Chemical   Fire-Engine  FIG.  2.-  Stationary  chemical  fire-engine. 

(Fig.  3),  here  shown  as  a  light,  easily  drawn 

vehicle  for  town  or  village  use.  In  this  apparatus  there  is  used  a  fire-extinguishing  fluid, 
which  is  claimed  to  liberate  an  "oxygen-destroying  gas"  on  coming  in  contact  with  the  fire, 
the  effect  of  1  gallon  of  which  is  "  equal  to  that  of  800  gallons  of  water."  The  principle  of 


260 


ENGINES,   FIRE,   STEAM. 


the  operation  of  the  machine  will  readily  be  understood  from  Fig.  4,  which  represents  a  port- 
able fire-extinguisher.  The  receptacle  is  filled  with  the  solution,  and  with  strongly  com- 
pressed air,  by  means  of  which  the  liquid  is  projected.  In  the  large  engine  the  receptacle 


Fio.  3. — Lindgren-Mahan  chemical  fire-engine. 

used  is  a  steel  cylinder,  into  which  air  is  forced  at  a  pressure  of  100  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
are  provided  for  re-establishing  the  pressure  and  for  filling  the  cylinder. 


Pumps 


Fio.  4.— Portable 
fire-extinguisher. 


FIG.  5.— Stationary  fire-extinguisher. 


Fig.  5  represents  the  stationary  form  of  engine  of  this  type.  The  fluid  is  forced  through 
the  pipe-system  by  the  air-pressure,  so  that  there  is  always  a  steady  pressure  on  the  hose-valves. 
By  opening  these,  streams  of  fire-destroying  fluid  may  at  once  be  obtained. 

ENGINES,  FIRE,  STEAM.  The  Clapp  &  Jones  Steam  Fire-Engine,  manufactured  by 
the  Clapp  &  Jones  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  This 
is  a  piston-engine  presenting  many  points  of  novelty  and  interest.  Sectional  views  of  the 
boiler  are  given  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  Fig.  1  being  a  vertical  section  through  the  center. 

Fig.  2  is  a  sectional  cut  on  a  horizontal  line,  one  half  being  through  the  steam-chambers ; 
the  other  half  is  through  the  fire-box,  just  below  the  lower  tube-sheet. 

Like  letters  on  both  cuts  refer  to  the  same  parts:  a  a  is  the  outside  shell,  which  extends 
the  whole  length  of  the  boiler ;  b  b  is  the  fire-box  sheet,  which  is  less  in  length,  it  going  only 
to  the  lower  tube-sheet ;  c  is  the  lower  tube-sheet,  showing  all  the  tube-holes ;  the  heavy- 
line  circles  show  which  are  used  for  the  coil-tubes  in  the  fire-box ;  the  others  are  for  the 
smoke-tubes  ;  d  is  the  upper  tube-sheet,  which  has  holes  only  for  the  smoke-tubes  ;  e  e  e  are 
the  smoke  or  draft  tubes,  which  also  answer  another  very  important  purpose — that  of  dry- 
ing and  superheating  the  steam.  These  are  usually  made  of  copper  or  iron.  F FF  are  the 
sectional  coil- tubes,  the  main  feature  of  this  boiler.  They  are  in  the  form  of  a  spiral  coil,  the 
spiral  bend  being  enough  to  leave  room  for  five  others  of  the  same  size  between,  so  that  there 
are  six  of  these  coils  in  each  circular  row.  The  number  of  rows  is  determined  by  the  size  of 
the  boiler  and  the  amount  of  steam  required.  G  G  is  the  ornamental  dome ;  g  g  is  the  smoke- 


ENGINES,   FIRE,   STEAM. 


261 


bonnet  and  pipes  for  concentrating  the  hot  escaping  products  of  combustion  for  the  purpose 
of  making  a  draft  of  air  through  the  fuel.  At  H  are  the  grate-bars,  1  the  flue-door,  and  JJ 
is  the  water-line. 

The  arrows  marked  K  show  the  direction  of  the  circulation  when  working  with  the  fire  in 

the  fire-box ;  those  marked  L  show  the  direc- 
tion of  it  when  on  the  heater,  which  is  direct- 
ly opposite.  The  outside  pipe  connected  at 
about  the  water-line  is  the  outlet  from  the 
heater,  and  the  inlet  to  the  boiler,  which  car- 
ries the  heated  water  over  the  crown-sheet, 
where,  as  it  gets  cooler,  it  enters  the  coils  and 
then  the  leg,  and  from  there  to  the  pipe  near 
the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  The  pipe  leads  to 
the  heater,  so  that  the  water  is  kept  moving 
just  in  proportion  to  the  heat  given  it.  Any 
kind  of  a  heater  can  be  used  with  the  same 
result.  M  shows  the  pipe  and  valve  that 
brings  the  hot  water  from  the  heater.  fl  is 
the  pipe  and  valve  that  leads  from  the  boiler 
to  the  heater.  The  valve  in  M  is  a  stop  and 
check  combined.  The  pipe  in  N  has  a  trip- 
valve  that  is  worked  by  hand  or  made  auto- 
matic, as  desired. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  3  one  form  of  Clapp 
&  Jones  engine,  known  as  a  village  engine,  or 


FIG.  1.— Steam  fire-engine  boiler. 


FIG.  2.— Boiler  section. 


No.  5.     It  is  made  direct-acting,  without  crank  or  fly- wheels,  and  is  claimed  to  be  the  lightest 
double  engine  made.     Its  weight  is  but  4,000  lbs.,"and  capacity  400  gallons  per  min.     The 

dimensions  are  as  fol- 
lows :  Steam-cylinders,  7 
in  X  7  in.  stroke ;  pumps, 
4$  in.  X  7  in.  stroke ; 
number  of  streams,  from 
1  to  3 ;  length,  10  ft.  4 
in.,  including  horse-pole, 
21  ft. — with  hand-pole, 
16  ft.  4  in. ;  height,  8  ft. 
•H  in-  ;  extreme  width 
with  hand-pole,  5  ft.  7 
in. — with  horse-pole,  6  ft. 
6  in.  This  engine  will 
throw  a  l^-in.  stream 
from  230  to  260  ft. 

The  pumps  in  these 
engines  are  of  copper  and 
tin,  to  avoid  corrosion, 
and  have  a  frictioniess 
metal  plunger,  requiring 
no  packing  and  rubber 
valves.  From  a  number 
of  reports  of  tests  sub- 
mitted by  the  manufact- 
FIG.  3.— Fire-engine.  urers,  the  following  are 


262 


ENGINES,   FIRE,   STEAM. 


selected.     Trial  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  Nov.  15, 1889,  of  a  second-class  double-working  engine 
at  the  river-front  in  the  United  States  Navy- Yard : 


Test. 

Line  of  hose  laid. 

Nozzles. 

Steam. 

Water. 

DUtance. 

1  

Two  50-ft.  sections  2}-in.  hose,  Siamese  into  25  ft. 
3-in  hose    

1}  in. 

165 

105 

262 

2 

Same  line                            

U  in. 

100 

160 

283  ft  3  in 

3 

H  in. 

1-iO 

135 

236  ft  9  in 

4 

u           u 

2  in 

180 

110 

218  ft  8  in 

5  

Two  50  ft  sections  2^-in  hose,  Siamese  into  50  ft. 

2j-in  hose                                 

If  in. 

155 

215 

256  ft  7  in 

o 

Two  lines  100  ft    each  2£-in  hose        

Two  1£  in 

170 

150 

256 

Three  lines  100  ft    each  2}-in  hose  

j  One  H  in. 

1C.} 

115 

215  ft  4  in 

8  

Three  50-ft.   sections  2.!-in.  hose,  Siamese  into 
25  ft  3-in  hose 

/  Two  1  in. 
H  in 

1GO 

155 

Vertical    136 

9 

Same  line                            

IJin. 

170 

120 

235  ft  3  in 

13 

2  in. 

165 

100 

218 

14 

41                 U 

H  in 

160 

155 

288  ft  8  in 

10... 

500  ft  2£-in  hose 

Hin. 

135 

230 

218 

11 

500  ft  2Hn  hose                                    

li  in. 

150 

255 

231 

12  

Three  50-ft.  sections  2£-in.  hose,  Siamese   into 
25  ft  3-in  hose 

1|  in 

170 

175 

224  ft  10  in 

FIG.  4. 


The  needle  on  steam-gauge  moved  in  2±  min.  after  lighting  fire :  5  Ibs.  steam  in  3£  min. ; 
10  Ibs.  steam  in  4  min. ;  15  Ibs.  steam  in  4£  min. ;  25  Ibs.  steam  in  5  min. ;  30  Ibs.  steam  in  6 
min.,  when  engine  started,  taking  suction  from  river.  The  following  is  of  interest  as  showing 
the  performance  of  the  engine  under  conditions  of  actual  use.  The  occasion  was  a  large  fire 
in  a  saw-mill  at  Portland,  Oregon.  The  engineer  in  charge  of  the  machine  reports :  "  We 
were  called  in  service  on  Friday  morning,  July  25,  1890,  at  11  o'clock,  and  the  engine  was  run 
steady,  with  three  streams  attached,  the  steam  registering  100  to  110  Ibs..  and  the  water- 
pressure  from  90  to  100  Ibs.,  until  Saturday,  Aug.  2,  1890,  at  10  o'clock  A.  M.,  thus  making  a 

total  of  191  hours,  or  1  hour  less  than  8  days. 
This  was  not  all :  the  water  was  forced  up  an 
inclined  bank  through  2,400  ft.  of  hose,  two 
lines  of  750  ft.,  and  one  line  of  900  ft.,  and  the 
nozzle-tips  were  as  follows  :  1  of  If  in. ;  1  of  1± 
in. ;  and  1  of  1  in.  The  average  revolutions 
were  270  per  min.  The  engine  worked  smooth- 
ly and  regularly." 

The  La  France  Steam  Fire-Engine,  made 
by  the  La  France  Fire-Engine  Co.,  of  Elmira, 
N.  Y.,  is  represented  in  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8. 
This  is  a  piston-engine  of  novel  and  improved 
construction ;  the  boiler  being  a  special  feature 
of  importance.  Fig.  4  is  a  vertical  section  of 
the  entire  apparatus.  Fig.  5  is  a  sectional 
view  of  a  cluster  or  "nest"  of  water-tubes, 
comprising  9  1^-in.  tubes,  connected  by  right 
and  left  threads  to  malleable-iron  "headers." 
Fig.  6  is  a  view  of  the  water  "  header  "  at  top 
of  Fig.  5,  which  screws  into  the  crown-sheet. 
Fig.  7  is  a  view  of  the  "  water-ring  "  at  bottom 
of  Fig.  5,  which  connects  with  leg  of  boiler. 
The  crown-sheet  L  is  placed  below  the  top  of 


FIG.  4-7.  —La  France  fire-engine — details. 


FIG.  8. — La  France  steam  fire-engine. 


the  fire-box  sheet,  as  shown  at  Z>.  The  "  water-nests  "  are  suspended  in  the  fire-box,  as  at  K. 
The  top  "header"  J  is  screwed  through  the  crown-sheet,  and  so  arranged  that  the  lateral  dis- 
charge-openings are  3  in.  above  the  crown-sheet,  as  shown  at  M.  The  bottom  "  water-rings  " 
are  each  connected  with  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  by  means  of  nipples  and  elbows,  as  shown  at 


ENGINES,   FIRE,   STEAM.  263 

F.  By  this  arrangement  a  great  extent  of  water-surface  is  exposed  to  the  heat  without  ob- 
structing the  smoke-flues  or  weakening  the  crown-sheet  with  numerous  openings.  The  smoke- 
flues  A  are  arranged  to  encircle  the  "nest-headers,"  making  a  direct  draft  for  the  flame 
through  the  «*  nest."  They  pass  directly  through  the  boiler  to  the  stack  above,  passing  near 
the  top  of  the  boiler  through  the  diaphragm-sheet  A.  The  openings  in  this  sheet  are  slightly 
larger  than  the  smoke-flues,  leaving  an  annular  space  through  which  the  steam  passes  to  the 
space  above,  that  serves  as  a  steam-drain,  whence  the  steam-pipe  carries  it  to  the  engine.  This 
causes  the  steam  to  pass  in  films  in  contact  with  the  hot  flues,  at  once  superheating  the  steam 
and  keeping  the  tops  of  the  flues  in  the  moisture,  preventing  burning  and  leaking.  Above 
the  crown-sheet  a  ring  7,  of  L-shaped  cross-section,  is  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
boiler-shell,  forming  a  receptacle  B  for  mud  and  other  impurities  in  the  water,  which  are  car- 
ried upward  by  the  natural  circulation  of  the  water.  Mud-plugs  are  provided  for  cleaning 
and  washing  the  space  B. 

The  circulation,  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  is  down  the  "  leg  "  E,  and  up  through  the  "  nests  " 
K,  discharging  steam  and  water  laterally  from  the  openings  over  the  crown-sheet  L.  By  this 
means  the  crown-sheet  is  always  protected  by  a  pan  of  water  formed  by  the  extended  edges 
of  the  fire-box  sheet  D,  and  can  not  be  injured,  whether  the  water-line  is  carried  above  or 
below  the  sheet,  so  long  as  enough  water  remains  in  the  **  leg  "  E  to  supply  the  "  nests." 

The  following  are  the  results  of  a  series  of  official  tests  (competitive)  of  a  second-class  La 
France  engine,  made  by  the  Philadelphia  Fire  Department  in  April,  1886 :  Height  of  engine 
over  all,  9  ft.  6  in. ;  length  over  all,  24  ft.  6  in. ;  width  over  all,  6  ft. ;  weight  without  supplies, 
about  6,700  Ibs.  Running  1$  hours  with  50  ft.  of  hose,  1^-in.  nozzle,  average  steam-pressure, 
109f  Ibs.,  average  water-pressure,  175^  Ibs. ;  running  30  min.  with  400  ft.  of  hose,  l±-in. 
nozzle,  average  steam-pressure,  124&  Ibs.,  average  water-pressure,  260  Ibs. ;  running  25  min. 
with  400  ft.  of  hose,  1^-in.  nozzle,  average  steam-pressure,  125  Ibs.,  average  water-pressure, 
275  Ibs. :  total  running  time,  2  hours  25  min.  Consumption  of  coal,  1,446  Ibs.,  an  average  of 
598if  Ibs.  per  hour. 

The  following  shows  the  steam-making  and  water-throwing  capacity  of  an  engine  of  this 
type,  as  determined  hy  experiments  at  Chester,  Pa.,  in  1887: 

Steam-pressure  after  1  min 2|  Ibs. 

"    4     •'   38     " 

"    6i   "   120     « 

Horizontal  distance  of  stream  thrown  with  l£-in.  nozzle  and  100  ft.  of  hose  on  each  coup- 
ling, 265  ft. ;  with  IJ-in.  nozzle,  same  amount  of  hose,  308  ft. ;  with  l|-in.  nozzle,  312  ft. ;  with 
1^-in.  nozzle  and  two  separate  streams,  through  500  ft.  of  hose  each,  235  ft. 

The  Button  Steam  Fire-Engine,  represented  in  Fig.  9,  has  an  upright  tubular  boiler  with 
copper  flues,  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  be  always  covered  with  water  at  whatever  inclina- 
tion the  engine  is  worked.  Plunger- 
pumps  are  employed,  which  are  cast 
in  a  single  piece  without  packed  parti- 
tions. All  the  movable  parts  of  the 
engine  are  reciprocating.  The  manu- 
facturers claim  that  a  double-pump  en- 
gine having  pumps  6  in.  diameter  by  4^ 
in.  stroke  throws  precisely  the  same 
quantity  at  each  revolution  as  an  ordi- 
nary double-pump  engine  with  pumps 
4|  in.  diameter  by  8-in.  stroke.  "  The 
travel  of  the  pistons  in  such  an  engine 
is  32  in.,  while  in  the  Bulton  it  is  but 
18  in.,  and  the  sq.  in.  of  frictional  sur- 
face are  1,218,  as  against  819  in.  to  do 
precisely  the  same  work."  These  ar- 
rangements, it  is  claimed,  produce  a 

double-plunger  engine,  which  operates  FIG.  9.— Button  steam  fire-engine, 

with  minimum  friction,  while  it  dis- 
charges a  continuous  stream  like  a  fountain  or  hydrant,  and  has  no  dead  center  or  point  at 
which  the  steam  will  not  start  it. 

The  following  shows  the  results  of  a  recent  test  of  the  third-size  Bulton  engine  at  Akron, 
Ohio :  Weight  of  machine,  5.800  Ibs. ;  steam- pressure,  after  2£  min.,  starting  with  cold  water, 
5  ibs. ;  after  6  min.,  40  Ibs.  With  a  steam-pressure  of  130  Ibs.,  and  a  water-pressure  of  228  Ibs., 
water  was  lifted  13^  ft.  With  a  l^-m-  nozzle  water  was  thrown  horizontally  292  ft. 

The  Ahrens  Steam  Fire-Engine,  manufactured  by  the  Ahrens  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  10.  The  principal  feature  of  this  engine  is  its  boiler, 
which  is  represented  in  the  sectional  views.  Figs.  11,  12,  13.  This  has  a  steam  and  water- 
space,  which  forms  the  fire-box,  and  inside  of  which  is  fastened  a  coil,  through  which  the 
water  is  forced — a  circulating  pump  being  especially  provided  for  this  purpose.  The  water 
enters  the  coil  at  D,  and  is  converted  into  steam  while  traversing  the  pipes  F  F.  and  finally 
the  mingled  steam  and  water  passes  back  to  the  boiler  at  A.  The  coil  is  supported  by  the 
slats  B.  By  removing  the  bolts  out  of  slats  B  B,  breaking  joints  top  and  bottom,  any  or  all 
sections  of  coil  can  be  removed,  should  any  repairs  be  necessary,  and  any  or  all  may  be  re- 


264 


ENGINES,   FIRE,   STEAM. 


placed  in  a  few  hours.  The  water,  in  entering  at  D,  is  separated  into  two  parts,  and  then 
into  four  parts,  by  a  patent  device  inserted  in  the  dividers  at  the  bottom,  so  that  each  section 
gets  its  equal  amount  of  water  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  feet  of  pipe  in  the  section.  At 


.Z/'are  the  grate-bars,  and  at  JFthe  water-line.  The  makers  claim  that  from  31  to  40  gallons 
of  water  can  be  carried  without  interfering  with  the  generation  of  steam,  that  steam  can 
be  generated  as  readily  with  38  gallons  of  water  as  with  30  gallons,  and  that  in  sufficient 
quantity  for  the  engine  to  throw  water  from  a  nozzle  in  4  min.  from  the  time  of  lighting 
the  fire. 

The  Amoskeag  Steam  Fire-Engine  has  an  upright  tubular  boiler  and  a  double-acting  and 
vertical  piston-pump.  The  following  results  of  tests  of  a  first-size  engine  of  this  type  are 
given  by  the  manufacturers,  as  determined  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  August,  1885  :  Height  of 
engine  over  all,  9  ft.  1  in. ;  length  over  all,  24  ft.  2  in. ;  width  over  all,  6  ft. ;  weight  without 
supplies,  about  8,000  Ibs. ;  capacity,  900  gallons  per  min.  Horizontal  streams  were  thrown 
through  smooth-bore  nozzles  as  follows :  1^-in.  nozzle,  334  ft. ;  1-J-in.  nozzle,  334  ft. ;  lf-in. 
nozzle,  329  ft. ;  lf-in.  nozzle,  316  ft. ;  two  streams,  H-in.  nozzles,  296  ft. 

The  Silsby  Steam  Fire-Engine  (Fig.  14). — It  is  claimed  for  this  engine  that  there  is  an 


ENGINES,   FIRE,   STEAM. 


265 


entire  absence  of  valves,  connecting-rods,  eccentrics,  cross-heads,  cranks,  balance-wheels, 
packing-plates,  and  other  complicated  parts,  and  that  the  machine  stands  still  while  running 
even  at  its  greatest  speed.  The  motion  of  the 

Eump  being  equable,  continuous,  and  rotary,  no 
lows  are  given  to  the  water,  which  enters  and 
leaves  in  one  steady  flow,  and  there  is  no  irregu- 
lar motion  to  the  stream. 

The  boiler  is  vertical  and  cylindrical;  from 
the  crown-sheet  depend  water-tubes  having  in 
them  concentric  circulation-tubes,  causing  in  each 
tube  a  strong  central  downward  current  of  water, 
which,  mostly  converted  into  steam,  ascends  in  a 
thin  film  in  the  annular  space  between  the  outer 
tube  and  the  inner  or  circulation  tube.  These 
drop-tubes  are  ranged  in  concentric  circles,  those 
in  the  outside  rows  being  longer  than  the  others, 
thus  better  utilizing  the  space  in  the  combustion- 
chamber.  The  gases  of  combustion  pass  from  the 
combustion-chamber  or  furnace  through  vertical 
smoke-flues  set  concentrically,  a  conical  smoke- 
chamber,  properly  jacketed,  connecting  with  the 
stack  ;  and  the  draft  being  regulated  by  a  varia- 
ble exhaust-nozzle,  from  which  the  rapid  succes- 
sion of  discharges  makes,  in  effect,  a  steady  blast, 
which  does  not  "  pull  fire,"  and  thus  endanger 
neighboring  property.  This  variable  exhaust- 
nozzle  has  several  outlets,  each  controlled  by  a 
conical  plug,  all  of  which  are  regulated  at  once 
by  a  suitable  lever. 

The  shell  and  fire-box  are  of  tough  steel,  hav- 
ing a  tensile  strength  of  60,000  Ibs.  to  the  sq.  in. 
The  water-tubes  are  inclined  outward  at  the  bot- 
tom, so  as  to  assist  the  draft  and  to  present  the 
tube  -  heating  surface  to  the  best  advantage. 
They  are  screwed  into  the  crown-sheet,  and  the 
circulation-tubes  have  at  their  lower  ends  trian- 
gular casements,  to  prevent  the  lifting  of  the 
water  by  the  rapid  circulation.  The  steam  made 
in  the  outer  annular  passages  in  the  drop-tubes 
and  elsewhere  is  dried  and  further  heated  by  the 
smoke-flues  passing  through  the  steam-chamber. 
The  steam  is  taken  from  a  circular  perforated 
dry  pipe  running  around  the  steam-space  of  the 
boiler.  The  water-level  is  carried  about  one  third  way  up  in  the  steam-chamber. 

It  is  claimed  that  this  boiler  will  raise  steam  from  cold  water  in  four  to  six  minutes,  will 
burn  coal  or  wood,  will  not  foam  nor  prime,  and  will  use  salt  water  if  necessary. 


FIG.  11. 


FIG.  18.  FIG.  13. 

FIGS.  11-13. — Ahrens  fire-engine — sectional  details. 

The  engine  contains  two  rotating  pistons  or  cams,  both  alike,  and  each  of  which  is  in 
effect  a  gear-wheel  having  eight  short  teeth  arranged  in  pairs,  with  one  long  tooth  and  one 
deep  space  between  each  two"  pairs  of  short  teeth.  The  short  teeth  are  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
suring that  the  two  cams  rotate  exactly  together.  The  long  teeth  are  in  effect  abutments  for 


266 


ENGINES,   FIRE,   STEAM. 


the  steam,  forming  as  they  do  steam-tight  joints  with  the  walls  of  the  case  in  which  they 
rotate,  and  with  the  deep  spaces  in  which  they  engage.    The  steam,  entering  at  the  bottom  of 


*  IG.  14.— Silsby  steam  fire-engine. 

the  case,  tends  to  press  the  abutments  apart,  and  thus  cause  rotation  of  the  pistons  in  oppo- 
site directions. 

The  construction  of  the  pump  is  upon  the  same  general  principle  as  that  of  the  engine, 
only  there  are  three  long  teeth  to  each  cam,  and  fewer  short  or  guide-teeth.  The  water  enters 
at  the  bottom  of  the  case  by  the  suction-opening,  and  is  discharged  at  the  top  by  the  outlet. 
Th3  revolution  of  the  pump-pistons  in  opposite  directions  causes  a  vacuum  in  the  case,  and 
the  water  rushes  up  to  fill  it,  and  is  then  caught  by  the  long  teeth  or  abutments  and  swept 
out  of  the  case. 

The  main  pump,  if  the  engine  is  to  be  used  in  connection  with  water-works,  has  a  churn- 
valve  by  which  the  stream  may  be  led  from  a  hydrant  through  the  suction-hose  into  the  dis- 
charge-hose, without  revolving  the  pump  or  any  portion  of  the  machinery. 

The  following  is  a  record  of  trials  at  Cedarville,  Ohio,  of  a 

No.  5  Silsby  Engine,  March,  31,  1888. 
Test  No.  1— engine  started  in  6  min. 


Test. 

Number  of 
ftrearns. 

Hose,  feet,  each  line. 

Nozzles,  inches. 

Horizontal  distance. 

2 

-[ 

100 

11 

272  ft 

3  

1 

100 

:jf 

283  ft 

4                       

1 

50  siamesed 

L 

295  ft 

5 

2 

100 

i3 

215  ft 

6  

3 

100 

i 

1^7  ft 

7 

1 

800 

i 

200  ft 

8* 

1 

800 

i 

167  ft 

FIRE-BOATS. — The  latest  type  of  floating  steam  fire-engine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  15.  This 
is  the  boat  New-Yorker,  built  for  and  in  use  by  the  Fire  Department,  and  serving  to  protect 
vessels  at  the  city  piers  and  property  on  the  water-front. 

The  boat  and  machinery  are  built  of  iron  and  steel  throughout,  under  full  specifications 
furnished  by  the  department.  The  length  over  all  is  125  ft.  5  in. ;  on  load  water-line,  115 
ft.  The  beam  molded  is  26  ft. ;  on  load  water-line,  25  ft.  2  in.  The  depth  molded  is  14  ft. 
6  in.,  and  the  extreme  draft  is  10  ft.  The  displacement  is  351  tons.  At  the  load  water-line 
the  displacement  is  52  tons  to  the  inch. 

The  boilers,  two  in  number,  are  of  the  "  Scotch  "  type,  cylindrical,  with  corrugated  fur- 
naces. They  are  built  for  a  working-pressure  of  148  Ibs.  Each  is  12  ft.  diameter  and  15  ft. 
long,  with  204  tubes  of  3£  in.  outside  diameter.  The  outside  sheets  are  j-f  in.  thick,  and  other 
portions  of  reduced  thickness.  Artificial  draft  is  provided,  and  the  boilers  can  be  worked 
together  or  independently. 

The  propelling-engine  is  of  the  triple-expansion  direct  inverted  type,  24  in.  stroke,  with 
15,  24,  and  39  in.  cylinders.  The  high-pressure  cylinder  has  a  piston-valve,  the  others  have 
slide-valves.  It  can  work  up  to  135  revolutions  per  min.,  with  135  to  150  Ibs.  boiler-pressure. 
The  propellers  are  two  in  number.  The  fixed  or  forward  screw  is  7  ft,  9  in.  diameter  by  12  ft. 


*  In  test  No.  8  water  was  drafted  27  ft.  and  forced  up  an  elevation. 


ENGINES,  FIRE,  STEAM. 


26? 


pitch.  Back  of  this  comes  the  "  Kunstadter  "  swiveling-screw  and  gear.  This  is  connected  by  a 
universal  joint  to  the  shaft,  which  joint  comes  in  line  with  the  axis  of  rotation  of  the  rudder. 
Thus  the  screw  is  swung  to  right  or  left  with  the  rudder,  and  aids  in  manoeuvring  the  boat. 
It  has  been  found  highly  efficient.  One  independent  air-pump  and  a  circulating  pump  for 


Fici.  15. — Fire-boat  New-YorKer. 

the  condenser  are  provided.  The  condenser  is  of  the  tubular  pattern,  with  about  2,000  sq.  ft. 
of  condensing  surface.  Steam-steering  gear  and  engine  are  provided  in  addition  to  the 
regular  hand-steering  apparatus.  For  signaling,  a  steam-chime  whistle  and  a  steam  calliope 
are  provided. 

The  pumping-machinery  is  of  great  power.  It  comprises  two  duplex  vertical  direct-acting 
pumps.  Each  has  two  steam  and  two  water  cylinders.  The  steam-cylinders  are  16  in. 
diameter  by  11  in.  stroke.  The  water-cylinders  of  the  same  stroke  are  of  10  in.  diameter. 
The  working  pressure  allowed  for  the  water-cylinder  is  200  Ibs.  to  the  sq.  in.  The  pumps 
draw  water  in  through  two  16-in.  suction-openings  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  to  which 
suction-pipes  are  connected.  The  discharge  is  delivered  through  9^-in.  connections  into  a  12- 
in.  main,  that  runs  around  the  trunk  or  deck-house,  and  which  is  provided  with  numerous 
connections  for  hose-couplings.  Several  12-in.  valves  are  placed  in  the  circuit,  so  as  to  shut 
off  any  desired  portion.  The  line  is  provided  with  a  number  of  3£  and  6  in.  hose-couplings. 
Four  7-in.  hand-pipes  are  also  carried  upward,  two  to  the  roof  of  the  pilot-house  and  two  aft 
through  the  trunk.  These  are  surmounted  by  swivel-nozzles,  adapted  for  throwing  5^-in. 
streams  if  desired.  A  fifth  swivel-nozzle  is  mounted  on  the  bitts  forward,  and  is  joined  by 
hose  with  one  of  the  large  connections.  Altogether  32  discharges  are  provided  for.  The 
hand-pipes  are  manipulated  from  behind  traveling-screens,  made  of  double  sheet-steel  with 
1-in.  air-space,  perforated  for  hose-pipes,  and  with  peep-holes.  These  can  be  moved  fore  and 
aft  to  any  desired  point  along  the  rail,  and  protect  the  firemen.  There  are  three  of  these  on 
each  side.  They  are  carried  on  rollers,  which  work  upon  the  rail  and  upon  the  plank-sheer 
with  guides.  Any  screen  can  be  lifted  off  its  bearings  and  carried  to  the  other  side  of  the 
deck.  Movable  fire-screens  are  provided  for  windows,  which  screens  are  kept  stored  away 
when  not  in  use.  Those  for  the  pilot-house  windows  have  peep-holes.  As  an  additional  pro- 
tection four  spray-pipes  are  carried  up  along  the  front  of  the  pilot-house  and  elsewhere,  with 
cap  and  hose  connection  at  the  top.  The  object  of  these  is  to  distribute  water  in  a  spray  or 
rain-like  form  over  the  deck  of  the  boat.  In  this  way  the  hose  is  protected  in  situations  where 
the  heat  is  great.  Upon  the  trunk-deck  are  two  swiveling  hose-reels,  on  which  the  hose  is 
kept.  Of  this  there  are  3,000  ft,  ranging  in  size  from  2-£  in.  to  6  in.  diameter.  A  great 
variety  of  nozzles  or  discharge-pipes  are  provided,  of  about  every  size,  from  2i  in,  up  to  5£ 
in.  diameter.  The  capacity  of  discharge  is  put  at  10,000  gallons  per  min.,  with  the  pumps 
making  200  revolutions. 

The  hull  was  built  by  Jonson  &  Ellison,  of  this  city;  the  engines  by  Brown  &  Miller,  of 
Jersey  City,  X.  J. ;  the  boilers  by  McXeil  &  McLoughlin,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  One  set  of 
pumps  was  built  by  the  La  France  Fire-Engine  Co..  of  Elmira,  N.  Y. ;  the  other  by  the 
Clapp  &  Jones  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Hudson,  X.  Y.  The  total  cost  is  put  at  $100.000. 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  test  made  on  the  fire-boat  Geyser,  built  for  the 
city  of  Chicago  by  the  Clapp  &  Jones  Manufacturing  Co.  The  figures  in  brackets  indicate 
whether  one  or  both  pumps  were  worked,  and  [s]  starboard  pump,  [p]  port-pump : 


Steam1 
pressure. 

Water 

pressure. 

Stream 
thrown. 

Steam 

pressure. 

Water 
pressure. 

Stream 
thrown. 

One  4-in.  [2]  

GML 

85 

LtM. 

80 

Ft. 
396 

One  3-in.     \  roi 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ft. 

J260 

One  ?i  in.  [2j  

82 

120 

4-31 

Three  2-in  f  "•  -1  

90 

"(255 

Two  2-in   [s] 

86 

150 

340 

One  3-in       1  rn1 

1297 

Three  2-in.  [s]  
Four  2-in.  [s]  

95 
100 

95 
80 

287 
249 

Two  2-in.     I  L  J  
Two  3-in.  [2]  

90 
90 

90 
75 

'1285 
279 

Two  2-in   [p]  

95 

140 

340 

One  3-in   [2]        .... 

95 

130 

325 

Three  2-in   [p] 

95 

90 

283 

Two  Sf-in   [2] 

90 

85 

260 

Four  2-in.  [pj  

95 

55 

221 

One  2J-in.  [2]  

85 

120 

325 

One  3-in.    (  r21 

75 

59 

\234 

Fourteen  li  in.  [2]  

85 

65 

204 

Four  2-in.  \  l  - 

i  220 

268 


ENGINES,   GAS  AND   OIL. 


The  last  performance,  throwing  14  streams  simultaneously  204  ft.,  was  considered  little 
short  of  marvelous. 

ENGINES,  GAS  AND  OIL.     Gas-engines  are  now  commonly  used  with  a  producer  gas, 
made  on  a  continuous  process  by  air  and  steam  being  passed  through  incandescent  coal.   From 

the  generator  it  is  taken  to  the  scrubber  for  the 
purpose  of  cleaning  and  cooling,  and  it  is  thence 
allowed  to  enter  a  small  holder.  From  this  the 


as-engine  draws  its  supply,  and  in  case  the  pro- 
uction  of  gas  exceeds  the  consumption,  the  holdor 


FIG.  1.— OLto  gas-engine. 


filling  and  moving  to  its  upper  position  will  strike 
a  stop,  by  which  supply  of  steam  and  air  is  cut  off 
from  the  generator,  and  the  making  of  gas  sus- 
pended until  the  drop  of  the  holder  causes  it  to  be 
resumed  again.  In  a  test  made  by  Prof.  K.  Teich- 
mann,  of  Stuttgart,  of  a  twin-cylinder  Otto  engin3 
worked  with  producer  gas,  the  engine  developed  a 
brake-power  of  about  52  horse-power,  and  the 
total  fuel  consumption,  including  that  used  for 
the  superheating  boiler,  was  1-6  Ib.  per  brake,  or 
barely  1-3  Ib.  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour. 
A  still  better  result  is  reported  in  English  tests— in  Robinson's  "  Gas  and  Petroleum  En- 
gines "—which  says  that  tests  with  an  Otto  engine,  using  Dowson  gas,  and  indicating  about  32 
horse-power,  have  shown  that  the  total  fuel  consumption,  including  that 
used  for  the  production  of  superheated  steam  in  the  gas  producer  and 
for  getting  up  fires  at  starting  of  the  Dowson  generator,  was  1-2  Ib.  per 
indicated  horse-power  per  hour.  With  a  large  twin-engine  of  100  horse- 
power only  1-1  Ib.  of  coal  was  required.  The  Otto  gas-engine  is  fully 
described  on  p.  632,  vol.  i,  of  this  work.  It  is  represented  in  its  most 
recent  forms— horizontal  and  vertical — in  Figs.  1  and  2. 

The  Rollason  Gas-Engine,  made  by  the  Electric  Manufacturing  and 
Gas-Engine  Co.,  Greenbush,  N.  Y.,  is  of  the  three-cycle  type— i.  e.,  the 
crank-shaft  makes  three  revolutions  for  each  explosion  of  gas,  and  the 
governor  acts  to  regulate  the  amount  of  gas  supplied  for  each  explosion-, 
from  the  maximum  down  to  a  point  at  which  it  can  no  longer  be  used 
economically,  when  the  supply  is  cut  off  entirely,  and  no  explosion  takes 
place  until  a  sufficient  diminution  of  speed  occurs. 

The  operation  of  the  engine  is  as  follows :  Supposing  an  explosion  to 
have  just  taken  place,  the  piston,  under  the  impetus  given,  makes  a  for-  - 

ward  stroke ;  the  exhaust- valve  is  then  opened  and  the  piston  returns,         ' IG-  engine°  g&S 
expelling  the  larger  portion  of  the  products  of  combustion.  *  During 
the  next  forward  stroke  a  scavenger  charge  of  air  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder,  and  on  return 
stroke  is  forced  out  through  the  exhaust,  thus  entirely  clearing  the  cylinder  and  explosion- 
chamber.     On  the  fifth  stroke  a  combustible  charge  of  gas  and  air  is  drawn  in,  compressed 
ready  for  ignition  by  the  sixth  or  return  stroke ;  thus  the  cycle  is  completed.     At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  seventh  stroke  an  explosion  again  takes  place,  and  so  on.    The  construction 
of  this  engine  is  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4.    The  connecting-rod  is  pivoted  directly  to  the  piston, 

which  has  a  guiding  trunk.  The  cylinder  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  water  jacket,  which  extends  around 
the  combustion-chamber  up  to  the  rear  valve-face. 
The  chamber  itself  is  isolated  from  the  influence 
of  the  jacket  by  an  annular  space,  which  is  filled 
with  a  non-conductor.  A  side-shaft,  revolving  at 
one  third  the  rate  of  the  crank-shaft,  works  the 
slide-valve  at  the  back  of  the  cylinder  by  means 
of  a  connecting-rod  and  a  rocking-beam.  The 
slide-valve  is  shown  in  the  horizontal  section  of 
the  cylinder  (Fig.  3),  and  is  formed  with  ports 
through  which  the  supply  of  air  and  gas  is  ad- 
mitted. The  gas-valve  is  raised  at  the  proper  in- 
stant by  a  cam,  which  is  shaped  to  proportion  the 
influx  of  gas  to  the  speed  of  the  piston.  The 
amount  of  gas  admitted  is  regulated  by  the  gov- 
ernor, which  is  driven  by  the  side-shaft.  The 
governor  is  connected  by  a  rod  to  the  valve,  and 
as  it  rises  it  throttles  the  supply  of  gas  to  make  it 
correspond  to  the  work  to  be  done.  When  the  dilution  of  the  charge  has  been  carried  as  far 
as  is  economical,  the  gas  is  cut  off  entirely.  A  second  lever  connected  with  the  governor  carries 
a  counter- weight,  and  by  altering  the  position  of  this  weight  the  speed  of  the  engine  can  be 
varied.  This  lever  can  be  readily  put  in  or  out  of  connection  with  the  governor,  its  principal 
object  being  to  enable  the  engine  to  be  slowed  down  when  not  actually  doing  work.  When 
combustible  mixture  is  to  be  admitted  to  the  cylinder,  the  valve-ports  coincide  with  admission, 
gas,  and  air  inlets,  the  gas-valve  is  opened  and  the  charge  flows  in,  following  the  outward 
movement  of  the  piston.  The  first  portion  of  the  combustible  gases  taken  in  flows  down  the 


Fia.  3.  —  .Rollason  gas-engine. 


ENGINES,   GAS   AND   OIL. 


269 


center  of  the  cylinder  until  the  piston  stops,  and  then  it  divides  and  flows  back  along  the 
walls.  This  portion,  which  is  diluted  with  the  air  in  the  combustion-chamber,  is  congregated 
round  the  tiring-port,  while  the  richer  part  of  the  charge  is  situated  next  the  piston.  The 


Fiu.  4.— Kollasou  gas  eiigme. 

weaker  part  is  ignited  first,  and  the  velocity  of  combustion  increases  as  it  approaches  the 
richer  part.  Prof.  A.  B.  W.  Kennedy,  of  London,  made  in  1888  a  test  of  this  engine  under 
varying  conditions,  and  his  report  of  its  performance  is  published  in  Engineering,  May  4th 
and  llth  of  that  year.  The  results  as  to  its  efficiency  are  summed  up  as  follows,  being  the 
average  of  four  experiments : 

Percentage  of  whole  heat  of  combustion  turned  into  work 19  •  6 

Percentage  rejected  in  jacket  water 33 

Percentage  rejected  in  exhaust 43  •  1 

Percentage  rejected  in  blank  charge  and  unaccounted  for 4*3 

HXH) 


the  trials 


mechanical  efficiency  of  the  engine  on  net  indicated  horse-power  during  the  tri 
from  86-1  to  90-8 ;  and  the  consumption  of  gas  per  indicated  horse-power  per  he 


The 
ranged 
20-67  ft.  to  21-68  ft. 

The  Van  Duzen  Gas- 
Engine,  made  by  the  Van 
Duzen  Gas  and  Gasoline 
Engine  Co.,  of  Cincinnati, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The 
cylinder  and  water-jacket 
and  pillow-blocks  are  all 
of  one  casting.  The  base 
is  of  one  casting,  and  sup- 
ports the  cylinder  at  both 
ends.  The  governor  has 
direct  control  over  the 
gas  and  air  valve  and  the 
speed  of  the  engine  under 
all  conditions.  It  oper- 
ates from  the  crank-shaft 
to  the  valve-stems  by  the 
use  of  gear  -  wheels. 
Should  the  main  belt 
break  or  be  thrown  off, 
the  supply  of  gas  or  gas- 
oline and  air  would  in- 
stantly be  reduced  to 
such  quantity  as  would 
be  just  sufficient  to  cause  the  engine  to  continue  to  run  at  the  unvarying  speed. 


FIG.  5. — Van  Duzen  gas-engine. 


The  govern- 


270 


ENGINES,   GAS   AND   OIL. 


or  permits  no  air  to  enter  the  cylinder  except  when  mixed  with  its  proper  portion  of  gas  or 
The  valves  are  direct-acting  poppet-valves.     The  gasoline-engine  is  the  same  as 

the  gas-engine  in  every 
respect,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  carbureter, 
which  is  attached  to 
the  air-pipe,  and  ex- 
tends from  the  cylin- 
der off  to  one  side.  The 
tank  supplying  the  gas- 
oline is  usually  placed 
outside  the  building. 
The  carbureter  is  con- 
nected directly  to,  and 
is  under  the  complete 
control  of,  the  govern- 
or, and  only  makes  the 
gas  as  it  is  called  upon 
by  the  governor,  and 
all  the  gas  is  consumed 
as  it  is  made.  The  en- 
gine is  built  in  sizes  up 
to  30  horse-power. 

The  Van  Duzen 
Portable  Gasoline-En- 
gine, shown  in  Fig.  6, 
is  of  the  upright  or  ver- 


FIG.  6.— Van  Uuzen  portable  gas  engine. 


tical  type,  but  is  similar  in  general  details  to  the  horizontal  engine  above  described.     It  is 
mounted  on  a  light  truck,  and  is  housed-in  to  protect  it  from  the  weather.     The  tank  con- 
taining the  gasoline  is  braced  to  the 
roof.     The  engine  is  chiefly  used  for 
agricultural  purposes. 

The,  Naphtha  -  Engine. — Naphtha- 
engines,  which  utilize  naphtha  both  as 
the  fuel  under  the  boiler  and  as  the 
fluid  to  be  vaporized  in  the  boiler  and 
used  in  the  engine,  have  recently  come 
into  somewhat  extensive  employment 
as  motors  for  light  launches.  The  ad- 
vantages for  this  purpose,  as  compared 
with  a,  steam  boiler  and  engine,  are 
lightness  and  compactness,  and  the 
shortness  of  time  in  which  the  engine 
can  be  started  after  the  fire  is  lighted. 
The  naphtha  launch-engine  made  by 
the  Gas-Engine  and  Power  Co.,  of  New 
York,  is  shown  in  Figs.  7,  8,  9,  and  10. 
Fig.  7  is  a  general  view  of  the  engine 
in  a  launch,  Figs.  8  and  9  are  respect- 
ively longitudinal  and  cross  sections  of 
the  engine,  and  Fig.  10  a  sectional  view 
of  the  boiler  or  retort.  The  frame  is  a 
box-shaped  casting  A,  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  a  trough.  To  the  top  is  bolted 
the  valve-seat  J.2,  and  to  this  again  the 
cover  B.  The  main  shaft  is  coupled  to 
the  propeller-shaft.  The  valve-shaft  D 
is  arranged  above  and  parallel  with  the 
main  shaft,  longitudinally,  of  the  valve- 
chest  B.  There  are  three  single-acting 
cylinders,  open  at  their  lower  ends,  and 
closed  at  their  upper  ends,  the  only 
communication  from  the  valve-chest  to 
the  cylinders  being  through  the  inlet- 
port  e  (Fig.  8).  The  cranks  are  placed 
at  angles  of  120°.  The  valve-shaft  D 
has  three  cranks  for  regulating  the 
throw  of  the  valves,  which  are  set  a  lit- 
tle in  advance  of  the  lower  cranks,  so 
as  to  give  lead  to  the  valves.  A  free 
exhaust  is  thus  secured,  and  the  pistons 

are  cushioned  on  the  return  strokes.     Ball-and-socket  joints  connect  the  pistons  and  rods. 
The  pistons  are  elongated,  having  large  bearing  surfaces. 


FIG.  7.— Naphtha-engine  and  boiler. 


ENGINES,   GAS   AND   OIL. 


271 


B 


The  slide-valves  F  (Fig.  8)  are  each  provided  with  two  parallel  upright  lugs,  forming  a 
guide-jaw,  in  which  is  fitted  a  square  slide-block  bored  through  horizontally  to  receive  the 
corresponding  crank-pin  of  the  valve  shaft  D.  The  in- 
duction opening  of  the  valve  is  marked  /,  which,  when 
above  the  port  e,  admits  the  live  vapor  from  the  valve- 
chest  to  the  cylinder.  Between  the  lips  of  the  valve  is 
the  ordinary  arch  or  channel,  which,  when  in  the  posi- 
tion shown  in  Fig.  8,  establishes  communication  between 
the  port  e  and  the  exhaust  port.  An  automatic  naphtha- 
pump  is  arranged  at  the  rear  end  of  the  trough  A1 
above  the  main  shaft  and  in  line  with  the  row  of  cylin- 
ders. At  opposite  sides  through  the  valve-chest  are 
horizontal  openings,  the  one  for  a  pressure-gauge,  and 
the  other  for  a  safety-valve.  A  vertical  channel  con- 
nects the  safety-valve  chamber  with  the  exhaust-cham- 
ber and  the  condensing  attachment,  so  that,  when  under 
an  excess  of  pressure  the  safety-valve  opens,  the  vapor 
passes  direct  from  the  valve-chest  to  the  condenser  until 
safe  pressure  is  restored.  Motion  is  transmitted  from 
the  main  shaft  to  the  valve-shaft  by  means  of  the  gears 
J  J1  and  Z,  the  intermediate  wheel  Jl  turning  on  a  stud 
secured  to  the  engine-frame. 

The  combustion-chamber  of  the  boiler  or  retort  is 
arranged  upon  the  valve-chest.  The  feed-pipe  from  the 
naphtha-pump  and  naphtha-tank  enter  its  lower  end. 
It  then  runs  upward  coiled,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The 
coiled  pipe  is  connected  at  its  upper  end  by  a  casting 
with  the  pressure-tube  0,  leading  to  the  valve-chest. 
Within  the  tube  O  is  a  tube  P  of  smaller  diameter. 
This  tube  is  connected  with  the  injector  Q.  A  valve  is 
provided  to  regulate  the  flow  of  vapor  from  the  pipe  P. 


FIG.  8. — Naphtha-engine — section. 


The  pipe  Q*  finally  conveys  it  to  the  burner  immediately  over  the  valve-chest,  a  suitable  sup- 
ply of  air  for  combustion 'being  drawn  in-through  the  opening  Ql.  The  burner  itself  is  sim- 
ply an  annular  casting  held  in  place  by  being  arranged  to  surround  O  and  rest  upon  the 
nipple.  The  upper  surface  of  the  burner  is  provided  at  its  circumference  with  a  series  of  out- 
ward holes,  through  which  the  flame  is  thrown  against  the  coils  and  other  parts  of  the  retort 
for  heating  the  naphtha  and  converting  it  into  gas. 

By  this  construction  it  will  be  seen  that  the  naphtha  first  passes  through  the  entire  coil 

N  upward,  thence 
down  into  the  tube  O 
and  through  the  an- 
nular space  between 
this  tube  and  the  in- 
ner tube  P.  Thence 
the  greater  portion  of 
the  gas  enters  through 
the  pipe  0  to  the 
steam  -  chest,  and 
thence  through  the 
cylinders.  At  the  same 
time  a  portion  of  the 
highest  grade  of  the 
gas,  or  that  which  has 
the  least  density,  pass- 
es up,  as  indicated  by 
the  arrow,  into  the 
inner  tube  P,  and 
thence  to  the  injector, 
in  passing  through 
which  latter  it  draws 
air  through  the  vent 
Ql.  and  thus  charged 
with  air  passes  into 
the  burner.  Draft  for 
the  burner  is  provided 


FIG.  9. — Naphtha-engine— section. 


by  side  openings  at  the  lower  end  of  the  combustion-chamber,  and  the  gas  of  combustion 
passes  up  through  the  smoke-stack. 

In  starting  the  engine  the  air- valve  B  is  opened,  and  the  air-pump  E  (Fig.  7)  given  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  strokes  to  force  gas  from  the  tank  through  the  outlet-pipe  to  the  burner, 
where  it  is  ignited  and  heats  the  retort.  The  naphtha-valve  D  also  is  opened,  and  from  five 
to  ten  strokes  given  to  the  naphtha-pump  F.  This  pumps  naphtha  from  the  tank  in  the  bow 
of  the  boat  into  the  retort,  and.  if  the  latter  has  been  sufficiently  heated,  pressure  will  at  once  be 
indicated  on  the  gauge.  The  injector-valve  C,  as  already  explained,  regulates  the  flow  of  gas  to 


272 


ENGINES,   GAS   AND   OIL. 


the  burner,  and  hence  the  speed  and  pressure.     The  consumption  for  a  2-horse-power  engine 
is  given  at  from  three  quarts  to  one  gallon  per  hour,  and  for  a  4-horse-power  engine  at  from 

four  to  six  quarts  per  hour.  The  vapor  consumed  is 
practically  that  which  goes  to  the  burner,  since  that  which 
performs  work  in  the  engine  is  exhausted  into  condens- 
ing-pipes  running  along  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  and  is 
forced  by  the  engine  back  to  the  tank,  being  thus  used 
over  and  over  again.  The  builders  recommend  the  use 
of  76°  deodorized  naphtha.  A  2-horse-power  engine 
weighs  200  Ibs.,  a  4-horse-power.  300  Ibs.,  and  an  8-horse- 
power,  600  Ibs.,  or,  as  the  builders  claim,  less  than  one 
fifth  the  weight  of  other  engines  and  boilers  of  the  same 
power.  It  takes  only  about  two  minutes  to  get  under 
headway. 

Experiments  with  the  Naphtha- Engine. — Recent  ex- 
periments have  been  made  by  the  Gas-Engine  and  Power 
Co.,  the  builders  of  these  engines,  to  test  the  relative 
value  of  hydrocarbon  vapor  and  ordinary  steam  as  an 
evaporating  agent  to  produce  work  from' heat  in  small 
motors,  with  the  following  results :  A  small  ordinary 
steam-engine  was  used,  with  a  friction-brake  on  a  fly- 
wheel to  measure  the  useful  power,  while  indicator-dia- 
grams taken  from  the  cylinder  showed  the  power  devel- 
oped by  the  working  agent.  A  vertical  steam-boiler  was 
heated  by  a  large  gas-burner,  so  that  the  exact  quantity 
of  heat  could  be  obtained  and  regulated  by  the  gas-me- 
ter record.  In  one  case  steam  was  taken  from  the  boiler 
to  the  working  cylinder  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  ex- 
haust steam  from  the  cylinder  was  condensed  in  a  coil  of 
pipe  immersed  in  water,  allowed  to  flow  into  a  hot-well. 

•  T        rt  11  1          •         i_  i  1 l_  _  •  1 j.1 !_•___ 


FIG.  10.— Naphtha-engine  boiler. 


passed  on  to  the  feed-pump  of  the  engine,  and  forced  back  into  the  boiler,  thus  making  a 
complete  circuit.  With  constant  water-level  in  the  boiler,  the  steam-pressure  was  50  Ibs.  per 
sq.  in.  at  the  start,  and  it  was  brought  up  to  this  at  the  end  of  each  trial  of  three  hours'  dura- 
tion. In  the  case  of  naphtha,  a  copper  coil  was  fitted  inside  the  steam-space  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  same  boiler,  so  that  the  boiler  efficiency  should  be  the  same  as  in  the  previous  ex- 
periment. Naphtha  of  0'68  specific  gravity  was  pumped  into  the  coil  and  vaporized  by  the 
neat  of  the  steam.  The  vapor  passed  to  the  engine,  worked  the  same  piston  in  the  cylinder, 
was  led  into  a  condensing  coil,  passed  to  a  hot-well,  and  finally  pumped  back  into  the  coil 
inside  the  boiler. 

The  tests  made  alternately  with  steam  and  naphtha  gave  the  following  results : 


Steam. 

Naphtha. 

Gas  consumption  in  cubic  ft  per  hour 

82'20 

83'48 

Mean  pressure  naphtha  in  coil  (Ibs.  per  sq.  in.)  

55-80 

Mean  pressure  steam  in  boiler      

37-99 

30'07 

Mean  speed  in  revolutions  per  miii 

312'6 

552'2 

1'154 

1-222 

Work  on  brake  in  foot-pounds  per  min  

2524 

4722 

WORKING   AGENT. 


Thus,  with  nearly  the  same  rate  of  gas-consumption,  the  power  obtained  on  the  brake  was 
in  the  ratio  of  about  5 :  9  for  steam  and  naphtha — that  is,  the  same  quantity  of  heat  was 
turned  into  nearly  twice  as  much  work  by  the  expansion  of  vapor  as  by  the  expansion  of  steam 
under  the  same  conditions. 

Naphtha,  being  a  complex  mixture  of  various  hydrocarbons,  evaporates  far  more  rapidly 
than  water.  Proper  care  must  be  taken  in  using  the  naphtha,  as  the  more  volatile  vapors 
pass  off  at  the  ordinary  atmospheric  temperature.  Other  vapors  escape  as  the  temperature 
rises,  and  there  is  not  uniformity  in  the  rate  of  evaporation  when  naphtha  is  heated.  Experi- 
ment shows  that  a  given  quantity  of  heat  will  evaporate  nine  times  as  much  of  this  naphtha 
as  of  water  at  atmospheric  pressure.  On  the  other  hand,  this  naphtha  only  expands  to  £  the 
volume  of  vapor  that  water  yields.  Hence,  a  given  quantity  of  heat  can  produce  f  times  the 
volume  of  vapor  from  naphtha  of  0'68  gravity  that  it  would  of  steam  at  the  ordinary  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  Now  we  know  that  the  greater  the  range  of  temperature  through  which  we 
can  cool  a  gas  by  its  own  expansion,  doing  work  in  a  perfect  heat-engine,  the  greater  the 
fraction  of  its  sensible  heat  will  be  turned  into  work.  To  turn  all  its  sensible  heat  into  work 
would  require  infinite  expansion  to  the  absolute  zero  of  temperature,  which  is  impossible; 
besides,  the  gas  would  be  changed  into  the  liquid  and  solid  states  long  before  that  extreme 
degree  of  cold  could  be  reached.  With  exhaust  at  atmospheric  pressure,  the  lower  limit  of 
the  working  range  of  temperature  in  every  case  is  the  boiling-point  of  the  liquid.  In  the 
case  of  the  naphtha  used  in  the  above  experiments,  this  lower  temperature  was  130°  F.,  being 
cooled  through  a  range  of  90°  P.  Under  these  conditions,  steam  could  only  be  cooled  to 
212°  F.,  through  a  range  of  265°  F.  to  212°  F.,  or  53°  F.  Therefore,  since  the  efficiency  in 


EXGIXES,   GAS  AND   OIL 


273 


a  perfect  heat-engine  depends  only  on  the  working-range  of  temperature,  we  see  that  this 
efficiency  with  steam  and  naphtha  would  be  in  the  ratio  of  about  5  : 9. 

Again,  owing  to  the  small  latent  heat  of  evaporation  of  naphtha,  which  is  only  £  that  of 
water,  the  loss  of  heat  to  the  cooling  water  will  be  very  much  less  when  condensing  naphtha 
than  with  steam  ;  but  then  less  heat  is  given  to  the  liquid  naphtha  to  convert  it  into  vapor  to 
begin  with ;  so  that  in  the  case  of  naphtha  smaller  quantities  of  heat  are  being  dealt  with, 
and  larger  portions  converted  into  work  by  greater  pressure  during  expansion.  Hence,  for  a 
given  power,  machinery  of  much  less  weight  is  required  with  naphtha  than  with  steam.  With 
due  precautions  to  avoid  explosions  of  inflammable  vapor,  naphtha  is  found  in  practice  to 
afford  greater  convenience  of  working,  owing  to  the  rapidity  with  which  it  evaporates,  as  well 
as  to  its  oily  nature,  enabling  it  to  act  as  lubricant  to  the  engine-cylinder. 

The  Aitmann-Kuppermann  Petroleum-Motor. — Fig.  11  shows  the  petroleum-engine  of 
Messrs.  Altmann  &  Klippermann,  of  Berlin.  The  cylinder  is  vertical  and  single-acting,  con- 
taining a  long  piston,  packed  with  five  rings,  to  prevent  the  leakage  of  the  products  of  com- 
bustion, and  surrounded 
with  a  water-jacket.  At 
its  upper  part  it  has  two 
horns,  which  carry  the 
bearings  of  the  crank- 
shaft, at  one  end  of 
which  are  a  fly-wheel 
and  driving-pulley,  and 
at  the  other  end  a  bevel- 
wheel,  which  drives  the 
governor  and  the  valve- 
gear.  The  valves  are  all 
of  the  mushroom  type. 
There  is  a  vapor  inlet- 
valve,  an  air  inlet-valve, 
and  an  exhaust  -  valve, 
each  worked  by  a  sepa- 
rate cam  on  a  small  hor- 
izontal shaft  driven  from 
the  lower  end  of  the  gov- 
ernor-spindle. 

The  store  of  oil  for 
the  day's  working  is  kept 
in  the  vessel  shown  on 
the  left.  A  pipe  leads 
from  the  vessel  to  a 
small  pump,  which 
makes  one  stroke  for 
every  two  revolutions  of 
the  engine.  The  length 
of  stroke  can  be  varied. 
The  general  control  of 
the  engine  is  effected, 
however,  by  the  govern- 
or, which  entirely  cuts 
off  the  supply  of  oil  when 
the  speed  is  too  high. 
To  this  end  a  small  valve, 
placed  in  front  of  the 
pump,  and  kept  down 
by  a  strong  spring,  is 
lifted  by  a  cam  to  allow 
the  oil  to  pass  to  the 
pump  during  normal 
working.  But  if  the 
speed  is  too  high,  the 
governor  shifts  the  cam 
sidewise,  so  that  its 
raised  position  no  longer 
comes  under  the  roller 
at  the  end  of  the  lever 
which  controls  the  valve,  and  consequently  the  latter  can  not  open.  The  oil  which  passes 
the  pump  enters  a  small  copper  retort,  kept  red-hot  by  means  of  a  lamp,  and  is  there  con- 
verted into  vapor,  which  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder  when  the  vapor-valve  is  lifted  by  the  cam. 
This  is  the  same  cam  that  operates  the  oil-control  valve.  The  ignition  of  the  charge  is  effected 
in  the  usual  way  by  means  of  an  incandescent  tube,  heated  in  the  first  instance  by  the  same 
lamp  as  the  retort.  This  lamp  has  no  chimney,  and  burns  ordinary  paraffin-oil  with  a  blue 
flame,  like  a  Bunsen  gas-jet.  The  oil  is  forced  through  the  nozzle  by  air-pressure  created  by 
a  small  pump,  and  is  vaporized  by  coming  into  contact  with  a  hot  metal  spreader.  The  ex- 

18 


FIG.  11. — Aitmann-Kuppermann  petroleum-motor. 


274 


ENGINES,   HYDRAULIC. 


haust-valve  is  not  visible  in  the  engraving,  as  it  is  at  the  back  of  the  cylinder.  It  is  worked 
bv  a  cam  and  can  be  readily  removed  for  cleaning.  The  consumption  of  oil  per  horse-power 
per  hour  is  said  to  be  from  -185  to  -238  gallon  in  the  smaller  sizes  of  one  or  two  horse  power, 
and  -132  to  -159  gallon  in  the  larger  sizes.  . 

ENGINES  HYDRAULIC.  PearsalVa  Hydraulic  Engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  It  is  thus 
described  by  Mr.  H.  D.  Pearsall,  of  London,  the  inventor,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American 
Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  in  February,  1889 : 

"  The  engine  or  machine  acts  on  the  principle  of  the  hydraulic  ram  to  this  extent :  that 
both  obtain  their  pumping  power  by  the  arrest  of  a  column  of  water  which  has  been  pre- 
viously set  in  motion  by 
gravity.  The  feature  of  hy- 
draulic rams  which  has  re- 
stricted them  to  a  small  size 
is  their  violence.  In  the  new 
machine  this  is  not  only  re- 
duced but  has  no  existence 
at  all.  It  works  with  all  the 
smoothness  of  a  well  -  con- 
structed reciprocating  en- 
gine. This  is  best  shown  by 
indicator  -  diagrams  taken 
from  the  pressure-chamber. 
Some  of  these  are  given  in 
Fig.  2.  These  diagrams  were 
taken  with  ordinary  steam- 
engine  indicators. 

'•  The  construction,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  as  fol- 
lows :  C  is  the  main  valve 
(here  shown  open)  in  the  pipe 
(called  a  flow -pipe)  which 
conducts  water  to  the  engine. 
D  is  a  rod  attached  to  valve 
C,  by  which  it  is  moved  up 
and  down  at  proper  intervals 
of  time  by  means  of  the  motor 
E.  F  is  a  chamber  immedi- 
ately above  valve  C.  At  the 
period  of  the  stroke  of  the 
engine,  which  is  represented 
in  the  figure,  this  chamber 
contains  only  air,  and  com- 
municates freely  with  the  at- 
mosphere by  the  pipe  G.  At 
the  base  of  pipe  G  there  is  a 
valve, «/,  which  carries  a  float. 
When  the  main  valve  C  is 
raised  and  closed,  it  of  course 
shuts  off  the  flow  of  water; 
but  it  does  not  interfere 
with  the  flow  of  the  water 
until  it  is  completely  closed, 
because,  until  the  chamber  F 
is  filled  with  water  up  to  the 

float  H,  the  valve  J  remains  open,  giving  free  communication  between  chamber  F  and  the 
atmosphere ;  consequently,  the  air  freely  escapes  from  the  chamber  and  the  water  freely  rises 
in  the  chamber.  This  action  takes  place  during  the  closing  of  the  main  valve  C.  The  con- 
sequence is,  that  no  power  is  wasted  in  forcing  water  through  the  narrowing  orifice.  A 
second  consequence  is,  that  there  is  no  necessity  to  close  this  valve  with  great  rapidity  (which 
is  necessary  in  hydraulic  rams).  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  closed  by  a  gradually  retarded 
motion,  and  so  comes  to  rest  without  any  concussion.  When  the  water  touches  the  float  // 
it  closes  the  valve  «/,  shutting  off  the  passage  for  escape  of  air,  and  the  pressure  in  the 
chamber  then  rises  to  the  point  at  which  the  valves  TTopen,  and  some  of  the  water  flows  into 
the  air-vessel  L,  from  which  it  of  course  is  constantly  flowing  out  through  delivery-pipe  M. 
A  little  air  still  remains  in  the  chamber.  This  air  is  compressed  and  enters  the  air-vessel,  and 
is  used  to  drive  the  motor  which  actuates  the  main  valve.  The  column  of  water  flowing  in 
the  flow-pipe  is  thus  brought  to  rest  entirely  by  the  elastic  resistance  of  air.  When  it  has 
ceased  to  flow,  the  main  valve  is  again  opened,  the  water  with  which  the  chamber  F  is  now  full 
escapes,  the  air-valve  J  falls  open,  admitting  atmospheric  air,  and  the  water  again  begins  to  flow 
and  to  escape  through  valve  G.  As  regards  the  efficiency  with  which  the  engine  works,  careful 
experiments  have  been  made,  gauging  accurately  the  quantities  of  water  used  and  delivered,  and 
their  respective  heads.  The  head  of  supply  was  17  ft.  When  head  of  delivery  was  150  ft. 
the  efficiency  was  70  per  cent,  and  when  the  head  was  100  ft.  the  efficiency  was  72  per  cent." 


Fio.  l.—Pearsairs  hydraulic  engine. 


ENGINES,   HYDRAULIC. 


275 


FIG.  2.-  Pearsall's  hydraulic  engine.    Indicator— diagrams. 

Hydraulic  Rams. — The  following  descriptions  of  experimental  hydraulic  rams  are  taken 
from  a  paper  by  John  Richards,  of  San  Francisco  (Proc.  Inst.  Mech.  Engrs.,  Feb.,  1888) :  "  Fig. 

3  represents  a  small  ram  having  an 
inlet-pipe  /  of  from  2  to  3  in.  diame- 
ter. D  is  the  discharge-pipe;  C  the 
check  or  foot  valve ;  A  the  air-vessel ; 
and  V  and  E  are  the  escape- valves 
fixed  on  the  same  stem.  A  plan  of 
the  top  of  the  lower  valve  E  is  shown. 
The  two  valves  V  and  E  being  nearly 
balanced,  the  difference  of  their  areas 
constitutes  the  measure  of  the  upward 
or  closing  force,  which  is  of  course 
much  less  than  in  the  case  of  a  single 
valve.  The  valves  fall  by  their  weight 
in  the  usual  manner,  and  are  raised 
partly  by  the  stream  rushing  out  round 
the  upper  valve  V,  but  mainly  by  the 
upward  pressure  of  the  issuing  current 
against  the  curved  shield  S  fixed  on 
the  valve-stem.  In  working  this  form 
of  ram  it  has  been  found  that  accurate 
adjustment  was  required  to  suit  the 
head  or  fall  of  the  driving- water;  and 
also  that  the  shock  was  too  great  for 
the  safety  of  small  rams. 

"  In  the  ram  shown  in  Fig.  4  the 
two  escape-valves  V  and  E  are  ar- 
ranged to  pass  up  freely  through  their 
seats,  and  are  stopped  by  an  air-cush- 
ion at  the  top.  The  waste  water  near- 
ly all  escapes  at  the  upper  valve  V, 
small  outlets  only  being  provided  in 
the  lower  valve  E  for  permitting  sand 
to  escape  if  any  should  be  carried 
into  the  machine.  The  closing  is 
effected  mainly  by  the  upward  press- 
ure of  the  issuing  stream  against  the 
curved  shield  S. '  When  the  valves  are 
shot  upward  in  closing,  the  shield  en- 
ters the  air-chamber  above  it,  in  which 
it  fits  as  a  piston,  and  the  momentum 
FIGS.  3,  4.— Richards's  hydraulic  ram.  is  thereby  checked  without  the  least 


276 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


shock.  An  air-cock  is  inserted  in  the  top  of  the  air-chamber  at  L,  for  regulating  the  amount 
of  resistance  offered  by  the  air-cushion.  Additional  weight,  if  required  for  opening  the  valves, 
is  added  on  the  top  of  the  valve-stem  at  K ;  it  is  found,  however,  that  the  higher  the  delivery 
head  the  less  is  the  weight  required,  because  of  the  reflux.  Shifting  valves  were  at  first  ap- 
plied, but  seemed  unnecessary.  Rams  arranged  in  this  manner  work  without  noise  or  jar,  and 
give  a  high  efficiency  for  forcing  four  to  five  times  the  height  of  the  propelling  head,  and  are 
suitable  in  most  cases  for  irrigating  purposes ;  but  when  the  resistance  is  increased,  the  elas- 
tic blow  or  percussive  impulse  of  the  current  is  not  enough  to  raise  the  check-valve  C  against 
the  increased  area  caused  by  its  lap. 

"  In  Figs.  5  to  8  is  shown  another  arrangement  of  hydraulic  ram,  in  which  the  escape-valve 
is  opened  by  independent  mechanism.    The  water  enters  at  /,  and  the  waste  escapes  at  the 


FIG.  5. 


FIGS.  5-8.— Richards  hydraulic  ram. 


FIG. 


bottom  through  four  holes  shown  in  the  sectional  plan,  Fig.  8.  These  holes  are  alternately 
covered  and  uncovered  by  the  four  wings  of  the  oscillating  valve  V,  which  is  mounted  on  a 
spindle  S.  The  valve  is  opened  by  means  of  the  water-wheel  W,  and  the  tappet  motion  shown 
in  Figs.  5  and  7.  The  two  tappets,  coming  in  contact  at  each  revolution  of  the  water-wheel, 
open  the  valve  to  such  an  extent  as  may  be  determined  by  the  adjusting  screw,  set  in  the  slot 
at  A.  As  soon  as  the  tappets  disengage,  the  valve  is  closed  by  the  reaction  of  the  issuing 
stream  against  its  curved  ribs  or  vanes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  the  motion  being  arrested  by  the 
tail  jPof  the  tappet-arm,  Fig.  7.  In  this  manner  the  motions  of  the  waste-valve  Fcan  be  con- 
trolled at  will,  and  a  greater  efficiency  attained  than  with  the  ordinary  method  of  employing 
the  force  of  the  issuing  stream  for  closing  the  valve  by  lifting  it.  Experiments  have  not  yet 
been  made  to  determine  the  most  effective  motion  of  the  valve  with  respect  to  the  time  of 
closing :  but  the  indications  point  to  variable  requirements  in  this  respect,  depending  on  the 
resistance  offered  or  the  height  to  which  the  water  is  being  raised." 

ENGINES,  MARINE.  I.  TYPES  OF  ENGINES.— The  Triple- Expansion  Engine.— Fig.  1 
represents  the  latest  type  of  triple-expansion  engines  used  in  the  high-speed  twin-screw  Brit- 
ish cruisers  Thetis,  Terpsichore,  and  Tribune.  They  were  built  by  James  &  George  Thomson, 
of  Glasgow.  In  the  design  the  makers  have  obtained  over  13  indicated  horse-power  per  ton 
weight  of  machinery  in  working  order,  with  water  in  boilers  and  condenser. 

The  engines  are  of  the  triple-expansion  vertical  inverted  type.  Each  set  of  engines  is 
placed  in  a  separate  engine-room  with  a  fore-and-aft  bulkhead  dividing  them,  and  each  is  in 
all  respects  exactly  similar.  The  cylinders  are  33|,  49,  and  74  in.  in  diameter,  respectively, 
with  a  stroke  of  3  ft.  3  in.  Each  cylinder  is  made  of  an  entirely  independent  casting,  and 
they  are  connected  by  steel  stay-rods  securely  attached  to  each  casting.  To  still  further 
increase  their  stability  the  column-heads  have  stout  cast-steel  struts  fitted  in  between  them. 
The  receivers  consist  entirely  of  copper  pipes.  The  whole  of  the  cylinders  are  steam-jacketed. 
The  working  barrels  of  the  high-pressure  and  intermediate-pressure  cylinders  are  of  forged 
steel,  but  those  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  are  of  specially  hard,  close-grained  cast  iron. 
Piston-valves  working  in  separate  liners  are  fitted  to  the  high-pressure  and  intermediate- 
pressure  cylinders,  and  the  low-pressure  cylinder  has  a  flat,  double-ported  slide-valve  with  a 
special  type  of  relief  ring  at  the  back.  Balance-cylinders  are  fitted  to  the  valves  of  all  three 
cylinders,  to  reduce  the  strain  on  the  valve-gear  as  far  as  possible.  The  valve-gear  is  of  the 
double-eccentric,  link-motion  type,  all  joints  having  exceptionally  large  surfaces.  A  double- 
cylinder  reversing-engine  is  provided,  and  the  reversing  shaft-levers  are  fitted  with  screw-gear 
to  allow  of  the  expansion  in  each  cylinder  being  altered  independently  of  the  others.  The 
back  columns  are  of  cast  steel,  with  separate  pinned-on  faces  for  the  guides,  and  the  front 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


277 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


279 


columns  are  of  forged  steel,  thus  giving  a  clear  view  from  the  starting  platforms  which  are 
arranged  in  the  wings  of  the  ship. 

To  insure  the  desired  lightness,  the  main  condensers,  which  have  a  collective  cooling  sur- 
face of  10,000  sq.  ft.,  have  casings  and  ends  built  up  entirely  of  naval  brass  plates  riveted 
together.  The  steam  is  condensed  outside  the  tubes,  and  the  circulating  water  passes  through 
them,  and  is  supplied  by  two  large  14-in.  Gwynne  centrifugal  pumps,  the  discharges  from 
which  are  connected  by  an  athwart-ship  pipe  having  sluice-valves  at  each  end,  and  also  in  the 
middle,  where  it  passes  through  the  longitudinal  bulkhead.  The  crank  and  propeller  shafts 
are  hollow,  of  fluid-compressed  steel,  and  the  crank-arms  are  cut  away  as  much  as  possible  for 
lightness  and  convenience  in  fitting  the  centrifugal  lubricators  for  the  crank-pins.  The  thrust 
blocks  and  collars  are  of  cast  steel ;  the  latter  are  lined  with  white  metal  and  are  of  the  horse- 
shoe type,  each  separately  adjustable.  The  screw-propellers  are  three-bladed,  and  with  the 
bosses  'and  all  connections  are  of  gun-metal. 

The  exhausts  from  the  whole  of  the  auxiliary  machinery  in  the  ship  are  led  into  an  auxil- 
iary exhaust-pipe  which  is  connected  with  two  auxiliary  condensers,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
air"  and  circulating  pump  entirely  independent  of  those  for  the  main  condensers.  The  com- 
bined cooling  surface  of  the  two  auxiliary  condensers  is  1,000  sq.  ft.  In  addition  to  the  afore- 
mentioned auxiliary  machinery  there  are  in  each  engine-room  a  set  of  air-compressing  engines 
and  reservoirs,  electric-light  engines  and  dynamos,  a  Weir  main-feed  pump  with  patent  auto- 
matic regulating  gear,  two  bilge  and  fire  pumps,  a  small  pump  for  the  drain-tanks,  and  two 
evaporators  and  distillers,  each  having  independent  steam-pumps. 

Steam  at  155  Ibs.  pressure  is  supplied  by  five  steel  return  tube-boilers,  three  of  which  are 
double-ended,  13  ft.  in  diameter  by  18  ft.  6"  in.  long,  and  two  single-ended,  13  ft.  in  diameter 
by  9  ft.  7  in.  long.  The  total  grate-surface  is  573  sq.  ft.,  and  total  heating  surface  15,404  sq. 
ft.  In  all  cases  each  furnace  has  a  separate  combustion-chamber,  the  draft  from  which  may 
be  controlled  independently  by  dampers  fitted  in  the  uptakes.  The  stoke-holes  can  be  worked 
both  under  natural  and  forced  draft ;  for  the  latter  purpose  eight  fans  5  ft.  in  diameter  are 
fitted,  capable  of  maintaining  an  air-pressure  of  3  in.  of  water  if  required  for  testing  the 
tightness  of  the  whole  of  the  space  put  under  pressure,  but  the  maximum  allowed  on  the 
forced-draft  trial  is  1£  in.  of  water. 

Triple-Expansion  Paddle-  Wheel  Engine. — Fig.  2  shows  the  engines  of  the  Hygeia,  a  pad- 
dle-wheel steamer  built  on  the  Clyde  in  1890.  The  Hygeia  is  300  ft.  in  length.  32  ft.  beam, 
and  12  ft.  in  depth.  The  engines  are  constructed  on  Rankin's  patent  '•  disconnective  "  triple- 
expansion  principle,  especially  designed  for  high-speed  river-steamers.  They  are  of  the  diag- 
onal direct-acting  type,  and  have  two  high-pressure  cylinders,  each  28  in.  in  diameter,  and 
placed  behind  an  intermediate  and  a  low  pressure  cylinder  56  and  86  in.  in  diameter,  respect- 
ively, with  a  piston-stroke  of  66  in.,  working  tandemwise,  in  connection  with  a  double-throw 
shaft.  There  is  only  one  pair  of  stuffing-boxes  between  each  pair  of  cylinders,  and  ample 
space  has  been  provided  for  the  easy  removal  of  the"  intermediate  and  low  pressure  cylinder- 
covers,  which,  in  addition,  have  been  fitted  with  man-holes  and  doors  for  examining  the  pis- 
tons without  disturbing  the  covers.  All  the  pistons  have  deep  cast-iron  packing-rings  held 


FIG.  3. — Triple-expansion  engine. 


by  one  of  Brown's  steam  and  hydraulic  reversing-engines,  the  starting  lever  for  which,  along 
with  the  lever  for  the  throttle-valves,  is  brought  to  the  main-deck  platform,  and  constitutes  a 


280 


ENGINES,  MARINE. 


FIG.  4.— Three-screw  United  States  cruiser  engines— plan. 


particularly  simple  arrangement,  as,  in  consequence  of  there  being  two  high-pressure  cylin- 
ders, no  starting-valves  'are  required,  and  it  is  impossible  for  the  engines  to  stick  on  the  dead- 
centers,  so  that  prompt 
handling  is  always  as- 
sured. 

The  diagonal  fram- 
ings have  been  made  of 
wrought  iron,  strongly 
bolted  to  heavy  brackets 
cast  on  the  cylinders 
with  round,  solid  flanges, 
and  they  are  attached  at 
the  other  ends  by  T- 
heads  to  the  massive 
main-bearing  framings, 
which  are  of  cast  iron 
and  box  section.  These 
are  firmly  bolted  to  the 
sole-plates,  which  bind 
the  whole  structure  rig- 
idly together.  The  pis- 
ton-rods are  of  forged 
steel,  carefully  fitted  into 
the  pistons  and  cross-heads  with  a  good  taper  and  shoulder,  and  secured  by  deep  malleable 
iron  nuts.  The  cross-heads  and  connecting-rods  are  of  forged  iron,  and  the  latter  are  coupled 
to  the  cross-heads  by  double  jaws,  and  to  the  crank-pins  by  single  jaws,  all  being  fitted  with 
phosphor-bronze  bushes  of  extra  large  surface,  secured  by  polished  wrought-iron  covers  with 
strong  steel  bolts  and  nuts  recessed 
into  guard-rings  having  set  pins. 
The  cranks,  shafting,  and  paddle- 
arms  are  of  forged  iron ;  the  paddle- 
wheels  are  of  the  feathering  de- 
scription with  outside  rings.  The 
Hygeia  on  her  official  trial  showed 
an  average  speed  of  22'8  statute 
miles,  the  best  run  being  at  the  rate 
of  23i  statute  miles.  The  absence 
of  vibration  in  both  hull  and  en- 
gines, and  the  exceptionally  smooth 
working  of  the  latter,  were  notice- 
able. 

Triple-Screw  Engines. — Within 
the  last  four  or  five  years  twin- 
screw  steamships  have  come  gener- 
ally into  use,  especially  for   trans-  FlG-  5.-Transverse  section, 
atlantic  vessels  and  for  ships-of-war.     The  United  States  Government,  however,  has  gone  a 
step  further,  and  is  now  building  a  protected  cruiser  with  three  screws.     The  special  ad- 
vantage of  three  screws  in  a  cruiser,  adapted  both  for  high  speed  when  occasion  requires  and 
for  slow  speed  for  ordinary  voyages,  is  that  by  stopping  either  one  or  two  engines  fuel  can  be 


FIG.  6. — Plan  showing  three  screws. 


FIG.  7. — End  view. 


saved  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  it  can  in  a  single-screw  steamer  by  slowing  down  the  en- 
gine. The  principal  dimensions  of  the  new  cruiser  are  as  follows:  Length  on  load-line,  400 
ft. ;  beam  (extreme),  58  ft. ;  draft  (mean,  normal),  23  ft. ;  draft  (extreme,  normal),  24  ft. ;  dis- 
placement (at  23  ft.  mean),  7,400  tons ;  coefficient  of  displacement,  0'485 ;  speed  (sustained), 
21  knots ;  speed  (maximum),  22  knots ;  indicated  horse-power  (estimated,  sustained),  20,000 ; 
indicated  horse-power  (estimated,  maximum),  23.000;  coal-supply,  2.000  tons;  number  of 
screws,  3 ;  outboard  screws  in  diameter,  13  ft.  9  in. ;  center  screw'  in  diameter,  12  ft.  There 
will  be  three  sets  of  propelling-engines,  each  set  being  complete  in  all  respects  and  placed 
in  separate  water-tight  compartments.  The  amidship  engine  will  be  placed  abaft  the  port 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


281 


and  starboard  engines.     The  amidship  and  starboard  engines  will  turn  right  and  the  port 
one  left  handed  when  the  vessel  is  going  ahead.     These  engines  will  be  of  the  vertical  inverted 


cylinder,  direct-acting,  triple-expansion  type,  each  with  a  high-pressure  cylinder  42  in.,  an 
intermediate-pressure  cylinder  59  in.,  and  a  low-] 


-pressure  cylinder  92  in.   in   diameter — the 


stroke  of  all  pistons  being  42  in.  It  is  estimated  that  the  collective  indicated  horse-power  of 
propelling,  air-pump,  and  circulating-pump  engines  should  be  about  21,000  when  the  main 
engines  are  making  about  129  revolutions  per  min.  The  high-pressure  cylinder  of  the  after 
engine  will  be  forward  and  the  low-pressure  cylinder  aft,  and  the  high-pressure  cylinder  of 
each  forward  engine  will  be  aft  and  the  low-pressure  cylinder  forward.  The  main  valves  will 
be  of  the  piston  type,  worked  by  Stephenson  link-motions  with  double-bar  links.  There  will 
be  one  piston-valve  for  each  high-pressure  cylinder,  two  for  each  intermediate-pressure  cyl- 
inder, and  four  for  each  low-pressure  cylinder.  The  framing  of  the  engines  will  consist* of 
cast-steel  inverted  Y-frames  at  the  back  of  each  cylinder  and  cylindrical  forged-steel  columns 


282  ENGINES,   MARINE. 


at  the  front,  as  shown  in  figure.  The  main  condenser  for  each  engine  will  have  a  cooling  sur- 
face of  about  9,474  sq.  ft.,  measured  on  the  outside  of  the  tubes,  the  water  passing  through  the 
tubes.  Two  of  the  propellers  will  be  right  and  one  left,  to  be  made  of  manganese  bronze  or 
approved  equivalent  metal.  There  will  be  six  double-ended  boilers,  about  15  ft.  6  in.  diameter 
and  21  ft.  3  in.  long,  and  two  about  11  ft.  8  in.  diameter  and  18  ft.  8£  in.  long  for  the  main 
boilers,  and  two  single-ended  auxiliary  boilers  about  10  ft.  diameter  and  8  ft.  6  in.  long.  The 
boilers  will  be  of  the  horizontal  return  fire-tube  type,  all  constructed  of  steel  for  a  working 
pressure  of  160  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  Each  of  the  larger-sized  double-ended  boilers  will  have  eight 
corrugated  furnace-flues,  3  ft.  3  in.  internal  diameter ;  each  of  the  smaller  double-ended  boil- 
ers will  have  four  corrugated  furnace-flues,  3  ft.  6  in.  internal  diameter,  and  each  single-ended 
boiler  will  have  two  furnaces  2  ft.  9  in.  internal  diameter.  The  total  heating  surface  for  the 
main  and  auxiliary  boilers  will  be  about  43,272  sq.  ft.,  measured  on  the  outer  surface  of  the 
tubes,  and  the  grate  surface  1,285  sq.  ft.  The  forced-draft  system  will  consist  of  one  blower 
for  each  fire-room,  discharging  into  an  air-tight  fire-room.  The  full  coal-supply  of  2,000 
tons  will  give  the  vessel  a  radius  of  action  of  26,240  knots,  or  109  days  steaming  at  10  knots 
per  hour. 

Fig.  3  is  a  sectional  view  of  one  of  the  engines  of  the  new  cruiser.  Fig.  4  shows  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  three  engines  in  a  plan  view :  Fig.  5  is  a  transverse  section  aft  of  the  two 
forward  engines ;  Fig.  6  is  a  plan  view ;  and  Fig.  7  an  end  view  showing  the  position  of  the 
three  screws. 

The  steamer  Wai,  constructed  by  Dunsmuir  &  Jackson,  Glasgow,  for  passenger  service  on 
one  of  the  rivers  on  the  Bombay  coast,  India,  is  90  ft.  long  by  20  ft.  broad,  and  3  ft.  3  in. 
draft  when  fully  loaded.  The  propelling  engine  (Fig.  8)  is  a  vertical,  three-cylinder,  triple- 
expansion,  surfaceTcondensing  engine,  placed  athwart  the  vessel,  each  cylinder  forming  a 
separate  engine,  and  driving  its  own  crank-shaft  and  propeller,  the  three  engines  being  con- 
nected together  by  two  side-rods.  The  cylinders  are  9,  14$-  and  25  in.  diameter  and  10  in. 
stroke.  They  are  designed  for  a  pressure  of  200  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  and  to  run  300  revolutions  per 
min.  The  propellers  are  of  gun-metal,  each  2  ft.  6  in.  diameter,  with  three  blades.  The  cen- 
ter screw  is  placed  in  the  usual  aperture  in  the  stern,  and  the  two  outside  screws  a  few  feet 
farther  forward.  (Engineering,  Aug.  21,  1891,  p.  211.) 

Quadruple- Expansion  Engines  for  Torpedo- Boats. — Messrs.  Yarrow  &  Co.  recently  built 
six  first-class  torpedo-boats  for  the  Argentine  navy,  130  ft.  long  and  13  ft.  6  in.  wide  on  the 
water-line.  The  first  five  were  fitted  with  triple-compound  engines,  and  on  their  official  trials 
of  two  hours'  continuous  run,  and  fully  equipped  for  service,  attained  speeds  of  somewhat  over 
23  knots  per  hour,  the  mean  of  all  the  trials  being  23-312  knots.  The  sixth  boat,  called  the 
Bathurst,  was  fitted  with  a  quadruple-compound  engine.  The  cylinders  are  14  in.,  20  in.,  27 
in.,  and  36  in.  diameter,  and  have  a  stroke  of  16  in.  The  order  of  position  is  high,  second  in- 
termediate, first  intermediate,  and  low.  The  valves  are  all  of  the  piston  type.  The  chief 
object  in  view  in  placing  quadruple-expansion  engines  in  this  boat  was  to  do  away  with,  or 
>  materially  reduce,  the  vibration  that  is 


rather  to  materially  reduce,  the  vibration  that  is  so  unpleasant  a  feature  in  modern 
ni^h-speed  craft  with  quick-running  engines.  A  very  fair  measure  of  success  has  been  at- 
tained in  this  direction,  sufficient  to  warrant  the  extra  room  and  expense  due  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  additional  cylinder.  Under  the  same  conditions  of  consumption  the  average  horse- 
power of  five  first-class  boats  with  triple-compound  engines  was  1,120,  indicated ;  while  on 
the  Bathurst  1,230  indicated  horse-power  has  been  registered ;  so  that  there  was  a  gain  of  110 
indicated  horse-power.  On  the  trial  the  mean  speed  was  24-453  knots,  while  on  the  two  hours' 
run  the  speed  was  but  a  trifle  less — 24-426  knots.  There  is  therefore  a  gain  of  over  a  knot, 
presumably  due  to  the  additional  cylinder.  The  load  carried  was  12  tons,  and  the  displace- 
ment 75'5  tons.  The  steam-pressure  was  200  Ibs. ;  first  receiver.  75  Ibs. ;  second  receiver,  35 
Ibs. ;  third  receiver,  4  Ibs.  Forced  draft  was  used,  the  air-pressure  in  the  stokehold  averaging 
3'2  ins.  The  engines  made  about  435  revolutions  per  min.  (See  Engineering,  Nov.  21,  1890.) 

II.  MARINE-ENGINEERING,  PROGRESS  IN. — Mr.  Alfred  Blechynden,  of  Barrow-in-Furness, 
England,  contributed  a  highly  interesting  illustrated  paper  on  Marine-Engineering  to  the 
Liverpool  meeting  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1891  (see  Engineering,  Aug. 
21  and  Sept.  18,  1891),  giving  a  review  of  progress  during  the  last  decade.  We  shall  abstract 
liberally  from  his  paper  in  what  follows : 

Since  1881  the  three-stage  expansion-engine  has  become  the  rule,  and  the  boiler-pressure 
has  been  increased  to  160  Ibs.  and  even  as  high  as  200  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  Four-stage  expansion- 
engines  of  various  forms  have  also  been  adopted.  The  increase  of  working  pressure  and  other 
improvements  have  brought  with  them  their  equivalent  in  economy  of  coal,  which  is  about 
20  per  cent.  Marked  progress  has  been  made  in  the  direction  of  dimension,  more  than  twice 
the  power  having  been  put  into  individual  vessels. 

Porced  Draft. — There  are  several  methods  by  which  the  principle  known  as  forced  draft 
may  be  practically  applied.  In  its  earlier  English  use  stoke-holds  were  adopted,  the  air  being 
delivered  into  them  by  fans  at  a  pressure  varying  from  about  1  in.  to  3  in.  of  water.  This 
arrangement  has  the  merit  of  keeping  the  stoke-holds  cool,  and  its  details  are  simple ;  but  it  is 
dirty,  and  where  bunker-doors  are  not  well  fitted  great  discomfort  may  be  caused  on  deck. 
Possibly,  also,  it  is  not  quite  so  economical  as  the  closed  ash-pit  system ;  but  such  exact  data 
as  exist  of  its  working  indicate  that  with  moderate  air-pressure  it  is  at  least  no  less  economical 
than  natural  draft.  The  American  practice  is  to  close  the  ash-pits,  and  take  the  delivery- 
tubes  from  the  fans  into  them.  This,  though  involving  more  ash-pit  fittings,  is  certainly  ad- 
vantageous so  far  as  cleanliness  is  concerned  ;  the  furnaces  are  also  not  subjected  to  the  severe 
strains  caused  by  the  inrush  of  cold  air  which  occurs  during  firing  with  closed  stoke-holds. 


ENGINES,    MARINE.  283 


As  often  fitted,  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  making  rather  a  hot  stoke-hold,  though  with  suffi- 
cient precautions  there  is  no  reason  why  the  ventilation  should  not  be  made  perfect  by  taking 
the  air  through  the  stoke-holds.  In  the  earlier  American  experiments  (see  Isherwood's  Experi- 
mental Researches,  vol.  ii,  Trials  of  Gunboats  of  Chippewa  Class  and  Fulton)  the  air  was  in- 
troduced into  the  ash-pits  by  pipes  at  the  back  ends. 

Forced  draft  has  also  been  produced  by  placing  a  fan  ,in  the  uptake,  and  exhausting 
through  the  furnaces.  This  plan  has  the  great  advantage  of  dispensing  with  the  elaborate 
furnace-fittings  common  to  the  undergrate  systems ;  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  the  fan  in  working  order,  owing  to  the  high  temperature  in  the  chimney, 
and  has  not  as  yet  come  into  common  use ;  and,  according  to  the  researches  of  Dr.  Tyndall  on 
combustion  in  condensed  and  attenuated  atmospheres,  it  should  result  in  a  more  perfect  com- 
bustion, but  how  far  this  is  realized  in  practice  is  not  determined. 

In  regard  to  the  economy  of  forced  draft,  an  examination  of  Table  III  will  show  that  while 
the  mean  consumption  of  coal  in  those  steamers  working  under  natural  draft  is  1-573  Ib.  per 
indicated  horse-power  per  hour,  it  is  only  1-336  Ib.  in  those  fitted  with  forced  draft.  This  is 
equivalent  to  an  economy  of  15  per  cent.  Part  of  this  economy,  however,  may  be  due  to  the 
other  heat-saving  appliances  with  which  the  latter  steamers  are  fitted.  Such  evidence  as 
exists  shows  that  not  only  is  forced  draft  more  economical  as  regards  quantity  of  coal,  but  by 
its  means  such  classes  of  coal  may  be  used  as  would  not  without  it  be  worth  putting  on  board. 
It  is  in  this  direction  perhaps  that  the  greatest  saving  has  followed  its  employment. 

Thus  far  the  following  would  appear  to  be  a  fair  summary  of  the  advantageous  points 
attending  the  use  of  forced  draft :  First,  it  seems  fairly  well  established  that,  if  the  boilers 
are  well  constructed  and  are  provided  with  ample  room  to  insure  circulation,  their  steaming- 
power  may  without  injury  be  increased  to  auout  30  or  40  per  cent  over  that  obtained  on  nat- 
ural draft  for  continuous  working,  and  may  be  about  doubled  for  short  runs ;  secondly,  such 
augmentation  is  accompanied  in  normal  cases  by  an  increased  consumption  per  indicated 
horse-power ;  but,  thirdly,  the  same  or  even  greater  power  being  indicated,  it  may  with  mod- 
erate assistance  of  forced  draft  be  developed  with  a  smaller  expenditure  of  fuel,  the  grates, 
etc.,  being  properly  proportioned ;  fourthly,  forced  draft  enables  an  inferior  fuel  to  be  used ; 
and,  fifthly,  under"  certain  conditions  of  weather,  when  with  normal  proportions  of  boiler  it 
would  be  impossible  to  maintain  steam  for  the  ordinary  speed  with  natural  draft,  the  normal 
power  may  with  forced  draft  be  insured.  In  particular  cases  any  or  all  these  advantages 
may  be  a  source  of  economy ;  and  the  first  of  them  may  render  possible  that  which  would 
otherwise  be  impracticable. 

Marine  Boilers. — Xo  particular  change  can  be  recorded  in  the  general  design  of  the  marine 
boiler,  but  the  change  of  material  used  and  the  great  advance  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
application  of  tools  to  boiler-making  can  not  pass  without  notice.  As  a  material  for  the 
plates  of  boilers,  iron  is  giving  place  to  steel,  though  it  seems  probable  that  it  will  continue 
yet  awhile  to  be  the  material  for  tubes.  Furnaces  are  made  with  corrugated,  ribbed,  and 
spiral  flues,  with  the  object  of  giving  increased  strength  against  collapse  without  abnormally 
increasing  the  thickness  of  the  plate.  The  increased  pressures  adopted  in  marine  boilers  have 
tended  to  cause  a  reduction  in  size,  and  as  the  high  pressures  have  caused  thicker  scantlings, 
the  larger  boilers  have  become  very  heavy.  The  boilers  of  the  R.  M.  S.  Empress  of  India, 
which  were  16  ft.  3  in.  in  diameter  by  19  ft.  6  in.  long,  weighed  85  tons  each,  without  furnace- 
fittings  or  mountings  of  any  description.  (See  BOILERS.) 

Engine. — The  change  from  the  principle  of  two-stage  expansion  to  that  of  three  and  of 
four  stages  has  been  attended  with  corresponding  modifications  in  the  engine.  The  desire  to 
economize  in  length  of  engine  has  given  rise  to  more  varieties  of  arrangement  than  any  other 
single  cause.  For  this  purpose,  combined  with  the  aim  of  making  them  more  accessible,  the 
valves  have  been  removed  from  the  fore  and  aft  center  line  and  placed  behind  or  in  front,  and 
worked  either  by  one  of  the  numerous  forms  of  radial  valve-gear,  or  by  the  link-motion  and 
levers.  It  is  triie  that  by  such  an  arrangement  the  length  over  the  cylinders  can  be  dimin- 
ished ;  but  as  the  extent  to  which  the  distances  between  the  centers  can  be  reduced  is  limited 
by  the  lengths  of  the  shaft-bearings  and  the  thicknesses  of  the  cranks  and  couplings,  little 
can  be  gained  below  the  cylinders  by  this  means. 

The  most  common  types  of  triple-engines  have  the  cylinders  arranged  in  the  sequence — 
high,  intermediate,  low  ;  the  condenser  forms  part  of  the  engine-framing,  and  the  pumps  are 
placed  at  the  back  of  the  condenser  and  worked  by  levers.  In  the  smaller  engines  the  cylin- 
ders are  rigidly  bolted  together ;  but  in  the  larger  they  are  free,  and  connected  only  by  a  pair 
of  bar-stays  fixed  to  their  centers.  This  is  customary,  in  order  to  prevent  the  extension  of  the 
distance  between  the  centers  when  the  engines  are  heated ;  but  it  is  a  point  which  appears 
more  important  in  theory  than  in  practice,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  greater  rigidity  of 
the  bolted  cylinders  in  the  smaller  engines  is  not  a  much  more  important  feature  in  ordinary 
work.  In  naval  vessels  vertical  engines  are  now  almost  uniformly  adopted,  and  the  necessary 
protection  for  the  cylinders  is  obtained  by  an  armored  hatch.  In  the  later  designs  the  larger 
engines  are  made  open-fronted,  with  standards  of  cast  steel  at  the  back  and  wrought-steel 
pillars  in  front.  Feed,  bilge,  and  circulating  pumps  are  worked  by  separate  engines.  For  the 
air-pumps  also  separate  engines  have  sometimes  been  adopted,  and  they  possess  great  merits 
for  manoeuvring  purposes,  as  the  vacuum  can  be  maintained  and  the  condenser  kept  clear  of 
water  while  the  main  engines  are  standing,  and  the  latter  are  thus  ready  to  answer  more  in- 
stantly any  order  which  may  be  given.  With  the  three-crank  engine,  however,  this  is  of  less 
importance  than  with  the  two-crank  type.  In  modern  cruisers,  which  are  designed  with  the 
view  of  steaming  upon  emergency  at  a  very  high  speed,  and  ordinarily  at  about  half  that  rate, 


284  ENGINES,   MARINE. 


the  engines  become  much  too  large  for  the  power  developed  at  slow  speeds,  and  in  consequence 
are  not  economical  under  the  ordinary  condition  of  working.  In  larger  vessels  this  difficulty 
is  met  by  separating  each  set  of  propelling  engines  into  two  sets  of  half  the  capacity,  the  one 
forward  of  the  other,  and  so  arranged  that  the  forward  set  may  be  disconnected,  with  the 
after  set  left  to  do  the  work.  The  propelling  engines  of  the  Italian  cruisers  Lepanto,  Italia, 
Re  Umberto,  and  Sardegna,  and  of  the  British  cruisers  Blake  and  Blenheim,  have  been  ar- 
ranged on  this  plan.  The  general  details  of  the  engine  have  not  undergone  many  modifica- 
tions, but  still  they  have  not  remained  without  change. 

Piston  "Valves. — Since  high  steam  pressures  have  become  common,  piston-valves  have  be- 
come the  rule  for  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  and  are  not  unusual  for  the  intermediate.  When 
well  designed  they  have  the  great  advantage  of  being  almost  free  from  friction,  so  far  as  the 
valve  itself  is  concerned.  It  is  usual  to  fit  springless  adjustable  sleeves,  which  have  all  the 
advantages  of  the  old  solid  ring  so  far  as  their  freedom  from  friction  is  concerned,  and  in  case 
of  leakage  they  can  with  ease  be  adjusted  by  lining  up  at  their  joints.  In  smaller  engines  the 
same  springless  ring  has  been  used  for  the  pistons  of  the  high-pressure  and  intermediate  cyl- 
inders. It  may  not  give  such  absolute  steam  tightness  as  the  spring  ring,  but  any  little 
leakage  can  be  picked  up  in  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  and  such  very  slight  loss  of  efficiency 
as  may  be  due  to  this  cause  should  be  fairly  well  compensated  by  the  diminished  friction  of 
the  valves.  For  low-pressure  cylinders  piston-valves  are  not  in  favor ;  if  fitted  with  spring 
rings  their  friction  is  about  as  great  as,  and  occasionally  greater  than,  that  of  a  well-balanced 
slide-valve ;  while  if  fitted  with  springless  rings  there  is  always  some  leakage,  which  is  irre- 
coverable. But  the  large  port  clearances  inseparable  from  the  use  of  piston-valves  are  most 
objectionable ;  and  with  triple-engines  this  is  especially  so,  because  with  the  customary  late 
cut-off  it  becomes  difficult  to  compress  sufficiently  for  insuring  economy  and  smoothness,  and 
working  when  in  "  full  gear,"  without  some  special  device. 

Feed-  Water  Heating.— Weir's  system  is  founded  on  the  fact  that,  if  the  feed-water  as  it  is 
drawn  from  the  hot-well  be  raised  in  temperature  by  the  heat  of  a  portion  of  steam  introduced 
into  it  from  one  of  the  steam-receivers,  the  decrease  of  the  coal  necessary  to  generate  steam 
from  the  water  of  the  higher  temperature  bears  a  greater  ratio  to  the  coal  required  without 
feed-heating  than  the  power  which  would  be  developed  in  the  cylinder  by  that  portion  of 
steam  would  bear  to  the  whole  power  developed  when  passing  all  the  steam  through  all  the 
cylinders.  The  temperature  of  the  feed  is  of  course  limited  by  the  temperature  of  the  steam 
in  the  receiver  from  which  the  supply  for  heating  is  drawn.  Supposing,  for  example,  a  triple- 
expansion  engine  were  working  under  the  following  conditions  without  feed-heating:  Boiler 
pressure,  150  Ibs. ;  indicated  horse-power  in  high-pressure  cylinder,  898 ;  in  intermediate  and 
low-pressure  cylinders,  together,  790;  total,  1,118;  and  temperature  of  hot-well,  100°  F.  Then 
with  feed-heating  the  same  engine  might  work  as  follows :  The  feed  might  be  heated  to  220° 
F.,  and  the  percentage  of  steam  from  the  first  receiver  required  to  heat  it  would  be  10'88  per 
cent,  the  indicated  horse-power  in  the  high-pressure  cylinder  would  be  as  before,  398,  and  in 
the  intermediate  and  low-pressure  cylinders  it  would  be  10-88  per  cent  less  than  before,  or 
705,  and  the  total  would  be  1,103,  or  93  per  cent  of  the  power  developed  without  feed-heating. 
Meanwhile  the  heat  to  be  added  to  each  pound  of  the  feed-water  at  220°  F.  for  converting  it 
into  steam  would  be  1,005  units,  against  1,125  units  with  feed  at  100°  F.,  equivalent  to  an  ex- 
penditure of  only  89-4  per  cent  of  the  heat  required  without  feed-heating.  Hence,  the  expend- 
iture of  heat  in  relation  to  power  would  be  89'4  -4-  93  =  96-4  per  cent,  equivalent  to  a  heat 
economy  of  3'6  per  cent.  If  the  steam  for  heating  can  be  taken  from  the  low-pressure  re- 
ceiver, the  economy  is  about  doubled. 

Feed -Water  Evaporators. — In  order  to  make  up  the  losses  of  water  due  to  leakage  of  steam 
from  safety-valves,  joints,  etc.,  in  engines  supplied  with  surface-condensers,  it  was  formerly 
customary  to  pump  water  from  the  sea  into  the  boilers.  This  involved  deposit  on  the  internal 
surfaces,  and  consequent  loss  of  efficiency  and  danger  of  accident  through  overheating  the 
plates.  With  the  higher  pressures  now  adopted  the  danger  arising  from  overheating  is  much 
more  serious,  and  the  necessity  is  absolute  of  maintaining  the  heating  surfaces  free  from  de- 
posit. This  can  be  done  only  by  filling  the  boilers  with  fresh  water  in  the  first  instance,  and 
maintaining  it  in  that  condition.  To  do  this  two  methods  are  adopted,  either  separately  or  in 
conjunction ;  either  a  reserve  supply  of  fresh  water  is  carried  in  tanks,  or  the  supplementary 
feed  is  distilled  from  sea-water  by  special  apparatus  provided  for  the  purpose. 

In  the  construction  of  the  distilling  or  evaporating  apparatus  advantage  has  been  taken  of 
two  important  physical  facts,  namely,  that  if  water  be  heated  to  a  temperature  higher  than 
that  corresponding  with  the  pressure  on  its  surface,  evaporation  will  take  place ;  and  that  the 
passage  of  heat  from  steam  at  one  side  of  a  plate  to  water  at  the  other  is  very  rapid.  In 
practice  the  distillation  is  effected  by  passing  steam,  say  from  the  first  receiver,  through  a 
nest  of  tubes  inside  a  still  or  evaporator,  of  which  the  steam  space  is  connected  either  with  the 
second  receiver  or  with  the  condenser.  The  temperature  of  the  steam  inside  the  tubes  being 
higher  than  that  of  the  steam  either  in  the  second  receiver  or  in  the  condenser,  the  result  is 
that  the  water  inside  the  still  is  evaporated,  and  passes  with  the  rest  of  the  steam  into  the 
condenser,  where  it  is  condensed  and  serves  to  make  up  the  loss.  This  plan  localizes  the 
trouble  of  deposit  and  frees  it  from  its  dangerous  character  because  an  evaporator  can  not 
become  overheated  like  a  boiler,  even  though  it  be  neglected  until  it  salts  up  solid.  When 
the  tubes  do  become  incrusted  with  deposit,  they  can  be  either  withdrawn  or  exposed,  as  the 
apparatus  is  generally  so  arranged,  and  they  can  then  be  cleaned. 

Screw-Propellers. — An  extensive  series  of  experiments  on  screw-propellers  was  made,  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Blechynden  in  1881,  with  a  large  number  of  models,  the  primary  object 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


285 


being  to  determine  what  value  there  was  in  a  few  of  the  various  twists  which  inventive  inge- 
nuity can  give  to  a  screw-blade.  The  results  led  the  experimenters  to  the  conclusion  that  in- 
free  water  such  twists  and  curves  are  valueless  as  serving  to  augment  efficiency.  The  experi- 
ments were  then  carried  further,  with  a  view  to  determine  quantitative  moduli  for  the  resist- 
ance of  screws  with  different  ratios  of  pitch  to  diameter,  or  "  pitch  ratios,"  and  afterward 
with  different  ratios  of  surface  to  the  area  of  the  circles  described  by  the  tips  of  the  blades, 
or  "  surface  ratios." 

One  of  the  most  important  results  deduced  from  experiments  on  model  screws  is  that  they 
appear  to  have  practically  equal  efficiencies  throughout  a  wide  range  both  in  pitch  ratios  and  in 
surface  ratio,  so  that  great  latitude  is  left  to  the  designer  in  regard  to  the  form  of  the  propeller. 

Another  important  feature  is  that,  although  these  experiments  are  not  a  direct  guide  to 
the  selection  of  the  most  efficient  propeller  for  a  particular  ship,  they  supply  the  means  of 
analyzing  the  performances  of  screws  fitted  to  vessels,  and  of  thus  indirectly  determining  what 
are  likely  to  be  the  best  dimensions  of  screw  for  a  vessel  of  a  class  whose  results  are  known. 
Thus  a  great  advance  has  been  made  on  the  old  method  of  trial  upon  the  ship  itself,  which 
was  the  origin  of  almost  every  conceivable  erroneous  view  respecting  the  screw-propeller. 
The  fact  was  lost  sight  of  that  any  modifications  in  form,  dimensions,  or  proportions  referred 
only  to  that  particular  combination  of  ship  and  propeller,  or  to  one  similar  thereto,  and  so 
something  like  chaos  was  the  result.  This,  however,  need  not  be  the  case  much  longer. 

In  regard  to  the  material  used  for  propellers,  steel  has  been  largely  adopted  for  both  solid 
and  loose  bladed  screws,  but  unless  protected  in  some  way  the  tips  of  the  blades  are  apt  to 
corrode  rapidly  and  become  unserviceable.  One  of  the  stronger  kinds  of  bronze  is  often 
judiciously  employed  for  the  blades  in  conjunction  with  a  steel  boss.  Where  the  first  extra 
expense  can  be  afforded  bronze  seems  the  preferable  material ;  the  castings  are  of  a  reliable 
character,  and  the  metal  does  not  rapidly  corrode ;  the  bronze  blades  can  therefore  with  safety 
be  made  lighter  than  steel  blades,  which  favors  their  springing  and  accommodating  them*- 
selves  more  readily  to  the  various  speeds  of  the  different  parts  of  the  wake.  (References : 
Trans.  List.  Naval  Architects,  1886-'87 ;  Proc.  Inst.  Civ.  Engrs.,  1890 ;  Northeast  Coast  Inst. 
of  Engrs.  and  Ship-builders,  vol.  vii,  1890-'91.) 

Twin  Screws. — The  great  question  of  twin-screw  propulsion  has  been  put  to  the  test  upon 
a  large  scale  in  the  mercantile  marine.  While  engineers,  however,  are  prepared  to  admit  its 
advantages  so  far  as  greater  security  from  total  breakdown  is  concerned,  there  is  by  no  means 
thorough  agreement  as  to  whether  single  or  twin  screws  have  the  greater  propulsive  efficiency. 
What  is  required  to  form  a  sound  judgment  upon  the  whole  question  is  a  series  of  examples 
of  twin  and  single  screw  vessels,  each  of  which  is  known  to  be  fitted  with  the  most  suitable 
propeller  for  the  type  of  vessel  and  speed ;  and  until  this  information  is  available  little  can  be 
said  upon  the  subject  with  any  certainty. 

The  following  table  shows  some  recent  examples  of  twin-screw  steamers : 

TABLE  I.— Passenger-Steamers  fitted  uith  Twin  Screws. 


VESSELS. 

Length 
between 
perpendicular*. 

Beam. 

CYLINDERS,   TWO  SETS 
IN  ALL  CASES. 

Steam 
pressure. 

Indicated 
horee-powtr. 

Diameters. 

Stroke. 

Citv  of  Paris           1 

Ft. 
525 

565 

500 
463} 

440 

415 
46? 

Ft 
63* 

58 

57± 
55* 

51 

48 
54} 

In. 
45,     71,  113 

43,    68,  110 

40,    67,  106 
41,    66,  101 

32,    51,    82 

34,    54.    85 

34i,  57J,  92 

60 

60 

66 
66 

54 

51 
60 

Lbs. 
150 
180 

160 
160 

160 

160 
170 

20,000 

18,000 

11.500 
12,500 

10,125 

10,000 
11,656 

City  of  New  York                            t 

Teutonic  i 

Majestic                               ) 

Normannia 

Columbia  

Empress  of  India  ) 
Empress  of  Japan  >- 

Empress  of  China  } 

Oriel 

Scott  

Twin  screws  offer  an  opportunity  for  reducing  the  weight  of  all  that  part  of  the  machinery 
of  which  the  weight  relatively  to  power  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  re  volutions  for  a  given 
power.  This  can  be  reduce'd  in  the  proportion "  of  1  to  52 — that  is,  to  71  per  cent  of  its 
weight  in  the  single-screw  engine ;  for,  since  approximately  the  same  total  disk  is  required  in 
both  cases  with  similarly  proportioned  propellers,  the  twins  will  work  at  a  greater  speed  of 
revolution  than  the  single  screw. 

Weight  of  Machinery. — It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  weight  of  machinery  relatively  to 
the  power  developed ;  for  this  comparison  has  sometimes  been  adopted  as  the  standard  of  ex- 
cellence in  design  in  respect  of  economy  in  the  use  of  material.  The  principle,  however,  on 
which  this  has  generally  been  done  is  open  to  some  objections.  It  has  been  used  to  compare 
the  weight  directly  with  the  indicated  horse-power,  and  to  express  the  comparison  in  pounds 
per  horse-power.  "So  long  as  the  machinery  thus  compared  is  for  vessels  of  the  same  class 
and  working  at  about  the  same  speed  of  revolution,  no  great  fault  can  be  found ;  but  as  speed 
of  revolution  is  a  great  factor  in  the  development  of  power,  and  as  it  is  often  dependent  on 
circumstances  altogether  external  to  the  engine  and  concerning  rather  the  speed  of  the  ship, 
the  engines  fitted  to  high-speed  ships  will  thus  generally  appear  to  greater  advantage  than  is 
their  due.  Leaving  the  condenser  out  of  the  question,  the  weight  of  an  engine  would  be 
much  better  referred  to  cylinder  capacity  and'  working-pressures,  where  these  are  materially 


286 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


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different,  than  directly  to  the  indicated  power.  In  Table 
II  are  given  the  relative  weights  of  nine  triple-expansion 
engines,  according  to  both  modes  of  comparison.  Nos.  1 
to  6  are  mercantile  engines,  and  Nos.  7  to  9  are  naval  ex- 
amples. It  will  be  noticed  that,  though  the  twin-screw 
engines  Nos.  5  and  6  are  the  same  type  of  engine  as  the 
single-screw  engines  Nos.  1  to  4,  as  evidenced  by  their 
weights  per  cubic  foot  of  cylinder  capacity,  yet  their  en- 
gine-weights per  indicated  horse-power  are  considerably 
lower  by  virtue  of  their  higher  speed  of  revolution. 
Comparing  its  predecessors  with  No.  9,  which  is  a  fair 
type  of  a  naval  engine,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  engines 
usually  fitted  in  the  merchant  service  are  about  44  per 
cent  heavier  per  unit  of  cylinder  capacity  than  this  en- 
gine. The  low  weight  per  unit  of  heating-surface  in 
Nos.  7,  8,  and  9,  which  is  about  22  per  cent  less  than  in 
the  mercantile  examples,  Nos.  1  to  6,  is  due  to  careful 
use  of  material,  as  well  as  to  the  lighter  scantlings 
adopted  for  boilers  by  the  Admiralty. 

.Economy  of  Fuel. — Table  III  gives  the  performances 
of  28  three-stage  expansion  engines  in  ordinary  work  at 
sea.  The  average  consumption  of  coal  per  indicated 
horse-power  is  1*522  Ib.  per  hour.  The  average  working- 
pressure  is  158-5  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  Comparing  this  work- 
ing-pressure with  77'4  Ibs.  in  1881,  a  superior  economy 
of  19  per  cent  might  be  expected  now  on  account  of  the 
higher  temperature ;  or,  taking  the  1-828  Ib.  of  coal  per 
hour  per  indicated  horse-power  in  1881,  the  present  per- 
formance under  similar  conditions  should  be  1-48  Ib.  per 
hour  per  indicated  horse-power.  In  Table  IV  the  prin- 
cipal factors  in  the  present  performance  of  marine  en- 
gines are  compared  with  those  of  1881,  and  also  with 
those  of  1872,  as  indicated  in  the  table  accompanying 
Sir  Frederick  Bramwell's  paper  (Proc.  Inst.  M.  E.,  1872). 
Compared  on  the  same  basis,  then,  it  appears  that  the 
working-pressures  have  been  increased  twice  in  the  last 
ten  years,  and  nearly  three  times  in  the  last  nineteen. 

The  coal  consumptions  have  been  reduced  16*7  per 
cent  in  the  last  ten  years,  and  27*9  per  cent  in  the  last 
nineteen.  The  revolutions  per  minute  have  increased  in 
the  ratios  of  100,  105,  114,  and  the  piston  speeds  as  100, 
124,  140.  Although  it  is  quite  possible  that  further  in- 
vestigations may  show  that  the  present  actual  consump- 
tion of  coal  per  indicated  horse-power  is  understated  in 
Table  IV,  yet  it  is  hardly  probable  that  the  relative  re- 
sults will  be  affected  thereby.  The  returns  of  the  coal 
consumption  have  in  all  cases  been  taken  in  the  same 
way  and  on  the  same  basis  as  for  Mr.  Marshall's  paper 
in  1881  (Proc.  Inst.  M.  K,  1881),  so  that  whatever  errors 
may  affect  the  returns  for  the  one  year  are  likely  to  have 
affected  those  for  the  other.  The  probability  of  error  lies 
in  the  statement  of  the  horse-power  indicated,  which,when 
taken  directly  from  the  ship's  log.  is  usually  in  excess  of 
that  actually  indicated  continuously ;  so  that  the  compar- 
ison of  coal  consumption  with  power  is  open  to  objection. 

Valve  -  Motion.  —  The  old-fashioned  link-motion, 
though  it  seemed  for  a  time  likely  to  disappear,  still 
holds  its  own,  and  in  all  probability  will  continue  to  do 
so.  In  the  distribution  of  steam  it  may  not  be  so  mathe- 
matically accurate  on  paper,  but  practically  the  effect 
is  or  can  be  made  as  good  as  with  the  best  radial  valve- 
gear.  It  does  not  give  constant  lead  when  linking  up, 
but  constant  lead  is  not  the  ideal  of  perfect  valve-set- 
ting. A  constant  lead  angle  of  the  crank  is  more  nearly 
what  is  required,  for  which  a  diminishing  lead  in  the 
valve  with  linking  up  is  the  necessary  condition.  The 
old  link-motion  lends  itself  readily  and  gracefully  to 
any  modifications  which  may  be  suggested  by  changes 
in  the  condition  of  working ;  the  radial  forms  do  not. 
Besides  this,  the  link-motion  admits  of  simple  geomet- 
rical treatment,  which  is  generally  understood  even  in 
the  engine-room,  and  is  consequently  a  safer  arrange- 
ment in  the  hands  of  the  man  found  there. 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


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288 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


TABLE  IV. — Actual  and  Comparative  Results  of  Working  of  Marine  Engines  in  Three  Years, 

1872,  1881,  1891. 


BOILERS,  ENGINES,  AND  COAL. 

ACTUAL  RESULTS. 

COMPARED  WITH 

1872. 

COMPARED  WITH 

1881. 

1872. 

1881. 

1891. 

1872. 

1881. 

1891. 

1872. 

1881. 

1891. 

Boiler  pressure  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

52'4 
4-410 
55'67 
376 
2'llC 

77'4 
3-919 
58-66 
467 

1-828 

158-5 
3-274 
63-75 
529 
1-522 

•000 

•ooo 
•ooo 
•ooo 
•ooo 

1-479 
0-889 
1-050 
1-241 
0-866 

3-020 
0-743 
1-143 
1-405 
0-721 

0-677 
1-125 
0-949 
0-805 
1-153 

i-ooo 
•ooo 
•ooo 
•ooo 
•ooo 

2-048 
0-837 
1-084 
1-133 
0-833 

Heating  surface  per  horse-power  —  sq.  ft. 

Piston  speed  ft.  per  min. 
Coal  per  horse-power  per  hour  .   Ibs. 

Dimensions. — In  the  matter  of  the  power  put  into  individual  vessels  considerable  strides 
have  been  made.  In  1881  probably  the  greatest  power  which  had  been  put  into  one  vessel 
was  in  the  case  of  the  Arizona,  whose  machinery  indicated  about  6,360  horse-power.  The 
following  table  gives  an  idea  of  the  dimensions  and  power  of  the  larger  machinery  in  the 
later  passenger- vessels : 

TABLE  V. — Dimensions  and  Power  of  Machinery  in  later  Passenger  -  Vessels. 


Year. 

Name  of  vessel. 

Diameters  of  cylinders. 

Length  of 

stroke. 

Indicated 
horse-power. 

1881 

Alaska  

In- 

68.  100,  100 

In. 

72 

10,686 

1881 

City  of  Rome  .           

46,  86  ;  46,  86  ;  46.  86 

72 

11,800 

1881 

Servia 

72,  100,  100 

78 

10.300 

1881 

60  78  78  ;  60,  78,  78  ;  60,  78,  78 

39 

12.500 

1883 

Oregon       

70,  104.  104 

72 

13,300 

1884 

Umbria                              .     .      1 

1884 

Etruria  \ 

71,  105,  105 

72 

14,320 

1888  

City  of  New  York  I 

45,  71,  113  ;  45,  71,  113 

60 

20,000,  about. 

1889  
1889  

City  of  Paris  ( 
Majestic  1 

1889 

Teutonic  ....      f 

43,  68,  110  ;  43.  68,  110 

60 

18,000 

In  war-vessels  the  increase  has  been  equally  marked.  In  1881  the  maximum  power  seems 
to  have  been  in  the  Inflexible,  namely,  8,485  indicated  horse-power.  The  following  will 
give  an  idea  of  the  recent  advance  made. 

Indicated 
horse-power. 

Howe  (Admiral  class) 11,600 

Italia  and  Lepanto 19,000 

ReUmberto 19,000 

Blake  and  Blenheim  (building) 20,000 

Sardegna  (building) 22,800 

It  is  thus  evident  that  there  are  vessels  at  work  to-day  having  about  three  times  the  maxi- 
mum power  of  any  before  1881. 

III.  MARINE-ENGINE  TRIALS  AND  PERFORMANCES. — One  of  the  most  thorough  tests  of 
marine  engines  that  have  been  published  is  that  of  the  steamship  lona,  made  in  1890  by  the 
Research  Committee  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  and  reported  by  Prof.  A.  B. 
W.  Kennedy. 

The  lona  has  triple-expansion  engines  on  three  cranks  working  a  single  screw.  She  is  a 
vessel  of  275-1  ft.  length,  37'3  ft.  breadth,  and  19  ft.  depth.  Her  depth,  molded,  is  21  ft.  10 
in.,  and  her  coefficient  of  fineness  is  0'765.  She  has  a  double  bottom  of  cellular  construction 
230  ft.  long,  and  can  carry  443  tons  of  water  ballast.  The  mean  draft  during  the  trial  was  20 
ft.  7f  in.,  corresponding  to  a  displacement  of  4,430  tons.  The  trial  was  made  during  a  voyage, 
and  was  begun  when  fires  were  in  normal  condition  and  everything  warmed  up.  It  lasted 
16  hours.  A  condensed  abstract  of  the  trial  is  given  below. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  measurements  made  upon  the  indicator-diagrams  taken, 
to  ascertain  the  proportion  of  steam  accounted  for  by  them.  The  actual  weight  of  feed-water 
used  per  revolution  was  2-35  Ibs. : 


Percentage  in 

PROPORTION  OF  STEAM  ACCOUNTED  FOR  BY 

Lbs.  per 

Percentage  of 

jacket  or  present 

INDICATOR-DIAGRAMS. 

revolution 

total  feed. 

in  cylinder  as 

Steam  present  in  high-pressure  cylinder  after  cut-off,  when  the 
pressure  was  125  "4  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  above  the  atmosphere  
Steam-pressure  in  intermediate  cylinder,  when  the  pressure  was 
19  4  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  above  the  atmosphere  

1-49 
1'76 

63-4 
74-9 

33-6 
25-1 

Steam  present  in  low-pressure  cylinder  near  end  of  expansion. 

when  the  pressure  was  8'6  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  below  the  atmosphere. 

1-39 

59'i 

40-9 

Table  VI  gives  for  comparison  with  the  results  of  the  trial  of  the  steamship  lona  the 
results  of  the  trials  of  four  other  steamers  tested  by  the  Research  Committee  of  the  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  1888  and  1889.  The  figures  placed  in  brackets  are  considered 
doubtful. 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


289 


TABLE  VI. — Comparative  Results  of  the  Trials  of  Five  Steamers,  Meteor,  Fusi  Yama, 
Colchester,  Tartar,  and  lona. 


\ 

NAME  OF  VESSEL        ....                          

Meteor. 

Fusi 

Colchester 

Tartar 

lona 

Yama. 

2 

Date  of  trial 

June  24 

Nov  14 

Nov  9 

Nov  27 

July  1  3 

3 

Duration  of  trial              hours 

1888. 
17  15 

15,  1888. 
13'95 

1889. 
10-88 

1889. 
10  "08 

14,  1890. 
16 

4 

triple 

com- 

triple 

triple 

pound 

pound 

5 

Cylinder  diameter,  high-pressure  ...  .in. 

29  37 

27-35 

(two)  30 

26-03 

21'88 

6 

ki         intermediate  " 

44'03 

42-03 

34-02 

*'                "         low-pressure                                          " 

70'12 

50-3 

(two)  57 

68'95 

56"95 

8 

Stroke,  length  " 

47-94 

33 

36 

42 

39 

9 

Boilers  number  of  main  boilers 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

10 

"       single-ended  or  double-ended  

double 

single 

double 

double 

single 

11 

Furnaces  total  number        

12 

12 

8 

12 

Heating  surface  total                                                    sq  ft 

6648 

2257 

5  820 

5  226 

3  160 

18 

"        tubes  '• 

5,760 

1,689 

4770 

4366 

2590 

14 

Grate  area.                                 ....                                   " 

208 

52 

220 

161 

42 

15 

Total  heating  surface  to  grate  area  ratio 

32 

43-4 

86-5 

32'5 

75  2 

16 

Tube  surface  to  grate  area  " 

27  7 

32  5 

21'7 

27-1 

61  '7 

17 

Grate  area  to  flue  area  through  tubes                               " 

4'05 

5'51 

4'50 

2'3 

is 

"           "       area  through  funnel                                      " 

5-04 

3  21 

4-77 

4'19 

1'4 

19 
20 

Mean  boiler-pressure  above  atmosphere  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
Mean  admission  pressure,  high-pressure  cylinder  above 
atmosphere  -.  Ibs  per  sq  in 

145-2 
}  134-4 

56  84 
50-3 

80-5 
(    64-3    I 
)    59-4    I 

143-6 
121-4 

165 
142-5 

21 
22 
23 
24 

Mean  effective  pressure  high-pressure  cyl.          "          " 
"           "               "         intermediate  cyl  "          " 
"         low-pressure  cyl  "          " 

Mean  effective  pressure  total   reduced   to  low-pressure 
cylinder  ...     Ibs  per  sq  in 

58-46 
19  50 
12-38 

29'9 

30-74 

10-87 
19'9 

j    45-65  i 
1    42-07  f 

1  'i3:42) 
"(    12-42  f 

24-8 

36-89 
20-07 
7-18 

19'8 

46  65 
20-44 

7-16 

21'13 

25 

Mean  exhaust  pressure  low-pressure  cylinder  below  at- 
mosphere    Ibs.  per  sq  in 

;.n-6 

10'9 

f    10-6    > 
"(    10-5    f 

10-5 

12-74 

26 

Mean  vacuum  in  condenser  below  atmosphere     " 

12-17 

12-48 

12-49 

12  9 

13-88 

97 

Revolutions  per  min.,  mean  .  .                                         revs 

71-78 

55-59 

»    86       i 

70 

eri 

98 

Indicated  horse-power,  mean  total.     .        i  h  -p 

1,994 

371-3 

1    87'1    \ 
)  1,022-5  I 

1,087-4 

645'4 

I     957'2  ) 

99 

Coal  burned  per  min               ....             ...                       Ibs 

66'75 

16'45 

95-7 

32 

15  7 

30 

4005 

987 

5  742 

1  920 

942 

31 

per  sq  ft  of  grate  per  hour  .                          ' 

19-25 

18-98 

26'1 

11-93 

22  4 

32 

33 

per  sq.  ft.  of  total  heating  surface  per  hour   ' 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour  ' 

0-602 
2-01 

0-437 
2-66 

0-987 
2'90 

0-367 
1  77 

0-298 
1'46 

34 

Carbon-  value  of  1  Ib  of  coal  as  used    ....                          ' 

0-878 

0'878 

0-913 

I'OSl 

1'02 

35 

equivalent  per  i  h  -p  per  hour                     * 

1'76 

2'33 

2  65 

T82 

1'49 

36 

Feed-water  per  min                                                             Ibs 

497-7 

131 

717 

359-4 

143  "4 

37 

per  hour               " 

29,860 

7.860 

43,020 

21,564 

8.616 

38 
39 

per  sq.  ft,  of  total  heating  surface  per  hour  " 

4  49 
7'46 

3'48 
7'96 

7-39 
7-49 

4'13 
[11  '231 

2-73 
9 

40 

per  Ib  of  coal  from  and  at  212°  F  " 

8-21 

8-87 

8'53 

[13-061 

10  63 

41 
42 

per  Ib.  of  carbon-value  from  and  at  212°  F.  " 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour  " 

9-62 
14-98 

10  10 
21-17 

9  34 
21-73 

ri2-67] 
[19-83] 

10-42 
13-35 

43 

Calorific  value  of  1  Ib  of  coal  as  used                         Th  U 

12,770 

12760 

13280 

14995 

14830 

44 

45 

Percentage  of  line  43  taken  up  by  feed-water  
"        carried  away  by  furnace  gases 

62 
21-9 

67  2 
23  5 

62 
28 

22:i 

69-2 
16'2 

46 
47 

lost  by  imperfect  combustion  
"        expended  in  evaporating  moisture 
in  coal 

3-6 
12 

00 
0'9 

1-3 
0'4 

o-o 

O'O 

00 

O'O 

48 

"        unaccounted  for  

11-3 

8-4 

8-3 

14-6 

49 

Heat  taken  up  by  feed-water  per  min  Th.  U. 

528.600 

141,100 

788.700 

[403,600] 

161,100 

50 
51 

'     turned  into  work  per  min  " 
'     taken  up  by  feed-  water  per  i.  h.-p.  per  min.  .  . 

85,240 
265-6 

15,870 
380 

84.630 
398-4 

46.490 
[371-2] 

27.500 
249-6 

52 
53 

Efficiency  of  boiler  (line  44)  per  cent 
of  engine  (line  50  -i-  line  49)                              il 

62 
16'1 

67-2 
11  '2 

62 
10'7 

[ii-51 

69-2 
17'1 

54 
55 

"         of  engine  and  boiler  combined  (1.52x1.  53)    " 
Mean  velocity  of  steam  through  water-surface  in  boilers 
per  min  ft 

10 

7-6 

6'28 

6-6 
8'6 

9-7 
3'43 

11-8 
1'61 

56 

Space  occupied  by  boilers  per  i.  h.-p  cub.  ft. 

2  72 

4-53 

2-52 

4  -.33 

4'15 

57 

Weight  of  engines,  boilers,  etc.,  with  water,  per  i.  h.-p.,  tons 

0'20 

0-27 

0-20 

0-27 

0-31 

Performance  of  Engines  of  the  Steamship  City  of  Paris. — The  indicator  diagrams  shown 
in  Fig.  9  are  reduced  from  cards  published  in  the  American  Machinist  of  February  12,  1891. 
The  following  particulars  are  given  in  connection  with  the  cards.  The  scale  of  the  original 
cards  was  ^4-  for  the  high-pressure,  ^  for  the  intermediate,  and  -,^6-  for  the  low-pressure.  The 
engraved  cards  here  shown  are  four  ninths  of  the  size  of  the  original. 

(For  details  of  the  quickest  passages  made  by  the  City  of  Paris,  see  section  Performances 
of  Atlantic  Steamers,  p.  294.) 

19 


290 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


Port  Engine. 


Starboard  Engine. 


FIG.  9.—  Indicator  cards,  engines  steamship  City  of  Paris. 


TABLE  VII. — Steamship  City  of  Paris. 

Diameter  of  cylinder,  h.-p 

"          i.  p 

1.  p 

Area  of  grate  surface 

4(1      heating  surface 50,250 

cooling  surface 33,000 

RATIOS. 

Heating  to  grate  surface 3f 

"         condenser  surface 1 ' 

Stroke  (common) 

Ratios  of  cylinders : 

H.-P.  I.  P. 

1  2-489 

1  2-53 

2-489:  2-53::  1:1-017 


45" 
71" 
113" 
.ft. 


•8:1 
60" 


L.  P. 


PERFORMANCE,  JULY  29,  1889. 


Port. 

Starboard. 

148 
87 
26 
full 

64 
31-35 
14-4 
2,588-7 
3.272-2 
3,785-3 
9,646-2 

148 
86-5 
26 
full 

62-4 
31-35 
14-4 
2,509-5 
3,255 
3,763-9 
9,528-4 
19,174  6 
119° 
54° 
*10"25 
13-87 
12-42 

110-1 

14-82 

6-32 

36  69 

Vacuum                                                           .                 

Cut-off  h  p 

"       i  p.  .. 

«   ip     .:                    .;;..;..;....  :  

"            "          i   p 

1   p    .                                                   ...            

Indicated  horse-power  h  p 

i.  p  

"                 "             lp                                              •  •  •               

Total  indicated  horse-power  for  one  engine 

Temperature  of  feed-water                                            .  .            

sea-water 

11-42 
13-1 
11-74 

110-84 

"               u           u        i  p 

"    ip  :... 

I  h  -p  per  sq  ft  of  grate  .                                         .                  

"           "          of  heating  surface,  ^^.  or  2'62  sq.  ft.  h.  s.  per  i.  h.-p. 

"           "          of  condensing  surface,  —  -,  or  1'72  sq.  ft.  c.  s.  per  i.  h.-p. 

Clearance,  calculated  from  compression-curve,  h.  p.,  17'9  ;  i.  p.,  8'25  ;  1.  p., 
7'4  per  cent. 
Number  of  cub.  ft.  swept  per  min.  per  i.  h.-p.  by  l.-p.  piston  
Mean  pressures  referred  to  l.-p.  piston.  .  . 

6-28 
36-89 

*  From  indicator  cards.    No  allowance  for  heat  into  work  or  condensation. 


EXGIXES,   MARIXE. 


291 


or  near  the  middle  of  the  length  of  ^  the  hull,  and  driven  by  the  American  type  of  beam- 
engine.  The  service  demanded  of  a  New  York  ferry-boat  calls  for  some  peculiar  features  of 
construction.  The  weight  of  the  loads  carried,  both  in  passengers  and  teams,  as  well  as  the 
strain  caused  by  the  ice,  and  the  danger  of  collision,  all  call  for  a  hull  of  great  strength  and 
rigidity.  Beyond  this,  the  vessel  must  have  great  stability  to  resist  burying  by  the  head  as 
well  as*  heeling.  She  must  be  able  to  make  headway  in  floating  ice,  and  should  attain  a  speed 
of  about  12  miles  an  hour  in  service.  Quite  recently  a  departure  from  the  paddle-wheel  boat 
has  been  made  in  the  ferry  between  New  York  and  Hoboken,  which  has  proved  so  successful 
that  other  ferry  companies  are  preparing  to  follow  the  example.  The  first  ferry-boat  of  this 
type  on  the  Hoboken  ferry,  called  the  Bergen,  is  described  at  length  in  a  paper  by  E.  A. 
Stevens  and  Prof.  J.  E.  Denton,  in  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  x.  The  chief  feature  of  novelty 
in  the  Bergen  is  the  use  of  two  screws,  each  of  8  ft.  diam.,  and  8'9  ft.  pitch,  one  at  the  bow 
and  one  at  the  stern,  on  a  single  shaft  running  the  entire  length  of  the  boat,  driven  by  a 
triple  expansion  engine. 

TABLE  VIII. — Showing  a  Comparison  as  to  Capacity  between  the  Bergen,  Orange,  and 
JHoonachie,  of  the  Hoboken  Ferry,  built  respectively  in  1889,  1887,  and  1877. 


B.^ 

Orange. 

Moonachie. 

Built                                 

1889 

1887 

1877 

Hull 

Steel 

Steel 

Wood 

Triple  expan 

Size  

propeller 
iej",  27".  and 

beam 
46"  x  IV 

beam 
44"  x  l<y 

Safety-valve  pressure 

Ibs  per  sq  in 

42"  x  2' 
160 

45 

30 

Length  1  w  1 

200 

217 

200 

Beam  Iwl                      

ft 

32'16 

32 

32 

ft 

62 

62 

62 

Draft  bull  to  base-line  

8-83 

7-66 

8 

Displacement  to  1  w  1         .                  ... 

tons 

560 

655 

550 

"             per  in  at  1  w  1 

12'6 

Space  available  for  passengers  

sq.  ft 

4330 

3791 

3335 

**         for  number  of  seats.  .  .  . 

296 

254 

236 

sq  ft 

3448 

3  940 

3  380 

In  the  paper  referred  to  Prof.  Denton  describes  at  length  experiments  made  to  determine 
the  relative  economy  of  the  Bergen  as  compared  with  the  best  type  of  paddle-wheel  ferry-boat 
having  the  common  style  of  overhead  beam-engine,  a  jet  condenser,  and  drop-return  flue- 
boilers.  The  paddle-boat  selected  for  this  purpose  was  the  Orange,  one  of  a  pair  of  steel  boats 
designed  in  1887  by  Mr.  Francis  B.  Stevens,  and  representing  the  best  modern  example  of  its 
class  of  ferry-boats.  The  programme  carried  out  was  as  follows: 

I.  The  steam  consumption,  boiler  evaporation,  horse-power,  and  speed  were  determined  for 
each  boat  during  14  hours  of  regular  ferry  service. 

II.  Each  was  run  to  Xewburgh  and  return,  a  distance  of  120  miles,  without  stoppage,  and 
the  steam  consumption  per  horse-power  determined  at  the  maximum  capacity  of  the  boilers. 
Also  the  evaporative  economy  of  the  boilers,  starting  with  new  wood-fires,  was  determined 
during  an  interval  of  14  hours,  and  the  speed  was  measured  by  an  estimate  of  the  probable 
velocity  of  tides,  and  a  log  whose  correction  coefficient  was  approximately  known. 

III.  The  speed  of  the  Bergen  was  determined  at  the  maximum  horse-power  for  which  the 
engines  were  designed,  by  opposite  runs  over  a  1-mile  course,  after  allowing  the  boiler-pressure 
to  accumulate  above  the  average  pressure  which  the  boilers  can  maintain  for  more  than  a  few 
minutes. 

IV.  One  of  the  screws  of  the  Bergen  was  removed,  and  the  power  and  speed  determined  by 
runs  over  a  2-mile  course,  first  with  the  engine-screw  pushing  and  then  with  it  pulling  the 
boat  at  equal  speeds  of  revolution  of  the  engine. 

TABLE  IX. — General  Summary  of  Experiments  of  Ferry-boats  Orange  and  Bergen. 


] 

BERGEN. 

ORANGE. 

High. 

Interm. 

Low. 

ENGINE. 

Diameter  of  cylinder  in. 

46  in 

IP*" 

27" 

42 

Stroke  .ft 

10ft 

2ft. 

2ft. 

2ft. 

Cut-off  

0'45 

f 

* 

| 

Clearance  

3  '7# 

1fi* 

10-7* 

1  1  '  :r 

Total  expansion  

2'1 

9 

Area  of  admission-ports,  per  cent  of  piston  

12£ 

1J&J 

11 

BOILERS. 

Total  heating  surface  sq.  f  t. 

3.049 

3,462 

Superheating  surface     " 

'    0 

0 

Grate  area  .....                                                                        " 

80 

81 

Ratio  of  grate  to  heating  surface.  .  . 

38 

43 

292 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


TABLE  IX. — General  Summary  of  Experiments  of  Ferry-boats  Orange  and  Bergen  (continued). 


120-mile 

1UD. 

Ferry 
service. 

120-mile 
run. 

Ferry 

service. 

PRESSURES. 

Average  boiler  pressure                Ibs.  above  atmosphere 

17 

32 

114 

140 

"       pressure  during  admissior  u 
"       back  pressure  " 

16 

31 
4 

105 

100 
3 

27  in 

27  in 

TEMPERATURES. 

93° 

118° 

Uptake                                                                                 

500° 

750° 

Top  of  stack                            

435° 

650° 

INDICATED   HORSE-POWER. 

490 

810 

"        not  including  'pumps     

665 

650 

9 

| 

"       bilge-pump                   

i| 

TOTAL  WEIGHTS. 

*1  560 

*1  580 

Percentage  of  ashes               

\\% 

7'87$ 

Feed-water  per  hour  for  all  purposes  

13,487 

14  51  1 

2  358 

14                "          for  steering  engines  Ibs. 

150 

150 

EFFICIENCY  OF  BOILERS. 

Evaporation  at  actual  pressure  and  temperature  of  feed  per  Ib. 
of  coal                      

8'65 

9-9 

Q'AO 

Evaporation  from  and  at  212°  per  Ib.  of  combustible  

U 

EFFICIENCY  OF  ENGINE. 

Water  for  all  purposes  per  hour  per  i.  h.-p  

25 

21-8 

22-9 

Water  main  engines  only  per  hour  per  i.  h.-p  

18-3 

Water  feed,  and  circulating  pumps,  etc.,  per  hour  per  i.  h.-p  

160 

130 

Theoretical  water  per  hour  per  i.  h.-p  / 

Condens- 

Non-con- 

Calculated from  card  ...                                                                    .  .  i 

20 

ing 
13-2 

densing 

TABLE  X. — Summary  of  Speed  Determinations  of  Bergen. 


1 

:STIMATED  SPEEDS. 

Revolutions 

Horse- 

Observed  still- 
water  or  truo 

Slip  per 

From  a  speed 

From  augmented  surface. 

From 

CONDITIONS. 

P 

po 

miles  per  hour. 

at  145  revs  by 

v  _  f/21,200  H.-P. 

apparent 

Aug.  surf. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Two  screws  in  use  

One  screw  at  stern  .  . 
One  screw  at  bow  .  .  . 

142 
146 

16-2 
114 
71 
145 
163 
83 
145 

662 
700 
1.007 
334 
97 
458 
684 
93 
461 

11-9 
1-2-62 
14-6 
10-5 
6-4 
11-96 
13-42 
6-98 
11-28 

16-4 
12-6 
11 
10"? 
10'? 
18-2 
17-7 
16 
t22'3 

12-37 
12-60 
14-30 
10-50 
6 
11-96 
13-67 
7-30 

14-19 
14-57 
16-13 
11-27 
7-45 
12-5 
14-32 
7-36 
11-99 

11*8 

13-4 
16-2 
11-6 

7-8 
12-7 
14-4 
7-8 
12 

TABLE  XI. — Speed  of  Paddle-wheel  Boat  Orange. 


Revolutions. 

Horse-power. 

Observed  true  speed, 
statute  miles. 

Speed  calculated  from 
augmented  surface. 

Apparent  slip, 
percentage. 

Speed  estimated  by  law 
of  cubes,  statute  miles. 

y  _   J/18,000  H.-P. 

Aug.  surf. 

22-9 
24-6 

490 
642 

Mi 

12-1 

26 
26 

12:6 

Average  pitch  for  pushing  side  of  blade 8'911 

Average  pitch  for  pulling  side  of  blade 8"920 

Projected  area  of  blades  in  per  cent  of  disk  area 53'1 

Area  of  boss 3'5 

Long-Service  Trial  of  Bergen  versus  Orange. — During  October,  1888,  the  Orange  was 
operated  steadily,  on  the  Barclay  Street  route,  339  hours,  averaging  about  15  hours  daily. 


*  These  amounts  are  estimated  from  the  feed-water  consumed,  by  use  of  the  figures  for  evaporation  per 
Ib.  of  coal,  as  determined  from  the  boiler-tests. 

t  Assumed  to  be  18  per  cent  for  calculation  of  column  7. 


ENGINES,   MARINE.  293 


Her  coal  consumption,  including  fuel  for  banking  and  starting  fires,  was  1,027  Ibs.  per  hour. 
During  June,  1889,  the  Bergen  was  operated  the  same  number  of  hours,  and  upon  the  same 
time-table  as  the  Orange.  Her  coal  consumption  was  936  Ibs.  per  hour.  The  coal  used  by 
the  Bergen  was,  therefore,  about  9  per  cent  less  than  that  used  by  the  Orange.  Some  of  the 
conditions  of  this  trial  were  unfavorable  to  the  Bergen. 

Possible  Maximum  Economy  of  a  Screw-boat  versus  Paddle-boat. — Assuming  that  three 
fourths  of  the  pump's,  etc.,  consumption,  which  was  very  excessive  in  the  Bergen,  can  be 
saved,  and  that  the  full  advantages  of  the  triple  expansive  system  can  be  made  available  by 
maintaining  150  Ibs.  pressure,  the  steam  consumption  per  hour  per  horse-power  of  all  the 
machinery  may  be  safely  estimated  at  18  Ibs.  This  would  make  the  consumption  relative  to 
the  Orange  for  14-mile  speeds,  as  910  X  18  =  16,380  to  810  X  26,  or  as  78  to  100,  making  a 
margin  of  22  per  cent  in  fuel.  The  same  size  of  engine  as  in  the  Bergen  could  command 
1,000  horse-power  with  about  two  thirds  of  the  present  boiler  capacity.  This  will  make  the 
boilers  of  a  screw-boat  weigh  about  the  same  as  those  of  the  Orange. 

The  total  weight  of  the  screw-boat  will  be  about  220.000  Ibs.  lighter,  80,000  Ibs.  of  which 
is  due  to  absence  of  paddle-wheels  and  140,000  Ibs.  to  difference  of  weight  of  hull.  The  differ- 
ence of  first  cost  due  this  difference  of  weight  plus  the  above  saving  of  coal,  must  be  put 
against  the  extra  repairs  of  the  machinery  and  extra  attendance  of  the  screw-boat.  Prolonged 
experience  with  the  new  type  of  boat  can  alone  settle  exactly  the  balance  in  its  favor ;  but  that 
there  will  be  a  considerable  balance  financially  there  need  be  little  doubt,  while  the  advan- 
tages of  better  accommodation,  greater  attractiveness,  and  greater  control  in  service  are  in- 
contestable. 

After  a  year's  experience  with  the  Bergen,  during  which  she  amply  justified  the  expecta- 
tions of  her  builders  and  owners,  another  screw-boat,  the  Bremen,  was  built,  and  was  put  in 
service  in  December,  1891.  Instead  of  a  triple-expansion  engine,  the  Bremen  was  fitted  with 
two  independent  compound  engines,  each  20  and  36  in.  diameter  of  cylinder  and  2  ft.  4  in. 
stroke,  the  cranks  in  each  engine  being  opposite,  or  at  180°,  and  the  line  of  cranks  of  the  two 
engines  being  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Each  engine  is  therefore  perfectly  balanced,  and 
the  crank-shaft,  having  four  cranks  at  90°,  thus  receives  a  very  uniform  turning  effort,  which 
diminishes  the  tendency  to  vibration  of  the  boat,  which  is  a  very  objectionable  feature  in 
most  ferry-boats.  On  the  trial  trip  the  Bremen  made  an  average  speed  of  13|  miles  per  hour. 
The  steam  consumption  per  indicated  horse-power  of  the  engines  was  20'64  Ibs.  per  hour. 
The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  of  the  boat  and  its  power  equipment :  Length  of 
load  water-line,  217  ft. ;  beam  (load  water-line),  35  ft. ;  beam  over  guards,  62  ft. ;  displacement 
(load  water-line),  1,900,000  Ibs.:  number  of  seats,  464;  length  of  boiler,  21  ft.;  diameter  of 
boiler,  9  ft.;  number  of  boilers,  2;  grate  area,  91  sq.  ft.;  ratio  of  grate  area  to  total  heating 
surface,  36-6:  diameter  of  cylinders,  2  of  20  in.,  2  of  36  in.;  stroke,  2  ft.  4  in.;  safety-valve 
pressure,  120  Ibs. ;  diameter  of  propellers,  8  ft.  6  in. ;  pitch  of  propellers,  11  ft. 

The  Efficiency  of  Screw- Propellers. — In  a  paper  presented  at  the  Washington  meeting  of 
the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1891,  Prof.  J.  E.  Denton  points  out 
that  the  statement  to  be  found  in  some  standard  treatises  and  text-books  to  the  effect  that 
the  screw-propeller  realizes  but  about  38  per  cent  useful  effect  out  of  a  given  indicated  horse- 
power, is  inconsistent  with  modern  data  regarding  screw  propulsion.  This  was  one  of  the 
generalizations  of  Froude,  the  great  expert,  regarding  marine  propulsion,  and  was  arrived  at 
as  follows :  Out  of  a  given  indicated  horse-power  it  was  assumed :  First,  that  15|  per  cent  was 
lost  through  the  "  stern  resistance  "  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  propeller  at  the  stern  inter- 
fering with  the  support  of  the  latter  by  the  following  wave  or  the  replacement  wave  of  Scott 
Russell's  theory.  This  was  determined  by  towing  models  with  a  dynamometer,  first  without 
a  screw  and  second  with  a  screw,  detached  from  the  model,  but  made  to  follow  close  behind  it. 
Second,  about  4  per  cent  was  estimated  to  be  lost  by  the  friction  of  the  screw  in  the  water. 
There  is  no  very  accurate  knowledge  of  this  element'of  loss  to-day.  Third,  13  per  cent  was 
assumed  to  be  consumed  in  the  friction  of  the  engine  unloaded,  and  13  per  cent  more  was 
assumed  to  be  expended  by  the  extra  friction  due  to  the  load  on  the  engine.  Fifth,  about  7 
per  cent  was  assumed  to  be  consumed  by  the  air-pump.  The  only  authority  for  this  was  a 
statement  by  Tredgold.  Sixth,  the  slip  was  assumed  at  10  per  cent.  The  total  loss,  there- 
fore, foots  up  about  62  per  cent,  leaving  about  38  per  cent  of  the  indicated  power  available  to 
propel  the  hull.  Dynamometer  tests  have  always  shown  considerably  higher  efficiency  than 
this,  affording  from  65  to  70  per  cent,  as  shown  in  the  following  table.  Also,  computations  of 
efficiency  based  on  an  estimate  of  the  resistance  of  the  hull  by  Rankine's  augmented  surface 
theory,  on  a  number  of  American  boats,  indicate  an  efficiency  of  about  67  per  cent  for  both 
screws  and  paddles.  Rankine's  formula  for  resistance  is  considered  to  err  on  the  side  of 
giving  too  low  a  horse-power  for  a  given  speed,  so  that  efficiencies  calculated  by  it  are  too  low, 
if  in  error.  The  air-pump  resistance  of  marine  engines  is  now  known  to  be  only  about  1^  per 
cent  of  the  indicated  horse-power.  The  friction  of  the  engine  unloaded  has  been  found  to  be 
as  low  as  8  per  cent.  A  revisal  of  Fronde's  estimate  with  these  modifications  might  therefore 
show  nearly  60  per  cent  efficiency.  Rankine's  estimate  of  the  efficiency  of  the  Warrior,  a 
screw  vessel  in  the  British  Navy,  made  the  stern  resistance  7  per  cent,  the  slip  9  per  cent,  the 
screw  friction  2  per  cent,  and  the  friction  of  engine  loaded,  including  air-pump,  22  per  cent ; 
making  the  total  loss  40  per  cent,  and  the  efficiency  60  per  cent. 

The  first  line  of  the  following  table  applies  to  the  steamer  Admiral,  whose  efficiency  Ran- 
kine  also  estimated  at  60  per  cent.  The  remaining  boats  for  which  the  hull  resistance  is  esti- 
mated ply  on  the  Hudson  River,  the  Orange  and  Bergen  being  ferry-boats,  the  others  well- 
known  passenger-boats : 


294 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


TABLE  XII.— Efficiency  of  Screws  and  Paddles. 


NAME. 

I 
H 

d 

I 

d 

i 

Displacement, 
gross  tong. 

Wetted  surface, 
sq.ft. 

CoefflciLnt  of 
augmeutation. 

Augmented  surface. 

1  Indicated  horse- 
power. 

Speed  in  knots. 

•s 

t 

Per  cent  of  indi- 
cated power  avail- 
able to  propel  hull. 

FEATHERING  PADDLES. 

Admiral 

1860 

8,560 

744 

12 

22 

•60 

City  of  Fall  River  

RADIAL  PADDLES. 

Mary  Powell          

1884 
1879 

260 
286 

42 

.12' 
6' 

2,350 

857 

11,000 

7.377 

1-26 
1-08 

13,804 
7,981 

1,616 
1,600 

14 
16-65 

20 
16* 

•68 
•68 

Sylvan  Dell 

1880 

178 

25 

4'  10" 

305 

3,737 

1-20 

4,495 

686 

15-3 

20* 

•68 

Rhode  Island  
Orange                

1877 
1890 

325 
211 

45 

32 

10' 

7'  8" 

2,513 

13,695 
5,571 

1-18 
1-32 

16,000 
7,347 

2,300 
490 

15 
10-4 

ir 

27 

•69 
•55 

SINGLE  SCREW. 

Homer  Ramsdell  
City  of  Kingston  
Bergen,  using  one  screw 
at  stern  

1889 
1886 

1890 

211 
250 

200 

34 
32 

11' 

10' 

8'  10" 

611 
700 

7,365 

8,260 

5,788 

1-21 
1-30 

8,839 
9,736 

5,788 

1,030 
1,120 

7,524 

13-67 
14 

10-5 

11 

15 
18 

•68 
•69 

•60 

In  the  above  examples  the  power  to  propel  the  hull  is  estimated  from  the  augmented  surface  In  the 
following  cases  the  power  to  propel  the  hull  was  measured  by  a  dynamometer  at  the  thrust-block  of  the 
screw-shaft. 


SINGLE  SCREWS. 

Rattler 

1840 

176f 

32'  8" 

888 

835 

19-2 

•70 

1890 

70 

14'  9" 

5' 

69 

170 

10-5 

13-4 

•69 

1OQO 

100 

12'  6" 

40 

230 

15 

•65 

Performances  of  Atlantic  Steamers. — The  remarkable  Atlantic  passages  of  1891  were  made 
by  the  Majestic  and  Teutonic,  of  the  White  Star  line.  The  Majestic  made  the  westward  trip 
several  times  under  6  days,  the  mean  speeds  varying  from  19-58  to  20-11  knots.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1892,  she  made  an  average  run  of  20-41  miles  per  hour,  the  highest  accomplished,  but  the 
longer  route  being  taken,  the  Teutonic's  record  for  quick  passage  was  not  broken.  The  Teu- 
tonic steamed  from  Queenstown  to  New  York  thrice  in  less  than  6  days,  and  made  the  re- 
turn trip  three  times  within  the  same  period.  Of  the  12  best  passages  made  by  these  steam- 
ers in  1891,  the  mean  time  is  but  5  days  21  hours  and  5  minutes.  The  following  table  shows 
the  details  of  the  quickest  passages  made  by  the  above  vessels,  and  by  the  City  of  Paris  and 
City  of  New  York,  of  the  Inman  and  International  lines : 

Queenstown  to  New  York. 


STEAMER. 

Date. 

Passage. 

Miles  steamed. 

Speed  in  knots. 

Teutonic                   

August,  1891. 

d.     h.      m. 
5     16     31 

2.778 

20-35* 

Majestic                                           .     . 

July,  1891 

5    18      8 

2  777 

20-11  t 

City  of  Paris  

August,  1889. 

5    19    18 

2,788 

20-01  t 

City  of  New  York            

October,  1890. 

5    21     19 

2775 

19'63# 

New  York  to  Queenstown. 


STEAMER. 

Date. 

Passage. 

Miles  steamed. 

Speed  in  knots. 

October  1891 

d.     h.     m. 
5     21       3 

2790 

19'79A 

City  of  Paris  

December,  1889. 

5    22    50 

2.784 

19'49 

City  of  New  York         

September,  1891 

5    22    50 

2782 

19-44 

Majestic 

1890 

5    23    16 

2809 

19'61 

The  Fiirst  Bismarck,  of  the  Hamburg- American  line,  made  the  run  from  Southampton  to 
New  York  (3,086  miles),  in  May,  1891,  in  6  days  14  hours  15  minutes — average  speed,  19-5 
knots  ;  and  the  return  to  Southampton  (3,114  miles)  in  6  days  13  hours  25  minutes — average 
speed,  19-78  knots. 

The  accompanying  table,  from  Engineering,  shows  the  dimensions  and  performances  of 
some  of  the  most  notable  Atlantic  steamers  built  from  1874  to  1891,  in  comparison  with  the 
Great  Eastern,  built  in  1858  : 


*  Daily  runs  :  460,  496,  505,  510,  517,  290  miles. 
t  Daily  runs  :  470,  501.  497,  501,  491,  317  miles. 
t  Daily  runs  :  432,  493,  502,  506,  509,  346  miles. 

*  Daily  runs  :  437,  460,  498,  495.  491,  394  miles. 

II  In  November,  1891,  the  Teutonic  came  home  in  5  d.  21  hrs.  45  min.,  but  the  distance  traveled  gave  her 
a  mean  speed  of  19'85  knots. 

A  Daily  runs :  483,  468,  468,  460,  440,  457,  14  miles. 


ENGINES,   MARINE. 


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296 


ENGINES,   STEAM   ROTARY. 


As  to  fast  vessels  of  the  future,  none  of  the  builders  of  Atlantic  steamers  entertain  any 
belief  in  the  probability  of  electricity  or  any  other  motive  power  superseding  steam  in  the  pro- 
pulsion of  ships.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  if  electricity  could  be  generated  by  com- 
pact carbon  or  gas  batteries  of  the  same  weight  as  is  required  for  the  boilers  and  engines  in 
present-day  racers  there  would  be  a  great  advantage,  for  the  efficiency  of  the  electric  motor  is 
very  much'higher  than  that  of  the  steam-engine ;  but  for  the  present,  steam  is  the  only  source 
of  power  for  ship  propulsion.  The  principal  aim  in  the  future  will  be  to  so  design  boilers  and 
machinery  as  to  give  the  best  results  for  weight,  and  chemistry  may  help  the  marine  engineer- 
by  producing  an  alloy  which,  reducing  the  weight,  will  allow  of  a  higher  piston-speed.  There 
is  not  much  chance  of  any  material  change  in  propellers.  The  main  idea  is  to  make  them  of 
such  a  size  as  to  enable  the  engines  to  revolve  at  their  designed  speed. 

If  the  ship  of  the  future,  then,  is  to  be  of  greater  size — and  the  past  certainly  points  in  this 
direction — there  is  no  alternative  but  to  continue  increasing  the  power  of  the  engines.  Taking 
the  case  of  the  City  of  Paris,  which  at  her  maximum  speed  of  21  knots  required  over  20,000 
indicated  horse-power,  we  find  that  she  would  require  for  23^  knots  speed  28,000  indicated 
horse-power,  and  for  25  knots  34,000  indicated  horse-power.  For  an  increase  in  speed  of  20 
per  cent  there  is,  therefore,  needed  an  addition  of  70  per  cent  to  the  power. 

As  to  speed,  there  is  really  no  insurmountable  difficulty  in  attaining  40  knots,  but  this 
would  require  something  like  160,000  indicated  horse-power,  70  boilers  to  generate  the  steam 
for  the  engines,  and  these  would  burn  considerably  more  than  2,000  tons  of  coal  per  day.  The 
experience  of  the  past  suggests  these  figures.  Some  idea  may  be  formed  as  to  the  size  of 
vessel  necessary  for  this  machinery.  The  question  is  one  of  finance,  and  it  might  need  a 
company  of  millionaires  to  own  and  run  a  fleet  of  such  vessels.  In  ten  years  the  speed  has 
increased  from  16  to  20  knots,  and  in  the  same  time  the  indicated  horse-power  has  gone  up 
from  6  000  to  18,000,  while  the  size  of  the  ship  has  only  been  doubled.  To  attain  this  result 
the  ship  of  to-day  burns  1,900  tons  of  coal  in  six  days,  whereas  ten  years  ago  600  tons  only 
were  burned  in  7|  days.  (See  Engineering  for  Dec.  4,  1891,  for  graphic  diagrams  and  other 
information,  and  for  June  19,  1891,  for  performances  of  Atlantic  steamers  during  the  season 
of  1890.) 

ENGINES,  STEAM  ROTARY.  The  Tower  Spherical  Engine.— The  construction  of 
this  engine  is  described  in  detail,  with  illustrations,  in  Proc.  Inst.  M.  E.,  1885.  Space  will 
not  admit  of  the  complete  description  being  given  here,  but  the  following  abstract  gives  a 
clear  idea  of  its  geometrical  principles.  The  spherical  engine  consists,  as  its  name  implies,  of 
a  system  of  parts  contained  within  a  sphere,  and  so  united  as  to  enable  them  under  the  action 
of  steam-pressure  to  impart  rotary  motion  to  a  shaft.  It  is  an  engine  that  seems  peculiarly 
suitable  for  high-speed  direct  driving.  It  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Beauchamp  Tower,  to  whom 
the  idea  of  its  construction  originally  occurred  through  watching  the  relative  motions  of  the 
three  parts  composing  a  universal  joint. 

Geometrical  Construction :  Considered  geometrically,  the  three  elementary  moving  parts 
of  which  the  engine  is  composed  are,  a  pair  of  quarter-spheres  A  and  B<  with'a  circular  disk 
Pof  infinitesimal  thickness  interposed  between  them,  the  diameter  of  the  disk  being  the  same 
as  that  of  the  sphere  of  which  they  are  sectors.  The  straight  edges  of  the  sectors  are  hinged 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  disk  along  diameters  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  illustrated  in 
the  diagram,  Fig.  1,  in  which  the  disk  P,  being  seen  edgewise,  appears  as  a  straight  edge 


Fia.  1. 


FIG.  f 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4. 
FIGS.  1-8.— Tower  spherical  engine— details. 


Fi3.  8. 


FIG. 


only.  Each  sector  rotates  upon  an  axis  of  its  own,  upon  which  it  is  fixed  symmetrically ;  the 
two  axes  lie  in  the  same  plane,  which  is  the  plane  of  the  paper  in  Fig.  1,'and  they  meet  in 
the  center  of  the  disk  P  at  an  angle  of  135°.  The  two  sections  A  and  B  thus  correspond  with 
the  two  bows  of  an  ordinary  universal  joint,  and  the  disk  P  answers  to  the  cross-piece  con- 
necting the  bows.  Starting  from  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  supposing  the  direction 


ENGINES,   STEAM   ROTARY. 


297 


of  rotation  to  be  such  that  the  lower  portion  of  the  right-hand  sector  is  approaching  toward 
the  eye  while  its  upper  portion  is  receding,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows,  the  relative  positions 
after  three  successive  eighths  of  a  revolution  will  be  as  shown  in  Figs.  2,  3,  4. 

Considering  first  the  relative  motions  of  the  left-hand  sector  A  and  the  disk  P,  it  is  seen 
that  in  Fig.  1  this  sector  is  in  close  contact  throughout  with  the  lower  half  of  the  disk ;  while 
between  the  sector  and  the  upper  half  of  the  disk  there  is  a  cavity  equal  to  a  quarter  sphere. 
In  rotating  from  Fig.  1  to  Fig.  2,  a  cavity  is  opening  between  the  sector  A  and  the  lower  half 
of  the  disk  P,  while  the  upper  cavity  is  closing  to  the  same  extent.  In  Fig.  3  the  opening  and 
closing  cavities  are  of  equal  size,  each  being  one-eighth  of  a  sphere.  In  Fig.  4  the  opening  cavity 


having  completed  half  a  revolution  upon  its  axis.  A  similar  opening  and  closing  of  cavities 
has  been  progressing  simultaneously  between  the  disk  P  and  the  right-hand  sector  J5. 
Throughout  each  revolution  there  are  consequently  two  cavities  simultaneously  in  process  of 
opening  and  two  others  in  process  of  closing,  all  four  alike  changing  at  the  same  mean  rate 
of  increase  and  diminution.  If,  therefore,  the  disk  with  its  pair  of  sectors  be  incased  within  a 
hollow  sphere  of  the  same  diameter,  and  if  steam  be  admitted  into  the  two  opening  cavities 
and  exhausted  from  the  two  that  are  closing,  continuous  rotary  motion  will  be  produced, 
driving  the  two  shafts  represented  by  the  axis  of  the  two  sectors.  When  one  of  the  two 
opening  chambers  is  only  just  commencing  to  open,  the  other  is  half  open ;  so  that  while  the 
one  is  making  no  effort  the  other  is  in  the  position  of  best  effort,  and  the  mean  effort  of  the 
engine  is  as  uniform  as  that  of  a  two-cylinder  engine  with  cranks  at  right  angles.  It  is  also 
evident,  as  an  interesting  feature  in  the  system,  that,  although  the  whole  of  the  engine  may 
be  said  to  be  contained  within  the  sphere  itself,  yet  the  capacity  of  the  engine  is  no  other  than 
the  full  capacity  of  the  sphere  itself,  inasmuch  as  four  quarters  of  the  sphere  are  filled  and 
.  emptied  in  one  revolution. 

Construction  of  Engine :  The  names  adopted  for  the  three  principal  working  parts  are  as 
follows  :  The  intermediate  vibrating  disk  P  is  called  the  piston,  and  the  sectors  B  and  A  on 
the  ends  of  the  main  and  dummy  shafts  are  called  respectively  the  main  and  dummy  blades. 
Tne  piston,  replacing  the  geometrical  disk  of  infinitesimal  thickness,  has  to  be  made  of  sub- 
stantial thickness,  and  fitted  effectively  with  a  steam-tight  packing  all  round  its  edge.  The 
hinge  union  along  the  straight  edge  of  each  blade  has  to  be  made  a  cylinder  of  finite  diameter 
instead  of  a  geometrical  line ;  and  the  junction  must  be  so  contrived'as  to  make  a  substantial 
hinge-joint  that  will  stand  the  wear  and  tear  consequent  on  the  rapid  oscillation  of  the  parts. 


FIG.  9.— Tower  spherical  engine 

Thickness  is  obtained  for  the  piston  by  deducting  hlfa  its  thickness  from  each  of  the  two  flat 
sides  of  each  blade — that  is,  the  disk  Pand  sector  B.  originally  depicted  as  in  Figs.  5  and  6, 
are  altered  to  the  forms  shown  in  Figs.  7  and  8.  Two  cylindrical  ribs,  having  their  axes  in 
the  middle  plane  of  the  piston,  are  formed  on  its  opposite  faces,  and  along  diameters  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  Fig.  7.  and  into  these  are  let  circular  lugs  with  eyes,  formed  on  the 
straight  edges  of  the  two  blades,  Fig.  8,  which  are  thereby  hinged  to  the  piston  in  the  manner 
of  an  ordinary  hinge,  having  a  lug  and  socket  with  a  pin  through.  The  effect  of  these  depart- 
ures from  the  elementary  geometrical  form  already  described  is  to  reduce  the  capacity  of  the 
engine  by  the  amount  of  the  cubic  measurement  of  the  hinges.  An  external  view  of  the 
engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  engine  is  used  for  the  direct  driving  of  dynamos,  and  runs 
from  600  to  1,100  revolutions  per  min.  A  test  of  a  10-in.  engine  running  600  revolutions  per 
min.  gave  a  water  consumption  of  37  Ibs.  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour. 

Compound  Steam  Turbine. — Mr.  Charles  A.  Parsons  describes,  in  the  Proc.  I?ist.  M.  E., 
October,  1888,  a  compound  steam  turbine  of  his  invention,  as  follows  :  The  compound  steam 
turbine  ^(Figs.  10  and  11)  consists  of  two  series  of  parallel-flow  or  Jonval  turbines,  set  one 


298 


ENGINES,   STEAM   BOTARY. 


after  the  other  on  the  same  spindle  S,  so  that  each  turbine  takes  steam  from  the  one  before 
and  passes  it  on  to  the  one  following.     In  this  way  the  steam  entering  all  round  the  spindle 


FIG.  10.— Parson's  compound  steam  turbine. 

from. the  central  inlet  /,  Fig.  10,  passes  right  and  left  through  the  whole  of  each  series  of  tur- 
bines to  the  exhaust  E  at  each  end.     The  steam  expands  as  it  loses  pressure  at  each  turbine ; 


Turbo  -EUctriv     Generator    far    ZOO  nmperes     at    SO    volts,     Z5  HP 


FIG.  11.— Compound  steam  turbine. 

and  by  successive  steps  the  turbines  are  increased  in  size  or  area  of  passage-way,  so  as  to 
accommodate  the  increase  of  volume,  and  to  maintain  a  suitable  distribution  of  pressure  and 


FIG.  12.— Compound  steam  turbine. 


ENGINES,   STEAM   ROTARY. 


299 


velocity  throughout  the  whole  series  of  turbines.  The  areas  of  the  successive  turbines  are  so 
arranged  that  the  velocity  of  the  flow  of  steam  shall  bear  throughout  the  series  about  the 
same  ratio  to  the  speed  of  the  blades ;  and  as  far  as  possible  this  ratio  of  velocity  is  so  fixed 
as  to  give  each  turbine  of  the  series  its  maximum  efficiency.  The  two  equal  series  of  turbines 
on  each  side  of  the  central  steam-inlet  /  balance  each  other  as  regards  any  end  pressure  on 
the  spindle  of  the  motor,  and  thus  remove  any  tendency  to  undue  wear  on  the  collars  of  the 
bearings  B.  The  turbines  are  constructed  of  alternate  revolving  and  stationary  rings  of 
blades.  The  revolving  blades  r,  Fig.  12,  are  cut  with  right  or  left  hand  obliquity  on  the  out- 
side of  a  series  of  brass  rings,  which  are  threaded  upon  the  horizontal  steel  driving-spindle  s, 
and  secured  upon  it  by  feathers  ;  the  end  rings  form  nuts,  which  are  screwed  upon  the  spindle 
and  hold  the  rest  of  the  rings  upon  it.  The  stationary  or  guide  blades  g  are  cut  with  opposite 
obliquity  on  the  inside  of  another  series  of  larger  brass  rings,  which  are  cut  in  halves,  and  are 
held  in  the  top  and  bottom  halves  of  the  cylindrical  casing  by  feathers.  The  set  of  blades  on 
each  revolving  ring  runs  between  a  pair  of  sets  of  the  stationary  or  guide  blades.  The  passage 
between  the  blades  in  the  alternating  rings  form  a  longitudinal  series  of  zigzag  channels  when 
the  machine  is  standing  still. 

A  50-horse-power  turbo-generator  has  been  constructed  of  the  triple-expansion  type,  using 
turbines  of  three  different  diameters.  Including  fluid  friction,  the  theoretical  efficiency  of 
each  turbine  in  the  set  is  claimed  to  be  about  89  per  cent ;  and  the  mean  efficiency  of  the 
whole  set  is  theoretically  about  87  per  cent  of  the  power  which  should  be  given  out  in  the 
adiabatic  expansion  of  the  steam.  As  the  result  of  tests  made  when  exhausting  into  the 
atmosphere  and  giving  off  32,- 
000  watts,  it  is  also  stated  that 
the  consumption  of  steam  per 
electrical  horse-power  per  hour 
has  been  found  to  be  42  Ibs.. 
with  a  steam  -  pressure  of  61 
Ibs.  at  the  inlet.  A  6-horse- 
power  generator  has  run  for 
four  years  at  a  speed  of  18,000 
revolutions  per  min. 

The  Dow  Steam  Turbine  is 
shown  in  Figs.  13,  14,  15.  .  In 
Fig.  13  each  alternate  disk  be- 
ginning with  the  second  one, 
is  stationary,  the  others  being 
portions  of  a  revolving  plate, 
the  manner  of  their  combina- 
tion being  evident  from  Fig. 
14.  In  its  external  appearance 
tiie  motor  is  a  short  cylinder 
about  9  in.  in  diameter  and  5 
in.  in  length,  with  two  covers  having  hubs  forming  bearings  for  the  shaft.  The  body  or  shell 
is  a  casting,  aaaa.  The  covers  bb  b  b  are  through-bolted  to  the  shell.  Two  disks  cccc 
screw  permanently  into  the  wall  of  the  body.  On  the  outward  face  of  each  disk  are  formed 
six  series  of  stationary  guide-plates,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  analogous  to  those  of  water  turbines, 

separated  by  annular  spaces  concentric  with 
the  shaft.  "The  interior  of  the  motor  is  thus 
divided  into  three  chambers,  of  which  the 
central  one.  e  e,  receives  the  steam  direct 
from  the  steam-pipe,  and  the  two  outer  ones, 
////,  receive  the  exhaust  steam  which  passes 
out  of  the  motor  through  the  exhaust-pipe  g. 
The  main  shaft  h  h  is  journaled  to  the  bear- 
ing formed  in  the  covers.  A  sleeve  i  i  cov- 
ers the  central  part  of  the  shaft,  at  a  sliding 
fit,  being  splined  to  receive  two  correspond- 
ing feathers  on  the  shaft.  Two  wheels  II II 
are  secured  to  the  sleeve,  and  it  is  these  wheels 
which  are  revolved  by  the  action  of  the  steam, 
transmitting  rotation  to  the  shaft.  Upon  the 
inward  face  of  each  wheel  are  formed  series 
of  turbines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13,  concentric 
with  the  shaft  and  corresponding  with  and 
fitting  into  the  annular  spaces  of  the  station- 
ary disks  ;  thus  the  faces  of  the  moving 
wheels  seat  (nearly)  upon  the  bottom  of  the 
annular  spaces  of  the  stationary  disks,  and 
the  faces  of  the  stationary  disks  seat  (nearly) 
upon  the  bottom  of  the"  annular  spaces  of 
the  wheels.  In  the  central  chamber,  midway  between  the  partitions,  is  a  disk  A%  mounted 
upon  the  sleeve ;  on  each  side  of  the  disk,  distant  from  it  T^Q  of  an  in.,  is  the  inner  face  of 
the  partition,  or  rather  the  inner  face  of  an  annular  face-plate  d,  whose  hub  screws  into 


Fia.  13. — Dow  steam  turbine. 


FIG.  14. — Dow  steam  turbine. 


300      ENGINES,    STEAM,   STATIONARY  RECIPROCATING. 


the  partition.    The  disk  part  of  each  face-plate  stands  clear  from  its  partition,  and  is  per- 
forated by  three  concentric  rows  of  holes,  and  the  inner  face  of  each  face-plate  is  channeled 

in  concentric  grooves  between 
the  holes,  and  cross-channeled 
by  radial  grooves,  starting 
near  the  periphery  of  the  face- 
plate, and  running  between 
the  perforations.  Steam  from 
the  boiler  enters  the  central 
chamber  e  e,  passes  through 
the  disk-like  ports  or  spaces 
between  the  central  disk  or 
face-plate  on  each  side  of  it, 
as  well  as  through  the  perfor 
ations  in  the  face-plates ;  flows 
along  the  channels  in  the  face- 
plates to  the  annular  spaces 
mm  surrounding  the  wheel- 
hub;  then  right  and  left  to- 
ward each  wheel  ;  then  ex- 


FIG.  15.— Dow  steam  turbine. 


pands  radially  outward,  through  the  zigzag  of  alternate  guide-plates  and  turbines,  until  it 
finally  exhausts  from  the  circumference  of  the  steam-wheels  into  the  outer  chamber,  the  ex- 


fly-wheel  of  the  torpedc,  . 

in  a  rapidly  revolving  fly-wheel.  The  dimensions  of  the  wheel  are :  13'8  in.  m  diameter,  b-o 
in.  in  width,  and  otherwise  such  that  the  radius  of  gyration  is  5-57.  The  energy  stored  when 
running  at  10,000  revolutions  per  min.  is  over  500,000  foot-pounds,  and  in  order  to  spin  it  up  to 
the  required  velocity  of  10,000  revolutions  per  min.  in  1  minute's  time  it  requires  an  expenditure 
of  over  15  horse-power.  This  expenditure  of  power  commences  at  zero  on  starting  the  wheel, 
and  to  average  15  horse-power  for  the  minute  the  motor  must  develop  power  at  the  final 
instant  at  the  rate  of  30  horse-power.  Another  application  of  this  motor  is  to  driving  a 
dynamo  at  the  United  States  Torpedo  Station,  at  Newport  R.  I.  The  machine  has  a  capacity 
of  about  150  lights,  and  is  intended  for  a  normal  speed  of  9,000  to  10,000  revolutions  per 
min. — a  figure  easily  reached. 

ENGINES,  STEAM,  STATIONARY  RECIPROCATING.  Great  progress  has  been 
made  in  stationary  steam-engine  practice  during  the  last  ten  years  along  the  lines  indicated 
in  the  article  on  steam-engines  in  Appletons'  Cyclopaedia  of  Mechanics.  No  revolutionary 
invention  has  been  made  during  this  time,  but  there  has  been  a  steady  and  rapid  development 
in  the  direction  of  stronger  and  more  rigid  engines,  higher  steam-pressures,  higher  speeds, 
the  substitution  of  automatic  cut-off  for  throttling-engines,  the  more  general  employment  of 
condensers,  and  the  quite  general  use  of  compounding.  The  Corliss  engine  still  holds  the 
first  rank  as  the  most  economical  and  generally  satisfactory  type,  and  the  number  of  makers 
of  this  engine  has  greatly  increased.  The  changes  consist  chiefly  in  higher  rotative  speeds, 
100  revolutions  per  min.  being  now  not  uncommon.  A  speed  of  160  revolutions  per  min.,  or 
1,120  ft.  piston-speed,  has  been  recorded  in  the  Corliss  engine  (20  in.  X  42  in.)  in  the  Trenton 
Iron- Works.  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  ii,  p.  72.)  With  the  increase  of  speed  there  has  neces- 
sarily come  greater  constructive  stiffness  and  larger  bearing  surfaces.  The  Corliss  engine  is 
now  usually  compounded  for  large  powers,  with  considerable  increase  of  economy.  The  two- 
cylinder  cross-compound  engine  at  the  Pawtucket  (R.  I.)  Water- Works  has  shown  a  water 
consumption  of  less  than  14  Ibs.  per  hour  per  horse-power,  and  the  triple-expansion  engine  at 
the  Narragansett  Electric  Light  Station,  Providence,  R.  I.,  a  water  consumption  of  less  than 
13  Ibs.  (See  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  xii.)  The  high-speed  automatic  cut-off  engines,  with 
shaft  or  fly-wheel  governors,  of  which  the  Buckeye  and  the  Straight  Line  engines,  shown  at 
the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876,  were  the  first  prominent  examples,  have  come  very  largely 
into  use,  especially  for  small  and  moderate  powers,  supplanting  the  old  forms  of  slow-speed 
throttling-engines.  There  has  been  a  continual  increase  in  the  speed  of  these  engines,  300 
revolutions  being  quite  common  for  engines  of  12-in.  stroke,  and  for  longer  stroke  engines  a 
piston-speed  of  from  600  to  800  ft.  per  min.  is  frequently  used.  The  especial  advantages 
of  this  form  of  engine  are  great  compactness,  moderate  first  outlay,  low  cost  of  foun- 
dations and  erection,  and  great  regularity  of  speed,  due  to  the  sensitiveness  and  efficient 
action  of  the  governor,  which  makes  them  especially  well  fitted  for  electric-light  purposes. 
They  generally  show  considerable  gain  in  economy  of  steam  over  the  throttling-engine,  but 
have  not  yet  equaled  the  Corliss  engine  in  this  respect.  Their  greater  percentages  of 
clearance,  and  apparently  greater  tendency  to  valve  leakage,  are  probably  the  chief  causes 
of  their  defects  in  this  particular.  Condensation  and  compounding  are  now  frequently  used 
with  these  engines,  and  for  electric-lighting  purposes  a  vertical  three-cylinder  compound, 
with  cranks  at  120°,  is  becoming  a  favorite  form  of  construction.  More  common,  how- 
ever, is  the  two-cylinder  tandem  compound  horizontal  engine,  either  with  or  without  con- 
denser. 

The  enormous  increase  in  the  demand  for  steam-engines  during  the  past  ten  years,  chiefly 
due  to  the  introduction  of  electricity  for  lighting  and  for  transmission  of  power,  has  led  to  a 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        301 


great  increase  in  the  number  of  engine-building  firms,  and  to  great  diversity  in  the  mechanical 
details  of  the  engines. 

I.  THE  LATEST  TYPES  OF  STATIONARY  RECIPROCATING  STEAM-ENGINES. — The  Woodbury 
Engine  is  shown  in  perspective  in  Fig.  1.  Fig.  2  is  a  vertical  section  through  the  cylinder 
and  valve.  Fig.  3  is  a  horizontal  section  through  the  steam-chest  above  the  top  of  the  valve. 
Fig.  4  shows  the  steam-chest  with  cover  removed,  exhibiting  the  back  of  the  relief-plate  and 
wedge.  Fig.  5  is  an  end  view  of  the  relief-plate  and  wedge.  Fig.  6  is  an  enlarged  view  of 
the  upper  adjusting  screw ;  and  Fig.  7  is  a  back  view  of  the  valve. 

Referring  to  Fig.  2,  steam-pressure  is  eliminated  from  the  valve  A  by  the  relief-plate  B 
on  the  back,  which  is  supported  against  steam-pressure  at  top  and  bottom  by  a  forked  or 
double  wedge  C\  whose  length  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  relief-plate.  It  is  obvious  that  a 
longitudinal  movement  of  the  wedges  inward  will  force  the  relief-plate  away  from  the  valve, 
and  the  outward  movement  of  the  wedges  will  let  it  down  toward  the  valve."  The  movement 


FIG.  1.— The  Woodbury  engine. 

of  the  wedges,  and  consequent  adjustment  of  relief-plate,  is  accomplished  by  the  two  adjusting 
screws  / 1  (Fig.  3),  whic'h  fit  loosely  through  the  cross-piece  of  wedge  and  are  tapped  into  the 
relief-plate.  The  collars  m.  which  form  part  of  adjusting  screws,  are  notched  on  their  periphe- 
ries, as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  and  a  notch  n  is  made  on  the  wedge  opposite  each  screw.  The  collar 
has  100  notches,  and  therefore  admits  of  a  defi- 
nite degree  of  adjustment.  The  adjusting  screw 
has  10  threads  per  in.,  and  the  taper  of  wedges  is 
1  in.  in  10.  One  notch  on  the  collar,  therefore, 
representing  y^  of  a  turn,  moves  the  wedge 
lengthwise  ToW  of  an  in.,  and  the  relief-plate  to- 
ward or  from  the  valve  Too<n>  °f  an  in-»  corre- 
sponding to  73-^  of  an  in.  on  each  face  of  the 
valve.  The  passage  k  at  the  bottom  of  the  chest 
allows  a  circulation  of  steam  under  the  ledge,  in- 
suring equal  temperatures  for  ledges  i  i.  The 
screw  D,  which  is  operated  from  the  outside  by 
the  handle  E,  is  also  used  as  a  means  of  moving 
the  wedges  inward  and  throwing  off  the  relief- 
plate  ;  but  the  plate  can  not  be  let  down  farther 
than  the  adjustment  allows,  as  the  wedges  can 
not  be  drawn  back  farther  than  the  collars  m  of 
screws  I  I  (Fig.  6).  The  amount  of  inward  move- 
ment is  regulated  by  the  screw  /  (Fig.  4)  which 
forms  the  stop  for  the  inward  movement  of  the  wedges.  This  screw  taps  into  the  relief- 
plate,  and  against  its  head  the  cross-piece  of  the  wedge  strikes.  When  the  handle  E  is  turned 
to  the  left  as  far  as  it  will  go,  the  wedges  are  back  against  the  collars  and  are  in  proper  work- 
ing position;  when,  on  the  contrary,  the  handle  is  moved  to  the  right,  the  screw  which  works 
through  the  stuffing-box  forces  the* wedges  inward  and  throws  off  the  relief-plate.  About  one 
half  turn  of  the  handle  is  all  that  is  necessary.  The  purpose  of  this  handle  and  screw  is  to 
afford  a  means  of  separating  the  valve-faces  from  seats  in  case  they  tend  to  adhere  together 


FIG.  2.— Cylinder- vertical  section. 


302        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


after  engine  has  been  standing  for  some  time.     The  valve  A  (Fig.  8)  besides  taking  steam 
at  the  ends,  has  supplemental  admission  ports  a  a'  (Fig.  7)  which  are  connected  at  top  and 


FIG.  5.— Wedge.     FIG.  6.— Screw. 


FIG.  7.-Valve. 


FIG.  4.— Steam-chest— uncovered. 


bottom  by  passages  b  b' .     The  steam  is  entering  cylinder-port  directly  past  the  end  of  the 
valve,  and  also  through  the  cavity  in  the  relief-plate  into  port  a'.    Steam  is  at  the  same  time 


FIG.  8.— Balancing-disk. 

entering  supplemental  port  a  at  opposite  end  at 
two  points,  and  traveling  through  the  horizon- 
tal passages  into  port  a  and  cylinder-port.  The 
admission,  therefore,  takes  place  at  four  points 
at  the  same  time,  and,  as  the  ports  are  very  large, 
the  nearest  approach  to  boiler-pressure  is  reached, 
and  the  usual  loss  between  boiler  and  cylinder 
reduced.  A  double  exhaust  is  also  used. 

Fig.  8  shows  the  method  of  attaching  the 
counter-weighted  disks  to  the  cranks  for  the 
purpose  of  balancing  the  reciprocating  parts. 

Fig.  9  shows  the  cross-head  in  top  and  end 
view,  the  piston-rod  being  in  section. 

The  construction  of  the  main  connecting-rod 
is  shown  in  Fig.  10. 

Sweet's  Straight  -  Line  Engine,  built  by 
Sweet's  Manufacturing  Co.,  Syracuse,  is  shown 


FIG.  9.— Cress-head. 


FIG.  10.— Connecting-rod. 


in  Figs.  11  to  22.    The  frame  consists  of  two  straight  arms  running  from  the  cylinder  to  the 
main  bearings,  with  the  balance-wheels  between,  the  whole  resting  on  three  self-adjusting 


ENGINES,    STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        303 


points  of  support.  All  strains  go  in  straight  lines  ;  all  boundary-lines  are  straight,  ending  in 
curves  ;  all  cross-sections  of  stationary  parts  are  rectangular,  with  rounded  corners ;  and  all 
moving  arms  and  levers  are  double  convex,  wide  and  thin,  with  the  longest  axis  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  greatest  strain.  The  frame  is  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  cylinder  and  steam-chests. 


FIG.  11.— Sweet's  straight-line  engine. 


The  pistons  in  engines  smaller  than  10-in.  cylinder  are  solid,  with  rings  sprung  in,  but  for 
10  in.  and  over  they  are  as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  main  characteristic  is  that  the  rings  are 
made  much  too  large  for  the  cylinder,  sprung  in  with  considerable  force  and  pinned  in  that 
position,  and  the  outside  turned  to  a  perfect  fit  to  the  cylinder.  After  this,  the  pin-holes  in 
the  rings  are  filled  to  admit  of  the  rings  being  compressed,  while  not  allowed  to  expand. 
Only  a  part  of  the  thickness  of  the  piston  is  used  to  secure  it  to  the  rod,  this  being  done  to 
give  additional  length  to  the  piston-rod  bush.  The  castings  are  very  thin  and  light,  and  are 
thoroughly  ribbed  for  strength.  The  only  part  that  can  wear  is  the  bull-ring,  which  is  packed 
down  to  keep  the  piston  in  the  center  of  the  cylinder  by  liners  made  of  narrow  strips  of 
sheet  metal.  Flanges  cast  on  the  spider  and  follower  inside  of  the  piston-rings  make  them  so 
stiff  that  only  four  studs  are  used.  The  pistons  are  secured  to  the  rods  by  two  taper  fits,  a 
parallel  thread,  and  shrink  fit. 

The  piston  packings  are  simply  Babbitt-metal  bushings,  with  reamed  holes  slightly  larger 
than  the  rods,  so  as  to  be  a  free  sliding  fit.  One  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  They  rest  in 
spherical  seats,  which  are  free  to  move  in  any  direction. 


FIG.  12.— Sweet's  straight-line  engine. 

The  cross-head  is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  It  is  of  steel  or  malleable  iron  casting,  and  is  threaded 
on  the  piston-rod  and  secured  by  being  split  and  clamped  by  the  binding-bolts.  The  cross- 
head  pin  is  a  hollow  steel  casting  "made  fast  to  the  connecting-rod,  and  turns  in  two  adjustable 
Babbitt-lined  boxes  in  the  cross-head.  The  object  of  this  is  to  secure  lightness,  extra  wearing 
surface,  to  prevent  side  swinging  of  the  connecting-rod  at  the  fly-wheel  end,  and  to  give 
ready  means  of  oiling.  The  cross-head  is  what  is  known  as  the  slipper-guide  sort,  the  lower 
guide  being  adjustable  in  the  vertical  direction.  It  rests  upon  and  is  bolted  upon  two  inclined 
planes,  and  may  be  readily  raised  or  lowered  to  bring  the  piston-rod  in  perfect  alignment. 


304        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY  RECIPROCATING. 


FIG.  2-2 
FIGS.  13-22.— Details  of  Sweet's  straight-line  engine. 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        305 

The  crank-shaft  and  wheels  are  shown  in  Fig.  16.  The  steel  crank-pin  and  shafts  forced 
into  the  large  bosses  of  the  two  wheels  form  a  solid  structure,  dividing  the  strain  equally 
between  the  bearings,  and  give  an  opportunity  to  balance  the  reciprocating  parts  properly, 
furnish  a  support  for  the  governor,  and  relieve  the  main  bearings  of  a  good  part  of  the  thrust 
of  the  piston. 

The  main  journal-boxes  are  shown  in  Fig.  17.  These  sleeves,  A,  are  made  eccentric  and 
lined  with  Babbitt-metal  cheek-pieces  B,  which  bring  the  shaft  concentric  with  the  outside  of 
the  shell.  The  cheek-pieces  are  retained  in  place  by  Babbitt-metal  feather  C  at  the  bottom, 
and  a  brass  wedge  D  at  the  top.  This  furnishes  a  complete  bearing  at  the  bottom  and  sides, 
and  one  in  which  the  wear  can  be  compensated  for.  Narrow  metal  liners  are  introduced  at 
the  bottom,  which  can  be  removed  and  placed  by  the  side  of  the  wedge  at  the  top.  By  this 
change  the  cheek-pieces  are  shifted  down,  and,  being  wedge-shaped,  the  opening  is  closed. 

The  governor,  shown  in  Fig.  18,  consists  of  a  single  ball  linked  to  the  eccentric  and  con- 
nected to  a  spring  by  a  metal  strap,  and  so  located  and  weighted  as  to  counterbalance  the 
eccentric  and  its  attachments.  When  the  speed  of  the  engine  reaches  the  point  where  the 
centrifugal  force  of  the  governor-ball  overcomes  the  resistance  of  the  spring,  the  ball  moves 
away  from  the  center  of  rotation,  and  in  doing  so  it  carries  the  eccentric  nearer  the  shaft, 
shortens  its  throw  and  the  travel  of  the  valve,  and  reduces  the  steam  admitted  to  the 
cylinder. 

The  eccentric  is  cast  upon  a  swinging  plate,  which  is  pivoted  to  the  boss  of  the  fly-wheel. 
The  eccentric-plate  is  subject  to  a  twisting  strain,  to  resist  which,  in  addition  to  the  long 
stud  and  journal,  there  are  two  links  connecting  it  to  the  governor-ball. 

The  valve  motion  has  two  peculiarities:  the  position  in  which  the  eccentric-plate  is 
pivoted  to  the  wheel,  which  gives  a  variable  lead  to  the  steam  admission,  and  the  direct  con- 
nection between  eccentric  and  valve.  The  method  of  securing  the  slide  to  the  valve-rod  is 
shown  in  Fig.  19.  The  method  of  securing  the  rod  to  the  valve  admits  of  the  valve  being 
removed  and  returned  without  disturbing  the  adjustment. 

The  valve  controls  the  distribution  of  steam  very  much  as  is  done  by  the  common  D 
valve,  but  having  a  variable  travel  controlled  by  the  governor,  it  varies  the  amount  of  steam 
admitted  as  the  work  imposed  on  the  engine  varies.  The  valve,  as  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  21,  is 
a  rectangular  plate,  quite  thin,  and  with  five  openings  through  it.  It  is  made  flat  on  its  two 
sides,  and  of  uniform  thickness.  The  valve  works  within  an  opening  formed  by  the  valve- 
seat  and  a  pressure-plate  and  two  distance-pieces  placed  above  and  below  it  (see  Fig.  20). 
The  pressure-plate  has  recesses  in  it  opposite  the  ports  in  the  valve-seat,  and  the  distance- 
pieces  are  made  about  y^nr  in.  thicker  than  the  valve.  The  pressure-plate  resting  against 
the  distance-pieces  relieves  the  valve  of  all  pressure,  and  it  works  within  its  opening  the  same 
as  a  piston-valve.  By  the  recesses  in  the  pressure-plate  and  the  small  openings  through  the 
valve  double  ports  are  opened  both  for  steam  admission  and  exhaust. 

The  throttle-valve,  shown  in  Fig.  22,  consists  of  a  flat  seat,  circular  in  form,  having  a 
semicircular  opening  through  it,  and  a  valve  whose  face  is  a  counterpart  of  the  valve-seat, 
and  by  means  of  a  semicircular  bevel-gear  on  its  upper  surface  and  a  pinion  it  can  be  rotated 
half-way  around.  When  the  valve  is  set  in  such  a  position  that  the  two  openings  coincide, 
there  is  a  straightway  passage  for  the  steam,  and  when  turned  in  the  reverse  way  the  valve 
is  closed. 


FIG.  23.— The  Rice  engine. 

The  Rice  Automatic  Engine. — Fig.  23  illustrates  the  Rice  tandem  compound-engine,  one 
of  several  styles  built  by  the  John  T.  Noye  Mfg.  Co.,  of  Buffalo.  N.  Y.    It  is  of  the  same  gen- 
eral construction  as  the  Rice  single-cylinder  engine.     Both  valves  are  operated  by  the  same 
20 


306        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 

governor  through  the  same  eccentric-rod.  The  valves  can  be  set  independently  of  each  other, 
the  low-pressure  valve  being  arranged  to  admit  of  considerably  more  travel  than  the  high- 
pressure. 

The  valve  of  the  Rice  engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  24.     It  is  balanced  from  all  pressure 
higher  than  the  exhaust,  the  steam  being  admitted  from  the  inside  and  allowed  to  nearly 


FIG.  25. — Main  bearing — section. 

surround  the  entire  valve.  The  valve  can  be  easily  operated  with  one  hand  upon  the  smooth 
valve-stem,  when  under  full  pressure  of  steam.  The  relief- valve  is  in  the  form  of  a  steam- 
tight  piston,  which  rests  on  shoulders  even  with  the  valve  (not  on  the  valve  itself),  and  is 


FIG.  27.— The  Ball  triple-expansion  engine. 

kept  in  place  by  a  steel  spring  at  the  back.  Fig.  25  is  a  section  through  the  main  bearing, 
showing  the  two  bearings  in  a  single  casting,  with  the  overhang  at  each  end  nearly  balanced 
and  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  means  of  offset  hubs.  Fig.  26  is  another  view  of  the  bearing, 
showing  the  Babbitt  liners.  These  are  all  cast  in  an  iron  mold,  so  that  each  one  is  an  exact 
duplicate  of  every  other  one,  and  can  be  quickly  removed  and  replaced.  The  liners  are  used 
in  the  main-bearing,  the  cross-head,  and  the  crank-pin.  In  the  two  latter  places  they  are 
bedded  in  brass  boxes,  which  are  free  to  expand.  Thus,  should  the  pin  heat,  the  brass,  having 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        307 


a  greater  expansive  power  than  steel  or  iron,  and  being  free,  will  expand  and  loosen  the  fit, 
instead  of  tightening  it,  as  is  the  case  when  bound  with  an  iron  band. 


FIG.  28.— Ball  engine  steam-chest. 

The  Ball  Engine. — Fig.  27  represents  a  double-tandem 
condensing  triple-expansion  engine  made  by  the  Ball  Engine 
Co.,  Erie.  Pa.  This  engine  is  built  in  sizes  of  300,  400,  500, 
600.  and  700  horse-power. 

Fig.  28  shows  a  section  through  the  steam-chest  and  valve 
of  the  Ball  engine.  Fig.  29  shows  three  views  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  valve.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  which  are  con- 
nected by  telescopic  sleeves,  allowing  each  half  to  adjust  it- 
self to  its  seat.  The  sectional  view  shows  the  manner  of  steam 
distribution  to  the  cylinder,  and  the  operation  of  the  valve. 
This  double-faced  valve  is  held  in  constant  and  steam-tight 

contact  with  an  upper  and  lower  horizontal  valve-face,  whose  FIG.  29.— Valve, 

areas,  in  proportion  to  the  surface  of  the  valve,  are  identical. 

The  live  steam  enters  the  upper  side  of  the  valve,  and,  being  inclosed  by  the  telescopic  shells, 
presses  the  faces  apart  with  relation  to  each  other,  and  against  the  port  or  passage-way  sur- 
face, as  shown.  By  this  arrangement  there  is  only  a  sufficient  percentage  of  the  whole  area 
of  each  valve  subjected  to  unbalanced  pressure  to  insure  steam-tightness. 

The  Ball  &  Wood  Cross-Compound  Engine. — Fig.  30  shows  a  perspective  view  of  a  cross- 
compound  engine  built  by  the  Ball  &  Wood  Co.,  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  for  the  Newark  Electric 


FIG.  30.  — Tne  Ball  and  Wood  compound  engine. 

Light  Co.,  of  Newark.     The  size  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  is  13  in.  and  the  high-pressure 
25  in.,  with  a  stroke  of  16  in.    It  is  rated  at  300  horse-power. 

The  Mclntosh  &  Seymour  Engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  31.     Fig.  32  shows  a  sectional  view  of 
the  valve  and  cylinder. 

m  The  general  design  of  the  engine  presents  no  radically  novel  features  except  in  two  vital 
points,  the  valve  and  governor.  The  frame  is  made  very  massive  and  rigid  by  heavy  internal 
ribbing.  The  lower  guides  are  separate  pieces,  though  supported  throughout  their  entire 


308        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


length  by  the  frame.  The  main  bearings  have  cheek-pieces  for  taking  up  horizontal  wear. 
Each  one  of  these  is  backed  up  solidly  for  its  entire  length  by  a  taper-wedge,  and  can  be  ad- 
justed by  elevating  the  wedge  with  screws  provided  for  that  purpose.  The  main  caps  can  be 
removed  entirely  without  disturbing  the  cheek-pieces  or  wedges,  and  the  latter  can  then  be 
removed  without  disturbing  the  shaft,  exposing  over  one  half  of  the  circumference  of  the 
journal.  The  cross-head  is  of  the  locomotive  type  and  is  made  of  one  piece,  including  cross- 
head  pin.  The  construction  of  the  valve  and  valve-seat  is  shown  in  the  sectional  views 
through  cylinder  and  steam-chest,  in  Fig.  32.  The  valve  proper  is  an  ordinary  piston-valve. 


FIG.  31.— The  Mclntosh  and  Seymour  engine. 

The  valve-seat  is  so  constructed  that  it  can  be  taken  up  to  compensate  for  its  own  wear  and 
that  of  the  valve.  This  seat  consists  of  a  ring,  or  rather  two  rings,  made  in  one  piece  and 
connected  by  several  bridges  across  the  port-opening  which  the  space  between  them  forms. 
The  seat  is  crescent-shaped,  split  and  adjustable  to  fit  the  valve,  by  the  stem  which  extends 
to  the  upper  side  of  the  steam-chest,  where  it  can  be  turned  by  a  box-wrench,  as  shown  in  the 
cut,  after  removing  the  cap  which  covers  its  end.  By  disconnecting  the  eccentric-rod  from 
the  valve-rod  slide  or  rocker  and  moving  the  valve  to  and  fro  by  hand  while  turning  the 
stems,  a  very  close  adjustment  of  the  seats  to  the  valve  can  be  made  without  any  danger  of 
making  them  too  tight  for  the  valve  to  work  freely.  Each  adjustable  seat  is  held  steam-tight 
between  two  permament  seats,  but  is  free  to  move  in  the  plane  of  the  port  and  may  be  said 
to  ride  on  the  valve.  This  arrangement  makes  the  valve  less  liable  to  stick  than  with  a  rigid 
seat,  if  the  engine  is  started  without  warming  it  up  thoroughly.  The  steam  does  not  enter 
the  port-openings  from  the  steam-chest  over  the  inside  edge  of  each  valve-end,  as  is  usually 
the  case,  but  through  port-shaped  openings  in  the  rim  of  the  valve,  leaving  a  detached  por- 
tion on  the  inner  edge  of  each  valve-rim,  which  greatly  increases  the  bearing-surface  of  the 
valve.  This  engine  has  proved  exceedingly  efficient  as  a  motor  for  dynamos. 


FIG.  32. — Mclntosh  and  Seymour  engine  section — valve  and  cylinder. 

The  Oiddings  Compound  Automatic  Engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  33.     It  is  built  by  the  Sioux 
City  Engine  Works,  Sioux  City,  Iowa.     The  special  feature  of  this  engine  is  a  novel  device 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        309 

for  packing  the  piston-rod  between  the  two  cylinders.     The  space  between  the  cylinders  is 
jacketed  and  provided  with  a  means  for  opening,  to  test  for  leakage  around  the  piston-rod  and 


idings  valve. 


FIG.  33.— The  Giddings  compound  engine. 

to  adjust  or  renew  the  packing.     The  intermediate  receiver  has  been  discarded  in  these  en- 
gines. 

The  Giddings  Valve. — Fig.  34  shows  the  Giddings  equilibrium  slide-valve,  used  in  the 
Giddings  high-speed  automatic  engines.  This  slide-valve  consists  of  one  piece ;  takes  steam 
from  underneath,  supplies  the  cylinder  through 
double  ports,  giving  twice  the  original  port  area, 
and  close  approximation  to  boiler-pressure.  It  is 
self-adjusting  to  wear  and  position,  and  is  free  to 
lift  from  its  seat  a  sufficient  amount  to  relieve  the 
cylinder  from  water.  Equilibrium  is  obtained  by 
two  needle  ports  in  brass  plugs  in  the  top  edge  of 
the  valve,  one  supplying  live  steam  to  the  back  of 
the  valve  to  avoid  lifting,  another  connecting  with 
the  exhaust-passage,  thereby  preventing  accumu- 
lation of  pressure,  and  still  maintaining  about  2 
Ibs.  of  surplus  pressure  per  sq.  in.  on  the  back  of  the  valve,  which  insures  a  positive  and  per- 
manent tight  joint.  The  connection  is  made  by  a  hinge-joint,  whereby  the  valve  can  be  opened 
outward  like  a  door,  without  disconnecting. 

The  Valley  Engine. — Fig.  35  shows  the  balanced  valve  used  by  the  Valley  Iron  Works, 
William  sport,  Pa.,  on  their  automatic  high-speed  engine.  It  consists  of  but  one  piece,  and 
has  no  rings  or  sleeves.  The  shape  is  clearly  shown  in  the  illustration.  It  is  set  in  the  valve- 
seat,  with  the  corner  pointing  to  the  center.  Between  the  cover  and  cover-seat  are  placed  strips 

of  copper  T^r  in.  in  thickness,  which  are  for 
the  purpose  of  removal  and  taking  up  wear 
as  the  valve  may  require  it.  The  objection 
to  wear  existing  in  the  piston-valve  is  over- 
come by  this  construction.  Live  steam  is 
admitted  inside  the  cover  around  the  valve, 
and  exhaust  let  out  at  the  ends.  This  con- 
struction admits  of  the  engine  being  run 
under  full  boiler-pressure  with  the  exhaust- 
cover  removed,  and  an  inspection  of  valve 


FIG.  35. — Valley  engine  valve  and  cylinder. 


FIG.  36.— Valve-bracket  and  slide. 


for  leakage  made  under  full  steam-pressure.  The  construction  of  the  valve-bracket  and  slide 
is  shown  in  Fig.  36.  The  bracket  is  bolted  to  the  bed  and  carries  the  slide,  between  the 
bracket  and  stuffing-box.  On  the  valve-stem  is  a  clamp-wrist,  split  in  the  back  and  pinched 
on  the  slide  by  a  ^-in.  bolt,  as  shown.  In  case  of  accident  or  of  the  valve  striking  the  end  of 
chest,  this  wrist  will  slip,  preventing  all  damage.  Fig.  37  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  en- 
gine. 


310        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


FIG.  37.— The  Valley  engine. 

The  Armington  &  Sims  Engine. — Two  recent  styles  of  the  Armington  &  Sims  engine  are 
shown  in  Figs.  38  and  39.    The  first  is  a  double  compound  engine,  with  cranks  at  180°,  and 


Fia.  38  —The  Armington  and  Sims  engine. 

the  second  is  known  as  a  special  double  engine,  especially  designed  for  electric-lighting  on 
board  of  steamships,  where  saving  of  space  is  a  prime  requirement.     Numerous  other  forms 


FIG.  39. — The  Armington  and  Sims  engine. 


of  engine  are  built  by  the  Armington  &  Sims  Co.,  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  such  as  vertical  double- 
acting  compound  engines,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  developments  from  the  original  engine  built 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        311 


by  this  company  with  a  single  cylinder.  A  section  of  the  cylinder  and  valve  of  the  Arming- 
ton  &  Sims  engine  is  shown  in  Pig.  40.  The  steam-chest,  with  valve-seat,  is  in  one  casting 
with  the  cylinder ;  the  valve-chest  is  inclosed  by  a  cover  in  the 
usual  manner.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  steam-chest  is  filled 
with  live  steam,  which  surrounds  the  valve,  and  that  by  tak- 
ing steam  in  the  center  of  the  valve  and  exhausting  at  each 
end,  the  steam-ports  from  the  cylinder  can  be  very  direct,  and 
the  waste-room  kept  small.  In  the  engraving  the  valve  is 
shown  as  just  taking  steam  into  the  cylinder-port  at  the  pis- 
ton-end ;  the  port  in  the  valve  at  the  other  end  is  also  just 
taking  steam  from  the  steam-chest  into  a  port  which  passes 
through  the  valve  into  the  same  cylinder-port ;  this  enables 
steam  to  be  taken  very  quickly  at  the  commencement  of  the 
stroke.  The  steam  is  exhausted  at  each  end  of  the  valve  by 
direct  passages  which  quickly  free  the  cylinder.  The  piston  is 
hollow,  fastened  by  a  taper  fit  to  the  rod,  and  furnished  with 
two  snap-rings.  The  valve  is  a  hollow  piston-valve,  with  cast- 


FIG.  40. — Valve  and  cylinder. 


iron  ends,  made  very  light,  with  a  body  of  steel  tubing.     It  is  ground,  and  perfectly  balanced. 
The  Harrisburg  Tandem-  Compound  Engine. — The  Ide  tandem-compound  engine,  as  manu- 
factured by  the  Foundry  and  Machine  Department,  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  41. 


FIG.  41.— The  Harrisburg  compound  engine. 

The  extra  heavy  shaft  and  fly-wheel  are  supported  between  the  bearings,  avoiding  the  over- 
hang of  the  fly-wheel,  as  is  the  case  in  the  center-crank  type.  One  of  the  special  features  in 
the  Harrisburg  tandem  compound  is  the  method  of  connecting  the  high  and  low  pressure 
cylinders.  It  admits  of  moving  the  low-pressure  cylinder  head  into  the  connections  to  exam- 
ine the  low-pressure  cylinder  and  piston  without  removing  the  high-pressure  cylinder  or  its 
steam  and  exhaust  connections.  The  inability  to  do  this  has  been  one  of  the  greatest  objec- 
tions to  the  tandem-compound  engines  as  usually  built.  The  manner  of  supporting  the  high- 
pressure  cylinder  is  more  substantial  than  the  general  practice,  avoiding  the  vibration  of  cylin- 
ders when  working  under  full  load. 


FIG.  4^. — The  ideal  engine. 

The  Ideal  Engine,  made  also  by  the  same  builders,  is  shown  in  Figs.  42  and  43.  It  is  a 
single-cylinder  automatic  engine,  with  the  peculiar  feature  of  being  self -lubricating.  The 
sectional  view  shows  the  principle  of  the  automatic  oiling  device. 


312        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


FIG.  43.— The  ideal  engine. 

The  Sioux  City  Corliss  Engine,  of  the  tandem  compound  class,  is  shown  in  perspective  in 
Fig.  44.     Fig.  45  is  a  half-section  of  the  cylinder,  showing  that  the  steam  is  taken  between 


FIG.  44.— The  Sioux  City  Corliss  engine. 


FIG.  46. — Valve-gear.  FIG.  47. — Dash.  FIG.  48. — Governor. 

FIGS.  45-48. — Sioux  City  Corliss  engine— details. 

(not  over)  the  valves,  and  that  the  exhaust-chamber  is  cast  separate  and  independent  from  the 
cylinder,  thereby  preventing  a  cold,  wet  steam-jacket.     The  steam-valves  are  all  made  so  as  to 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        313 


FIG.  49.— Fishkill-Corliss  engine— cylinder. 


relieve  themselves  in  case  of  water.  Fig.  46  shows  the  hook-motion  valve-gear,  Fig.  47  the 
dash,  and  Fig.  48  the  governor,  which  has  light  balls  made  to  run  at  three  times  the  speed  of 
the  engine,  and  a  heavy  sliding  weight. 

The  Fishkill-Corliss  Engine. — A  sectional  view  of  the  cylinder  of  this  engine  is  shown  in 
Fig.  49.  and  a  side  view  of  the  valve-motion  is  shown  in  Fig.  50.  Cite's  releasing  valve-gear, 
as  applied  to  this  engine,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  detailed  cuts. 

Fig.  51  is  a  front  elevation, 
and  Fig.  52  is  a  plan.  These 
show  the  valve-gear  as  it  appears 
when  engaged,  and  in  the  middle 
of  its  travel.  Figs.  53,  54,  and 
55  are  rear  elevations.  Fig.  53 
shows  the  parts  in  engagement 
at  the  moment  the  valve  begins 
to  open  ;  Fig.  54  shows  the  posi- 
tion of  the  parts  immediately 
after  the  valve  has  been  released, 
and  Fig.  55  illustrates  the  action 
of  the  stop-motion. 

In  all  the  figures  A  represents 
the  valve-stem  and  B  the  valve- 
lever,  which  is  secured  to  the  end 
of  the  valve-stem  by  a  feather 
and  set-screw.  C  C'  is  a  double  crank,  which  vibrates  loosely  on  a  sleeve  around  the  valve- 
stem,  and  is  connected  by  an  adjustable  link-rod  to  the  wrist-plate,  from  which  it  receives  its 
motion.  The  end  of  the  arm  C  carries  a  small  rock-shaft  D,  which  has  a  hook  E  fastened  on 
one  end.  This  hook  is  provided  with  a  hardened  steel  catch-plate  b,  which  engages  a  similar 
plate  c  fastened  on  the  end  of  the  valve-lever  B,  and  the  hook  is  kept  in  place  by  a  light 
spring  /.  On  the  end  of  the  rock-shaft  Z>,  opposite  the  hook  E,  is  fixed  a  forked  crank  F 
having  a  pin  h  on  which  is  mounted  a  sliding-block  s,  and  the  outside  of  block  s  is  fitted  to 
move  in  a  slot  i  of  a  link  G.  The  link  is  mounted  at  and  vibrates  about  a  pointy  in  one  arm 

of  a  bell-crank  H,  and  the  bell- 
crank  oscillates  upon  a  sleeve 
around  the  valve-stem.  The 
other  arm  of  the  bell-crank  H 
is  connected  by  an  adjustable 
rod  z  to  the  governor.  By  re- 
ferring to  Fig.  53,  in  which  the 
double  crank  C  C'  is  moved  by 
the  wrist-plate  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  arrow,  and  fol- 
lowing the  motion  of  the  inner 
end  of  the  block  s,  and  also  of 
the  inner  end  of  the  slot  t,  it 
will  be  seen  that  these  points 
will  come  together  when  the 
curved  dotted  lines  2  and  3 
cross  each  other,  and  as  the 
movement  continues  the  block 
s  will  be  pushed  farther  from 
the  center  of  the  valve-stem, 
and  when  the  center  line  of  the 
link  shall  be  coincident  with 
radial  line  1,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
54,  the  block  will  have  been 
pushed  so  far  outward  that  it 
will  have  slightly  turned  the 
small  rock-shaft  Jb,  and  moved 
the  hook  E  enough  to  release 
the  valve-lever  B.  Then  the 
dash-pot  will  act  and  close  the 


w      u   t  i    u 

FIG.  50.— Fishkill-Corliss  engine— valve-mOtion. 


valve.  At  this  moment  of  release,  effected  by  the  toggle-like  action  of  the  link,  the  pressure 
on  the  bell-crank  H,  caused  by  the  liberation,  will  be  exerted  in  a  radial  line  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  slot  through  the  point/  to  the  center  of  the  valve-stem  or  the  stand  which  supports 
it,  and  during  the  entire  movement  of  the  hook  E  there  will  be  no  appreciable  strain  to  turn 
the  bell-crank  H,  and  consequently  there  will  be  no  strain  to  disturb  the  normal  action  of  the 
governor.  As  the  position  of  the  bell-crank  H  is  controlled  by  the  governor,  any  change  in 
the  height  of  the  governor  will  cause  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  point/,  and  a  correspond- 
ing change  in  the  time  of  release.  The  action  of  the  automatic  safety-stop  motion  is  illus- 
trated by  Figs.  53  and  55.  Fig.  53  shows  the  position  of  the  various  parts  when  the  engine 
is  at  its  lowest  normal  speed,  and  the  hook  E  is  at  the  point  of  engagement  with  the  valve- 
lever  B.  The  lower  side  of  the  link  G  is  provided  with  an  adjustable  embossment  u\  which,  in 
the  position  shown,  is  just  clear  from  the  hub  of  the  bell-crank  H.  Now,  should  the  governor- 


314        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


belt  be  broken,  or  if  from  any  other  cause  the  governor-balls  should  fall  below  this  point,  the 
bell-crank  H  will  be  moved  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow  in  Fig.  55,  the  emboss- 


FIG.  51.— Front  elevation. 


FIG.  53.— Valve  begins  to  open. 

ment  w  will  be  brought  against  the  hub  of  the  bell- 
crank,  and  the  continued  movement  of  the  bell-crank 
will  cause  the  embossment  to  act  as  a  fulcrum,  and 
the  lower  side  of  the  slot  i  will  cause  the  pin  h  in  the 
forked  crank  F  to  move  outward,  or  from  the  center 
of  valve-stem  A.  This  will  carry  the  hook  E  outward 
so  far  that  it  will  not  engage  with  the  valve-lever  J5, 
and  the  valve  will  remain  closed.  In  connection  with 
the  above,  an  attachment  is  placed  on  the  governor- 
column,  by  means  of  which  the  action  of  the  stop-mo- 
tion may  be  suspended  or  made  operative  at  any  time 
by  the  engineer,  and  when  suspended  the  engine  can 
be  stopped  and  started  in  the  usual  way. 

The  Payne- Corliss  Engine. — In  the  engine  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  56  separate  valves  have  been  provided 
for  the  induction  and  exhaust ;  the  steam-chest  and 
induction-valves  situated  above,  and  the  exhaust-chest 
and  valves  below,  as  in  the  conventional  Corliss  en- 
gine. There  are,  however,  separate  wrist-plates  for 
the  steam  and  exhaust  valves.  The  wrist-plate,  which 
gives  motion  to  the  exhaust-valves,  derives  its  movement  from  a  fixed  eccentric  upon  the 
main  shaft,  and  thus  the  points  of  release  and  compression  may  be  adjusted  without  interfer- 


FIG.  55.— Stop-motion. 
FIGS.  51-55. — Cite's  releasing  valve-gear. 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        315 


ing  with  the  functions  of  the  steam-valve,  and,  once  determined,  are  positive  and  fixed.  The 
eccentric,  which  determines  the  movement  of  the  steam- valves,  is  operated  by  a  shaft-governor 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  open  the  valves  more  or  less  according  to  the  amount  of  steam  required, 
varying  the  point  of  cut-off,  while  the  amount  of  lead  remains  practically  constant  for  all 
loads  and  pressures.  The  point  of  cut-off  being  varied  by  the  greater  or  less  movement  of 
the  wrist-plate  instead  of  by  means  of  a  detachable  motion,  and  the  valves  being  closed  by  a 


Fio.  56.— The  Payne-Corliss  engine. 

positive  connection  with  the  wrist-plate  instead  of  by  dash-pots,  high  rates  of  rotation  and 
the  advantages  of  the  high-speed  engine,  combined  with  a  distribution  of  steam  to  which  the 
economy  of  the  4-valve  engine  is  due,  are  rendered  possible,  inasmuch  as  the  engine  is  not 
limited  by  the  inability  of  the  detachable  devices  to  act  at  high  rotative  speeds. 

The  Westinghouse  Engine. — The  Westinghouse  engine  is  the  leading  engine  of  a  new  type 
which  has  recently  come  into  extensive  use,  the  principal  characteristics  of  which  are  (1) 
two  or  more  vertical  single-acting  cylinders,  and  (2)  automatic  lubrication  by  means  of  a 
closed  chamber  surrounding  the  crank-shaft,  containing  oil  or  oil  and  water.  This  type  of 
engines  was  originally  built  with  two  cylinders  of  the  same  size,  with  cranks  at  180°.  Large 
sizes  are  built  as  a  compound  engine,  with  one  cylinder  larger  than  the  other.  Engines  on 
the  same  general  principle,  but 
with  three  cylinders  and  triple 
expansion,  with  three  cranks  at 
120°,  have  been  brought  out  by 
other  makers.  Among  the  ad- 
vantages claimed  for  this  type  of 
engine  are,  that,  on  account  of 
its  being  single-acting,  the  press- 
ure of  the  piston  and  of  the  con- 
necting-rods on  the  wrist  and 
crank  pins  is  always  in  one  direc- 
tion, viz.,  downward,  and  conse- 
quently, no  matter  how  much 
the  bearings  are  worn,  there  is 
no  lost  motion  in  them.  On  this 
account,  the  engine,  if  properly 
designed,  may  be  rnn  at  a  very 
high  speed,  and  is  therefore  eco- 
nomical of  room  and  weight,  and 
saves  the  gearing  for  transmis- 
sion of  power  to  the  line-shaft- 
ing machine  or  dynamo,  necessa- 
ry with  slow-speed  engines. 

Pig.  57  shows  a  front  view, 
and  Figs.  58  and  59  sectional 
views,  of  the  Westinghouse 
"  standard  "  or  non-compound 
engine  as  built  in  sizes  from  15 
to  250  horse-power.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  description  of  the  de- 
tails :  The  cylinders  A  A  are  cast 

in  one  piece  with  the  valve-cham-  Fm  57  _The  Westinghouse  engine, 

ber  B,  and  are  bolted  to  the  top 

of  the  bed  or  crank-case  C.  The  cylinder-heads  a  a  cover  the  upper  ends  of  the  cylinders 
only,  the  lower  ends  being  uncovered  and  opening  directly  into  the  chamber  of  the  crank- 


316        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


case.  The  pistons  D  D  are  of  the  "  trunk  "  form,  double-walled  at  the  top  to  prevent  con- 
densation, open  at  the  bottom,  and  carrying  the  hardened  steel  wrist-pins  b  b.  They  are  each 
packed  with  three  rings.  The  connecting-rods  F  F  are  made  of  forged  steel.  The  cranks 
G  G,  the  crank-pins,  and  crank-shaft  HH  are  all  of  steel,  and  may  be  removed  by  taking  off 
the  crank-case  head  c.  The  crank-shaft  bearings  are  in  the  form  of  removable  shells  dd,  lined 


FIG.  58. 
FIGS.  58,  59.— Westinghouse  engine— sectional  views. 


FIG.  59. 


with  Babbitt-metal.  From  60  horse-power  up  these  bearings  are  split  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venient removal  without  taking  out  the  shaft.  They  are  slipped  into  the  crank-case  head 
from  the  inside,  and  adjusted  by  a  distance-ring  t,  which  is  of  an  arbitrary  thickness  depend- 
ent on  the  shrinkage  of  the  casting  of  the  crank-case.  A  chamber  is  formed  in  the  outer  end 
of  the  crank-case  head,  in  which,  and  revolving  with  the  shaft,  is  the  ring-wiper  w,  which 

takes  up  the  oil  as  it  works 
past  the  bearings,  and  returns 
it  through  the  hollow  rib  e  into 
the  crank-case  C.  Oil  is  fed 
to  the  engine  from  the  sight- 
feed  cups  II  on  the  main  bear- 
ings ;  this  renders  all  other  lu- 
brication unnecessary,  and 
keeps  the  engine  clean.  A  si- 

Ehon  overflow,  with  a  funnel- 
ead  0,  prevents  any  accumu- 
lation of  water  from  rising 
above  the  level  of  the  bottom 
of  the  shaft,  and  thus  prevents 
the  escape  of  oil.  This  over- 
flow may  be  piped  off  at  the 
hole  in  the  funnel-head  to  an 
oil-separator,  shown  in  Fig.  59, 
from  which  it  can  be  skimmed 
and  restored  to  the  crank-case. 
An  adjustable  center-bearing 
Abridges  the  crank-case,  and 
receives  the  thrust  of  the  pis- 
tons. The  bonnet  h  is  re- 
moved, to  give  access  to  the 
cranks.  The  valve  V  is  &  pis- 
ton -  valve,  packed  with  two 
rings  in  each  head.  The  valve- 
seat  is  a  removable  bushing, 
in  which  the  ports  are  cut  to 
an  exact  register,  and  which  is 
then  forced  into  its  shoulders. 
Each  valve  is  provided  with  a 
FIG.  60.— Westinghouse  compound  engine.  back  -  pressure  piston,  which 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        317 


prevents  the  balance  of  the  governor  from  being  disturbed  when  the  engine  exhausts  against 
back-pressure.  The  valve-guide  J  serves  also  in  lieu  of  a  stuffing-box  against  the  exhaust 
steam  contained  in  the  passage  above  it.  The  valve-guide  as  well  as  the  valve  and  both  pis- 
tons are  packed  -with  simple  sprung  rings  of  cast  iron.  The  valve-stem  m  is  keyed  fast  to  the 
guide,  and  grips  the  valve  without  binding  between  the  nut  at  the  upper  end  and  the  collar  at 
the  lower  end,  as  shown.  The  band-wheel  is  a  combination-pulley  Z  and  fly-wheel  F,  cast  to- 
gether, so  that  the  pulley  overhangs  the  main  bearing,  throwing  the  line  of  belt-strain  well 
toward  the  center  of  the  bearing,  and  taking  the  spring  off  from  the  shaft. 

The  automatic  governor  is  located  on  the  shaft,  between  the  cranks,  and  actuates  the  valve 
direct  without  rock-shafts  or  other  mechanism. 

The  Westinghouse  Compound  Engine  is  similar  in  general  characteristics  to  the  non-com- 
pound engine  above  described.     It  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  60.     One  cylinder  is  enlarged 
to  practically  three  times  the  area  of  the  other. 
The  valve-chest  is  across  the  top  of  the  cylinders, 
and  is  in  one  piece,  the  various  steam-passages  be- 
ing chambered  in  it.     The  valve-seat  is  in  the  form 
of  a  bush,  in  which  the  ports  are  cut  to  an  exact 
register.     This  bushing  is  reamed  out  and  forced 
steam-tight  into  its  bored  seat. 

The  valve-chest  also  contains  a  small  by-pass 
valve  controlling  a  cored  passage,  by  which  live 
steam  can  be  admitted  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder, 
to  turn  the  engine  over  its  center  when  starting. 
The  steam  and  exhaust  connections,  are  on  the  side 
of  the  valve-chest  toward  the  back  of  the  engine. 
The  valve  is  actuated  by  a  single  eccentric  con- 
trolled by  a  shaft-governor,  shown  in  Fig.  61.  It 
is  inclosed  in  a  case  which  is  filled  with  oil  when 
the  engine  is  first  set  up,  and  requires  no  further  at- 
tention for  an  indefinite  period.  The  eccentric 
alone  is  outside  of  the  governor-case,  being  carried 
on  a  shaft  running  through  a  sleeve,  and  bearing  FIG.  61.— Westinghouse  shaft-governor, 
against  stops  when  at  full  throw. 

The  economy  of  steam  of  the  Westinghouse  engines  is  shown  in  the  following  figures 
published  by  the  builders.  The  first  table  gives  the  results  of  three  tests  of  a  non-compound 
45  horse-power  engine,  under  three  conditions  of  loading : 


Ibs. 

91'7 

92'5 

92'1 

tk        mean  effective  pressure            

39-49 

30-76 

22-33 

352'2 

353-9 

356'7 

h  -p 

44-81 

35'08 

25-66 

ibV 

32'60 

32'99 

36*27 

The  next  table  shows  the  results  of  tests  made  in  1888  of  a  compound  engine  14  and  24 
in.  cylinder,  14-in.  stroke,  under  varying  loads.  The  engine  was  unjacketed.  The  steam  was 
measured  after  being  condensed  in  a  surface-condenser,  which  was  less  open  to  the  atmosphere 
in  the  non-condensing  tests.  The  steam  consumption  is  given  in  pounds  per  indicated  horse- 
power per  hour : 


NON-CONDENSING,   BOILER-PRESSURES. 

HORSE- 
POWERS. 

CONDENSING,   BOILER-PRESSURES. 

60  Ib*. 

80  Ibs. 

100  Ibs. 

ISOlbs. 

120  Ibs. 

100  Ibs. 

80  Ibs. 

60  Ibs. 

Steam  consumption. 

Steam  consumption. 

26  9 
27  7 
30-3 

24-9 
25-7 
25-2 
25-2 

28-7 

23 
23-6 
23-9 
24-9 
25-1 
29-4 

22-6 
21-9 
222 
22  2 
22  4 
24  6 
28  8 

210 

170 
140 
115 
100 
80 
50 

18-4 
18-1 
18-2 
18-2 
18-3 
18-3 
20-4 

18-8 
18-5 
18-6 
18-6 
18-6 
20-8 

20 
19-6 
19-7 
19-9 
20-7 

20-5 
20-3 
20-1 
20-4 

The  Willans  Central  -  Valve  Triple- Expansion  Engine,  made  by  Willans  &  Robinson, 
Thames-Ditton.  England,  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  62.  The  piston-valve  is  shown  at  the 
left  of  the  engine. 

The  engine  is  arranged  with  the  high-pressure  cylinder  above  the  intermediate  cylinder, 
and  with  the  latter  above  the  low-pressure.  In  engines  which  have  more  than  one  crank, 
each  crank  is  surmounted  by  a  complete  engine,  all  the  pistons  of  which  are  carried  by  one 
piston-rod.  The  rod  is  of  large  diameter  and  is  hollow,  and  the  valve  for  admitting  and 
exhausting  the  steam  from  the  several  cylinders  works  up  and  down  inside  it,  in  the  center  of 
the  engine  (hence  the  name  "  central-valve  ").  It  is  driven  in  the  usual  way  by  an  eccentric, 
but  since  the  valve-face  (i.  e..  the  inner  surface  of  the  hollow  rod)  moves  up  and  down 
with  the  pistons,  the  source  of  the  valve-motion  (i.  e.,  the  eccentric)  must  move  up  and  down 


318        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


) 


with  the  pistons  also.     This  is  effected  by  mounting  the  eccentric  on  the  crank-pin,  instead 
of  on  the  shaft,  as  usual.     The  ports  through  which  the  steam  enters  and  leaves  the  respective 

cylinders  are  simply  holes  in  the  hollow  rod.  These 
are  exposed  alternately  to  steam  coming  from  above, 
through  the  rod,  and  to  exhaust  (also  through  the 
rod)  downward,  according  as  the  corresponding  pis- 
tons of  the  valve  pass  below  the  holes  or  above 
them.  Steam  enters  at  the  top,  through  the  gov- 
ernor throttle-valve,  shown  in  section,  into  the 
steam-chest.  The  top  of  the  hollow  rod,  though 
uncovered,  is  closed  against  the  steam  by  the  upper- 
most piston  of  the  valve,  which  works  in  the  part 
above  the  holes.  Steam  can  therefore  enter  the 
rod  only  when  the  holes  are  in  the  steam-chest,  as 
they  are  when  the  high-pressure  piston  is  near  the 
upper  part  of  its  travel.  On  commencing  the  down- 
stroke  the  uppermost  valve-piston  is  just  passing 
below  the  holes,  and  therefore  admits  steam  into 
the  first  or  high-pressure  cylinder.  It  rises  again, 
and  closes  the  ports,  when  the  piston  has  descended 
about  three  quarters  of  its  stroke ;  but  the  cut-off  is 
effected  earlier  than  this  by  the  holes  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  hollow  rod,  leaving  the  steam-chest  and 
passing  through  the  gland  in  the  cylinder-cover — 
thus  losing  their  supply  of  steam.  It  is  evident 
that  the  cut-off  may  be  made  to  take  place  at  any 
part  of  the  stroke,  merely  by  drilling  the  holes  high- 

/JLA      w>    1  I     er  or  lower  in  the  rod ;  the  lower  they  are  the  earlier 

J^  B  KiJ2  '     *n  tne  str°ke  will  they  leave  the  steam-chest.     (The 

same  effect  is  produced  by  altering  the  height  of  the 
gland  in  the  cylinder-cover.)  After  cut-off,  the 
steam  acts  expansively  on  the  high-pressure  piston 
in  the  usual  way.  By  the  time  the  piston  has  reached 
the  bottom  of  its  stroke  the  piston-valve  has  passed 
above  the  ports,  and  a  way  is  opened  from  above 
into  the  space  below  the  piston,  or  first  receiver. 
During  the  up-stroke  (effected  by  the  momentum 
of  the  fly-wheel  only)  the  steam  is  merely  trans- 
ferred, practically  without  change  of  volume  or 


FIG.  62.— The  Willans  engine. 


pressure,  into  the  receiver.  At  the  beginning  of  the  succeeding  down-stroke  steam  passes 
from  the  receiver  by  holes  below  the  upper  piston  into  the  hollow  rod  again,  and  out  by  holes 
above  the  second  piston  into  the  intermediate  cylinder.  On  the  next  up-stroke  the  steam  ex- 
hausts, just  as  described  before,  into  the  second  receiver ;  in  the  next  down-stroke  it  passes 
into  the  low-pressure  cylinder ;  in  the  next  up-stroke  it  is  transferred  into  the  "  exhaust- 
chamber,"  which  is  in  communication  with  the  atmosphere  ;  but  it  is  not  until  the  third  revo- 
lution after  that  in  which  the  steam  enters  the  high-pressure  cylinder  that  it  is  finally  expelled 
from  the  engine.  The  full  pressure  in  the  steam-chest  is  constantly  acting  upon  the  valve-pis- 
ton. This  insures  that  the  eccentric-rod  shall  be  kept  constantly  pressed  against  the  eccen- 
tric, as  well  on  the  up  as  on  the  down  stroke.  With  the  steam-pistons  the  case  is  different. 
They,  are  much  heavier,  and  they  are  all  in  equilibria  during  the  up-stroke,  for  there  is  at  that 
time  communication  existing  between  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  all  of  them.  Special 
means,  therefore,  are  required  for  checking  their  momentum  on  the  up-stroke,  so  as  to  keep 
the  connecting-rod  brasses  truly  in  "  constant  thrust."  The  upward  movement  of  the  guide- 
piston  compresses  the  air  contained  in  the  guide-cylinder,  until  at  the  top  of  the  stroke  a  con- 
siderable pressure  is  reached,  sufficient  to  stop  the  line  of  pistons,  etc.,  without  shock,  and 
without  allowing  the  upper  brass  to  leave  the  crank-pin.  In  fact,  an  air-cushion  is  substi- 
tuted for  the  usual  steam-cushion. 

A  test  of  the  Willans  engine,  by  Prof.  A.  B.  W.  Kennedy,  showed  a  water-consumption  of 
19-11  Ibs.  per  indicated  horse- power  per  hour,  the  engine  developing  36-44  horse-power. 

The  Ailis  Rolling-Mitt  Reversing- Engine  (Fig.  63)  shows  a  pair  of  rolling-mill  engines  built 
by  the  E.  P.  Allis  Co.  for  Carnegie,  Phipps  &  Co.'s  Armor  Mill  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.  The  engines 
are  driving  a  two-roll  high  train,  and  are  reversed  at  every  pass  of  the  plate  in  the  rolls.  The 
steam  cylinders  are  40-in.  diameter  by  54-in.  stroke,  with  Reynolds'  Corliss  valve-gear  with- 
out the  drop  cut-off  mechanism  ;  the  "speed  of  the  engines  is  "controlled  by  the  operator,  and 
is  varied  in  every-day  practice  from  5  revolutions  to  120  re  volutions  per  min.  The  reversing- 
gear  is  handled  by  a  counterbalanced  reversing  mechanism,  operated  by  steam,  which  is  con- 
trolled by  a  lever  on  the  engineer's  platform  ;  from  this  position  he  has  an  unobstructed  view 
of  all  parts  of  the  engine  and  roll-train.  The  journals  for  the  roll-shaft  and  engine  crank- 
shaft are  formed  in  the  same  pillow-block,  each  one  having  proper  means  of  taking  up  wear 
and  adjustment.  Power  from  the  engine  crank-shaft  is  transmitted  to  the  roll-shaft  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  shrouded  helical  tooth  steel  gears. 

The  Willard  Condensing  Engine,  made  by  C.  P.  Willard  &  Co.,  Chicago,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
64*  It  differs  from  an  ordinary  steam-engine  in  the  fact  that  while  steam  is  made  in  the 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        319 


FIG.  63.-  -Reversing  rolling-mill  engine. 

generator,  which  is  a  part  of  the  machine,  the  only  function  of  the  steam  is  to  create,  by  con- 
densation, a  vacuum,  which  is  the  motive-power.  The  engine  is  double-acting,  a  vacuum 
being  created  alternately  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder.  There  is  no  greater  than  atmospheric 
pressure  in  the  generator,  and  there  conse- 
quently is  no  danger  of  explosion.  The  con- 
densation of  the  low-pressure  steam,  by  which 
a  vacuum  is  created,  is  effected  by  means  of  a 
surface-condenser,  which  is  kept  cool  by  water. 
Where  the  engine  is  to  be  used  in  a  city  or 
town  having  public  water  service,  the  condens- 
er is  placed  in  the  upright  iron  pocket  shown 
at  the  back  of  the  engine,  and  a  small  stream 
of  water — for  the  2-horse-power,  £-in.  pipe  ;  for 
the  4  horse-power,  f-in.  pipe — furnishes  an 
abundant  water-supply  to  keep  the  condenser 
cool.  The  water  is  a'dmitted  at  the  bottom, 
and  rises  to  the  top,  and  passes  off  through  an 
overflow-pipe.  Where  there  is  no  public  water- 
service,  the  engine  itself  operates  a  small  pump, 
which  causes  a  circulation  of  water. 

The  cylinder  does  not  require  oiling  or  lu- 
brication," as  the  low  steam  used,  being  very 
moist,  is  a  sufficient  lubricant.  The  engine 
requires  no  attention  beyond  simply  keeping 
up  the  fire,  and  giving  the  wheel  two  or  three 
turns  when  ready  to  begin  operations.  There 
are  no  exhaust,  no  steam-gauge,  no  gauge- 
cocks,  no  boiler  feed-pump  or  injector,  nor  any 
of  these  adjuncts  of  an  ordinary  steam-boiler. 
It  is  practically  noiseless,  and  there  is  no  escape 
of  burned  oil  or  noxious  odors.  Where  power 
is  needed  in  offices  and  buildings  heated  by 
steam,  for  running  ventilating-fans,  printing- 
presses,  or  other  machinery,  the  engine  may 
be  connected  by  a  pipe  with  the  steam-coil  in 
the  room,  and  run  in  this  way  without  any 
generator  with  the  machine  ;  consequently 
there  will  be  no  ashes  or  dust,  and  the  engine 
may  be  started  or  stopped  by  opening  or  closing  the  valve  connecting  with  the  steam- 
coil. 


FIG.  W.— The  Willard  condensing  engine. 


320        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONAKY   RECIPROCATING. 


The  Acme  Automatic  Safety  Engine  and  Boiler,  made  by  the  Rochester  Machine-Tool 
Works,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  is  shown  in  Figs.  65  and  66. 

The  engine  (Fig.  65)  is  an  upright  double-cylinder,  single-acting  engine,  with  cranks  180° 
to  each  other.  The  pistons  being  1|  times  the  stroke  in  length,  form  their  own  guides,  the 


FIG  65.— The  Acme  automatic  safety  engine. 

wrist-pins  being  slightly  below  the  center  of  the  pistons,  and  the  steam-rings  above  and  below 
the  wrist-pins.  The  valve  is  of  the  balanced  rocking  type,  and  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
cylinders,  the  valve-case  forming  the  cylinder-heads.  The  fly-wheel  contains  the  automatic 
governor,  which  regulates  the  admission  of  steam  to  suit  the  varying  loads,  by  changing  the 
throw  of  the  eccentric  that  actuates  the  valve.  Lubrication  is  accomplished* by  carrying  in 

the  crank-case  a  mixture  of  o'il  and  water, 
into  which  the  cranks  dip  at  every  revolu- 
tion. 

The  boiler  is  shown  in  Fig.  66.  It  is 
of  the  sectional  type,  the  water  being  car- 
ried in  a  series  of  rings  connected  by  in- 
clined tubes  that  break  joints.  The  boiler 
is  double-jacketed  to  prevent  loss  of  heat  by 
radiation.  A  large  dome  on  top  is  used  to 
dry  the  steam.  The  water-supply  is  main- 
tained by  a  pump  worked  from  the  main 
shaft,  which  forces  the  water  through  a  coil- 
heater,  where  it  is  subjected  to  the  effects 
of  the  exhaust  steam  before  entering  the 
water-leg  of  the  boiler.  The  supply  of  water 
to  the  feed-pump  is  regulated  by  a  ball- 
float  in  a  case  attached  to  the  boiler,  which, 
by  means  of  levers,  controls  the  amount  de- 
livered at  each  revolution  of  the  engine,  and 
may  be  adjusted  to  maintain  the  desired 
level  of  water  in  the  boiler  under  the  vary- 
ing loads  to  which  the  engine  may  be  sub- 
jected. The  fuel  is  kerosene-oil  of  110°  to 
115°  fire-test  (this  grade  giving  the  best  re- 
sults), atomized  by  a  steam-jet,  and  con- 
trolled by  an  automatic  fire-regulator,  that 
reduces  or  cuts  off  entirely  the  supply  of 

fuel  when  the  steam-pressure  reaches  the  limit  at  which  the  regulator  is  adjusted.  This  fire  is 
easily  controlled,  and  gives  an  even  and  constant  supply  of  steam.  The  tank  containing  the 
oil  is  placed  on  a  suitable  stand,  the  bottom  being  as  high  as  or  higher  than  the  burner. 
The  oil  flows  to  the  atomizer,  and  is  regulated  by  the  cap  of  the  atomizer,  as  before  stated. 
There  is  also  an  automatic  self-closing  valve  located  on  the  oil-pipe,  that  shuts  off  the  oil 
when  steam  is  shut  off  from  the  atomizer,  either  by  hand  or  the  action  of  the  fire-regulator. 

The  Shipman  Engine  and  Boiler,  made  by  the  Shipman  Engine  Co.,  Boston,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  67.  A  sectional  view  of  the  engine  and  a  side  view  of  the  connecting-rod  are  shown  in 
Fig.  68.  The  boiler  used  in  engines  of  from  1  to  6  horse-power  is  shown  in  Fig.  69. 

This  motor  is  a  petroleum-burning  steam-engine,  for  use  either  on  launches  or  in  houses 


FIG.  66.— The  Acme  boiler. 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        321 


where  a  moderate  amount  of  power  is  required.     It  is  automatic,  so  that,  when  once  steam  has 
been  generated  in  the  boiler,  practically  no  further  attention  is  required  beyond  that  of  open- 


FIG.  67.— The  Shipman  engine  and  boiler. 

ing  and  shutting  the  steam-valve  whenever  the  engine  is  started  or  stopped,  the  fire,  speed, 
and  water-feed  being  so  arranged  as  to  attend  to  themselves.  The  engine  is  built  upon  the 
same  frame  as  the  boiler.  This  latter  is  composed  of  tubes  about  18  in.  long,  which  are 

screwed  into  a  flat,  oblong  chamber  at  one  end  and 
closed  at  the  other,  and  is  fired  externally.  Two 
small  aspirators  or  atomizers,  taking  steam  from 
the  boiler,  suck  up  the  petroleum,  which  is  used  as 
fuel,  from  a  chamber  below,  and  drive  it  into  the 


FIG.  68.— The  Shipman  engine. 
21 


FIG.  69.— The  Shipman  boiler. 

furnaces  in  the  form  of  a  fine  spray.  A  couple  of 
torches  ignite  this  spray  as  it  passes  inward,  and 
the  flames  produced  by  its  combustion  rush  round 


322        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


and  among  the  boiler-tubes.  The  amount  of  steam  and  petroleum  that  is  used  by  the  atomizers 
is  regulated  by  a  diaphragm  connected  to  a  valve  in  the  steam-pipe  that  supplies  them.  This 
diaphragm  is  exposed  to  the  steam-pressure  on  the  one  side,  and  is  held  down  by  a  spring, 
loaded  to  a  certain  pressure,  on  the  other,  and  moves  upward  or  downward  as  the  steam  exerts 
more  pressure  than  the  spring,  or  vice  versa.  Its  movement  is  conveyed  to  the  valve  by 
means  of  a  rod,  and  it  thus  regulates  the  amount  of  steam  passing  at  any  moment  to  the 
atomizers.  In  this  way  the  fire  is  made  to  vary  inversely  as  the  pressure  in  the  boiler,  and 
thus  keeps  the  latter  constant.  The  petroleum  is  store'd  in  a  tank  at  any  convenient  dis- 
tance from  the  motor,  and  is  led  to  it  through  a  pipe  having  a  regulating  valve  in  it.  The 
water  in  the  boiler  is  kept  at  a  constant  level  by  means  of  a  float,  connected  to  a  tap  in  the 
suction-pipe  of  the  pump.  This  float  is  placed  in  a  chamber,  which  is  joined  to  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  boiler,  and  rises  or  falls  with  the  level  of  the  water.  The  movement  is  con- 
veyed, through  a  stuffing-box  and  by  means  of  levers,  to  the  tap  in  the  suction-pipe,  which 
it  opens  or  closes  as  the  water-level  changes. 

Allies  Hoisting-Engine. — Fig.  70  shows  a  hoisting-engine  built  by  the  E.  P.  Allis  Co.,  of 
Milwaukee.     The  drum  is  driven  by  a  pair  of  Reynolds  girder-frame  Corliss  engines.     They 


FIG.  70.— The  Allis  hoisting-engine. 

are  fitted  with  improved  brake  and  reversing-gear,  etc.  The  conical  rope  drum  is  18  ft.  in 
diameter  at  the  large  end.  8  ft.  at  the  small  end,  and  12  ff.  9  in.  long.  The  cylinders  are  16 
in.  diameter  by  36  in.  stroke.  Engines  of  this  style  are  built  with  different  sizes  of  drums  and 
cylinders  to  suit  the  requirements  of  different  locations. 

The  Dick  &  Church  Tandem- Compound  Engine,  made  by  the  Phoenix  Iron-Works  Co., 
Meadville,  Pa.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  71.  It  is  a  two-cylinder  compound,  both  cylinders  being 
overhung,  and  yet  supported  from  the  bed  independently  of  each  other,  so  that  they  are  free 
to  expand  and  keep  in  perfect  alignment,  there  being  no  excessive  weight  or  strain  upon  either 
cylinder.  The  bed  of  the  engine  is  made  in  two  parts,  the  lower  or  sub-base  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  machine,  and  having  a  hood  at  the  rear  end,  to  which  is  attached  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder.  On  this  sub-base,  and  bolted  to  it  the  same  as  to  a  foundation,  stands  the 
upper  bed-plate,  on  which  are  the  main  bearings,  guides,  and  the  overhanging  high-pressure 
cylinder.  This  is  perhaps  the  principal  distinctive  feature  of  the  engine.  It  allows  each  cyl- 
inder to  expand  freely  and  independently  of  the  other,  and  either  cylinder  is  easy  of  acces- 
for  repairs  without  disturbing  the  other.  The  rod  seen  passing  over  the  cylinders  ties  the 
two  hoods  together,  making  a  rigid  construction.  The  valve  mechanism  is  so  arranged  that 
the  point  of  cut-off  for  both  cylinders  is  under  the  control  of  the  governor,  and  varies  with 
the  load,  thus  maintaining  a  proper  distribution  of  load  and  temperatures  between  the  two 
cylinders.  The  relative  points  of  cut-off  can  be  adjusted  by  the  engineer  to  suit  varying  con- 
ditions, but  once  adjusted  they  vary  together  by  the  action  of  the  governor,  thus  preventing 
abnormal  variations  in  receiver  pressure.  The  valves  are  of  the  double-piston  type,  working 
in  casings  which  are  readily  removable  for  repairs. 

The  Watts-Campbell  Compound- Condensing  Engine. — The  full-page  engraving  repre- 
sents a  pair  of  engines  recently  put  in  the  Shrewsbury  Mills,  at  East  Newark,  N.  J.,  by 
the  Watts-Campbell  Co.,  of  Newark,  N.  J.  The  engines  are  tandem-compound,  coupled 
to  the  shaft  at  right  angles.  The  high-pressure  cylinders  are  20  in.  diameter  and  the  low- 
pressure  36  in.;  stroke  of  pistons,  48  in.  The  engines  run  at  a  speed  of  64  revolutions  per 
min.  Both  the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders  are  steam-jacketed,  the  former  with  steam 
direct  from  the  boiler  and  the  latter  with  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinders. 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        323 


324        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


The  exhaust  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  passes  down  through  the  legs  to  the  receiver, 
which  is  cast  as  part  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  and  includes  the  jacket-space  of  that  cyl- 
inder. From  the  low-pressure  cylinder  the  exhaust  goes  through  a  large  rectangular  passage 
to  the  condenser,  which  is  situated  midway  between  the  two  low-pressure  cylinders.  A  small 
pump  returns  the  water  of  condensation 'from  the  jackets  to  the  boilers.  But  one  air-pump 
is  employed,  which  is  driven  by  a  return  rod  from  one  of  the  crank-pins.  The  main  shaft  is 
16  in.  diameter  at  the  center  or  wheel  fit,  and  13  in.  at  the  journals.  The  band  fly-wheel  is 
25  ft.  in  diameter,  built  up  in  ten  segments.  It  has  a  face  of  6  ft.  2  in.,  turned  for  two  28-in. 
belts  and  one  10-in.  belt.  The  weight  of  the  fly-wheel  is  73,000  Ibs.  The  valve-gear  is  of  the 
Corliss  type,  with  modifications  that  have  been  introduced  by  the  Watts-Campbell  Co.  The 
speed  is  controlled  by  means  of  a  small  fly-ball  governor,  running  at  very  moderate  speed 
the  governor  controls  admission  by  eight  steam-valves  with  great  precision,  without  the  use 

of  a  dash-pot  or  equivalent  attachment  to 
prevent  fluctuation.  This  absence  of  shock 
to  the  governor  is  mainly  due  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  releasing  gear. 

Fig.  72  shows  the  dash-pot  used  in  the 
Watts-Campbell  Corliss  engines.  The  vac- 
uum which  serves  to  close  the  valve  is 
maintained  in  the  chamber  above  the  cen- 
tral post.  As  the  piston  descends,  closing 
the  steam-valve,  any  small  quantity  of  air 


that  may  have  found  its  way  into  this 
chamber  is  displaced  through  the  auto- 
matic valve  shown  in  the  top  t>f  post. 
The  cushioning  is  accomplished  in  the  an- 
nular chamber  at  the  bottom.  The  piston 
in  falling  is  first  partially  obstructed  in 


FIG.  72.— Compound  condensing  engine— details' 


the  tapered  upper  part  of  the  annular  chamber ;  then,  as  it  passes  this  tapered  portion,  it  is 
more  completely  resisted,  the  only  escape  for  the  imprisoned  air  being  such  as  is  provided  by 
the  adjusting  screw.  By  means  of  this  screw  any  desired  adjustment  of  cushion  can  be  made, 
interposed  leathers  preventing  the  parts  from  striking  metal  to  metal  while  making  such  ad 
justment,  or  at  any  time  while  in  operation. 

The  piston  and  piston  packing  used  in  these  en- 
gines are  shown  in  Fig.  73.  The  weight  rests  upon 
the  center  ring,  to  which  the  piston  and  follower  are 
securely  attached.  When,  by  wear  of  the  bottom  of 
the  center  ring  and  of  the  cylinder,  the  piston  gets 
below  the  center,  it  can  be  accurately  centered  by 
means  of  the  adjusting  screws.  This  is  considered 
by  the  builders  essential  in  a  horizontal  engine,  in 
which,  owing  to  gravity,  the  bottom  of  piston  and 
cylinder  will  be  subjected  to  somewhat  the  most  wear. 
The  center  ring  carries  the  weight  of  the  piston,  and 
protects  the  head  and  follower  from  wear.  By  the 
Watts-Campbell  method  of  turning  the  center  ring 
the  lower  or  bearing  part  is  made  to  exactly  fit  the 
bore  of  the  cylinder,  the  ring  being  turned  out  of 
round  to  give  the  requisite  clearance.  This  gives  full 
bearing  surface  from  the  start.  The  packing  con- 
sists of  two  small  rings,  one  at  either  edge  of  the  cen- 
ter ring.  These  are  turned  somewhat  larger  than  the 
bore  of  the  cylinder,  then  cut  and  halved  together  at 
the  joints.  When  in  place  they  keep  in  easy  contact 
with  the  cylinder,  without  undue  friction,  compen- 
sating for  wear  by  their  own  elasticity.  Light  springs 
are  supplied,  as  shown,  which  assist  in  keeping  the 
rings  in  contact  with  the  cylinder  until  they  are  worn 
out.  The  governor  is  connected  with  a  cross-shaft 
from  which  small  single  rods  extend  to  the  releasing 
mechanism  of  the  four  cylinders,  doing  away  with 
the  use  of  the  double  rods  usually  employed.  In 
compound  engines  the  connecting  rods  are  six  cranks 
in  length.  The  piston-rods  have  two  different  diam- 
eters in  their  length,  the  difference  being  sufficient  to 
afford  a  taper  seat  for  the  low-pressure  pistons.  These 
pistons  are  held  in  place  by  a  key.  By  disconnecting  the  rod  at  the  cross-head  and  moving 
the  low-pressure  piston  back  into  the  space  between  the  two  cylinders  the  key  can  be  removed  : 
then,  by  moving  the  rod  forward,  the  piston  can  be  removed.  A  noticeable  feature  in  these 
engines  is  the  fastenings  which  hold  the  bed-plates  to  the  pillow-block.  In  addition  to  the 
usual  bolts,  recesses  are  cast  in  the  front  side  of  the  pillow  block  and  in  the  front  side  of  the 
frame  against  the  pillow-block,  and  a  wrought-iron  link  is  shrunk  over  the  parts  inclosed  by 
the  recesses,  binding  the  pillow-block  and  frame  firmly  together. 


FIG.  73. 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY    RECIPROCATING.        325 


326        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


Result  of  a  Four-Days'  Trial  of  the  Watts- Campbell  Company's  Compound- Tandem  Engines 
at  the  Shrewsbury  Mills,  commencing  May  3d,  7  A.  M.,  and  ending  May  7th,  7  A.  M. 


Lbs.  coal  used 
in  24  hrs. 

Running  time. 

Coal  used  per  hour, 
running  time. 

Indicated 
horse-power. 

Coal  per  hour 
per  1  horse- 
power. 

Revolutions 
per  minute. 

May  3d  
May  4th         

5.000 
5,500 

10-5  hrs. 
10-5    " 

476-19 
523-81 

273-09 
295-48 

1-74 
1-77 

64 
64 

May  5th 

5  700 

10-5    " 

542-86 

311-74 

1-74 

64 

May  6th 

5  393 

10'5    " 

513-62 

309-81 

1'65 

64 

Average  

514-12 

297-53 

1-73 

.... 

Constant  every -day  run  ;  no  coal  deducted  for  banking  fires  ;  no  allowance  for  ashes. 

The  table  above  shows 
the  result  of  a  recent  test 
of  a  pair  of  these  engines, 
guaranteed  to  develop  700 
indicated  horse-power  per 
hour.  Upon  starting  the. 
engines  it  was  found  that 
it  would  not,  at  least  for 
some  time,  be  practicable  to 
load  them  to  more  than 
about  300  horse-power ;  it 
was  then  concluded  to  dis- 
connect one  of  the  pair  and 
test  the  other,  the  builders 
of  the  engines  waiving  the 
right  to  steam  of  110  Ibs. 
pressure,  and  using  but  80 
Ibs. ;  two  boilers  only  were 
used.  While  the  engine 
was  run  only  through  the 
ordinary  working  hours — 
10^ — all  the  coal  used  dur- 
ing the  24  hours  was 
charged  against  it ;  this  in- 
cluded coal  for  banking 
fires,  getting  up  steam  in 
the  morning,  etc.  The  test 
was  continued  for  4  days — 
06  hours — a  large  number 
of  diagrams  being  taken 
from  which'  to  compute  the 
power. 

The  Frick-  Corliss  En- 
gine.— Fig.  74  (from  Cas- 
sier's  Magazine)  represents 
a  tandem-compound  Corliss 
engine  built  by  the  Frick 
Co.,  engineers,  Waynesboro, 
Pa.  The  valve-gear  is  of 
the  Corliss  type,  with  con- 
stant lever-disengaging  mo- 
tion. One  governor  con- 
trols steam-valves  on  both 
high  and  low  pressure  cyl- 
inders. The  wrist  -  plate 
motion  is  driven  by  two 
eccentrics,  making  inde- 
pendent actuation  for  steam 
and  exhaust  valves,  and  is 
known  as  the  long-range 
cut-off.  The  engine  is  de- 
signed for  electric  railway 
and  cable  work  where  the 
variation  of  the  loads  is 
very  great,  The  low-press- 
ure cylinder  is  44  in.  diam- 
eter, high-pressure  30  in. 
diameter,  fly-wheel  25  ft. 
diameter,  6  ft.  face,  weight 
FIG.  75.-The  Wells  balanced  compound  engine.  50  tons.  Connection  is  had 


ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        327 


between  the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders  by  means  of  a  receiver-pipe,  which  connects 
with  a  flat  passage  secured  on  the  side  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  leading  to  the  steam- 
chest.  The  engine  illustrated  has  a  nominal  capacity  of  750  horse-power. 

The  Wells  Balanced  Compound-Engine,  made  by  the  Wells  Engine  Co.,  of  New  York,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  75.  It  is  claimed  for  this  engine  that  it  has  a  natural  balance  in  weight  of  the 
two  pistons,  and  their  connections,  at  all  angles  of  the  cranks  and  at  all  speeds ;  also  a  balance 
of  steam  pressures.  Equal  weight  being  attached  to  opposite  sides  of  the  crank-shaft  moving 
in  opposite  directions  (in  the  same  plane),  the  thrust  of  one  is  perfectly  counteracted  by  that 
of  the  other.  Steam  is  admitted  simultaneously  to  the  bottom  of  the  high-pressure  and  to  the 
top  ef  the  low-pressure  cylinders,  and  vice  versa.  The  force  on  one  cylinder-head  is  counter- 
acted by  an  equal  force  on  the  other.  Hence  there  can  be  no  strains  transmitted  to  the  frame, 
and  thence  to  the  main  bearing-boxes.  The  ascending  steam  force  on  the  small  piston  is 
equaled  by  a  descending  steam  force  on  the  large  piston,  which  transfers  the  fulcrum  from 
the  main  boxes  to  the  crank-shaft,  concentrating  the  whole  force  in  the  shaft  for  useful  effect. 
As  clearly  shown  in  the  cut,  there  are  three  connecting-rods,  one  transmitting  the  pressure 
from  the  "high-pressure  cylinder,  and  the  other  two  connecting  with  the  two  piston-rods  of 
the  larger  cylinder. 

Reheater  for  Compound  Engines. — F.  W.  Dean,  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  has  recently  invented 
a  reheater  for  use  in  connection  with  compound  engines  for  the  purpose  of  superheating  the 
exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  before  it  enters  the  low-pressure  cylinder. 
Fig.  76  shows  a  vertical  section  elevation,  and  Fig.  77  a  sectional  plan.  The  cylinder  A  is  of 
cast  iron,  and  is  provided  at  the  center  with  an  inwardly  projecting  T-shaped  annular  rib,  A1. 


FIG.  76. 


FIG.  77. 


On  one  side  is  formed  a  passage,  B,  communicating  with  the  exhaust-pipe  Bl  of  the  high- 
pressure  cylinder,  and  a  passage  C  opening  into  the  pipe  G'1,  through  which  the  steam  passes 
to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  after  having  been  reheated.  The  ends  of  the  cylinders  are  closed 
by  the  heads  A*  A3,  and  into  its  under  side  are  screwed  two  drain-pipes  a.  A  copper  or  steel 
cylinder  D  has  its  ends  closed  by  heads  which  serve  as  tube-sheets  to  support  the  series  of 
tubes  &,  which  are  inserted  in  the  usual  way — that  is,  by  expanding  their  ends.  Live  steam 
enters  through  the  pipe  E  and  passes  out  through  the  pipe  F.  The  construction  of  the  cylinders 
A  and  D  and  the  heads  A*  A*  is,  such  that  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder 
surrounds  the  cylinder  D  at  the  left  of  the  partition-rib  A1,  passes  through  the  tubes,  sur- 
rounds the  right-hand  half  of  the  inner  cylinder,  and  then  passes  through  the  pipe  C1  to  the 
valve-chest  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder.  In  the  mean  time  the  interior  of  the  cylinder  D  has 
been  filled  with  live  steam  from  the  boiler  which  surrounds  all  the  small  pipes,  imparting  a 
portion  of  its  heat  to  them  and  to  the  shell  of  the  inner  cylinder,  which  is  taken  up  and  ab- 
sorbed by  the  exhaust  steam. 

Joy's  Valve-Gear. — It  has  constantly  been  an  object  with  inventors  to  get  rid  of  the  com- 
plications of  the  two  eccentrics,  link, "etc.,  required  for  an  expansion  and  reversing  gear. 
Several  successful  gears 
have  recently  been  brought 
out,  in  which  the  valve  is 
driven  from  some  recipro- 
cating part  of  the  engine. 
One  of  the  best  known  of 
these  is  the  Joy  valve-gear, 
which  has  been  largely 
used  both  for  locomotive 
and  marine  engines.  Figs. 
78  and  79  illustrate  a  sim- 
ple form  of  this  gear  ap- 
plied to  a  horizontal  stationary  engine.  A  vibrating  rod  or  link  B  is  attached  at  one  end  to 
a  point  A,  near  the  middle  of  the  connecting-rod ;  while  the  lower  end  is  joined  to  the  radius- 
rod  C,  which  compels  B  to  move  in  a  vertical  plane.  To  a  point  D  in  the  link  B  is  jointed 
the  end  of  the  long  arm  of  a  lever  E  F,  of  which  the  end  of  the  small  arm  works  the  valve- 
rod  G,  and  the  fulcrum  F  is  attached  to  a  block  which  slides  in  the  curved  slot  J.  This  slot 
is  formed  in  a  disk,  the  center  of  which  is  the  position  of  the  fulcrum  F  when  the  piston  is  at 
either  end  of  its  stroke.  The  radius  of  the  slot  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the  valve-rod  G. 


FIG.  78. 


328        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING. 


FIG.  79. 


The  disk  can  be  made  to  rotate  through  an  arc  by  means  of  the  worm  and  wheel  shown. 
Thus  the  slot  can  be  inclined  to  either  side  of  the  vertical.     The  slot  allows  the  fulcrum  of 

the  lever  to  move  up  and 
down  with  the  motion  of 
the  point  A  of  the  con- 
necting-rod. The  forward 
or  backward  motion  of  the 
engine  and  the  rate  of  ex- 
pansion are  controlled  by 
inclining  the  slot  to  one  or 
other  side  of  the  vertical, 
the  central  position  corre- 
sponding with  mid -gear. 
If  the  end  D  of  the  lever 
were  attached  direct  to  the 
connecting-rod,  the  motion 
of  the  fulcrum  F  about 
the  center  of  the  slot  would 
not  be  symmetrical,  and 
the  result  would  be  that 
the  cut-off  would  be  une- 
qual in  the  two  strokes.  This  error  is  corrected  by  attaching  the  end  of  the  lever  to  the  point 
1)  of  the  vibrating  link ;  for,  while  the  point  A  on  the  connecting-rod  describes  a  nearly  true 
ellipse,  as  shown  in  Fig.  81,  the  point  D  describes  a  bulged  figure,  and  the  amount  of  the 
bulge  is  so  regulated  as  to  correct  the  unequal  motion  of  the  fulcrum  above  and  below  its 
central  position.  It  is  obvious  that  by  shifting  the  point  D  the  amount  of  the  bulge  may  be 
altered,  and  thus  the  error  may  be  corrected  too  little  or  too  much,  and  by  taking  advantage 
of  this  circumstance  a  later  cut-off 
may  be  given  to  either  end  of  the  cyl-  j 
inder,  if  found  desirable. 

Marshall's  Valve-Gear,  which  has 
recently  been  fitted  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  marine  engines,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  80.  In  this  system  only  one  ec- 
centric is  used,  the  end  of  the  eccen- 
tric rod  being  attached  to  a  rod  hung 
from  a  pin  on  the  reversing-shaft 
lever  R,  by  which  it  is  constrained  to 
move  in  an  arc  of  a  circle  inclined  to 
the  center  line.  To  an  intermediate 
point  P  in  the  eccentric-rod  a  con- 
necting link  is  attached,  which  com- 
municates the  necessary  motion  to 
the  slide-valve  rod.  By  adjusting  the 
position  of  the  reverse  lever  R  any 
desired  degree  of  expansion  can  be 
obtained,  or  the  engines  reversed,  as 
required.  There  are  few  working 
parts,  and  distribution  of  steam  both 
for  full  power  and  for  expansive  working  is  satisfactory. 

II.  ENGINE  TRIALS  AND  PERFORMANCES. — Economy  of  Small  Engines. — At  the  Plymouth 
show  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  in  1890  a  series  of  tests  as  made  of 
small  engines,  the  competition  being  restricted  to  those  below  5-brake  horse-power.  Three 
engines  were  tested,  with  tlie  results  shown  in  the  following  table : 


FIG.  80. 


Simpson, 

E.  R.  and 

Adams  and 

SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS. 

F.  Turner, 

Co.,  North- 

Dartmouth. 

Ipswich. 

ampton. 

BOILER. 

Water  evaporated  per  Ib  of  coal  from  feed  temperature                             Ibs 

8'726 

7'65 

5  '978 

Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212°  

10-42 

9-065 

7'136 

Efficiency  of  boiler                                             .                    

0-689 

0-599 

0-528 

Thermal  units  transmitted  per  min.  through  each  sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface.  . 
Coal  burned  per  sq.  ft.  of  grate  per  hour  Ibs. 

59-42 
9-635 

iao-4 

16-65 

150-1 
12-75 

Water  evaporated  per  sq  ft  of  heating  surface  per  hour  " 

3'09 

9'71 

7'80 

ENGINE. 

298*1 

263 

240  "3 

Indicated  horse-power         

5'641 

5-175 

6-201 

5'042 

3-997 

5-003 

STEAM. 

Steam  used  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour                  

35-75 

64'73 

57-75 

COAL. 

Per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour       .                              Ibs. 

4-099 

8'461 

9'66 

ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        329 

See  Engineering  of  Nov.  14,  1890,  for  comments  on  these  results. 

Triple-Expansion  Engines,  Performances  of  Stationary. — Experiments  were  made  at 
Augsburg  on  Oct.  9,  10,  and  11,  1889,  by  Prof.  M.  Schroter,  of  Munich,  on  a  horizontal  triple- 
expansion  engine  (Sulzer),  indicating  200  horse-power,  and  constructed  by  the  Augsburger 
Machinen-Fabrik  for  driving  part  of  their  works.  The  experiments  were  very  carefully  car- 
ried out ;  the  chief  results  of  one  of  five  trials  are  given  in  Engineering,  Dec/5,  1890.  Prof. 
Schroter's  paper  appeared  in  the  Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  Deutscher  Ingenieure,  vol.  xxxiv,  p. 
7.  In  it  he  gives  full  particulars  of  all  his  five  experiments,  the  second  of  which  has  been  here 
summarized.  Each  of  them  lasted  from  five  to  six  hours.  Three  were  made  with  £  cut-off 
ip  the  first  cylinder  and  two  with  0-3  cut-off,  and  all  with  steam  in  the  jackets.  The  mean 
result  in  pounds  steam  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour  of  experiments  1,  2,  and  3  is  12-58 
Ibs. ;  the  mean  of  the  two  others  is  12*83  Ibs.  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour. 

The  summary  above  referred  to  is  as  follows : 

Steam-engine  experiment  made  Oct.  10,  1889.     Triple  engine. 

Type :  Horizontal,  two  cranks  at  right  angles,  one  crank  with  first  and  second  cylinders 
tandem,  and  other  for  third  cylinder. 

Diameters  of  cylinders :  11*10  in.,  17'75  in.,  27'61  in. 

Stroke :  39-37  in.,  39'37  in.,  39-68  in. 

Condensing. 

Kind  of  condenser :  Jet. 

Steam-jacketed  very  completely. 

Three  cylinders  jacketed. 

Covers  jacketed. 

Two  receivers  jacketed,  all  with  boiler  steam. 

Kind  of  valves :  Four  Sulzer  valves  to  each  cylinder. 

Clearance  assumed :  Five-per-cent  cylinder  1.  4-per-cent  cylinders  2  and  3. 

Results  of  Test. 

Duration 5  h.  6  m. 

Pressure  of  steam,  saturated  or  superheated 156  Ibs. 

Cut-off  in  first  cylinder £. 

Vacuum  in  condenser  (in.) 28|. 

Revolutions  per  min •. 70'2. 

Piston-speed  per  min 460  ft. 

Indicated  horse-power 198. 

1st  cyl,  57-87 ;  2d  cyl.,  41-25 ;  3d  cyl.,  98-91. 

Water  as  steam  from  boiler  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour, 

deducting  water  condensed  in  steam-pipe 12'2  Ibs. 

Steam  condensed  in  jacket  (included  in  above) 20  per  cent  of 

feed-water. 

2-2  per  cent  in  1st  cyl.,  6-4  per  cent  in  2d  and  1st  receiver,  10*7 
per  cent  in  3d  and  2d  receiver. 

Per  hour.  Per  I.  H.-P.  per  hour. 

Water  from  inside  of  receiver     I      =       68'8    Ibs.      =      0-347  Ibs. 

II      =         0 
T    v  f      ( Cyl.     T  =       68-36    "       =     0-345   " 

water      1    "       IT  and  receiver   l      =      155'2      "        =      °'784  " 
(    "    III  «*        II      =     258-8      "       =      1-307  « 

At  }  cut-off  in  first  cylinder  two  experiments  were  made,  which  gave  in  feed-water  12-60  Ibs. 
and  12-92  Ibs.  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour.  At  0-3  cut-off  in  first  cylinder  two  ex- 
periments were  made,  which  gave  in  feed-water  a  mean  of  12-83  Ibs.  per  indicated  horse- 
power per  hour.  2-9  per  cent  of  water  was  separated  from  end  of  steam-pipe,  deducted  from 
total  feed,  and  excluded  from  the  above  results  of  feed-water. 

Two-Cylinder  vs.  Three- Cylinder  Engine. — A  Wheelock  triple-expansion  engine,  built  for 
the  Merrick  Thread  Co.,  of  Holyoke,  Mass.,  is  constructed  so  as  to  cut  the  intermediate  cylin- 
der out  of  the  circuit  and  run  the  high-pressure  and  low-pressure  cylinders  as  a*  two-cylinder 
compound,  using  the  same  conditions  of  initial  steam-pressure  and  load.  The  diameters  of 
the  cylinders  are  12,  14,  and  24^f  in.,  the  stroke  of  the  first  two  being  36  in.  and  that  of  the 
low-pressure  cylinder  48  in.  The  results  of  four  tests  reported  by  S.  M.  Green  and  G.  1. 
Rockwood  in  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  xiii,  show  that  when  running  as  a  two-cylinder  com- 
pound, with  steam-pressure  142  Ibs.,  79  revolutions  per  min.,  indicating  187  and  181  horse- 
power, the  consumption  of  dry  steam  per  horse-power  per  hour  was  respectively  13-06  and 
12-76  Ibs.,  and  when  running  as  a  triple-expansion  engine  with  the  same  pressure  of  steam 
and  number  of  revolutions,  developing  199  and  178  horse-power,  the  steam  consumption  was 
respectively  12-67  and  12*90  Ibs.  Thes^e  tests  indicate  that  there  is  but  a  trifling  difference  in 
economy  between  a  two-cylinder  and  a  triple-expansion  engine  when  both  are  run  under  the 
same  conditions  as  to  pressure,  load,  and  rate  of  expansion. 

For  other  tests  of  triple-expansion  engines,  see  Engineering.  Xov.  28,  1890 ;  also  Trans. 
A.  S.  M.  E..  vol.  xii. 

Dimensions  and  Ratios  of  Cylinder  Areas  in  Compound  Engines. — Mr.  Charles  T.  Main, 
in  a  paper  on  The  Use  of  Compound  Engines  for  Manufacturing  Purposes  (Trans.  A.  S.  M. 
E.,  vol.  x),  gives  a  table  showing  the  dimensions  of  engines  used  in  several  large  mills  in 
New  England  and  in  a  few  small  ones  in  Europe,  as  follows: 


330        ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY  RECIPROCATING. 


Designer  or 

DIAMETER 
INDERS  II 

8  OP  CYL- 
*  INCHES. 

Length  of 

Relative  areas 

Lbs.  water 

UK.  coal 

builder. 

High 

pressure. 

Low 

pressure. 

inches. 

of  cylinders. 

per  I.  H.-P. 

per  hour. 

per  H.-P. 

per  hour. 

Plymouth  Cordage  Co  
Sewell  and  Day              

Corliss  
Reynolds  

30 
22 

60 
44 

72 

60 

1  to  4 

1    '  4 

GJobe  Yarn  Mills  
Dyerville  MauTg  Co  

Wetherill  
W.  A.  Harris.  . 

24 
16 

48 
32 

60 

48 

'  4 
'  4 

Amoskeag     "         *'         ... 

Wright  

30 

56 

48 

'  3'48 

.... 

Wetamoe  Mills 

Wetherill.  .     .  . 

26 

48 

60 

1  3'41 

Atlantic  Delaine  

Corliss  

24 

44 

72 

1  3  "36 

i  -  fio  ' 

Ann  &  Hope  Mills 

22 

40 

60 

'  ^-m 

Nourse  Mill 

M 

20 

36 

72 

'  3  '24 

... 

Bristol  Cotton  Mill  
Lower  Pacific  Mills  

Reynolds  
Corliss  

18 
32 

32 
44 

48 
72 

'  3-16 
'  1'89 

Province  of  Naples 

Sulzer  Bros  .  . 

21'  62 

40'1 

59  '1 

1  "  3'44 

j  14'073 

1-478 

24 

40 

59  '1 

1    '  2  '  78 

(  14-586 
j  13'68 

1-566 
1-436 

Faromer,  Bohemia.  

Bromorsky  & 

/  14-81 

1-52 

Mossley,  near  Manchester, 
England 

Schultze  .... 
Goodfellow  & 

25 
24 

43 

52 

«f 

72 

1  <|  2-96 
1  "  4  '69 

15-774 

•IQ-QA 

BOILER-PRESSURE. 


He  recommends  the  following  ratios  of  areas  of  cylinders : 

For  boiler-pressures  above  125  Ibs.  the  triple- 

Ratios  of  Areas  of  Cylinders.  expansion  engine  should  be  used  to  get  the  full 

benefit  of  the  higher  pressures. 

See  also  a  paper  on  the  Cylinder  Ratios  of  Trip- 
le-Expansion Engines  by  Prof.  Jay  M.  Whitham, 
Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  x. 

Relative  Commercial  Economy  of  Compound  and 
Triple-Expansion  Engines. — Prof.'j.  E.  Denton,  in 
a  paper  read  at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  Advancement  of  Science  in  August, 

1891,  gives  the  following  table  and  deductions  to  show  the  relative  commercial  economy  of 
the  compound  and  triple  type  for  the  best  stationary  practice.  The  table  is  based  on  the 
tests  of  Prof.  Schroter,  of  Munich,  of  engines  built  at  Augsburg,  and  those  of  George  H.  Bar- 
rus  on  the  best  plants  of  America,  and  of  detailed  estimates  of  cost  obtained  from  several 
first-class  builders : 


PRESSURE. 

100  Ibs. 

125  Ibs. 

5  Ibs. 
10  " 

15  " 

1  to  3  '50 
1  "  3-75 
1  "  4 

1  to  4 
1  "  4-25 
1  "  4'50 

STEAM-PLANTS  OF  500  INDICATED 
HORSE-POWER. 

TRIP  MOTION,   OR  CORLISS  ENGINES 
OF  THE  TWIN  COMPOUND   RECEIVER- 
CONDENSING  TYPE,   EXPANDING   16 
TIMES.      BOILER-PRESSURE,  120  LBS. 

TRIP   MOTION,   OR  CORLISS  ENGINES 
OF  THE  TRIPLE-EXPANSION  FOUR- 
CYLINDER  RECEIVER-CONDENSING 
TYPE,   EXPANDING   22  TIMES. 
BOILER-PRESSURE,  150  LBS. 

Lbs.  water  per  hour 
per  H.-P.,  by  meas- 
urement. 

Lbs.  coal  per  hour 
per  H.-P.,  assuming 
8  '5  Ibs.  actual  evap- 
oration. 

Lbs.  water  per  hour 
per  H.-P.,  by  meas- 
ure tnent. 

Lbs.  coal  per  hour 
per  H.-P.,  assuming 
8  '5  Ibs.  actual  evap- 
oration. 

13-6 
14 

1-60 
1-65 

12-56 
12-80 

1-48 
1-50 

Probable  reliable  performance  

Increased  cost  of  triple-expansion  plant  per  horse-power,  including  boilers,  chimney,  heaters,  foun- 
dations, piping,  and  erection $4  50 


Plant  used  300 
days,  10  hours 
per  diem. 

Plant  used  360 
days.  24  hours 
per  diem. 

Total  annual  expense  for  coal  at  $4  per  ton     Compound  plant 

$9  90  h  -p 

$98  50  h  -p 

"                                                                         Triple  plant  

9 

25  92     " 

Annual  saving  of  triple  plant  in  fuel                                               

90     " 

2  60     " 

Annual  interest  at  5  per  cent  on  $4.50  

$0  23 

$0  23 

Annual  depreciation  at  5  per  cent  on  $4  50                                     

23 

23 

Annual  extra  cost  of  oil,  1  gal.  per  24-hour  day,  at  $.50,  or  15  per  cent  of  extra 

15 

36 

Annual  extra  cost  of  repairs  at  3  per  cent  on  $4  50  per  24  hours  

06 

14 

$0  67 

$0  96 

Annual  saving  per  h  -p 

SO  23 

$1  64 

Or,  the  saving  in  per  cent  of  the  annual  cost  of  fuel  per  h.-p.  of  the  compound  is 

8-9* 

5'8# 

See  also  paper  by  Mr.  Robert  Wyllie,  Trans.  List,  of  Mechl.  Engrs.<  Oct.,  1886. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  STEAM-JACKETS. — Numerous  tests  of  the  efficiency  of  the  steam-jackets 
of  the  Pawtucket  (R.  I.)  pumping-engine  were  made  by  Profs.  J.  E.  Denton  and  D.  S.  Jacobus, 
and  Mr.  William  Kent,  and  recorded  in  the  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vols.  xi  and  xii. 


,ENGINES,   STEAM,   STATIONARY   RECIPROCATING.        331 

Mr.  Kent's  conclusions,  based  upon  these  tests,  are  as  follows:  In  the  Pawtucket  pumping- 
engine  the  use  of  the  jackets  gives  a  saving  of  between  1  and  4  per  cent,  but  they  do  not  lead 
to  any  more  general  conclusion  than  that  jackets  may  be  expected  to  give  this  saving  in  a 
cross-compound  Corliss  engine  of  140  horse-power,  running  at  about  50  revolutions  per  min., 
supplied  with  dry  steam  of  125  Ibs.  gauge-pressure,  and  cutting  off  at  about  one  quarter  stroke 
in  the  high  and  one  third  stroke  in  the  low  pressure  cylinder.  Before  this  conclusion  can  be 
expanded  to  apply  to  other  engines,  there  should  be  'tests  made  with  equal  precautions  and 
refinements  to  those  made  with  the  Pawtucket  engine,  on  such  other  engines,  with  different 
dimensions  and  different  conditions,  such  as  pressure  of  steam,  moisture  or  superheat  in  the 
steam,  speed  of  revolution,  number  of  expansions  in  the  two  cylinders,  etc.  In  the  discus- 
sion of  Mr.  Kent's  paper  it  was  shown  that  the  results  obtained  in  the  Pawtucket  engine  con- 
firm those  which  have  been  recently  found  in  marine  engines.  (See  Thurston's  Manual  of 
the  Steam-Engine;  also  a  paper  by  Mr.  Joseph  Wright  in  Proc.  Inst.  of  Mech.  Engrs.,  Febru- 
ary, 1887.) 

*  FRICTION  OF  ENGINES. — Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston,  in  papers  read  before  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers  (Trans.,  vols.  viii,  ix,  x),  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
variation  of  load  in  steam-engines  is  not  productive  either  of  the  method  or  of  the  amount  of 
engine-friction  that  has  been  commonly  assumed  by  earlier  authorities  on  that  subject. 

Later  experiments  by  Prof.  R.  C.  Carpenter  and  Mr.  G.  B.  Preston,  of  Sibley  College,  lead 
to  the  conclusions,  as  stated  by  Prof.  Thurston,  that  the  most  important  item  of  friction 
waste,  in  every  instance,  is  that  of  lost  energy  at  the  main  bearings.  In  every  ease  it  amounts 
to  one  third  or  one  half  of  all  the  friction  resistance  of  the  engine,  or  from  about  5  to  10  per 
cent  of  the  whole  power  of  the  engine  in  the  cases  examined,  the  higher  figures  being  given 
by  the  condensing,  the  lower  by  the  non-condensing  engines,  except  that  the  first  experiment, 
with  the  straight-line  engine,  gives  as  high  a  figure  as  the  condensing  engines — a  fact  due, 
however,  rather  to  the  exceptionally  low  total  than  to  exceptionally  high  friction  on  the  main 
shaft.  The  second  highest  item  is,  in  all  cases  apparently,  the  friction  of  piston  and  rod,  the 
rubbing  of  rings  and  the  friction  of  the  rod-packing.  This  is  a  very  irregular  item,  and 
amounts  to  from  a  minimum  of  20  per  cent  to  some  higher  but  undetermined  quantity.  The 
third  item  in  order  of  importance  is  the  friction  of  valve,  in  the  case  of  the  engines  having 
unbalanced  valves.  This  is  seen  to  be  hardly  a  less  serious  amount  than  the  frictions  of  shaft 
and  of  piston.  But  it  is  further  seen  at  once  that  this  is  an  item  which  may  be  reduced  to  a 
very  small  amount  by  good  design,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  straight-line  engine, 
it  has  been  brought  down  from  26  to  2'5  per  cent  by  skillful  balancing.  Ninety  per  cent, 
therefore,  of  the  friction  of  the  unbalanced  valve  is  avoidable  or  remediable.  The  importance 
of  this  fact  is  readily  perceived  when  it  is  considered  that  not  only  is  it  a  serious  direction  of 
lost  work  and  wasted  power  and  fuel,  but  that  the  ease  of  working  of  the  valve  is  a  matter 
of  supreme  importance  to  the  effective  operation  of  the  governing  mechanism  in  this  class 
of  engines.  No  automatic  engine  can  govern  satisfactorily  when  the  valve  is  unbalanced, 
and  is  certain  to  throw  much  load  on  the  governor.  The  frictions  of  crank-pin,  of  cross- 
head,  and  of  eccentrics,  are  the  minor  items  of  this  account ;  they  are  comparatively  unim- 
portant. 

Cylinder  Condensation  in  Stationary  Engines — Single-Cylinder. — Mr.  G.  H.  Barrus  gives 
the  following  figures  representing  the  proportion  of  feed-water  which,  with  tight  valves  and 
piston,  will  be  accounted  for  by  the  indicator  at  different  cut-offs,  for  factory-engines  as  com- 
monly used  with  unjacketed  cylinders  exceeding  20  in.  in  diameter,  supplied  with  dry  but  not 
superheated  steam.  In  many  cases,  however,  leakage  through  the  valves  or  by  the  piston  in- 
creases materially  the  percentage  of  waste ;  so  that  if  the  wastes  in  this  table  are  exceeded  it 
can  be  inferred  at  once,  unless  the  engine  speed  is  extremely  low,  that  the  excess  is  due  to 
this  cause : 

Percentages  of  Loss  ~by  Cylinder  Condensation. 


Percentage  of  stroke  completed 
at  cut-oft 

Percentage  of  feed-water  consumption 
accounted  for  by  indicator-diagrams. 

Percentage  of  feed-water  consumption 
due  to  cylinder  condensation. 

5 
10 
15 
30 
30 
40 
50 

58 
66 

71 
74 

78 
S2 
86 

42 

34 
29 
26 
22 

18 
14 

In  ordinary  practice  there  is  a  rough  rule,  agreeing  nearly  with  that  above,  applicable  be- 
tween 2|  and  5  expansions,  slight  leakage  only;  it  may  be  stated  thus:  The  total  amount  of 
loss  due  to  condensation  per  stroke  is  a  constant  amount  equal  to  25  per  cent  of  the  feed-water 
employed  at  quarter  cut-off. 

See  also  a  paper  by  Major  T.  English.  R.  E.,  in  Proc.  Inst.  31.  E.,  September,  1887.  Prof. 
R.  H.  Thurston,  in  his  Manual  of  the  Steam-Engine,  compares  the  statements  of  different 
authorities  on  this  subject. 

GENERAL  DATA. — Dimensions  of  Important  Pa?is  of  Corliss  Engines. — James  B.  Stan- 
wood,  in  his  paper  on  Stationary-Engine  Practice  in  America,  Engineering,  June  12,  1891, 
gives  the  following  table  : 


332 


ENSILAGE   MACHINERY. 


Dimensions  of  Important  Parts  of  Corliss  Engines. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Diameter  of.  cylinder . . . 
Main  bearing 


Steam-pipe,  diameter  . . 
Exhaust-pipe,  diameter 


Exhaust-ports  •! 


Crank-pin 


diameter. 


I  diameter. 


Cross-head  pin 

Valve-chamber,  diameter 

Valve-stem,  diameter 

Piston-rod,  diameter 


Id 


II 
Ifl 


? 

i 

11 


li, 


14.1 


f 


3.1- 

a 


18 

811 
18 

6 

6 


16i? 
5TS 

k 


20 

m 


I 

51 

f 

a 


22 


U 

81 


5* 


24 


7 
9 

2^ft 

2 

23 


iS 


26 


i* 

# 

5iS 
7» 

fJ3 


c?  r 

8 

9 

C 

^A 


:-(> 


29" 

s* 
J* 

BJ 

J? 


Limit  of  Expansion  in  a  Two- Cylinder  Compound  Engine. — John  G.  Mair  (Proc.  Inst.  M. 
E.,  Februai-y,  1887)  says,  with  regard  to  the  number  of  expansions  that  could  advantageously 
be  made  in  an  ordinary  two-cylinder  compound  engine,  the  following  were  the  results  of 
experiments  that  he  had  made  with  a  pumping-engine,  raising  the  boiler-pressure  from  60 
up  to  120  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  above  atmosphere  while  working  throughout  at  practically  the  same 
speed : 

Boiler-pressure,  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  above  atmosphere. .  60  80  100  120 

Number  of  expansions 9'2  13-2      14-1       13'7 

Thermal  units  used  per  indicated  horse-power  per 

minute 334  327  325  330 

These  figures  showed  that,  after  obtaining  somewhere  about  10  or  12  expansions,  there  was 
no  economy  in  going  to  any  higher  expansion  with  two  cylinders,  as  the  saving  in  heat  ex- 
pended was  not  sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  increased  frictional  loss  due  to  the  larger  cylin- 
ders required. 

Water-Consumption  of  Different  Types  of  Engine. — The  following  are  common  figures  for 
the  usual  performance  of  stationary  engines  used  in  electrical  work  in  1890  (Thurston's  Manual 
of  the  Steam-Engine) : 

High-speed,  single-cylinder 35  to  40  Ibs.  water. 

'•  "  compound,  non-condensing 25  to  47 

condensing 19  to  21 

"  "  triple-condensing 16  to  17 

Corliss  single,  non-condensing 27  to  29 

"       compound,  condensing 15  to  16 

"       triple 13  to  14 

In  common  practice,  with  150  Ibs.  steam,  the  temperature  being  equalized,  the  ratio?  of 
cylinder  volumes  in  the  triple-expansion  engine  are  about  1 :  2*5 :  7*5. 

Possible  Improvements  in  the  Steam-Engine. — Prof.  Thurston  says  that  comparison  of 
results  of  experience  leads  to  such  final  conclusions  as  follows : 

1.  Experiment,  experience,  and  the  philosophy  of  the  steam-engine  combine  to  indicate 
that  the  limit  of  possible  advance  in  their  economical  application  is  now  so  nearly  approached 
that  further  progress  must  be  expected  to  be  both  slow  and  toilsome. 

2.  That  the  range  left  for  such  further  improvement  upon  the  best  and  most  efficient  of 
existing  engines  is  probably  small,  and  the  difficulties  arising  in  the  attempt  to  reduce  it  are 
increasing  in  a  higher  ratio  than  progress  in  its  reduction. 

3.  That,  while  wasteful  engines  may  be  improved  by  various  expedients,  including  the 
substitution  of  other  working  fluids  than  steam,  either  wholly  or  partly,  no  other  vapor  has 
yet  been  found  to  give  an  economical  performance  exceeding  on  the  whole,  or  even  equaling, 
that  obtained  with  the  best  steam-engines. 

ENSILAGE  MACHINERY.  The  introduction  of  the  silo,  a  roofed  bin  or  pit  for  stor- 
ing and  preserving  under  fermentation  green  corn,  clover,  and  other  forage  plants,  chopped 
fine  and  closely  laid  in,  with  frost  and  extraneous  moisture  excluded,  is  vastly  augmenting 
the  resources  of  the  farmer  for  winter  forage  for  live-stock.  The  gravity  of  the  mass  thus 
confined  causes  it  to  settle,  and  its  acetous  nature  causes  it  to  ferment  and  form  a  firm  cake 
known  as  ensilage.  This  is  taken  out  only  so  fast  as  it  is  required  for  feeding  by  means  of  a 
long  upright  opening  or  doorway  in  the  side  of  the  silo.  For  convenience,  the  silo  is  most 
often  erected  inside  one  end  oi'  the  cattle-house,  although  it  may  be  built  separate  if  pre- 
ferred. 

Silo-Construction. — Several  prevailing  methods  of  silo-construction,  recommended  by  E. 
W.  Ross  &  Co.,  of  Springfield,  Ohio,  are  indicated  in  Figs.  1  to  6.  Fig.  7  shows  the  best  silo- 
doorway  yet  devised,  closed  with  blocks  D.  The  drawing  shows  the  inside  of  the  silo-wall. 
The  pressure  of  the  ensilage  against  the  blocks  seals  the  opening.  The  two  leading  essen- 


ENSILAGE   MACHINERY. 


333 


tials  for  ensilage  are  exclusion  of  moisture  and  strength  to  resist  the  horizontal  pressure  of 
the  contents.     The  heat  of  the  ferment  is  sufficient  to  exclud3  frost  in  ordinary  winters  in 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. — Above-ground  outside  &ilo. 
FIGS.  1-6.    Silo-construction. 


the  temperate  zone.  Wood  is  better  for  silo-construction  than  any  kind  of  masonry.  The 
inside  surface  may  be  advantageou-ly  coated  with  tar  applied  warm.  The  silo  may  "be  used 
repeatedly,  year  after  year.  It  may  comprise  one  or  more  tank-like  apartments,  each  with  its 
walls  and  floor  independently  tight,  but  preferably  not  more 
than  10  ft.  square  each,  so  that  they  may  easily  be  made 
strong  and  also  present  a  rather  small  top  surface  of  ensilage 
to  the  air,  as  the  exposed  surface  is  subject  to  mildew  and 
can  not  be  used.  The  surface  of  the  ensilage  is  kept  covered 
with  straw.  Wherever  the  temperature  is  liable  to  stand  for 
days  at  a  time  as  low  as  zero,  Fahrenheit,  the  silo-walls  should 
be  dead-air  spaced;  but  where  such  extreme  cold  does  not 
occur  continuously  this  is  unnecessary,  and  the  pit  of  silage 
will  pass  through  "the  winter  unf  rested,  maintaining  a  tem- 
perature of  about  70°  by  its  own  chemical  action.  To  avoid 
possible  interference  with  the  intrinsic  thermal  and  moisture 
conditions  to  any  marked  extent  by  extrinsic  influences  is 
the  main  desideratum  ;  air-tight  closure  is  not  itself  the  pur- 
pose, but  a  means  to  this  end.  The  juices  of  the  stalks  are 
food  and  are  to  be  preserved,  but  water  from  without  is  ruin- 
ous to  ensilage  so  far  as  it  gains  any  access,  and  nothing 
should  be  put  in  the  silo  while  moist  from  rain  or  dew,  nor 
should  any  water  or  moisture  be  allowed  to  penetrate.  The 
flavor  of  ensilage  is  very  acid,  and  animals  at  first  eat  it  FIG.  7.— Silo-door. 


334 


ENSILAGE   MACHINEEY. 


under  protest,  but  soon  acquire  a  keen  relish  for  and  thrive  on  it.     The  flesh-and- milk-pro- 
ducing quality  is  remarkable.     The  available  yield  of  land  for  stock-feeding  purposes  is  vast- 


FIG.  8.— Ensilage  cutter. 

ly  increased  where  it  has  been  introduced.     Indian  corn,  sowed  or  planted  in  drills,  is  the 
silage  crop  giving  most  profitable  results.     The  corn  or  other  fodder,  optionally  used,  such 


FIG.  9. — Ensilage  cutter. 

as  root-tops,  clover  or  other  grass,  is  to  be  cut  into  short  lengths,  say  2  or  3  in.,  and  some- 
times the  corn-stalks  are  also  shredded  or  split  as  well  as  cut  across.  Taken  at  maturity  but 
before  they  have  begun  to  become  dry,  the  stalks  of  the  corn-plant,  rejected  by  cattle  when 
dry,  are  in  this  succulent  stage  preferred  by  them  before  the  leaves,  and  in  the  form  of  ensilage 
the  stalk-joints  are  the  most  nutritious  part.  Special  machines  are  devised  for  the  rapid  and 
economical  cutting  of  the  silage.  Figs.  8,  9,  10,  and  11  represent  several  standard  machines 


ENSILAGE   MACHINERY. 


335 


FIG.  Isf. — Cutter  blade. 


FIG.  13.— Cutter  blade. 


336 


ENSILAGE   MACHINERY. 


for  this  purpose,  and  clearly  show  the  differences  in  construction.     Figs.  12  to  17,  inclusive 
show  various  forms  of  blades  adapted  to  reduce  the  silage  material  to  the  requisite  fineness 


FIG.  15.— Cutter  blade. 


FIG.  16.— Cutter  blade. 


FIG.  17.— Cutter. 

and  condition  for  compact  storage  and  active  fermentation  in  the  silo.  Goffart,  of  France, 
is  deemed  the  efficient  originator  of  the  practical  application  among  farmers  of  this  method 
of  utilization  of  products  before  allowed  to  dry,  and,  so  far  as  the  richest  juices  are  concerned 
go  to  waste.  In  the  United  States  J.  B.  Brown,  of  New  York,  has  been  prime  promoter,  and 
with  great  success.  Not  only  the  thrift  and  profitableness  of  silage-fed  cattle  must  be  con- 
sidered, but  the  notably  increased  strength  and  value  of  their  manure  for  fertilizing.  There 
is  now  an  urgent  demand  from  farmers  for  field  machinery  capable  of  harvesting  heavy 
growths  of  sowed  corn  and  binding  the  tall  plants  automatically  in  sheaves  with  two  bands, 
for  convenient  transportation  from  field  to  the  silage  chopping-machine  at  the  side  of  the  silo. 


FIG.  18.— Keystone  stalk-cutter  and  husker. 

Husking  Fodder-Cutter. — The  "  Keystone  "  corn-husker  and  stalk-cutter  (Fig.  18)  is  one  of 
the  silage-making  machines  called  into  being  by  the  introduction  of  silos,  but  is  to  operate 
on  crops  of  corn  cultivated  for  the  grain  as  well  as  the  fodder.  The  machine  delivers  at  one 
end  the  ears  of  corn,  stripped  of  husks  and  silks,  and  at  the  other  end  the  chopped  silage.  By 
husking  as  soon  as  the  kernels  of  corn  have  matured,  but  before  the  plant  has  become  with- 
ered by  standing  too  long  in  the  field,  the  value  of  the  fodder  for  silage  may  be  conserved, 


ENSILAGE   MACHINERY. 


337 


This  machine  is  mounted  on  four  wheels,  and  weighs,  with  the  two  conveyers,  one  ton.  It 
is  operated  with  about  the  same  amount  of  power  as  the  large  thrashers  in  common  use. 
The  entire  corn-plants  are  fed  in, 
butts  first,  from  wagons,  as  they 
come  from  the  field.  The  stalks  are 
seized  by  a  pair  of  rollers  (seen  at  top 
of  open  Fig.  19)  3  in.  thick  and  20 
in.  long,  which  turn  in  slotted  bear- 
ings, separable,  but  prevented  by 
strong  springs  from  separating  far 
enough  to  admit  between  them  any 
ears  of  corn.  The  upper  roller  i: 
armed  with  projections  to  snap  off 
the  ear-stems;  and  the  gravity  of 
the  ears  aids  to  present  them  to  the 
snapper- roller  favorably  for  its  work. 
The  ears  in  their  husks  then  drop 
upon  two  pairs  of  husking-rollers, 
inclined  at  such  an  angle  as  to  clear 
the  space  near  the  snapping-roller 
and  rotating  at  a  right  angle  with 
it.  The  husking-rollers,  which  are 
3  in.  thick  and  3  ft.  long,  are  fur- 
nished with  steel  pins  projecting  and 
meshing  into  corresponding  holes  in 
each  other.  In  each  pair  of  rollers 
the  upper  faces  revolve  toward  one 
another,  their  pins  stripping  off  the 
corn-husks  and  silks,  drawing  them 

down  through  and  dropping  them  Flo  i9._stalk-cutter. 

on  a  carrier  below,  by  which  they 


on  a  carrier  oeiow,  oy  wnicu  uiey 

are  conveyed  to  the  feed-cutter  and  mingled  with  the  cut  stalks  for  the  silo, 
ears  are  skidded  from  the  rollers  to  a  conveyer,  which  delivers  them  separately, 
requires  seven  or  eight  attendants  hauling  and  feeding. 


The  husked 
The  machine 


22 


FIG.  1. — Yaryan  evaporator — section. 


338 


EVAPORATORS. 


EVAPORATORS.     Up  to  within  a  recent  date  the  most  improved  process  for  the  evapo- 
ration of  cane-sugar  juice  was  that  devised  by  Rillieux  (see  SUGAR-MAKING  MACHINERY,  vol. 


FIG.  2. — Yaryan  evaporator— section. 


ii  of  this  work).  The  principle  of  Rillieux  was  the  evaporation  by  multiple  effect,  or  the 
use  of  the  steam  of  evaporation  in  the  first  effect  to  further  concentrate  the  liquid  in  the  sec- 
ond operation,  which  is  made  possible  by  producing  a  vacuum  in  the  evaporating  chamber  of 


FIG.  3. -Yaryan  evaporator. 


the  final  effect,  thus  reducing  the  boiling  temperature  of  the  liquid.  The  steam  in  the  sur- 
rounding chamber,  or  jacket,  thereby  condenses  rapidly  on  the  colder  surface  of  the  evap- 
orating chamber,  and  thus  not  only  imparts  its  latent  heat  to  the  liquid,  but  produces  a  rela- 
tive vacuum  in  its  own  chamber.  The  defects  of  the  Rillieux  apparatus  are.  ^hat  a  consider- 


FILTRATION.  339 


able  mass  of  liquid  lying  above  the  heating  surface,  by  the  pressure  of  its  own  weight  raises 
the  boiling  temperature  of  the  liquid  at  the  bottom,  thus  requiring  more  heat  to  perform  the 
required  work  than  at  the  surface,  and  also  subjecting  the  liquid  to  a  strong  heat  for  an  un- 
necessary time.  This,  in  the  case  of  sugar,  is  a  fruitful  source  of  loss,  not  only  by  inversion 
of  the  sugar,  but  by  forming  caramel. 

The  Yaryan  Evaporator  is  based  upon  an  entirely  novel  principle,  by  which  the  inventor 
avails  himself  of  the  very  tendency  to  blow  into  spray  which  viscous  liquids  possess  when 
subjected  to  heat,  to  first  blow  all  the  liquid  into  a  spray  and  keep  it  subjected  to  heat  in  this 
state.  He  therefore  constructs  a  horizontal  tube  of  60  ft.  in  length  and  3  in.  in  diameter, 
and  surrounded  this  with  another  tube,  leaving  an  annular  space  of  sufficient  capacity  to  con- 


FIG.  4.— Yaryan  horizontal  evaporator. 

tain  steam  for  evaporation.  The  supply  port  to  the  inner  tube  was  reduced  to  a  diameter  of 
i  in.,  and  the  liquid,  being  fed  in  under  pressure,  and  steam  at  5  Ibs.  pressure  supplied  to  the 
outer  tube,  it  was  found  that  by  the  combined  action  of  the  liquid  entering  the  tube  through 
the  constricted  opening,  under  pressure,  and  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam  formed  by  its 
evaporation,  the  entire  volume  of  the  liquid  is  ejected  from  the  unobstructed  end  of  the  tube 
in  the  form  of  mixed  steam  and  spray.  Repeated  tests  showed  a  greatly  increased  efficiency 
as  the  velocity  of  the  liquid  in  the  pipe  was  increased.  The  apparatus  is  adapted  to  the  con- 
centration of  fluids,  sugar  solutions,  sugar-cane,  beet  and  sorghum  juices,  glucose,  glue,  gelatine, 
beer- worts,  wine,  glycerin,  extracts  of  bark,  wood,  beef,  coffee,  licorice,  alum  solutions,  caustic 
soda,  waste  alkali  liquor  from  paper-mills,  tank- waters  from  slaughter-houses,  and  for  distilling 
water.  Figs.  1, 2  and  3  show  a  section  and  perspective  views.  The  process  is  easily  followed  from 
the  sectional  views  (Figs.  1  and  2).  The  steam  for  the  first  effect  enters  the  chamber  G,  contain- 
ing the  heating  tubes  H,  through  the  inlet  F,  the  liquid  being  fed  to  the  return-bend  heating- 
tubes  through  the  valves  J9,  there  being  a  valve  for  each  coil.  Spraying  and  evaporation  at 
once  commence,  and  the  mass  is  driven  through  the  tubes  and  is  discharged  against  the  baffle- 
plates  in  the  separating  chamber  /;  thence  the  steam  of  the  evaporation  passes  to  the  next 
chamber  G.  while  the  remaining  liquid  passes  down  into  the  next  series  of  tubes  through  the 
valve  D,  and  so  on  through  the  system.  In  the  final  effect  a  vacuum  is  maintained  by 
means  of  the  vacuum-pump  and  condenser.  The  legend  accompanying  the  sectional  view 
will  serve  for  the  identification  of  other  operative  parts.  Fig.  3  is  a  perspective  view  of 
the  vertical  apparatus  just  described.  Fig.  4  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  Yaryan  evapora- 
tor of  the  horizontal  typet  differing,  however,  from  the  other  only  in  the  disposition  of  its 
parts. 

Evaporators :  see  Engines,  Marine. 

Excavator  :  see  Dredges  and  Excavators. 

Extractor  :  see  Separators,  Steam.     Extractor,  Centrifugal :  see  Creamers. 

Fan :  see  Blowers. 

Feeder :  see  Cotton-Gin,  Ore-Crushing  Machines,  and  Thrashing-Machines. 

Feed- Water  Heater :  see  Engines,  Marine,  and  Heaters,  Feed- Water. 

Felly-Borer,  Felly-Rounder :  see  Wheel-Making  Machines. 

Ferro-Chrome :  see  Alloys. 

Filing :  see  Grinding.  Emery. 

Filter-Press :  see  Mills,  Silver. 

FILTRATION.  The  purification  of  water  is  effected  by  mechanical  means  on  a  larger 
scale  at  the  present  time  than  has  ever  before  been  known.  To  filter  a  small  quantity  of 
water  is  not  a  difficult  matter,  but  to  filter  millions  of  gallons  a  day  involves  engineering 
problems  of  magnitude.  In  most  of  the  systems  employed  abroad  sand-filters  are  used.  The 
water  is  usually  allowed  to  remain  at  rest  in  settling  basins  until  the  heavier  matters  have 
deposited,  and  then  is  passed  to  the  filter-bed,  through  which  it  oozes  slowly.  This  type  of 


340  FILTRATION. 

filtration  has  several  serious  objections.  It  is  slow,  and  hence  unable  to  meet  heavy  drafts  on 
it,  as  in  the  case  of  fire.  The  filter-beds  acting  tardily  may  become  foul,  which  leads  to  the 
rapid  and  enormous  development  of  bacterial  life  in  them,  and  this  may  cause  the  water  to 
become  biologically  less  pure  after  passing  through  them  than  in  its  original  state.  There  is 
no  quick  way  of  cleaning  the  filter-beds.  In  fact,  there  is  no  method  of  simple  filtration 
known  that  is  competent  to  handle  on  a  commercial  basis  the  water-supply  of  a  large 
city. 

The  next  step  in  the  evolution  of  successful  mechanical  filtration  was  the  addition  to  water 
of  substances  which  react  chemically  with  the  bicarbonate  of  lime  present  in  all  natural 
waters,  and  form  a  precipitate  which  assists  in  removing  the  suspended  matters  by  filtration. 
The  addition  of  chemical  substances  to  aid  in  clarifying  water  is  very  old.  The  most  efficient 
of  these  substances  are  those  which  produce  in  the  water  precipitates  of  a  gelatinous  nature. 
The  gelatinous  precipitate  thus  formed  in  the  water  entangles  and  agglomerates  the  minute 
particles  of  suspended  matter,  be  they  mineral  particles  or  microbes,  and  forms  masses  of 
sufficient  size  to  be  easily  removed  by  the  filter.  Of  the  substances  which  produce  in  natural 
waters  gelatinous  precipitates,  alum  is  the  most  readily  obtained  and  is  not  surpassed  in  effi- 
ciency by  any.  The  alum  and  the  bicarbonate  of  lime  which  is  in  the  water  react  on  each 
other  chemically.  The  alum  is  decomposed,  and  a  gelatinous  precipitate  of  aluminic  hydrox- 
ide, mixed  with  "a  basic  aluminic  salt,  is  thus  formed.  The  most  searching  chemical  examina- 
tion fails  to  show  the  slightest  trace  of  alum  in  water  that  has  been  treated  with  the  proper 
amount  of  it  and  then  filtered. 

Alum  has  been  used  for  many  years  as  a  "  coagulant "  for  water  with  excellent  results. 
The  treatment  usually  consisted  in  adding  a  certain  amount  of  alum  to  the  water,  mixing  it 
well  and  allowing  the  water  to  stand  until  the  precipitate  settled,  after  which  the  clear,  super- 
natant water  was  run  off  to  the  filters.  While  in  this  way  a  bright  water  was  obtained,  there 
were  still  difficulties  which  prevented  commercial  success  on  a  large  scale.  The  subsidence 
plant  was  unwieldy,  and  the  same  difficulties  existed  with  the  filters  that  have  been  mentioned. 
Three  obstacles  remained  to  prevent  the  commercial  success  of  filtration  of  water  on  the  im- 
mense scale  that  large  cities  require.  The  first  was  the  difficulties  attending  the  cleaning  of 
the  filter-beds ;  the  second  was  the  time  required  for  filtration ;  and  the  third,  the  great  size 
of  the  filtration  plant.  It  was  reserved  for  us  in  America  to  solve  the  problem  in  a  most  in- 
genious way,  and  to  devise  a  process  that  has  made  the  cleaning  of  the  filter-beds  simple  and 
effective ;  that  has  diminished  the  time  of  filtration  to  a  practical  minimum,  and  has  greatly 
reduced  the  size  of  the  apparatus. 

The  principles  of  the  process  now  generally  in  vogue  here  are  briefly  as  follows :  On  its 
way  to  the  filter  the  water  receives  the  addition  of  a  minute  amount  of  a  saturated  solution  of 
the  coagulant,  usually  alum.  The  amount  of  coagulant  added  varies  with  different  waters, 
and  even  with  the  same  water  at  different  times  of  the  year.  Usually  it  amounts  to  about 
one  fifth  to  one  third  of  a  grain  to  the  gallon.  The  water  having  received  this  small  dose  of 
coagulant,  so  small  that  it  seems  incredible  that  it  should  produce  such  remarkable  results, 
passes,  without  stopping  to  settle,  directly  to  the  filters.  The  most  generally  adopted  form 
consists  of  large  closed  cylinders  of  boiler-iron  filled  with  sand,  or  a  mixture  of  sand  and  coke. 
The  coagulated  water  passes  down  through  these  filter-beds  and  comes  out  clear  and  spark- 
ling, as  delicious  and  as  tempting  as  a  mountain  spring. 

Nature,  however,  is  not  content  with  coagulating  and  filtering  water,  but  at  the  first  op- 
portunity sends  it  tumbling  over  some  precipice,  to  fall  against  rocks  and  be  dashed  into  spray 
until  it  reaches  the  bottom  a  mass  of  foam.  In  doing  this  Nature  effects  in  a  simple  way 
something  that  has  greatly  perplexed  engineers  to  imitate — i.  e.,  to  aerate  water  in  a  practical 
way.  This  aeration  fills  the  water  with  myriads  of  minute  bubbles  of  air.  The  surface  of 
contact  between  the  water  and  air  is  immense,  owing  to  the  enormous  number  of  air-bubbles. 
In  this  way  the  water  is  subjected  to  the  powerful  influence  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  which 
destroys  the  dissolved  organic  impurities,  and  not  only  kills  many  of  the  lower  forms  of  life, 
but  makes  the  life  of  many  others  hazardous  by  removing  the  organic  matter  on  which  they 
feed.  The  artificial  aeration  of  water  has  been  effected  in  the  following  way :  A  large  verti- 
cal pipe  many  feet  in  length  is  turned  back  on  itself  so  as  to  form  a  great  tl.  Into  one  end 
of  this  the  water  is  injected  and  falls  tangling  up  the  air  with  it  and  emerging  from  the  other 
end  as  foam.  Water  so  aerated  takes  hours  to  lose  its  air,  so  minute  are  the  bubbles.  The 
effect  of  this  aeration  is  to  oxidize  the  dissolved  organic  matter  and  greatly  purify  the  water. 
To  return  now  to  the  filter.  After  a  certain  duration  of  filtration  the  filter-beds  become  so 
clogged  with  the  separated  coagulum  and  filth  that  filtration  becomes  difficult,  and  if  allowed 
to  go  on  would  soon  yield  a  foul  water  from  the  growth  in  them  of  micro-organisms,  and 
instead  of  purifying  would  render  the  water  organically  less  pure.  Long  before  any  danger 
of  such  a  catastrophe  the  cleaning  of  the  filter-beds  takes  place.  To  accomplish  this'  the  cur- 
rent of  water  is  reversed,  and,  instead  of  flowing  down  through  the  filter-bed,  is  sent  with 
great  force  up  through  it  from  the  bottom.  The  entire  bed  of  sand  is  thus  lifted  and  floats, 
as  it  were,  on  the  ascending  stream  of  water,  yielding  up  all  its  impurities,  which  escape  with 
the  water  through  a  waste-pipe.  The  washing  of  the  filter  is  continued  until  the  wash-water 
runs  clear,  when,  by  turning  a  few  valves,  the  flow  is  reversed  again  and  filtration  is  resumed. 
So  simple  are  the  operations  of  filtration  and  washing  the  beds,  that  one  man  can  handle  a 
plant  filtering  several  millions  of  gallons  per  day. 

The  effect  of  this  method  of  filtration  on  the  purity  of  water  is  most  remarkable.  Thus 
the  analyses  of  the  water  of  the  city  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  before  and  after  filtration  furnish  incon- 
testable'proof  of  the  success  of  the  process  there  employed : 


FILTRATION. 


341 


Unfiltered.  Filtered. 

Total  solids 8'03  3-60 

Oxygen  absorbed 0*03 

Albuminoid  ammonia. .  .    0*16  0*03 

This  city  has  a  battery  of  12  niters  with  a  capacity  of  nearly  4,000,000  gals,  per  day.  Be- 
fore the  introduction  of  the  filtering  plant  the  water  could  not  be  used  except  for  sanitary 
purposes.  Now  the  filtered  water  is  the  best  there  is  in  the  city. 

The  remarkable  action  of  mechanical  filtration  in  the  removal  of  organic  life  in  water  is 
also  marked  and  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  is  now  a  well-recognized  fact  that  many 
diseases  are  conveyed  by  water,  and  reach  us  in  the  forms  of  microbes,  or  disease-seeds.  From 
the  standpoint  of  the  hydraulic  engineer,  however,  so  long  as  the  microbe  is  a  particle  of  in- 
soluble matter  it  can  be*  removed  as  easily  as  any  other  particle  of  solid  matter — clay,  for  in- 
stance. The  microbe  and  the  particle  of  clay  become  alike  entangled  in  the  gelatinous  coag- 
ulum,  and  are  removed  by  the  filter-bed.  Dr.  Charles  V.  Chapin,  Superintendent  of  Health 
of  Providence,  R.  I.,  has  made  some  most  interesting  investigations  in  the  water  filtered  by 
the  filter  plant  at  Long  Branch,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  yet  built.  In  the  unfiltered  water 
he  found  in  1  c.  c.  298  organisms.  In  the  filtered  water  only  two.  Nature,  herself,  can  not 
do  better  than  this.  (See  Pure  Water  for  our  Cities,  by  Dr.  Peter  Austen,  Engineering  Maga- 
zine, No.  1,  p.  95.) 

The  Hyatt  Filtering  System,  invented  by  Isaiah  Smith  Hyatt,  of  Morristown,  N.  J.,  coag- 
ulates the  impurities  in  the  water  and  then  filters  it.  The  filter  proper  is  simply  a  body  of 
ordinary  sea  sand  supported  in  a  perforated  false  bottom,  the  whole  being  inclosed  in  a 
wrought-iron  cylindrical  vessel. 

The  filter  is  connected  with  the  supply-pipe  in  such  a  manner  that  a  by-pass  is  formed 
around  the  filter ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  so  arranged  that  the  filter  may  be  disconnected 
without  disturbing  the  flow  of  water  through  the  main  pipe.  A  small  portion  of  the  muddy 
water  to  be  treated,  not  more  than  a  fraction  of  1  per  cent  of  the  total  volume,  goes  through 
an  attachment  to  the  main  filter,  containing  lumps  of  alum.  A  minute  amount  of  alum  is 
thus  dissolved  and  passes  into  the  filter,  where  it  is  mixed  with  the  main  body  of  water,  the 
quantity  of  alum  used  being  less  than  1  grain  per  gal.  of  water.  The  suspended  clay  and 
other  earthy  matter  which  is  of  a  basic  nature,  has  the  effect  of  precipitating  the  alumina  of 
the  alum,  causing  it  to  separate  all  through  the  water  in  the  form  of  gelatinous  flocks.  These 


FIG.  1.— Hyatt  filter. 

minute  particles  bring  together,  or  coagulate,  the  finely  suspended  matter,  converting  it  into 
such  a  form  that  the  filter  will  easily  and  completely  remove  it.  The  supply  of  water  to  this 
coagulator  is  governed  by  a  valve  regulated  by  a  scale,  each  division  of  which  corresponds  to 
a  given  quantity  of  alum  dissolved.  In  consequence  of  this  reaction,  the  minute  amount  of 
alum  employed  is  entirely  destroyed,  as  such,  and  is  removed  from  the  solution,  the  fine  silt 
which  could  not  otherwise  be  re'moved  by  filtration  is  converted  into  such  a  form  as  to  be 


342 


FILTRATION. 


FILTRATION.  343 


easily  removable,  and  the  resulting  filtered  water  is  perfectly  bright  and  clear,  no  matter  how 
dirty  and  muddy  it  may  have  been  previously.  For  the  purpose  of  cleaning  the  filter-bed, 
provision  is  made  by  which  the  current  of  water  can  be  reversed,  and  the  accumulation  of 
dirt,  etc.,  is  removed  through  a  special  discharge-pipe. 

Pig.  1  represents  one  of  the  largest  filter's  of  the  Hyatt  system.  It  is  constructed  of 
wrought  iron  and  steel,  with  a  capacity  of  250  gals,  per  min.,  or  325,000  gals,  per  24  hours. 
It  is  10  ft.  in  diameter,  13  ft.  high,  and  requires  392  bush,  of  filtering  material.  It  is  specially 
adapted  for  the  requirements  of  large  factories  and  industries  where  a  great  volume  of  water 
is  used  daily.  The  operation  is  as  follows :  The  water  enters  the  filter  through  the  main  inlet- 
pipe  below  the  partition  and  above  the  filtering  material,  passing  downward  and  out  through 
a  system  of  cone-valves  at  the  bottom,  which  are  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  the  filtering 
material  from  escaping,  and  at  the  same  time  allowing  the  water  to  flow  freely  to  the  outlet- 
pipe.  When  washing,  the  water  passes  from  the  inlet-pipe  to  the  outlet-pipe,  entering  the 
filter  at  the  bottom  through  the  cone-valve  outlet  system  and  up  through  the  filtering  mate- 
rial, agitating  and  loosening  the  same  and  producing  pressure  which  causes  the  material  to  be 
discharged  into  the  upper  tank,  which  is  always  filled  with  water,  through  the  7  discharge- 
pipes.  The  material,  being  heavy,  settles  immediately  to  the  bottom,  displacing  the  water 
which  flows  out  through  the  waste-pipe,  carrying  with  it  all  the  arrested  silt  and  impurities. 
After  the  material  has  all  been  discharged  into  the  upper  compartment  it  is  allowed  to  settle 
back  into  the  lower  chamber  or  filter  proper,  displacing  the  water  in  this  compartment,  which 
flows  out  through  the  lower  waste-pipe. 

We  illustrate  in  Pig.  2  the  Hyatt  plant  at  the  Long  Branch  (N.  J.)  Water- Works,  having 
a  capacity  of  treating  2,000,000  gals,  per  day.  This  consists  of  8  cisterns,  each  10  ft.  in 
diameter,  and  connected  with  a  common  inlet  and  outlet  pipe :  "  The  water  having  first  been 
aerated  and  coagulated,  flows  from  the  main  supply-pipe  to  and  into  the  filters  above  the 
surface  of  the  filter-beds,  and  in  passing  downward  is  relieved  of  all  objectionable  constitu- 
ents, issuing  through  a  series  of  wire-bound  outlet  screens  into  a  common  delivery-pipe,  and 
being  carried  by  the  continuous  pressure  to  the  various  consumers.  At  stated  periods  (ordi- 
narily once  each  day)  the  arrested  impurities  are  thrown  off  from  the  beds  of  filtering  material 
into  a  waste-pipe  leading  to  the  sea,  each  filter  being  renovated  independently  while  the  others 
are  performing  their  work  of  purification.  During  this  operation  the  intake- pipe  to  the  filter 
undergoing  the  operation  is  cut  off  from  the  main  inlet,  and  water  passes  through  a  central 
vertical  pipe  connecting  with  a  horizontal  radial  pipe  at  the  bottom  of  the  bed.  The  water 
issuing  through  this  horizontal  pipe  saturates  the  bed  immediately  around  and  above  it,  the 
arrested  impurities  being  detached  and  carried  off  by  the  current.  While  this  current  is 
flowing  through  the  horizontal  washing-pipe,  the  latter  is  gradually  moved  by  means  of  a 
lever  outside  of  the  filter,  and  by  the  time  it  has  passed  all  round  the  interior,  agitating  and 
scouring  the  mass  in  succession  until  it  has  arrived  back  to  its  original  position,  the  entire 
filter-bed  will  have  become  cleansed,  and  the  process  of  filtering  is  then  resumed.  This 
operation  occupies  usually  about  10  min.,  but  where  the  water  treated  yields  an  extraordinary 
amount  of  tenacious  sediment  a  somewhat  longer  scouring  may  be  necessary.  The  automatic 
aeration  is  accomplished  before  the  water  reaches  the  pumps.  After  leaving  these  it  flows 
through  the  main  inlet  to  the  filters,  and  thence  to  the  consumers.  The  plant  at  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  differs  in  construction  from  that  at  Long  Branch,  in  the  fact  of  having  two  stories  or 
chambers,  one  above  the  other,  the  upper  comprising  the  washing-chamber,  separated  from 
the  lower  compartment,  or  filter  proper,  by  means  of  a  partition  or  diaphragm,  this  partition 
being  indented  with  funnel-shaped  depressions  to  facilitate  the  return-flow  by  gravitation  of 
the  filtering  material  to  the  lower  chamber.  The  unpurified  water  enters  at  a  point  just 
below  the  diaphragm,  flows  downward  through  the  filter-bed,  issues  at  the  bottom  through  a 
series  of  valves  all  connected  in  one  system,  and  is  delivered  into  a  clear-water  basin,  from 
which  it  is  pumped  by  the  Holly  system  of  pumps  directly  to  consumers.  The  principles  of 
coagulation  and  filtering,  as  exemplified  in  this  plant,  are  precisely  the  same  as  at  Long 
Branch,  the  difference  in  construction  consisting  in  the  method  of  renovating  or  washing  the 
beds.  In  this  case  the  beds  are  washed  by  means  of  vertical  pipes,  through  which  the  entire 
contents  of  the  lower  chamber  are  forced  "up  by  ordinary  water-pressure  and  deposited  in  the 
upper  or  washing-chamber.  The  combined  effect  of  attrition  in  passing  through  these  pipes 
and  violent  contact  with  the  water  contained  in  the  upper  chamber  causes  a  complete  separa- 
tion of  the  filtering  material  from  the  impurities,  which  flow  with  the  current  out  through 
the  pipe  leading  from  the  upper  chamber,  thence  to  a  sewer  or  other  outlet.  This  operation 
having  been  accomplished,  the  filtering  material  is  permitted  to  return  to  the  lower  chamber 
by  gravity  through  the  conical  apertures  in  the  dividing  partition.  When  thus  restored  to  its 
original  position  all  openings  are  closed,  excepting  the  inlet  and  outlet,  and  the  process  of 
filtration  is  immediately  resumed." 

The  report  of  the  Board  of  Water  Commissioners  of  Atlanta  for  the  year  1890  shows  that 
the  filters  used  92,390  Ibs.  of  alum  during  the  preceding  year,  equal  to  "617  grain  to  the  gal., 
and  that  the  cost  of  filtration  per  million  gals,  was  $3.83." 

The  Warren  Filter  (Fig.  3)  was  invented  in  1885  by  Mr.  John  E.  Warren,  of  S.  D.  Warren 
&  Co.,  paper  manufacturers.  The  invention  was  the  outcome  of  the  necessity  of  a  filter  which 
would  purify  the  large  amount  of  water  used  in  the  Cumberland  Mills  of  the  above  firm,  this 
being  now  the  largest  mechanical  filter-plant  in  existence,  having  a  daily  capacity  of  12,000.000 
gals.  The  chief  merit  claimed  for  this  filter  is  the  mechanical  rake  or  agitator.  By  its  use 
the  sand  composing  the  filter-bed  is  thoroughly  scoured,  and  the  filtered  water  is  only  used  to 
rinse  off  the  dirt  thus  loosened.  As  a  result  of  this  method  of  procedure,  the  filter  can  be 


344 


FILTRATION. 


FIG.  3.— Warren  filter. 


rapidly  and  thoroughly  cleaned  with  the  minimum  consumption  of  water.  Experiments  also 
pointed  to  the  fact  that  insufficient  time  was  usually  allowed  for  the  reaction  of  the  alum  or 
other  coagulant  used  in  the  water ;  hence,  in  the  Warren  system,  the  coagulant,  in  the  form  of 
a  solution  of  definite  strength,  is  pumped  into  the  water  as  it  passes  to  a  settling-basin  or 
tank  so  proportioned  in  size  as  to  allow  each  particle  of  water  to  remain  in  contact  with  the 

coagulant  the  length  of  time  found  neces- 
sary for  the  chemical  reaction.  In  this  way 
it  is  claimed  that  a  greater  economy  of  the 
coagulant  is  obtained,  and  the  possibility 
of  its  passing  into  the  filtrate  is  removed — 
a  point  of  much  value  where  the  water  is 
used  for  domestic  purposes.  The  filter,  by 
combining  coagulation,  sedimentation,  and 
filtration,  by  the  use  of  an  open  filter-bed 
so  arranged  as  to  be  quickly  and  mechani- 
cally freed  from  the  intercepted  matter, 
and  by  the  use  of  a  light  pressure  never 
exceeding  &  lb-  Per  sq-  in-»  is  intended  to 
unite  all  desirable  features  with  a  compar- 
atively inexpensive  form  of  construction. 

From  Fig.  3,  which  clearly  exhibits  the 
internal  mechanism,  the  operation  of  this 
filter  will  be  understood. 

During  filtration,  the  unfiltered  water, 
entering  through  the  valve,  passes  up  into 
the  filter-tank,  thence  downward  through 
the  filter-bed,  supported  by  the  perforated 
plate,  and  through  the  filtered  water-main, 
by  which  it  is  carried  to  the  mill.  When 
it  becomes  necessary  to  cleanse  the  filter- 
bed  the  valves  are  adjusted  to  allow  the 
water  in  the  tank  to  pass  into  the  sewer. 
When  the  water  in  the  tank  has  been 
drawn  off,  the  agitator  is  set  in  motion, 

and  driven  down  into  the  bed  by  means  of  the  screw  shown,  while  at  the  same  time  a  slight 
amount  of  filtered  water  is  allowed  to  flow  back  up  through  the  bed,  in  order  to  rinse  away 
the  dirt  which  has  been  loosened  by  the  scouring  action  of  the  revolving  agitator.  When  the 
flow  of  water  up  through 
the  bed  becomes  clear 
the  agitator  is  raised, 
the  waste -gate  closed, 
and  by  the  opening  of 
the  valves  filtration  is 
resumed. 

The  National  Filter. 
— This  filter,  manufac- 
tured by  the  National 
Water-Purifying  Co.  of 
New  York,  is  represent- 
ed in  section  in  Fig.  4. 
The  filter  proper  is  about 
two  thirds  filled  with  in- 
destructible fine  quartz 
sea  sand.  In  the  top  of 
the  filter-case  is  shown 
a  device  for  supplying 
a  minute  quantity  of 
chemical  solution  to  the 
water  when  it  is  very 
roily  or  turbid  or  im- 
pregnated with  sewage, 
the  effect  of  the  chemi- 
cal being  to  precipitate 
the  impurities  in  solu- 
tion and  suspension, 
while  the  chemical  it- 
self is  retained  with  the 
impurities  it  precipi- 
tates upon  the  top  of 
the  filtering  material,  so 
that  no  trace  of  it  (even 
by  analysis)  appears  in  the  filtered  water.  In  the  bottom  of  the  filter  are  shown  the  brass  tub- 
ular strainers  for  preventing  the  sand  passing  out  with  the  filtered  water.  These  strainers 


FIRE   APPLIANCES.  345 


are  filled  with  gravel,  and  are  half  imbedded  in  cement — up  to  the  line  of  perforation — which 
prevents  any  filth  and  disease-germs  from  settling  below  them,  where  they  could  not  be 
reached  and  dislodged  by  the  reverse  current  when  washing  the  filter.  They  are  also  so  pro- 
portioned and  constructed  that  in  washing  the  filter  they  insure  a  complete  reverse-current 
in  every  part  of  the  bed,  which  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  any  mechanical  appliance  for 
stirring  the  bed  when  washing.  The  water  to  be  purified  is  admitted  under  pressure  to  the 
filter  at  A  above  the  sand  filter-bed,  and  where,  if  necessary,  it  is  mixed  with  a  minute  quan- 
tity of  chemical  solution  as  above  described ;  it  then  passes  down  through  the  sand,  brass 
strainers,  and  outlet-pipe  E  back  into  the  service-pipe,  leaving  the  commingled  impurities  and 
chemical  (if  used)  on  "the  surface  of  the  filtering  material  at  the  top  of  the  filter.  Once  a  day 
the  water  should  be  shut  off  from  the  inlet,  above  the  filtering  material,  and  be  allowed  to 
enter  the  filter  in  the  reverse  direction,  from  the  bottom  at  E.  It  will  then  pass  up  through 
the  filtering  material,  which  it  thoroughly  loosens  and  scours,  carrying  the  commingled  im- 
purities and  chemical  on  the  surface  of  the  filter-bed  off  through  the  waste  outlet  B,  which 
connects  with  the  sewer.  This  operation  only  takes  10  min.  time,  when  the  water  is  again 
admitted  at  the  inlet  at  top  of  the  filter  as  before,  and  filtering  recommences.  The  waste  B 
(at  some  point  close  to  the  filter)  should  be  left  exposed  by  means  of  a  trough  or  funnel,  so  that 
the  condition  of  waste  washing-water  will  show  when  the  filter-bed  has  been  thoroughly 
cleansed.  The  National  filtering  system  is  in  use  in  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  6,000,000  gals,  daily 
capacity ;  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  3,000,000  gals,  daily  capacity ;  and  in  various  other  cities  of  the 
United  States.  . 

Small  Filters  and  Filters  for  Special  Purposes. — The  Jewett  filter,  made  by  the  John  C. 
Jewett  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Buffalo,  embodies  a  cup  containing  sponge  and  a  vessel  con- 
taining gravel,  through  both  of  which  the  water  passes  into  a  settling  receptacle.  After  over- 
flowing the  latter  it  proceeds  through  the  filtering-bed  proper,  which  consists  of  layers  of 
gravel,  sand,  and  decarbonized  charcoal. 

A  Filter-Press  for  Porcelain  Clay,  devised  by  M.  P.  Faure,  of  Limoges,  Prance,  and 
described  in  Engineering,  January  17,  1890,  possesses  many  novel  features.  The  clay  and 
water  are  mixed  to  the  consistence  of  cream,  and  are  pumped*  into  the  filter-press.  The  mixed 
clay  and  water  are  not  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the  plunger  of  the  pump,  an  elastic 
diaphragm  being  interposed,  the  vibrating  movement  of  which  forces  the  material  into  the 
press ;  the  pump-cylinder  has  two  plungers,  one  working  within  the  other,  and  so  arranged 
that  the  smaller  one  can  be  put  in  operation  when  it  is  desired  to  increase  the  pressure  in  the 
filter-press.  "The  last-named  apparatus  has  a  cast-iron  frame,  on  the  longitudinal  bars  of 
which  are  hung  a  series  of  cast-iron  rings  covered  with  iron  gauze ;  between  the  frames  thus 
formed  canvas  bags  are  placed,  so  arranged  that  the  liquid  which  is  delivered  by  the  pump 
to  a  central  opening  in  one  end  of  the  press,  receives  it,  and  allows  the  water  to  pass  freely. 
The  series  of  frames  and  bags  are  held  together  by  the  end  screw,  and  the  pressure  that  can 
be  exerted  within  the  filter  by  the  pump  varies  from  120  Ibs.  to  150  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. ;  the  clay 
freed  from  the  water  that  held  it  remains  in  the  form  of  compressed  cakes  in  the  bags,  and 
about  500  Ibs.  of  clay  ready  for  the  edge-runners  can  be  turned  out  from  one  of  these  presses 
per  hour. 

FIRE  APPLIANCES.  All  methods  for  the  prevention  of  fires  fall  so  short  of  the  ideal 
of  immunity  that  there  is  a  necessity  for  fire-apparatus.  The  principle  of  defense  of  a  manu- 
factory against  fire  is  that  of  self-protection  by  making  the  installation  and  management  of 
the  fire-apparatus  of  such  a  grade  as  to  be  able  to  cope  with  the  progress  of  any  fire  which 
can  possibly  occur.  The  merits  of  fire  organizations  have  already  been  considered  as  essen- 
tial to  the  service  of  fire-apparatus. 

Buckets  of  water  are  the  most  effectual  fire-apparatus.  They  should  be  kept  full  and  dis- 
tributed in  liberal  profusion  in  the  various  rooms  of  a  mill,  being  placed  on  shelves  or  hung  on 
hooks,  as  circumstances  may  require.  In  order  to  assist  in  keeping  them  for  fire  purposes  only 
they  should  be  unlike  other  pails  used  about  the  premises,  and  in  some  instances  each  pail  and 
the  wall  or  column  behind  its  position  bears  the  same  number.  It  is  a  mistake  to  keep  fire- 
pails  in  dry-rooms,  as  the  water  in  the  pails  evaporates  rapidly,  and  also  in  so  doing  interferes 
with  the  drying  processes.  The  pails  should  be  placed  in  soine  convenient  situation  near  to 
the  dry-room,  where  they  will  not  oppose  the  drying  process,  and  will  also  be  more  accessible 
in  case  of  fire  than  when  hung  inside  of  a  dry-room.  In  unheated  buildings  the  contents  of 
fire-pails  can  be  prevented  from  freezing  in  winter  by  adding  chloride  of  magnesium  to  the 
water.  Galvanized-iron  pails  are  better  than  wood  pails,  and  indurated  fiber  makes  a  very 
satisfactory  pail,  especially  in  places  around  bleacheries,  chemical-pulp,  or  paper  mills,  where 
corrosive  fumes  rapidly  "in  jure  metal  pails.  There  are  various  expedients  to  insure  the 
full  condition  of  fire-pails,  such  as  various  floats  or  electrical  contrivances,  or  sealing  over 
the  top  of  the  pail  some  thin  sheet  of  impervious  material ;  but  the  fact  is  that  there  is  no 
fire-apparatus  so  simple  and  effective  as  a  full  pail  of  water  in  good  hands.  All  automatic 
devices  are  not  above  contingencies,  and  they  lead  to  lowering  the  standard  of  personal 
espionage,  which  is  the  controlling  principle  in  the  administration  of  affairs.  Generally  there 
is  also  need  of  casks  of  water  to  furnish  a  further  supply  to  the  fire-pails.  Garden-hose 
attached  to  a  supply  of  water  often  constitutes  a  very  useful  portion  of  the  fire-apparatus. 
Any  cocks  in  the  nozzles  should  be  fixed  in  an  open  position  by  striking  a  heavy  blow  on  the 
handle  of  the  plug-cock  commonly  used  in  such  fittings.  Automatic  sprinklers  have  proved 
to  be  a  most  valuable  form  of  fire-apparatus,  operating  with  great  efficiency  at  fires  where 
their  action  was  unaided  by  other  fire-apparatus,  particularly  at  night.  In  mill-fires  the  av- 
erage loss  for  an  experience  of  twelve  years  shows  that  in  those  fires  where  automatic  sprink- 


346  FIKE   APPLIANCES. 


lers  formed  a  part  of  the  apparatus  operating  upon  the  fire  the  average  loss  amounted  to  only 
one  nineteenth  of  the  average  of  all  other  losses.  If  the  difference  between  these  two  aver- 
ages represents  the  amount  saved  by  the  operation  of  automatic  sprinklers,  then  the  total 
damage  from  the  number  of  fires  in  places  in  which  automatic  sprinklers  are  accredited  as 
forming  a  portion  of  the  apparatus  has  been  reduced  $6,225,000  by  the  operation  of  this 
valuable  device.  Although  there  have  been  numerous  patents  granted  to  inventors  of  auto- 
matic sprinklers  since  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  yet  their  practical  use  and  intro- 
duction has  been  subsequent  to  the  invention  of  the  sealed  automatic  sprinkler  by  Henry  S. 
Parmelee,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  about  twelve  years  ago.  This  device  being  the  first,  and  for 
many  years  the  only  automatic  sprinkler  manufactured  and  sold,  and  actually  performing 
service  over  accidental  fires,  to  him  belongs  the  distinction  of  being  the  pioneer  and  practi- 
cally the  originator  of  the  vast  work  done  by  automatic  sprinklers  in  reducing  destruction 
of  property  by  fire.  Although  nearly  or  quite  200,000  Parmelee  automatic  sprinklers  have 
been  installed,  their  manufacture  has  been  supplanted  by  other  forms,  and  the  total  num- 
ber of  automatic  sprinklers  in  position  at  the  present  time  must  be  about  2,000,000. 

In  an  automatic-sprinkler  system  the  sprinkler-heads  are  attached  to  tees  in  pipes  against 
the  ceiling;  the  arrangement  being  such  that  there  shall  be  at  least  a  sprinkler  to  every  100  ft. 
of  floor,  some  places  requiring  a  still  larger  number  of  sprinklers.  There  should  be  two  sources 
of  water-supply,  with  check-valves  in  the  pipes  leading  into  the  sprinkler  system,  giving  it 
the  benefit  of  the  greater  pressure  without  the  intervention  of  any  personal  act.  If  one  of  these 
supplies  is  furnished  by  an  elevated  tank,  the  minimum  head  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  the 
highest  sprinkler  should  be  not  less  than  12  ft.  The  inability  to  withstand  freezing  temperatures 
is  a  defect  in  automatic-sprinkler  systems  which  has  not  been  fully  remedied  by  invention. 
There  are  many  so-called  dry-pipe  systems,  in  which  the  water  is  kept  from  the  system  until 
fire  occurs,  when  the  heat  which  releases  the  sprinkler  is  presumed  to  actuate  devices  which 
open  the  main  valves,  admitting  water  to  the  system.  Such  apparatus  is  always  complicated. 
These  systems  have  sometimes  proved  to  be  inoperative  at  fires,  and  have  been  frequently  dis- 
covered to  be  out  of  order  when  examined.  The  attempts  at  making  a  solution  of  low-freezing 
point,  which  should  be  non-combustible,  and  under  the  conditions  of  its  use  should  also  be 
non-corrosive,  do  not  appear  to  have  been  successful.  Water  is  sometimes  removed  from  au- 
tomatic-sprinkler systems  during  cold  weather  by  pumping  in  air  to  a  pressure  sufficient  to 
displace  the  water.  *  This  method  demands  a  great  deal  of  attention ;  and  in  case  of  a  fire  it 
requires  even  longer  to  discharge  the  compressed  air  from  the  pipes  and  throw  water  on  the 
fire  than  would  be  the  case  with  the  usual  dry-pipe  system. 

The  only  resource  for  automatic  sprinklers  in  rooms  liable  to  temperatures  below  the  freez- 
ing-point appears  to  be  to  shut  the  supply-valve  and  slowly  draw  the  water  from  the  pipes 
late  in  the  autumn  and  to  admit  the  water  in  the  spring.  'The  valves  should  be  in  a  place 
accessible  at  time  of  fire,  and  all  persons  liable  to  have  any  duties  in  the  matter  should  be 
made  acquainted  with  the  necessity  of  opening  such  valves  in  time  of  fire.  The  discharge  of 
automatic  brass  sprinklers,  including  the  resistance  of  the  pipe-fittings  may  be  represented  by 
Q  =  Q  Vp,  in  which  Q  equals  the  discharge  in  cu.  ft.  per  rain.,  and  p  the  pressure  in  Ibs.  per 
sq.  in. 

The  following  standard  of  sizes  for  pipes  for  automatic-sprinkler  installations  is  based 


upon  the  principle  of  using  the  nearest  commercial  sizes  permitting  a  uniform  frictional  loss 
through  the  system  : 

Number  of 

Diameter 

Number  of 

Diameter 

sprinklers. 

of  pipe. 

sprinklers. 

of  pipe. 

115 

4  inches. 

10 

i  inch. 

78 

3|     " 

6 

li     " 

48 

3       •« 

3 

1       " 

28 

2}     « 

1 

I    " 

18 

2       " 

When  automatic  sprinklers  were  first  introduced  there  were  many  apprehensions  that  leak- 
age and  also  excessive  water  discharged  upon  small  fires  would  be  sources  of  damage.  In  Eng- 
land this  opinion  found  expression  in  increased  insurance  rates  in  buildings  where  automatic 
sprinklers  were  installed.  Many  automatic  sprinklers  have  been  made  in  such  a  mariner  as  to 
impose  unusual  stress  upon  the  fusible  solder,  which  is  a  weak  alloy,  possessing  but  little  re- 
silience, and  therefore  ill-adapted  to  withstand  the  forces  due  to  water-pressure,  water-ham- 
mer, and  what  is  sometimes  greater  than  either,  the  initial  tension  in  setting  up  the  sprinkler 
to  make  it  tight.  It  is  not  surprising  that  such  sprinklers  break  or  leak ;  but  among  the 
score  or  more  automatic  sprinklers  on  sale  it  is  easy  to  select  several  varieties,  any  one  of 
which  would  impose  but  little  risk  of  leakage  from  water-pressure.  The  logic  of  figures  shows 
that  this  liability  to  damage  is  merely  nominal  in  the  case  of  well-constructed  sprinklers. 
An  association  of  underwriters  who  have  given  careful  attention  to  the  subject  obtained  the 
facts  that  out  of  514,071  automatic  sprinklers  which  had  been  in  actual  service  on  the  average 
for  five  years,  under  a  water-pressure  reaching  in  some  instances  180  Ibs.  to  the  sq.  in.,  but 
averaging  69  Ibs.  to  the  sq.  in.,  there  had  been  only  58  instances  of  sprinklers  leaking  from 
water-pressure,  and  317  instances  of  leakage  from  other  causes  than  fire,  generally  by  acci- 
dents to  the  machinery  or  by  carelessness  of  the  employes,  the  average  damage  from  all  these 
causes  being  $2.56  per  plant  per  annum.  Although  automatic  sprinklers  have  proved  to  be 
so  reliable  and  effective,  yet,  in  order  to  provide  for  ail  possible  contingencies,  their  introduc- 
tion should  not  displace  other  forms  of  fire-apparatus,  particularly  stand-pipes  in  the  stair- 


FIRE   APPLIANCES. 


347 


way-towers  with  hydrants  at  each  story.  The  hose  at  these  hydrants  should  be  festooned  on 
a  row  of  pins,  or  doubled  on  some  of  the  reels  made  especially  for  such  purposes.  Stand- 
pipes  are  not  recommended  to  be  placed  in  rooms  or  on  fire-escapes ;  and  inside  hydrants 
should  not  be  attached  to  the  vertical  pipes  supplying  automatic  sprinklers.  One  pound  of 
burning  wood  produces  sufficient  heat  to  evaporate  6|  Ibs.  of  water,  and  owing  to  the  waste, 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  water  to  fuel  is  necessary  to  quench  a  fire. 

Fire-pumps  are  generally  too  small  for  the  work  required  of  them,  500  gals,  per  min.  being 
the  minimum  capacity  recommended.  For  a  five-story  mill  there  should  be  an  allowance  of 
250  gals,  per  min.  for  an  effective  fire-stream  through  a  1-J-in.  nozzle,  and  for  lower  buildings 
the  estimate  should  rarely  be  less  than  200  gals,  for  each  stream.  Contrary  to  the  general 
assumption,  a  ring  nozzle  is  not  so  efficient  as  a  smooth  nozzle,  the  relative  amount  of  dis- 
charge of  ring  and  smooth  nozzles  of  the  same  diameter  being  as  three  is  to  four.  For  stand- 
pipes  |-in.  nozzles  are  recommended,  but  for  yard-hydrant  service  the  diameter  should  never 
be  less  than  1  in.,  and  1£  in-  generally  fulfills  the  conditions  of  the  best  service.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  the  couplings  on  the  hose  and  hydrants  should  fit  those  of  the  public  fire  department. 
The  best  diameter  of  hose  is  2£  in.,  the  loss  by  friction  under  equal  deliveries  of  water  being 
only  one  third  in  a  2^-in.  hose  of  what  it  is  in  a  hose  2  in.  in  diameter.  Fire-pumps  should 
be  equipped  with  a  relief-valve  and  also  a  pressure-gauge,  and  placed  where  they  will  be  ac- 
cessible under  all  circumstances,  and  so  connected  that  they  can  be  started  at  least  once  a 
week. 

The  best  location  for  fire-pumps  is  a  matter  differing  with  the  conditions  of  each  mill,  but 
they  should  be  situated  as  near  to  the  source  of  supply  as  practicable,  with  full-size  suction- 
pipe,  easy  of  inspection  and  not  containing  any  avoidable  bends.  In  a  steam-mill  it  is  some- 
times preferable  to  draft  the  water  from  a  point  below  where  the  water  of  condensation  is 
discharged  into  the  stream,  as  there  is  less  freezing  there.  In  mills  driven  by  water-wheels  it 
is  a  convenience  in  time  of  repairs  for  steam  fire-pumps  to  draft  water  from  the  wheel-pit. 
Rotary  fire-pumps  should  have  a  short  draft,  but  not  placed  below  the  level  of  the  supply. 
Water-mains  about  a  mill-yard  should  be  of  ample  capacity  not  to  cause  an  excessive  loss  by 
friction,  their  diameter  being  based  upon  a  limit  of  velocity  of  10  ft.  per  sec.  for  the  maxi- 
mum delivery.  The  yard  hydrants  should  be  placed  at  a  distance  of  50  ft.  from  buildings, 
and  covered  with  a  house  which  should  also  contain  hose,  nozzles,  axes,  bars,  and  spanners. 
Hydrant-houses  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  but  it  is  important  that  the  doors 
should  be  high  enough  to  avoid  ice,  or  that  the  house  should  be  placed  upon  slight  mounds. 
An  economical  hydrant- housa  may  be  built  6  ft.  square  with  two  adjacent  sides  hung  on 
hinges,  so  that  the  doors  can  be  swung  around  to  the  other  side  and  be  held  by  catches.  The 
pins  on  which  the  hose  is  hung  should  be  2  in.  in  diameter,  and  placed  diagonally  and  stag- 
gered in  two  rows.  If  there  is  no  hose-cart,  the  reserve  hose  can  be  placed  on  shelves.  Stop- 
valves  in  the  mains  should  be  covered  by  boxes  4  ft.  in  height,  and  the  direction  of  opening 
clearly  marked  on  the  hand-wheel  of  the  gate.  (The  foregoing  is  taken  from  Methods  of  Re- 
ducing Fire  Loss,  by  Mr.  C.  J.  H.  Woodbury,  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  K,  vol.  ii,  p.  271.) 

I.  FIRE  TRUCKS  AND  LADDERS. — Various  devices  have  been  constructed  for  elevating  lad- 
ders against  a  burning  building,  so  as  to  allow  both  of  escape  of  inmates  and  ready  access  of 
the  firemen. 

The  Hayes  Extension  Ladder-  Truck,  manufactured  by  the  La  France  Fire-Engine  Co.,  of 
Elmira,  X.  Y..  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  Fig.  1  shows  the  ladder  during  elevation,  and 
Fig.  2  in  upright  position.  The  ladder  is  telescopic,  giving 
a  total  height  of  from  60  to  85  ft.  from  the  ground,  made 
in  two  slides,  and  worked  by  an  endless  chain  and  winch- 


FIG.  1.— Hayes  extension  ladder-truck.  FIG.  2.— Hayes  extension  ladder-truck. 

attached  to  the  truck.  The  lower  portion  is  hung  on  trunnions  supported  on  an  A-frame, 
which  stands  on  a  turn-table  which  is  attached  to  the  main  frame  of  the  truck.  From  the 
under  side  of  the  ladder  is  hung  a  pair  of  arms  carrying  a  nut  which  is  hung  on  trunnions, 


348 


FIRE   APPLIANCES. 


and  through  which  passes  a  screw,  one  end  of  which  is  held  in  a  swivel  fastened  to  the  re- 
volving portion  of  the  turn-table  on  the  front  end.  The  back  end  extends  under  the  ladder, 
and  the  front  end  is  squared  for  a  crank,  so  that  by  turning  the  screw  the  ladder  is  raised  to 
the  required  elevation ;  then  the  turn-table  is  swung  around,  and,  if  necessary,  the  extension 
of  the  ladder  is  run  out.  The  ladder  is  lowered  over  against  the  building,  as  may  be  de- 
sired. As  the  ladders  are  being  raised  to  a  vertical  position,  they  can,  by  means  of  the  turn- 
table, be  turned  in  any  direction  required,  and  by  simply  manipulating  the  turn-table,  screw, 
and  extension-cranks  the  top  of  the  ladder  can  be  readily  directed  to  any  desired  point  within 
reach.  The  truck  can  also  be  moved  from  point  to  point  without  letting  down  the  ladders, 
thus  enabling  the  firemen  to  reach  every  point  of  a  burning  building.  With  a  little  practice 
this  can  be  done  with  precision  and  great  rapidity.  In  less  than  one  minute  the  ladders  can 
be  fully  extended  and  placed  against  a  building  ready  for  service.  In  raising  the  ladders,  elec- 
trical wires  can  often  be  avoided,  but  if  encountered  a  man  can  ascend  the  ladder  at  any  angle 
and  cut  them.  The  ladders  being  raised  by  means  of  a  powerful  screw,  the  action  is  certain 
arid  perfectly  safe.  Only  8  or  10  ft.  width  of  roadway  is  required  for  the  truck,  and  it  can  be 
operated  as  well  in  a  narrow  alley  as  in  a  wide  street.  But  five  or  six  men  are  required  to 

work  it.  A  rope  is  pro- 
vided for  handling  the 
hose.  To  one  end  is  at- 
tached a  hook.  The  rope 
is  passed  over  the  ladders 
through  a  sheave  at- 
tached to  the  top  end  of 
the  extension  ladder : 
thence  it  passes  down 
under  the  ladders  and 
through  a  snatch-block 
provided  on  the  frame. 
The  end  of  this  rope  is 
left  slack  when  the  lad- 
ders are  being  raised. 
When  they  are  in  posi- 
tion the  hose  is  hooked 
on  and  readily  raised  to 
the  top,  where  it  can  be 
securely  strapped  to  the 
ladders.  The  rope  can 
also  be  made  useful  in 
saving  lives  and  property. 
As  an  aerial  ladder 
this  truck  can  be  used 
with  safety  to  the  height 
of  the  main  ladder,  which 
is  about  50  ft.  in  the  first 
class,  and  40  ft.  in  the 
second  class,  from  the 
ground.  The  ladder  is 
placed  in  a  nearly  verti- 
cal position,  and  two 
lines  of  hose  carried  to 
the  top  may  be  directed 
by  the  pipe-men  in  any 
direction,  carrying  a  full 
fire  -  pressure  stream. 
The  frame,  made  extra 
strong  and  supported  by 
truss-rods,  is  mounted  on 
platform  -  spring  over 
front  axle  and  two  full 
elliptic  springs  over  hind 
axle.  The  hind-gear  is 
controlled  by  a  cog-gear 
operated  with  a  wheel  in 
the  hands  of  a  tillerman, 
by  means  of  which  the 
truck  can  be  guided 
around  short  corners  and 
through  narrow  alleys. 

FIG.  a.-Hales  water-tower.  WATER  -  TOWERS   are 

pipes  mounted  on  trucks, 

which  can  be  elevated  when  in  proximity  to  a  burning  building  so  as  to  throw  powerful 
streams  of  water  from  their  upper  ends  directly  upon  the  roof  or  into  the  windows. 

The  Hales  Water-Tower,  represented  in   Fig.  3,  consists   of  a  strong  oak  framework 


FIRE   APPLIANCES. 


349 


mounted  on  wheels  and  carrying  an  iron  frame  with  an  extending  telescopic  tube,  through 
which  passes  the  hose  conducting  the  water  from  the  supply  to  and  through  the  pipe  at  the 
top  end.  The  motive  or  lifting  power  is  furnished  by  a  chemical  tank. 

The  tower  proper  is  hung  on  and  supported  by  a  steel  shaft,  which  rests  on  two  wrought- 
iron  frames.  It  is  constructed  of  angle  steel,  with  sheet-steel  sides,  riveted  together  with  hot 
rivets,  and  is  22  ft.  long.  2  ft.  6  in.  by  15  in.  at  the  bottom,  and  about  8  in.  square  at  the  top. 
It  is  raised  by  the  quadrants  and  guy-rods.  In  the  tower,  and  telescoping  it,  is  a  steel  6-in. 
tube  28  ft.  long,  strengthened  by  four  steel  T-ribs  which  may  be  extended  by  means  of  a  £ 
phosphor-bronze  cable  attached  to  two  spools  and  a  gear  at  the  base  of  the  tower,  passing 
over  brass  sheaves  at  the  top  and  running  down  into  the  tower  around  the  bottom  of  the 
tube.  On  the  end  of  the  tube  is  a  small  turn-table  revolved  by  gearing.  Attached  to 
this  are  two  wrought-iron  arms,  supporting  the  pipe,  with  the  three  sizes  of  nozzles— If  in., 
2  in.,  and  2±  in.  The  turn-table  is  operated  by  a  cast-steel  rod  running  to  the  base  of  the 
tower,  turned  by  a  small  wheel,  and  this  directs  the  stream  in  any  direction  desired.  The 
tower  rests  on  an  iron  saddle  or  framework.  The  raising  of  the  tower  is  controlled  by  a  wire 
cable  and  snubbing-block  in  connection  with  the  power  used  by  the  tank.  On  both  sides,  if 
desired,  are  two  3-way  Siamese  connections,  receiving  the  water  and  conducting  it  into  a  60- 
ft  length  of  3i  hose,  passing  up  through  the  tube  into  and  through  the  pipe.  There  are  four 
sizes  of  towers  made— 30,  45,  55,  and  60  ft.  high  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  pipe  when 
extended. 

The  benefits  claimed  for  the  tower  are  as  follows :  A  building  being  heavily  charged  with 
smoke,  it  is  impossible  for  firemen  to  gain  an  entrance  to  the  bottom  or  upper  stories.  By 
placing  the  tower  in  the  street  opposite  the  building,  one  sweep  of  the  2-in.  stream  is  suffi- 
cient to  break  all  the  glass  from  the  windows,  and  give  the  building  such  ventilation  as  will 
enable  the  firemen  to  enter  and  quickly  locate,  and  often  extinguish,  the  fire  in  its  incipiency. 
It  is  also  very  useful  in  lumber-yard  fifes,  or  in  frame  districts,  and  will  wet  an  area  of  400  ft. 
in  diameter  at  one  setting.  It  requires  but  two  men  to  operate  it. 

FIRE- HARNESS. — A  form  of  swinging  harness  employed  to  expedite  the  securing  of  the  horses 
to  fire-engines  is  represented  in  Fig.  4.  The  harness  is  usually  suspended  and  so  disposed 
that  when  the  horse,  after  being  automatically  released  from  his  stall,  places  himself  under  it, 


FIG.  4. — Fire-harness  suspended. 

it  may  be  immediately  lowered  into  position  upon  the  animal  and  fastened  in  the  quickest 
possible  manner.  In  the  stall  swinging  harness  the  suspending  device  consists  of  a  hollow 
bar,  through  which  passes  a  rod.  This  rod  connects  with  the  lever  B,  Fig.  4,  on  the  rock- 
shaft,  which  engages  with  the  top  and  outside  rings  of  the  breeching.  The  rod  is  pivoted 
to  the  arm  D.  The  rock-shaft  has  hooks  A,  which  are  held  in  upward  position  by  the  weight 
of  the  collar  when  attached  to  arm  D.  By  clasping  the  harness  and  collar  combination 
aiound  the  horse's  neck,  the  hook  which  is  permanently  attached  to  the  harness  automati- 
cally releases  the  lever  D.  The  rock-shaft  then  rotates  and  the  hooks  A  turn  downward,  the 
breeching  drops  on  the  horse,  and  the  whole  suspending  device  runs  up  to  the  ceiling. 

FIRE- HOSE  APPLIANCES. — Under  this  heading  are  grouped  the  various  appliances  used  in 
connection  with  hose.  These  are :  I.  Nozzles  and  Play-Pipes ;  II.  Couplings ;  III.  Connec- 
tions ;  IV.  Hose-repairing  Devices. 

I.  NOZZLES  AND  PLAY-PIPES. — Figs.  5  and  6  represent  a  novel  form  of  flexible  play-pipe 
made  of  rubber-lined  cotton,  wound  on  the  outside  with  brass  spring- wire.  At  A  is  shown  a 


350 


FIRE   APPLIANCES. 


simple  form  of  nozzle,  which  is  opened  or  closed  by  the  movement  of  the  swinging  pail,  as 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines.  Fig.  7  shows — 

The  Shaw  Controlling  and  Shut-off  Nozzle  (in  section),  by  means  of  which  a  stream  can 
be  reduced  to  any  size  or  shut  off  at  will.  A  conical  plug,  operated  by  an  exterior  hand- 
wheel,  is  inserted  more  or  less  into  the  throat  of  the  pipe. 

The  Clemens  Controlling  and  Spray-Nozzle  (Fig.  8)  is  somewhat  similarly  constructed, 
the  conical  plug  being  moved  into  and  out  of  the  constricted  throat  by  means  of  an  exterior 
nut. 


Fio.  8. — Clemens  spray  nozzle. 

'//mm 


FIG.  9. — Oyston  spray-nozzle. 


FIG.  10.— Prunty  nozzle. 


FIG.  11.— Prunty  nozzle. 


FIG.  12.— Monitor  nozzle. 


The  Oyston  Spray-Nozzle  (Fig.  9)  enables  the  pipe-men  to  approach  and  enter  a  burning 
building,  and  with  it  the  excessive  use  of  water  and  unnecessary  damage  to  goods  may  be 
avoided.  It  consists  substantially  of  a  common  nozzle  having  a  number  of  small  levers 
pivoted  around  it  near  the  outer  end.  These  levers  extend  about  2  in.  beyond  the  end  of  the 
nozzle,  and  are  inclosed  in  a  neat  cup  or  guard,  completely  protecting  them  from  injury. 
The  ends  of  these  levers  are  connected  with  a  collar  in  such  a  manner  that,  when  the  collar  is 
revolved  one  eighth  of  a  revolution  to  the  right,  the  wedge-shaped  parts  of  half  the  levers  are 
projected  into  the  stream,  dividing  it  up  into  a  number  of  triangular  streams.  By  turning 
the  collar  ^  in.  farther,  the  remaining  four  levers  are  projected  into  the  stream,  dividing  it  up 
into  double  the  number  of  streams.  These  streams,  after  leaving  the  nozzle  a  few  feet,  be- 
come a  dense  mass  of  flying  spray. 

Spray-nozzles  are  exceedingly  effective  in  fighting  smoky  fires,  the  spray  driving  the 
smoke  from  in  front  of  the  fireman,  and  also  keeping  up  a  current  of  cool  air,  while  the  solid 
stream  directed  from  the  same  nozzle  is  projected  into  the  burning  mass.  The  circular  sheet 
of  spray  may  be  from  80  to  100  ft.  in  diameter.  In  Figs.  10  and  11  is  represented — 

The  Prunty  Combination  Nozzle. — This  is  provided  with  an  adjustable  ring,  which,  en- 
circling the  spray  openings,  directs  the  sheet  of  spray  either  forward,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  or 
backward,  as  in  Fig.  11,  the  solid  stream  being  simultaneously  projected  from  the  nozzle 
proper. 


FIRE   APPLIANCES. 


351 


The  Monitor  Nozzle,  manufactured  by 
Messrs.  A.  J.  Morse  &  Son,  of  Boston, 
Mass.  (Fig.  12),  is  intended  to  be  attached 
to  stand-pipes,  hydrants,  or  at  any  place 
where  there  is  a  water-supply,  and  whence 
it  is  desired  to  have  an  effective  stream 
instantly  available  in  case  of  emergency. 
It  consists  of  a  chamber  which  rotates 
upon  its  base,  provided  with  a  hose-pipe, 
which  pipe,  by  means  of  a  hand-lever, 
may  be  elevated  or  depressed  at  any  angle. 
The  nozzle  has  practically,  therefore,  a 
universal  motion,  which  allows  it  to  be 
directed  to  any  point.  The  change  of 
direction  can  be  made  with  very  little  ex- 
ertion, even  with  a  2-in.  stream  operated 
under  125  Ibs.  pressure  or  more,  and  car- 
rying about  1,000  gals,  of  water  per  min. 
One  man  can  easily  control  it,  and  not  the 
least  of  its  advantages  is  that,  when  a 
building  is  provided  with  several  such 
nozzles,  a  single  watchman  can  start  an 
effective  stream  upon  a  fire,  leave  it  in 
full  operation  while  he  hastens  to  the 
next  nozzle  and  starts  another  stream, 
so  that  even  before  an  alarm  is  given  the 
work  of  one  man  may  be  of  the  greatest 
value. 

The  Perfection  Holder  and  Nozzle  (Fig. 
13),  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Samuel  East- 
man &  Co.,  of  East' Concord,  N.  H.,  is  an 
effective  device  for  handling  fire-streams 
without  the  use  of  discharge-pipes.  By 
its  aid  one  person  may  direct  two,  three, 
or  four  nozzles  all  at  the  same  time  from 
different  lines  of  hose  with  over  100  Ibs. 
water-pressure  at  each  nozzle.  It  consists 
of  a  holder  for  the  hose-section  and  a 
short  nozzle  easily  attached  thereto.  The  device  is  held  by  the  user,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

In  the  Hale  vacuum-nozzle,  represented  in  Fig.  14,  the  air  enters  through  side  openings 

A,  producing  a  contracted  stream 

\which  it  is  claimed  can   be   pro- 
A  ^ssf=ss!\  jected  over  unusually  great  dis- 

—         — ^        v-  -  tances. 

II.  COUPLINGS. — The  principal 
advantage  claimed  for  the  Silsby 
coupling  (Fig.  15)  is  that,  it  fur- 
nishes a  clear  and  unobstructed 
passage-way  for  the  water  the  full 
size  of  the*  hose.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  the  inside  of  the  shank 
of  the  coupling  is  beaded,  and 
that  the  internal  metal  ring  is  ex- 
panded in  slight  corrugations,  thus  attaching  the  coupling  to  the  hose  securely.  By  the  same 
means  the  end  of  the  hose  is  protected  from  the  water,  thereby  preventing  mildew  and  rot. 


Fia.  13.— Perfection  nozzle. 


Fio.  14.— Hale  vacuum  nozzle. 


US     B 

Fio.  15.—  Silsby  coupling.  Fio.  16.— Morse  coupling. 

The  construction  of  the  Morse  coupling  will  readily  be  understood  from  Fig.  16.  The 
hose  here  is  held  between  a  flanged  inner  ring  and  an  outer  ring  having  its  inner  surface 
corrugated,  the  inner  ring  being  expanded. 


352 


FIRE   APPLIANCES. 


III.  CONNECTIONS. — To  successfully  cope  with  a  large  fire  a  powerful  stream  is  indispensa- 
ble ;  this  can  be  produced  by  concentrating,  through  use  of  a  "  Siamese  "  (Fig.  17),  the  streams 


FIG.  17.— "Siamese"  coupling. 


FIG.  18.— "  Siamese  "  coupling. 


of  three  or  more  steamers  into  one  of  suitable  size  and  force,  which  pours  such  volumes  of 
water  into  the  fire  that  it  is  actually  drowned  out.  A  peculiar  advantage  of  this  concen- 
trated stream  is,  that  it  has  sufficient  force  and  quantity  to  reach  the  fire  itself  and  not  turn 
to  steam  in  the  intense  heat,  thus  destroying  its  efficiency,  as  is  the  case  with  an  ordinary 
single  stream  in  a  hot  fire. 

A  distinguishing  feature  of  the  "  Siamese,"  made  by  Messrs.  A.  J.  Morse  &  Son,  of  Boston, 
Mass.,  and  represented  in  Fig.  17,  is  that  the  pipe  is  attached  directly  to  the  "  Siamese  "  itself, 
which  causes  it  to  stand  steady  under  any  pressure,  the  men  being  required  simply  to  direct 
the  stream,  and  not  hold  the  pipe.  By  the  use  of  adjustable  screw- valves  it  is  possible  par- 
tially or  fully  to  close  either  line,  as  desired.  The  three- 
way  ''Siamese"  connection  is  shown  separately  in  Fig.  18. -* 

IV.  HOSE-REPAIRING  DEVICE. — For  repairing  burst ed  hose 
quickly  and  without  delay  various  devices  are  provided. 
The  ordinary  hose-jacket  is  simply  a  wrapping  of  leather  or 
other  material  applied  to  the  hose  by  straps  and  buckles. 
Allen's  hose-jacket,  after  passing  around  the  hose  has  its 
edges  brought  together  by  a  clamping-screw.  Neely's  leak- 
stop  (Fig.  19)  has  two  semi-cylindrical  portions  hinged  to- 
gether and  lined  with  rubber,  which  receive  the  body  of  the 
hose  between  them.  Hinged  to  one  portion  are  swinging 
rack-bars,  the  teeth  of  which  engage  with  fixed  corrugations  in  the  other  portion,  and  which 
thus  bind  and  hold  both  parts  together. 


FIG.  19.— Neely's  leak-stop. 


FIG.  33. 


FIG.  30. 


FIG.  31. 


FIGS.  20-25.— Fire  tools. 


FIG.  25. 


FIG.  24. 


FIRE-TOOLS. — A  variety  of  the  latest  improved  fire-tools  and  appliances  are  illustrated 
in  Figs.  20  to  25.  Fig.  20  is  a  tool  for  taking  off  the  iron  shutters  of  windows.  The  bent- 
over  extremity  is  placed  over  the  edge  of  the  shutter,  and,  by  pulling  on  a  rope  attached  to 


FIEE-ARMS.  353 


the  tool,  the  shutter  is  torn  from  its  hinges.  Fig.  21  is  a  "  fireman's  jimmy,"  or  claw-bar, 
used  for  opening  doors,  gratings,  etc.  Fig.  22  is  a  tin-roof  cutter.  The  beak  of  the  instru- 
ment is  inserted  through  a  hole  made  in  the  tin,  and  the  user  walking  backward  drags  the 
implement  after  him,  the  rotary  knife  rapidly  and  cleanly  cutting  the  roofing.  Fig.  23  is  a 
simple  arrangement  of  levers  used  for  breaking  open  doors.  Fig.  24  is  a  rotary  cutting  in- 
strument provided  with  insulated  handles,  and  used  for  cutting  live  electric-light  wires 
without  danger  to  the  person  handling  it.  Fig.  25  is  a  device  for  cutting  iron  bars  com- 
monly used  as  window-guards. 

FIRE-ARMS.  I.  RIFLES. — Single-shot  arms  have  almost  wholly  given  place  to  those  hav- 
ing a  repeating  or  magazine  construction  for  sporting  purposes,  and  have  been  completely  su- 
perseded by  the  latter  for  military  use. 

The  Winchester  Repeating- Rifle  during  the  last  decade  has  appeared  in  various  improved 
forms.  We  illustrate  the  latest,  known  as  the  1890  model,  in  Fig.  1,  which  shows  the  weapon 
in  its  entirety,  and  also  in  section  closed.  The  system  is  a  new  one,  with  a  sliding  fire-arm 


FIG.  1.— Winchester  rifle. 

movement,  and  is  especially  suited  to  small  cartridges.  The  breech-block  locks  itself  in  plain 
view,  and  is  of  such  size  as  to  permit  a  strong  firing-pin  and  extractor  and  offer  a  good  cover 
to  the  cartridge-head.  The  gun  locks  at  each  closing  movement  and  can  not  be  opened  ex- 
cept by  letting  down  the  hammer  or  pushing  forward  the  firing-pin.  The  parts  are  few  and 
interchangeable.  The  gun  can  not  be  prematurely  fired,  nor  can  the  hammer  be  pulled  other 
than  at  the  proper  time. 

In  charging  the  magazine  the  milled-head  at  the  top  is  turned  until  the  tube  is  unlocked. 
The  inner  tube  is  drawn  out  until  it  strikes  the  stop.  The  loading-hole  is  thus  opened  so  that 
cartridges  can  be  dropped  into  the  magazine  until  the  latter  is  filled.  The  magazine  of  the 
•22  short-gun  will  hold  fifteen  -22  short  Winchester  cartridges.  After  the  magazine  is  filled 
the  inner  case  is  pressed  down,  turned,  and  so  locked.  When  the  hammer  is  down,  the  mo- 
tion of  the  handle  backward  and  forward  unlocks,  opens,  and  cocks  the  gun,  forces  the  car- 
tridge into  the  chamber  and  locks  the  piece.  The  gun  once  closed  is  locked,  while  the 
hammer  stands  at  full  or  half  cock.  To  open  the  gun  without  firing  or  letting  down 
the  hammer  the  firing-pin  is  pushed  forward  and  the  handle  simultaneously  pulled 
backward.  When  the  gun  stands  at  half  cock  it  is  locked  both  as  to  the  opening  of  the 
breech  and  the  pulling  of  the  trigger.  The  hammer  can  not  be  cocked  by  the  motion  of 
the  breech-block  from  this  position,  but  must  be  cocked  by  hand. 

The  Lee-Speed  or  English  Magazine  Rifle,  represented  in  Figs.  2,  3,  4,  is  the  military 
weapon  recently  adopted  by  Great  Britain.  The  illustrations  exhibit  the  principal  parts  of  the 
bolt-action.  The  mode  of  operation  of  the  bolt-action  is  as  follows :  The  bolt  moves  backward 
and  forward  along  the  axial  line  of  the  barrel.  When  it  is  forward,  its  end  fits  into  the  open- 
ing of  the  barrel,  closing  it  and  forming  a  breech-block.  When  it  is  back  it  leaves  a  recess, 
into  which  a  cartridge  may  be  dropped  or  fed,  and  when  it  is  again  pressed  forward  it  drives 
the  cartridge  before  it  into  the  barrel,  ready  to  be  fired.  There  are,  however,  other  operations 
to  be  performed  besides  putting  the  cartrid'ge  into  the  chamber.  The  bolt  must  be  securely 
locked  so  that  it  can  not  be  driven  backward  by  the  powder-pressure  into  the  soldier's  face ; 
the  mainspring  must  be  compressed  ready  to  drive  the  striker  against  the  base  of  the  car- 
tridge, and  after  the  charge  has  been  fired'the  cartridge  must  be  extracted  and  the  empty  case 
thrown  out.  The  locking  of  the  bolt  is  affected  by  rotating  it  on  its  axis  so  as  to  bring 
its  rib  behind  a  projection  or  snug  on  the  body.  In  this  position  it  is  impossible  for  the  bolt 
to  be  driven  out,  unless  it  should  double  up  under  the  endwise  pressure.  The  mainspring, 
which  is  contained  in  a  recess  in  the  center  of  the  bolt,  is  compressed  by  the  rear  part  of  the 
striker  meeting  with  the  sear  before  the  bolt  is  home.  The  further  movement  of  the  bolt 
then  compresses  the  spring,  which  is  subsequently  released  by  the  trigger.  The  extractor  is  a 
hook  pivoted  to  the  head  of  the  bolt,  and  springs  over  the  rim  on  the  base  of  the  cartridge 
when  the  latter  is  driven  home.  It  often  requires  a  very  considerable  amount  of  force  to  dis- 
lodge a  cartridge,  which,  of  course,  becomes  expanded  by  the  explosion.  It  is  customary  to 
effect  this  at  two  operations;  first  it  is  started  a  distance  of  -^  in.  to  £  in.  by  a  rotary  move- 
ment of  the  bolt,  and  then  it  is  pulled  out  by  the  straight  backward  motion.  A  lug  on  the 
bolt,  taking  into  a  spiral  groove  in  the  body,  accounts  for  the  first  small  motion.  Turning  to 
the  arm  before  us  it  will  be  seen  that  the  body  is  cut  away  at  the  top  and  bottom  (Fig.  1),  to 
allow  cartridges  to  be  fed  in  by  hand  from  above,  and  also  to  be  pushed  up  from  below  out  of 
the  magazine,  according  to  circumstances.  When  the  magazine  is  out  of  action  the  car- 

23 


354 


FIRE-ARMS. 


tridges  are  prevented  from  rising  by  means  of  a  cut-off.  This  is  a  plate  pivoted  near  the 
front  end  and  provided  with  a  thumb-piece  projecting  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  stock 
(Fig.  2).  By  pushing  this  cut-off  in  it  partially  covers  the  mouth  of  the  magazine,  and  forms 
a  bed  for  a  cartridge  to  be  laid  on  by  hand.  By  drawing  it  out  it  leaves  a  clear  opening  for 
the  cartridges  to  rise  from  below.  There  is  sufficient  of  the  body  left  to  form  a  guide  to  the 
bolt,  and  prevent  it  falling  out.  At  the  extreme  rear  end  the  bolt  is  embraced  around  about 
three  quarters  of  its  circumference,  while  a  guide  is  formed  for  the  long-rib  (Fig.  4),  which 
constitutes  a  portion  of  the  bolt  and  prevents  it  being  rotated  until  it  is  nearly  home.  The 
head  of  the  bolt,  with  the  extractor,  which  does  not  share  in  the  rotation  of  the  bolt,  is 
guided  by  a  lip  which  takes  around  an  undercut  rail  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  breech. 
This  piece  (Fig.  2)  simply  moves  backward  and  forward,  and  is  never  turned  on  its  axis.  It 
is  secured  to  the  bolt  by  a  turned  shank,  which  fits  into  the  latter,  and  is  prevented  from 
drawing  out  by  a  set-screw  (full-size  in  illustration).  This  set-screw  passes  through  the  dust- 
guard  and  is  screwed  into  the  bolt ;  its  point  projects  into  a  slot  (Fig.  4)  formed  in  the  shank 
of  the  head  to  the  extent  of  about  ^  in.  This  slot  is  of  considerable  length,  to  allow  of  the 
relative  motions  of  the  bolt  and  its  head.  The  extractor  is  a  hook  set  in  a  slot  in  the  bolt- 
head;  it  is  pivoted  on  a  small  screw  and  is  pressed  down  by  a  spring,  so  that  it  may 
always  catch  over  the  rim  of  a  cartridge.  The  bolt  is  bored  from  end  to  end.  Through  the 
center  runs  the  striker.  At  the  front  this  has  a  needle  to  impinge  on  the  cartridge,  and  at  the 
rear  end  (Fig.  1)  a  spindle  to  which  is  attached  a  cocking-piece  that  extends  below  the  bolt  and 
engages  with  the  sear  on  the  trigger.  The  mainspring  surrounds  this  spindle  inside  the  bolt. 
The  cocking-piece  is  guided  by  a  slot  in  the  exterior  of  the  bolt  when  the  bolt  is  with- 
drawn, as  in  Fig.  1 ;  and  also,  when  the  bolt  is  nearly  home,  by  a  groove  in  the  lower  side  of 
the  body.  The  cocking-piece  does  not  share  in  the  rotation  of  the  bolt,  and  to  admit  of  the 
relative  motions  two  longitudinal  grooves  are  formed  in  the  outside  of  the  bolt,  and  these 


FIG. 


FIG.  4. 


FIGS.  2-4.— English  magazine  rifle. 


two  grooves  are  united  by  a  short  inclined  groove,  A  lug  in  the  cocking-piece  works  in  these 
grooves  and  prevents  the 'rifle  being  fired  before  the  bolt  is  securely  locked. 

The  magazine  is  formed  of  sheet-steel  and  fitted  into  a  slot  cut  in  the  stock.  When  in 
place  it  is  held  by  a  catch,  which  can  be  withdrawn  by  the  small  trigger  shown  in  front  of 
the  main  trigger  in  Fig.  1.  Inside  the  magazine  is  a  platform  or  false  bottom  mounted  on  a 
spring,  and  on  this  platform  the  cartridges  are  placed  to  the  number  of  eight.  When  the 
magazine  is  full  the  spring  is  folded  quite  flat,  and  the  platform  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  maga- 
zine. The  cartridges  are  prevented  from  being  shot  out  by  the  spring  by  two  short  turned- 
in  lips  at  the  mouth,  under  which  the  rear  ends  are  inserted  in  filling.  The  rims  project 
sufficiently  above  these  lips  to  be  caught  by  the  bolt-head,  while  the  points  are  pressed  up  by 
the  spring  to  clear  the  other  end  of  the  magazine.  By  the  time  the  rim  is  clear  of  the  lid 
the  bullet  is,  or  should  be,  in  the  chamber  of  the  barrel.  The  soldier  is  supposed  to  carry  a 
second  magazine  fully  charged  in  his  pouch,  and  in  a  moment  of  emergency  he  can  discard 
the  first  and  substitute  for  it  the  second.  If  he  does  not  do  this  he  can  refill  the  first  with- 
out removal  by  putting  in  cartridges,  one  by  one,  through  the  breech  of  the  gun.  The  car- 
tridges are  solid-cased.  The  bore  of  the  barrel  is  '303  in.,  and  the  rifling  is  on  the  modified 
Metford  plan.  A  full  discussion  of  the  merits  and  demerits  of  this  arm  will  be  found  in 
Engineering,  February  6,  1891. 

The  Mannlicher  Magazine  Rifle,  adopted  by  Austria,  is  represented  in  Fig.  5.  The  most 
striking  feature  of  this  arm  is  that  it  is  not  designed  to  be  used  as  a  single-loader.  At  all 
times  the  soldier  uses  his  magazine,  no  matter  how  deliberately  he  may  take  aim.  Instead 
of  being  issued  singly  to  the  soldier,  the  cartridges  are  sent  out  in  packages  of  five  (Fig.  7), 
held  together  by  a  light  steel  clip,  and  the  whole  five,  with  the  holder,  are  placed  in  the 


FIRE-ARMS. 


355 


magazine  with  more  ease  than  one,  since  they  present  a  better  finger-hold.  At  each  backward 
and  forward  motion  of  the  bolt  a  cartridge  is  pushed  out  of  its  holder,  forced  into  the  barrel 
and  extracted,  and  as  soon  as  the  last  has  been  removed,  the  holder  drops  through  a  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  magazine  and  falls  on  the  ground.  Another  point  of  interest  is  that  the 
bolt  has  no  turning-motion  on  its  axis.  It  is  pushed  straight  in  and  out,  and  is  locked  by  a 
drop-catch.  The  moment  it  is  home  the  catch  takes  against  a  fixed  projection  in  the  body, 
which  resists  the  rearward  action  of  the  powder-pressure.  The  first  action  of  drawing  back 
the  handle  of  the  bolt  is  to  lift  the  drop-catch  over  the  projection,  when  the  bolt  can  be 
readily  withdrawn,  bringing  the  empty  cartridge-case  with  it.  The  magazine  is  not  intended 
to  be  removed,  and  is  fitted  with  a  spring,  the  platform  of  which  always  remains  parallel  to 
the  cartridges,  and  directs  their  points  to  enter  the  chamber.  Fig.  5  shows  the  body  of  the 
rifle  with  the  bolt  drawn  back.  The  top  cartridge  in  the  magazine  can  be  seen  standing  ready 
to  be  driven  into  the  chamber.  When  the  bolt  is  moved  forward  its  round  end  (Fig.  6), 


FIG.  6. 
FIGS.  5-7.  — Mannlicher  magazine  rifle. 


FIG. 


beyond  which  the  extractor  projects,  catches  the  base  of  the  cartridge  standing  in  the 
clip  or  cartridge-holder  (Fig.  7).  Before  the  cartridge  is  free  from  the  clip  the  bullet  is 
entirely  within  the  chamber,  and  forms  a  guide  to  lead  it  forward.  When  the  clip  ceases  to 
hold  the  rear  end  of  the  cartridge,  the  extractor  catches  it  and  presses  it  against  the  hollowed 
side  of  the  body,  along  which  it  slides  into  its  place.  There  is  no  chance  of  a  jam  taking 
place,  however  fast  the  feeding  may  be  effected,  since  the  cartridge  is  held  both  at  front  and 
rear.  The  magazine-spring  lies  partly  within  the  steel  clip  without  touching  it.  As  soon  as 
one  cartridge  is  removed  the  remainder  are  all  pushed  up,  the  pressure  of  the  upper  cartridge 
against  the  turned-in  sides  of  the  holder  supporting  the  latter ;  as  soon  as  the  last  cartridge  is 
put  into  the  barrel  this  pressure  is,  of  course,  withdrawn,  and  the  empty  holder  drops  down, 
leaving  a  clear  space  for  the  insertion  of  another.  The  spring  is  formed  of  two  blades  ;  the 
lower  is  pivoted  near  the  bottom  of  the  magazine  by  one  of  the  screws  shown,  while  the 
second  is  pivoted  to  the  first.  At  each  joint  there  is  a  strong  spring  of  considerable  range, 
so  that  the  cartridges  are  pressed  up  steadily  and  firmly  to  the  very  last.  This  pressure  is 
resisted  by  a  catch  or  rib  on  the  back  of  the  holder,  which  takes  against  a  small  catch  pro- 
vided with  an  external  pressing-piece  at  the  back  of  the  magazine.  This  piece  can  not  be  seen 
in  the  engravings.  The  bolt  is  made  in  two  pieces,  the  main  part  being  bored  from  end  to 
end.  In  its  center  lies  the  striker  with  the  mainspring,  and  in  a  groove  in  its  side  is  the 
extractor  (Fig.  6).  The  front  end  of  the  bolt  is  closed  by  a  screw,  having  a  small  hole  in  it 
for  the  striker  to  pass  through.  In  the  head  of  this  screw  is  a  gate  which  receives  the 
extractor ;  by  this  means  the  screw  is  locked  and  can  not  chatter  back.  Into  the  back  of  the 
bolt  there  slides  the  handle,  the  two  being  held  together  by  the  striker  and  spring,  as  by  an 
elastic  bolt.  To  the  end  of  the  striker  is  screwed  the  cocking-catch.  which  engages  with  a 
sear  on  the  trigger.  On  the  under  side  of  the  handle-piece  is  a  fixed  incline,  which  the  main- 
spring constantly  tends  to  draw  in  between  the  bolt  and  the  drop-catch  on  the  latter.  This 
action,  however,  can  not  take  place  until  the  bolt  has  been  pressed  in  so  far  that  the  drop- 
piece  (Fig.  6)  has  arrived  over  a  cavity  cut  in  the  gun-body  to  receive  it.  Immediately  this 
position  is  attained,  the  handle-piece  can  be  pushed  forward  to  lock  the  bolt.  At  the  same 
time  the  cocking-catch  hooks  on  the  sear,  and  the  piece  is  cocked  ready  for  firing.  In  ex- 
tracting, the  handle  is  first  drawn  back  to  lift  the  drop-catch  over  the  projection  ;  during  this 
time  the  bolt  stands  still.  Further  motion  carries  the  bolt  back,  and  with  it  the  extractor  and 
the  cartridge.  (See  Engineering,  March  6,  1891.) 


356 


FIRE-ARMS. 


The  Mauser  Magazine  Rifle,  represented  in  Figs.  8  and  9,  has  been  adopted  by  the 
Belgian,  the  Turkish,  and  the  Argentine  Governments.  It  has  a  magazine  which,  although 
not  absolutely  fixed,  is  not  intended  to  be  removed  except  at  considerable  intervals  for  pur- 
poses of  cleaning.  The  cartridges  are  issued  in  sets  of  five,  held  together  by  clips  or  holders, 
but  these  clips  do  not  go  into  the  magazine,  and  form  no  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  rifle. 
The  cartridges  in  their  holder  are  placed  directly  over  the  mouth  of  the  magazine,  and  by 
pressure  of  the  thumb  are  fed  out  of  the  holder  into  the  magazine.  Fig.  8  shows  the  body  of 
the  weapon,  with  the  bolt  drawn  back  and  the  magazine  full.  Fig.  9  shows  details. 

The  system  of  loading  by  means  of  a  temporary  clip  is  clearly  brought  out  in  the  engrav- 
ings. The  clip  itself,  k,  is  a  piece  of  thin  plate  steel  bent  over  at  *its  edges  to  form  a  groove  or 
rebate,  in  which  the  flanges  at  the  bases  of  the  cartridges  fit.  This  groove  is  open  at  either 
end,  so  that  the  cartridges  are  free  to  slide  out.  To  prevent  them  chattering  out  during 
transit,  a  light  spring,  made  of  a  piece  of  steel  ribbon,  is  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  groove  and 
holds  the  flanges  of  the  cartridges  firmly  against  the  turned-over  edges  of  the  steel  strip. 
But  if  pressure  be  applied  to  the  cartridges  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  clip,  then  they  can  be 
readily  made  to  slide  out  of  the  groove.  Provision  is  made  in  the  body  of  the  rifle  for  hold- 
ing the  clip  perpendicularly,  or  nearly  so,  over  the  mouth  of  the  magazine  in  such  a  position 
that  a  moderate  pressure  applied  by  the  thumb  to  the  upper  cartridge  will  feed  the  whole  of 
them  downward  into  their  places.  The  clip  is  left  standing,  supported  at  the  sides  and  the 
bottom  by  the  solid  metal  of  the  rifle  body,  and  held  by  the  elastic  pressure  of  the  piece  /. 
The  first  movement  of  the  bolt  throws  out  the  clip,  and  the  piece  /  springs  back  into  place. 

In  the  Mauser  magazine  the  cartridges  are  pushed  in  sidewise  instead  of  endwise,  and  yet 
the  spring  does  not  force  them  out  again  as  soon  as  the  pressure  is  withdrawn.  This  results 
from  the  construction  of  the  magazine,  i.  The  lips  are  turned  over  for  nearly  the  entire  length, 
but  they  are  divided  by  a  straight  cut  from  the  sides,  and  are  so  elastic  that  they  readily 


Fig.  9. -Details. 
FIGS.  8,  9.— Mauser  magazine  rifle. 

spring  apart  to  receive  a  charge.  They  are,  however,  sufficiently  strong  not  to  be  opened  by 
the  elastic  pressure  which  forces  the  cartridges  upward.  The  base  of  the  top  cartridge 
projects  above  the  mouth  of  the  magazine  sufficiently  to  be  caught  by  the  bolt  a  when  it  is- 
moved  forward,  forcing  the  point  of  the  bullet  up  an  incline  into  the  barrel,  and  thus  spring 
ing  apart  the  lips  of  the  magazine  to  allow  the  cartridge  to  escape  from  it. 

The  feeding  arrangement  is  formed  of  two  leaves,  each  acted  upon  by  a  spring.  The 
bottom  of  the  magazine  is  pivoted  at  its  rear  end,  and  secured  by  a  screw  at  its  forward  end. 
If  this  screw  be  withdrawn  a  few  turns,  the  bottom  of  the  magazme.  with  the  spring  attached 
to  it,  drops  down,  and  a  few  turns  more  enable  the  feeder  to  be  detached  and  withdrawn. 
By  pressing  on  the  button  which  comes  through  the  front  of  the  trigger-guard,  the  catch-lever 
can  be  withdrawn  and  the  magazine  liberated. 

The  bolt  is  merely  a  hollow  cylinder  of  steel  with  a  handle  at  one  end  and  two  locking- 
lugs  at  the  other,  which  slide  through  two  grooves  in  the  breech  of  the  gun,  and  on  the  bolt 
being  rotated  lock  behind  two  projections.  In  fact,  they  constitute  an  interrupted  screw. 
The  strain  of  the  explosion  is  thus  borne  by  the  base  of  the  bolt  and  the  breech  of  the  barrel, 
and  is  not  transmitted  through  the  body.  The  gate,  which  is  cut  through  one  of  the  locking 
pieces  on  the  end  of  the  bolt,  is  made  to  accommodate  the  piece  /.  A  blade  hinged  to  this 


FIRE-ARMS. 


357 


piece  projects  into  the  body  of  the  rifle,  and  passes  through  the  gate  when  the  bolt  is  drawn 
back.  This  gate  is  so  deep  that  the  blade  is  pressed  by  a  spring  into  the  path  of  the  empty 
case,  forcing  it  out  of  the  grasp  of  the  -extractor,  and  flinging  it  sidewise  out  of  the  arm  on 
to  the  ground.  Also  connected  to  this  piece  /  is  a  stop  which  normally  prevents  the  bolt 
being  drawn  out  of  the  gun.  But  by  pressing  back  the  piece  with  the  thumb  the  stop  is 
withdrawn,  and  the  bolt  can  be  removed  in  less  than  a  second.  It  can  then  be  taken  entirely 
to  pieces  in  a  couple  of  minutes,  and  this  without  tools.  To  lock  the  rifle,  so  that  it  may  not 
be  accidentally  fired,-  there  is  provided  the  safety  appliance  d  on  the  end  of  the  bolt.  This  is 
a  short  spindle  with  a  cam  at  each  end,  and  a  roughed  thumb-piece  by  which  it  can  be  turned 
half-way  round.  When  the  spindle  is  rotated  the  cam  at  the  front  end  takes  into  a  recess  on 
the  end  of  the  bolt,  and  locks  the  latter  against  being  turned,  while  the  cam  at  the  rear  end 
inserts  itself  before  the  nut  on  the  end  of  the  striker,  and  holds  it  fixed.  The  barrel  is  turned 
parallel  to  two  diameters,  the  front  portion  being  rather  more  than  half  the  length.  The 
body  is  secured  to  the  wooden  stock,  but  the  barrel  is  only  clipped  to  it,  and  is  left  perfectly 
free  to  expand  and  contract.  It  lies  in  a  deep  groove  in  the  wood,  and  is  held  by  parallel 
clips,  which  serve  as  guides.  The  bore  of  the  barrel  is  7-65  mm.  (-301  in.).  The  front  sight 
is  a  barleycorn.  The  back  sight  is  marked  up  to  2,050  metres. 

The  relative  differences  in  operation  between  the  Lee-Speed,  Mannlicher,  and  Mauser  rifles 
may  be  summarized  as  follows : 


TYPE  I. 
Lee-Speed. 

Designed  to  be  used  as  a 
single  -  loader  until  the  su- 
preme moment. 

Fires  16  shots  very  rapidly, 
with  a  brief  intermission  after 
the  first  8.  After  that  a  long 
interval,  or  else  single  loading 
must  be  resumed. 

Average  rate  of  firing  not 
greater  than  a  single-loader. 

There  is  no  cartridge-hold- 
er. 


TYPE  II. 
Mannlicher. 

Designed  to  be  used  always 
as  a  magazine  rifle.  Can  be 
used  as  a  single-loader  with 
the  magazine  empty. 

Fires  series  of  5  shots  with 
verv  short  intervals  between. 


Average  rate  of  firing  great- 
er than  a  single-loader. 

The  cartridge-holder  is  es- 
sential to  the  feeding-action 
of  the  magazine. 


TYPE  III. 
Mauser. 

Designed  to  be  used  indif- 
ferently as  a  single-loader  or 
as  a  magazine-rifle. 

Fires  series  of  5  shots,  with 
very  short  intervals  between. 


Average  rate  of  firing  great- 
er than  a  single-loader. 

A  cartridge-holder  is  used 
to  increase  the  speed  of  load- 
ing, but  does  not  enter  the 
magazine. 


(See  Engineering,  April  3,  1891.) 

The  German  Repeating- Rifle  is  represented  in  Figs.  10  and  11,  and,  as  it  represents  the 
practice  of  the  foremost  military  nation  in  Europe,  is  of  especial  interest.     It  is  of  the  same 


FIG.  11. 
FIGS.  10,  11. — German  repeating  rifle. 

type  as  the  Mannlicher  arm  above  described.  The  distinctive  feature  is  the  method  of  issuing 
and  loading  the  cartridges.  Thesje  are  arranged  in  packets  of  five,  held  together  by  a  light 
steel  clip.  The  packages,  including  the  clips,  are  placed  in  the  magazine.  The  cartridges 
are  fed  upward  one  at  a  time,  and,  when  the  last  is  loaded  into  the  barrel,  the  clip  falls  out  of 


358  FIRE-ARMS. 


the  bottom.  The  breech  is  closed  by  a  bolt,  which  turns  down  over  the  magazine.  At  its 
forward  end  this  bolt  has  two  lugs,  which  enter  the  rear  of  the  chamber  in  the  barrel  and 
lock  behind  two  projections  therein.  The  projections  are  tapered  at  one  part,  so  that  when 
the  bolt  is  turned  to  lock  it,  it  also  advances  about  |  in.  In  unlocking,  this  motion  starts  the 
cartridge.  The  extractor  is  mounted  on  the  end  of  the  bolt  in  front  of  the  lugs.  It  is  let 
into  the  side  of  the  loose  head,  and  is  secured  by  the  sides  of  the  groove  in  which  it  lies,  being 
slightly  hammered  over.  At  the  opposite  side  is  a  disengaging-pin,  which  is  designed  to 
throw  out  the  empty  cartridge-case  when  the  bolt  is  drawn  completely  back.  In  Fig.  10  the 
end  of  the  pin  has  struck  against  a  stop  in  the  body,  and  has  been  suddenly  forced  forward, 
tilting  the  cartridge-case  over  to  the  right  and  out  of  the  arm.  The  stop  against  which  the 
pin  strikes,  as  well  as  a  large  stop  which  stands  in  the  path  of  the  lug,  are  both  mounted  on  a 
pivoted  spring-arm,  and  can  be  instantly  withdrawn  when  it  is  desired  ,to  remove  the  bolt 
from  the  gun.  The  body  of  the  bolt  is  exceedingly  strong  and  solid  ;  the  handle  is  firmly 
attached  to  it,  and  could  not  be  broken  off  by  any  violence.  The  bolt  is  bored  from  end  to 
end,  and  within  it  are  placed  the  striker  and  the  mainspring.  As  already  stated,  the  former 
has  a  flat  head  entering  a  slot  in  the  extractor,  while  its  point  projects  right  through  to  reach 
the  cartridge.  The  rear  end  of  the  striker  is  screwed  to  receive  a  nut,  which  holds  all  the 
parts  together.  It  also  carries  the  cocking-catch,  which  is  guided  partly  by  the  bolt  and 
partly  by  a  long  finger  which  projects  over  and  bears  upon  the  bolt.  A  bent  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  catch  also  slides  in  a  groove  through  which  the  sear  of  the  trigger  projects.  The 
cocking  is  effected  by  means  of  two  cam-paths,  one  cut  into  the  wall  of  the  bolt,  and  the  other 
forming  a  spur  or  projection  on  the  cocking-catch.  Supposing  the  arm  to  have  just  been 
fired,  these  two  surfaces  lie  together,  and  the  bolt  forms  one  continuous  cylinder  with  the 
cocking-catch.  When  the  bolt  is  rotated  to  unlock  it,  the  cocking-catch  can  not  turn  at  the 
same  time,  because  its  finger  lies  in  the  slot  cut  in  the  body.  The  two  inclines,  therefore, 
move  over  one  another,  and  the  catch  is  forced  back  until  the  point  of  its  incline  rides  on  the 
flat  end  of  the  bolt.  The  bolt  is  now  drawn  back  to  extract  the  empty  cartridge,  and  then 
forced  forward  to  load  a  full  one.  In  its  progress  the  cocking-catch  meets  the  sear  of  the 
trigger,  and  is  held  by  it,  so  that  when  the  bolt  is  turned  these  inclines  come  opposite  each 
other,  and  the  full  force  of  the  spring  tends  to  drive  the  striker  forward  as  soon  as  the  trigger 
is  pulled.  If  the  trigger  should  be  pulled  before  the  bolt  is  locked  the  one  incline  strikes  the 
other,  and  so  prevents  the  striker  reaching  the  cartridge.  There  is  a  safety-catch  by  which 
the  bolt  can  be  locked,  and  rendered  incapable  of  being  fired  until  the  catch  is  turned  back. 
This  consists  of  a  spindle  cut  away  on  one  side  for  a  part  of  its  length,  and  is  provided  with 
a  thumb-piece  to  turn  it.  The  spindle  lies  in  a  recess  in  the  cocking-catch,  and  in  the  finger 
which  projects  from  the  latter.  In  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  10  the  spindle  offers  no  oppo- 
sition to  the  cocking-catch  going  forward,  but  if  the  thumb-piece  be  turned  over  to  the  other 
side,  the  uncut  end  of  the  spindle  takes  into  a  recess  in  the  end  of  the  bolt,  and  locks  all  the 
parts  firmly  together.  The  safety-catch  also  serves  to  lock  the  nut  on  the  end  of  the  striker- 
bolt.  The  spindle  is  pressed  outward  by  a  spring,  and  its  round  end  takes  into  a  similarly 
shaped  recess  in  the  under  side  of  the  nut.  By  pressing  the  spindle  forward  the  nut  can  be 
released  and  turned.  The  magazine  is  exceedingly  compact,  and  is  combined  with  the  trigger- 
guard,  as  it  is  not  intended  to  be  removed,  except  at  rare  intervals.  The  feeder-spring  is  a 
bell-crank,  with  one  arm  exceedingly  short.  This  short  arm  is  pressed  upon  by  a  plunger, 
around  which  is  a  coiled  spring.  This  gives  a  very  even  motion,  with  little  difference  of 
pressure  between  a  full  and  an  empty  magazine.  The  clip,  with  its  complement  of  cartridges, 
is  thrust  into  the  magazine,  and  is  held  by  the  projection  on  its  back  taking  into  the  catch  in 
front  of  the  trigger-guard.  By  pressing  the  knob  on  this  catch  the  holder  can  be  released, 
and  will  spring  out  upward.  The  following  table  gives  the  dimensions  of  the  rifle : 

Caliber 7' 9  mm. 

Total  length 1-245  m. 

Length  of  barrel '74     " 

Weight  without  bayonet 3  •  8  kilos. 

"•      of  bayonet '55     " 

Length  of  cartridge 82'5  mm. 

"    projectile 31-6    " 

Weight  of  cartridge 27*5  gms. 

Weight  of  projectile  with  steel  or  nickel  envelope 14*5     " 

Initial  velocity  with  a  charge  of  2-5  grammes  of  smokeless  powder, 

measured  at  25  metres  from  the  muzzle 625  per  sec. 

Pressure 3,200  atm. 

Greatest  elevation  for  500  metres 1  •  5°. 

Lateral  divergence  at  600  metres '64°. 

Rifling,  four  grooves  of  240  mm.  pitch. 

The  projectile  makes  2,580  revolutions  the  first  second. 

Range,  3,800  metres  (4,150  yds.)  with  an  elevation  of  32°. 

Sight  graduated  to  2,050  metres  (2,230  yds.). 

Perforation  at  300  metres 7  mm.  of  iron. 

100      "      800    "  dry  pine. 

400      "      450    " 

800      "      - 250    " 

(See  Engineering,  May  15,  1891.) 


FIRE-ARMS. 


359 


The  Schmidt  Magazine-Rifle  is  represented  in  Fig.  12.     This  arm  has  been  adopted  by 
Switzerland.     Its  most  striking  feature  is  the  large  number  of  cartridges  that  the  magazine 


FIG.  12.— Schmidt  magazine  rifle. 

contains,  viz.,  12.  Accommodation  is  found  for  this  large  number,  without  the  use  of  an  un- 
wieldy magazine  by  making  them  lie  alternately  right  and  left.  In  other  words,  the  width 
of  the  magazine  is  about  1|  time  the  diameter  of  a  cartridge,  and  consequently  it  will  admit 
a  very  considerable  number  without  being  of  any  great  depth.  The  magazine  is  filled  from 
packets  of  cartridges,  each  containing  six  ;  it  therefore  requires  the  contents  of  two  packets 
to  replenish  it  when  empty.  It  can,  however,  be  supplied  with  cartridges  one  at  a  time,  like 
the  Lee-Speed.  By  means  of  a  "  cut-off  "  the  magazine  can  be  put  out  of  action,  and  the 
piece  used  as  a  single-loader.  Under  these  conditions  the  reserve  remains  untouched  until 
the  supreme  moment  of  the  attack,  when  a  rapid  stream  of  bullets  can  be  poured  out.  Should 
the  contents  of  the  magazine  not  be  sufficient,  a  fresh  supply  can  be  inserted  in  8  sec.  The 
motion  for  operating  the  breech-action  is  entirely  rectilinear,  as  in  the  Mannlicher  system. 
The  bolt  is  simply  pushed  in  and  out,  and  is  not  rotated.  The  locking  of  the  breech-plug  is 
effected  at  its  rear  end,  at  a  very  considerable  distance  from  the  breech.  The  extractor  does 
not  rotate  round  the  cartridge-rim.  We  learn  from  the  official  hand-book  of  the  Swiss  Mili- 
tary Department  that  the  rile  will  fire  20  aimed  shots  a  minute  when  used  as  a  single  loader. 
With  the  magazine  in  action  it  will  fire  30  aimed  shots  in  the  same  time,  and  40  shots  with- 
out aiming.  The  successive  shots  can  be  fired  without  removing  the  rifle  from  the  shoulder. 
The  weight  is  9|  Ibs.  The  total  length  of  the  barrel  is  30-7  Jn. ;  the  caliber,  -295  in. ;  the 
number  of  grooves  in  the  rifling  is  3,  and  they  make  one  turn  in  10-6  in.  The  bullet  is  of 
hardened  lead,  in  a  steel  envelope ;  its  length  is  1'13  in.,  its  diameter  '32  in.,  and  its  weight 
•0302  Ib.  The  charge  of  smokeless  powder  is  31  grains.  This  gives  an  initial  velocity  of 
1,968  ft.  a  second.  A  full  description  of  the  mechanism  of  this  arm  appears  in  Engineering, 
October  2,  1891. 

II.  SHOT-GUNS. — The  Colt  Hammerless  Gun  is  shown  open  in  Fig.  13  and  closed  in  Fig.  14. 
The  parts  are  as  follows :  A  is  the  frame,  B  the  barrel,  C  the  fore-end,  D  the  extractor  cam, 


FIGS.  13,  14.— Colt  hammerless  gun. 

E  the  safety-slide,  F  the  trigger-plate.  O  the  lock-cover  plate,  H  the  stock,  I  the  screw-holes 
in  the  draw-bar,  J  the  mainspring.  K,  the  sear-spring,  L  the  hammer,  M  the  sear,  N  the 
cocking-pin,  and  0  the  body-pin.  The  operation  is  as  follows :  The  gun  is  cocked  first  by 
throwing  down  the  barrels,  and  second  by  bringing  them  back  into  place.  An  inspection  of 
the  drawing  shows  that  the  second  motion  increases  the  tension  of  the  mainspring  by  push- 


360 


FIRE-ARMS. 


ing  its  inclined  surface  above  the  roll  of  the  hammer,  thus  utilizing  both  motions  of  the  bar- 
rels and  making  the  forces  required  to  open  and  close  them  more  nearly  equal.  The  main- 
springs move  on  rolls,  making  the  friction  the  least  possible.  The  safety  apparatus  does 
not  require  the  cutting  away  of  the  stock,  so  that  the  stock  is  very  strong.  The  triggers 
are  firmly  secured  by  a  positive-lock  and  not  by  springs.  The  hammers  can  be  let  down 
separately  or  together  by  pressing  the  safety-slide  forward  and  pulling  one  or  both  triggers 
while  closing  the  barrels. 

The  Parker  Gun,  manufactured  by  Parker  Bros.,  of  Meriden,  Conn.,  is  represented  in  Figs. 
15  and  16,  the  arm  being  shown  open  at  Fig.  16  and  closed  at  Fig.  15.  The  mechanism  oper- 
ates as  follows : 

Pressing  upon  the  finger-piece  1,  in  front  of  the  guard  2,  raises  the  lifter  3,  and  its  bev- 
eled side  coming  in  contact  with  the  screw  4,  acts  as  a  wedge  to  draw  the  bolt  5  from  the  mor- 


FIG.  15.— Parker  gun. 


FIG.  16. — Parker  guii. 


tise  which  is  cut  in  the  lug  6,  and  releases  the  barrels,  ready  for  the  insertion  of  the  car- 
tridges. It  will  be  observed  that  when  the  bolt  5  is  back  to  the  position,  as  showr  in  Fig.  16, 
the  same  hole  which  is  drilled  in  the  under  side  of  said  bolt  comes  directly  over  the  trip  7, 
which,  by  the  assistance  of  the  small  spiral  spring  8,  is  made  to  enter  this  hole  in  the  bolt  5,  and 
thereby  holds  it  in  position.  The  finger-piece  1  is  solid  and  a  part  of  lifter  3.  The  action  of  the 
lifter  3  is  positive,  not  only  to  withdraw  the  bolt  from  but  to  force  it  forward  into  the  mortise  in 
the  lug  6.  For  the  purpose  of  cleaning  it  can  be  very  easily  removed  by  taking  off  the  locks 
and  removing  the  small-screw  4  from  the  end  of  the  bolt  5,  when  by  pressing  down  on  trip  7  the 
lifter  can  be  withdrawn  without  removing  either  stock,  guard,  or  trigger-plate.  The  improved 
roll  13  gives  strength  to  the  joint.  When  the  barrels  are  brought  to  place  for  firing,  the  bot- 
tom of  the  lug  6  strikes  the  trip  7,  withdrawing  it  from  the  bolt  5,  which  then  enters  the  mor- 
tise in  the  lug  6  and  securely  locks  the  gun,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15.  The  mode  of  manufacturing 
the  barrels  of  this  gun  is  of  interest,  and  is  described  by  the  makers  as  follows :  Plates  of 
iron  and  steel  are  arranged  in  layers  and  then  welded  into  a  compact  bar,  which  must  be  ab- 
solutely sound  and  perfect,  as  the  slightest  spot  left  unwelded  or  unsound  in  this  operation 
will  be  sure  to  cause  a  total  loss  of  the  barrel.  The  process  consists  in  reducing  this  bar  to 
such  a  sized  rod  as  may  be  required  for  a  certain  weight  of  barrel.  This  rod  is 
twisted  similar  to  a  rope,  as  shown  at  E  in  Fig.  17,  care  being  taken  to  have 
the  twist  uniform  and  even.  Several  of  these  twisted  rods  are  placed  side  by 
side,  the  inclination  of  the  twist  being  in  opposite  directions,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  These  several  rods  are  welded  together  with  the  same  care  and 
precision  as  in  the  previous  operation.  This  is  termed  a  ribbon  and  is  coiled 
spirally  around  a  mandrel,  as  shown  at  F,  raised  to  a  welding  heat  and  jumped 
by  striking  the  end  against  the  anvil,  thereby  welding  the  edges  firmly  to- 
gether. The  ribbons  are  then  placed  upon  a  welding  mandrel,  reheated  and 
welded  from  end  to  end.  Much  skill  and  care  are  required  in  this  operation  to 
reduce  the  outside  diameter  to  correct  size  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  the 
caliber,  and  also  maintain  the  proper  taper,  the  barrel  being  much  larger  at  the 
breech  than  at  the  muzzle.  The  fine  figure  that  appears  in  the  figured  barrel 
is  dependent  upon  the  correctness  of  this  and  the  previous  welding  operations, 
for,  if  hammered  unevenly,  the  figure  itself  will  be  correspondingly  uneven. 
Then  follows  the  process  of  hammering  in  nearly  a  cold  state,  whereby  the  tex- 
ture of  the  metal  is  condensed,  closing  its  pores  and  making  it  harder.  This 
finishes  the  operation  of  barrel-forging,  and  the  barrel  is  now  ready  to  be  bored, 
turned,  and  finished  upon  lathes  manufactured  expressly  for  the  purpose.  The 
curly  figure  that  appears  at  G  is  obtained  by  twisting  the  rods  before  referred 
to,  as  appears  in  the  illustration  at  E  in  Fig.  17,  the  variation  of  figure  being 
obtained  by  varying  the  piling.  The  white  marks  that  appear  in  the  finished  FlG  17  _parker 
barrel  are  iron  and  the  dark  ones  the  steel.  A  finer  figure  is  obtained  by  an  gun-barrel, 
increased  number  of  pieces  in  the  operation  of  piling.  This  larger  number  of 
pieces  necessarily  renders  the  operations  of  securing  perfect  welding  much  more  difficult, 
and  the  liability  of  loss  is  greater.  Some  people  imagine  that  the  curly  figures  of  the  barrel 
are  simply  etched  on  the  outside,  when  they  are,  in  fact,  the  visible  proof  of  a  superior 
strength,  both  desirable  and  important  to  every  shooter  who  cares  for  his  personal  safety,  for 
if  an  iron  barrel,  no  matter  how  strong  and  thick,  is  defective  and  does  not  stand  the'  test, 
the  defective  part  will  splinter  into  more  or  less  small  pieces,  while  the  Damascus  barrels 
will  tear  like  woven  fabric. 

The  Whitmore  Hammerless  Gun,  manufactured  by  the  American  Arms  Co.,  of  Boston, 


FIRE-ARMS. 


361 


.,  is  shown  open  and  in  partial  section  in  Fig.  18.  This  arm  contains,  among  other  novel 
features,  a  triple  wedge-bolt  fastening  and  compensating  devices,  whereby  any  looseness  in  the 
mechanism  due  to  wear  can  be  corrected  by 
simply  adjusting  a  screw.  The  barrels  can 
be  attached  to  the  stalk,  whether  the  gun  is 
cocked  or  not.  The  cocking-rod  engages 
with  the  lever,  which  in  turn  engages  with 
both  hammers  at  the  same  time,  so  that  the 
latter  lock  simultaneously.  The  lock  is  so 
constructed  that  it  is  impossible  to  intro 
duce  a  loaded  shell  into  the  gun  before  the 
latter  is  cocked.  Another  novel  feature  is 
the  compensating  screw  in  the  sears  which 

comes  in  contact  with  the  hammer,  forcing  FlG  18  _whitmore  Kun 

it  into  cock  positively  in  case  a  sear-spring 

should  break.  The  mainsprings  being  swiveled  to  the  hammers,  friction  is  reduced,  conse- 
quently the  gun  cocks  with  remarkable  ease.  A  strong  block  of  steel  is  forced  over  the  trig- 
gers by  the  double  bolt  pushing  a  steel  rod  on  opening  the  gun.  By  holding  on  to  the 
hammers  and  closing  the  barrels,  the  hammers  can  be  let  down  without  snapping.  The  safety 
can  be  made  automatic  or  independent  by  turning  a  small  screw  in  the  lock-plate  in  front  of 
the  trigger-guard. 

The  Baker  Gun,  made  by  the  Baker  Forging  and  Gun  Co.,  of  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  is  chiefly  re- 
markable for  its  simple  construction  and  low  price.  The  rebounding-lock  has  but  four  pieces. 
The  mechanism  is  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  19. 


FIG.  19. — Baker  gun. 


FIG.  20.— Winchester  shot-gun. 


The,  Winchester  Repeating  Shot-Gun,  manufactured  by  the  Winchester  Repeating  Arms 
Co.,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  is  illustrated  in  open  position  in  Fig.  20.  from  which  the  system, 
which  contains  but  16  parts  in  all,  will  be  readily  understood.  The  breech-block  and  finger- 
lever  form  one  piece,  and  move  together  in  opening  and  closing.  The  hammer,  placed  in  the 
breech-block,  is  automatically  cocked  during  the  closing  motion,  but  can  also  be  cocked  or 
set  at  half-cock  by  hand.  The  trigger  and  finger-lever  are  so  adjusted  that  the  trigger  can 
not  be  pulled  prematurely,  and  the  gun  can  not  be  discharged  until  closed.  The  barrel  can 
be  examined  and  cleaned' from  the  breech.  The  magazine  and  carrier  hold  five  cartridges, 
which,  with  one  in  the  chamber,  make  six  at  the  command  of  the  shooter. 

This  gun  is  made  in  both  10  and  12  gauges ;  the  12-gauge  gun  will  handle  shells  2i  in. 
long,  or  less,  and  the  10-gauge  will  handle  shells  2|  in.  long,  or  less. 

To  fill  the  magazine,  throw  down  the  lever  and  push  four  cartridges  through  the  carrier 
into  the  magazine,  placing  the  fifth  in  the  carrier.  The  forward  and  backward  motion  of  the 
finger-lever,  which  can  be  executed  while  the  gun  is  at  the  shoulder,  throws  out  the  empty 
shell,  raises  a  new  cartridge  from  the  magazine  and  puts  it  into  the  barrel.  The  gun  is  then 
ready  to  be  fired  The  standard  length  of  barrel  is  30  or  32  in. 

III.  REVOLVERS. — Coifs  Double-Action  Self-Cocking  Revolver,  made  by  the  Colt  Patent 
Fire- Arms  Mfg  Co.,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  is  represented  in  Figs.  21  and  22.  Fig.  21  shows  it- 
closed,  and  Fig.  22  with  the  cylinder  swung  out,  the  ejector  being  represented  in  the  act  of 
throwing  out  the  empty  shells,  after  which  it  will  be  automatically  returned  to  its  place  in 
the  cylinder,  which  will  then  be  ready  for  loading.  The  cylinder  contains  six  chambers.  In 
order  to  facilitate  the  loading  of  cartridges  and  to  allow  the  simultaneous  ejection  of  the 
emptied  cartridge  shells,  the  cylinder  is  so  mounted  upon  a  crane  pivoted  in  frame  below  the 
cylinder-seat  that,  on  drawing  the  cylinder-latch  to  the  rear,  the  cylinder  swings  to  the  left 
and  downward  out  of  its  seat  in  the  frame ;  in  this  position  all  the  chambers  are  presented 
for  loading,  while  pressure  against  the  end  of  the  ejector-rod  under  the  barrel  ejects  all  the 
shells.  When,  after  ejecting  and  loading,  the  cylinder  is  returned  to  its  seat  in  the  frame, 
the  cylinder-latch  automatically  secures  it  there.  By  this  construction  it  is  pointed  out  that 
all  the  facilities  for  loading  and  ejecting  are  obtained  without  sacrificing  the  important  feature 
of  a  solid  frame,  such  as  all  modern  Colt  pistols  show,  there  being  no  hinge  or  joint  in  the 
frame  between  the  barrel  and  stock,  the  wearing  of  which  might  disturb  the  accuracy  of  the 


362 


FIRE-ARMS. 


pistol.     The  hammer  may  be  cocked  by  the  thumb  or  by  the  trigger,  and  after  firing  it  re- 
bounds, and  is  positively  locked  in  this  safety  position,  so  that  it  can  not  strike  the  primer  of 


FIG.  21.— Coifs  revolver. 


FIG.  22.— Colt's  revolver. 


FIG.  23.— Colt's  target  revolver. 


a  cartridge  until  it  is  again  cocked.  The  cylinder  can  not  be  swung  out  of  the  frame  unless 
the  hammer  is  in  its  safety  position,  and  the  act  of  swinging  the  cylinder  out  of  the  frame 
automatically  locks  the  trigger  and  the  hammer  in  this  position.  Thus  premature  discharges 
during  manipulation  are  prevented,  as  also  accidental  discharges  from  blows,  such  as  result 
from  a  fall,  etc.  The  falling  of  the  hammer  from  any  position  can  not  fire  a  shot  unless  the 
trigger  is  fully  pulled  back  at  the  same  time,  as  only  then  the  hammer  can  fall  beyond  the 
safety  position.  The  hand  or  pawl  which  rotates  the  cylinder  has  two  working  points  to  en- 
gage the  cylinder-ratchet,  and,  by  an  ingenious  construction,  this  pawl  also  serves  as  cylinder- 
bolt,  and  positively  prevents  any  further  rotation  after  one  of  the  chambers  in  the  cylinder 
coincides  with  the  bore  of  the  barrel.  The  cylinder-latch  prevents  its  backward  rotation. 
We  are  advised  that  it  was  the  feature  of  the  jointless,  solid  frame,  combined  with  the  simul- 
taneous ejection  and  its  other  good  qualities,  which  caused  the  officers  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord- 
nance to  adopt  this  re- 
volver for  the  service  of 
the  United  States  Navy. 
Colt's  Special  Target 
Revolver  (Fig.  23)  is  sub- 
stantially the  same  in 
action  as  the  single-ac- 
tion revolver  in  use  in 
the  United  States  Army, 
and  adopted  by  the  War 
Department  *in  1873. 
The  manufacturers  in 
this  pistol,  however,  have 
sought,  by  refinements 
in  the  sights  and  in  the 
rifling,  to  attain  great 

accuracy  of  fire,  and  the  results  are  notably  successful. 
A  sample  target,  showing  25  consecutive  shots  at  12 
yds.  off-hand,  made  with  a  '44-caliber  arm  by  an  expert 
marksman  in  December,  1890,  is  given  in  Fig.  24.  This 
pistol  has  made  a  remarkable  record  in  many  competi- 
tive trials,  both  in  the  United  States  and  abroad. 

The  Smith  &  Wesson  Hammerless  Safety  Revolver, 
manufactured  by  Messrs.  Smith  &  Wesson,  of  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  is  represented  in  Fig.  25.  The  especial 
feature  of  this  arm  is  that  the  hammer,  concealed  with- 
in the  lock-frame  and  operated  by  the  trigger,  as  in  any 
self-acting  pistol,  is  constantly  locked  by  the  safety- 
latch,  which  is  held  in  position  by  a  spring.  When 
held  in  the  hand  for  firing,  the  natural  pressure  upon 
the  safety-lever  in  the  movement  of  pulling  the  trigger 
raises  the  safety-latch  and  releases  the  hammer.  The 
safety-lever  and  trigger  must  act  in  unison,  and  to  dis- 
charge this  arm  in  any  but  the  proper  manner  is  an  im- 
possibility. It  is  well  known  that  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  accidents  with  revolvers  arises 
from  some  unintentional  manipulation  of  the  ham- 
mer. Either  it  receives  a  blow,  is  allowed  to  slip 
off  the  thumb  in  cocking,  is  accidentally  caught 
on  some  foreign  object  and  partially  raised,  or  is 
unintentionally  left  at  full-cock.  The  only  other 
and  a  fruitful  source  of  accident  is  the  uninten- 
tional manipulation  of  the  trigger.  It  will  be  ap- 
parent that  the  above-described  construction  pre- 
vents such  casualties :  first,  by  placing  the  ham-  FIG.  25.— Smith  and  Wesson  revolver. 


FIG.  24.— Target. 


FIRE-ESCAPES. 


363 


mer  of  the  arm  entirely  within  the  lock-frame,  so  that  no  external  force  whatever  can  be  ap- 
plied to  it ;  and,  second,  by  so  arranging  the  trigger  that  it  can  not  be  pulled  except  at  the 
instant  of  deliberate  firing,  and  only  by  this  means. 

The  Colt  Cartridge- Pack,  illustrated 
in  Fig.  26,  is  an  ingenious  device  by 
which  all  chambers  of  a  revolver  can  be 
loaded  at  one  motion.  The  engraving 
shows  the  pack  assembled,  and  also  its 
parts.  To  assemble  the  pack  the  car- 
tridges are  placed  with  the  bullets  in  the 
holes  of  the  loading-blocks,  shown  on  the 
left ;  the  ring  is  placed  over  the  heads  of 
the  cartridges,  and  the  central  plug  is  in- 
troduced into  the  ring  and  between  the 
cartridges,  which  binds  them  firmly  to- 
gether. In  using  the  pack,  the  pistol  is 

held  with  the  left  hand,  the  cylinder  being  Fro  ae.—coit  cartridge  pack 

swung  out,  the  right  hand  places  the  pack 

against  the  rear  of  the  cylinder,  and,  grasping  the  ring,  pushes  it  toward  the  cylinder,  when 
the  cartridges  all  enter  the  chambers  and  the  plug  escapes  to  the  rear. 

Fire-Boats :  see  Engines,  Steam  Fire.  Fire-Engines,  Chemical,  Fire-Extinguishers : 
see  Engines,  Fire,  Chemical.  Fire-Proof  Construction:  see  Safes  and  Vaults  and  Terra- 
Cotta  Lumber.  Fire-Tools :  see  Fire-Appliances. 

FIRE-ESCAPES.  Apparatus  for  allowing  egress  from  buildings  on  the  exterior,  instead 
of  by  the  stairways  or  other  ordinary  means,  are  classed  as  fire-escapes.  Three  principal 
types  may  be  recognized :  (1)  Those  which  are  permanently  arranged  on  the  fronts  of  build- 
ings: (2)  those  which  are  adjusted  in  position  from  the  outside;  and  (3)  those  which  are 
placed  in  windows  and  serve  simply  as  means  for  lowering  individuals. 

An  example  of  the  first  class  "is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  which  is  a  combination  of  a  stand-pipe 
with  a  ladder  and  one  or  more  balconies.  The  stand-pipe  is  a  wrought-iron  pipe  having  an 
outlet  at  each  floor  and  at  the  roof,  at  which  points  means  are  provided  for  the  attachment  of 


FIG.  1.— Permanent  fire-escape. 


FIG.  2.— Adjustable  fire-escape. 


hose.  At  the  bottom  of  the  pipe  is  a  2-way  Siamese  connection,  so  that  two  fire-engines 
may  simultaneously  pump  into  the  pipe,  whence  streams  may  be  taken  at  any  floor  or  at  the 
roof.  The  iron  ladder  is  bolted  to  the  pipe,  and  is  made  with'rounds  of  angular  cross-section, 


364 


FLANGING-MACHINES. 


so  as  not  to  retain  ice  and  to  afford  a  sure  footing.    The  balconies  are  also  of  iron,  and,  being 
securely  anchored  to  the  wall,  form  a  vantage-ground  for  the  firemen,  from  which  they  can 

cope  with  the  flames  on  a  level  with 
them  and  from  the  outside  of  the 
building.  An  example  of  the  second 
class  of  fire-escape  is  given  in  Fig.  2. 
Here  is  shown  a  series  of  three  con- 
nected ladders,  one  sliding  upon  the 
others.  The  three  may  be  brought 
into  prolongation  by  means  of  a  sim- 
ple chain  and  windlass.  The  ladder 
in  position  to  raise  is  represented  at 
1.  At  2  it  is  elevated  and  ready  for 
extension.  At  3  it  is  shown  fully 
extended  and  ready  for  service.  The 
length  of  the  three  ladders  jointly  is 
70  ft.  The  upper  or  top  ladder  is 
held  in  position  not  only  by  the  ele- 
vating chain,  but  by  two  supporting 
hooks,  which  automatically  clasp  the 
rounds,  and  also  by  self  -acting  brakes, 
so  that  in  event  of  breakage  of  the 
chain  the  ladder  can  not  slide  down. 
An  example  of  the  third  class  of  fire- 
escape  is  given  in  Fig.  3.  The  low- 
ering rope  is  fastened  securely  to  the 
wall,  usually  near  the  window-casing. 
It  passes  around  a  fixed  bar  in  the 


FIG  3  -Fire-escape. 


is  provided  with  a  hand-lever.  A 
belt  or  sling,  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
is  connected  to  the  lowering  device, 
and  supports  the  person,  who,  by  manipulating  the  brake,  allows  himself  to  slide  down  the 
lowering  rope  as  rapidly  or  slowly  as  may  be  desired. 

FLANGINGr-MACHINES.    A  variety  of  new  forms  are  presented. 

The  Davis  Flanging-Machine. — Fig.  1  represents  a  boiler-head  flanging  machine,  built  by 
I.  B.  Davis  &  Son,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  designed  for  flanging  heads  of  any  size  from  38  to  96 


FIG.  1.— Davis  flanging-rnachine. 

in.  diameter,  and  of  any  thickness  required  within  those  limits  of  size.  In  the  center  of  the 
machine  is  a  revolving  plate,  driven  by  a  powerful  train  of  gears,  and  which  is  adapted  to 
receive  and  drive  the  former  over  which  the  head  is  formed.  At  the  back  of  the  machine  are 
two  arms  having  T-slots,  by  which  are  attached  gauge-blocks,  having  swinging  pieces,  by 
which  the  head  is  centered  on  the  former.  The  follower  plate  is  then  brought  down  on  to  the 


FLANGING-MACHINES. 


365 


head  by  means  of  the  screw  and  hand-wheel  at  the  top.     This  follower  is  so  made  as  to  bear 
hardest  at  the  outside,  and  comes  down  with  an  outward  pressing  motion,  which  keeps  the 


FIG.  2.— Clark's  flanging-machine. 


motion, 
screw 


head  straight  and  flat  on  the  former  while  being  turned.  The  machine  is  then  set  in  a 
and  the  straight  or  "  break-down  "  roll  brought  against  the  edge  by  means  of  the  large 
in  the  bed.  This  roll  is  so  mounted  as  to  enable  it  to  be  pre-  ' 
sented  at  any  desired  angle,  and  can  then  be  gradually  brought  to 
a  vertical  position  by  means  of 
the  hand-screw  on  the  carriage, 
being  kept  up  to  the  head  at  the 
same  time  by  means  of  the  large 
hand-wheel  and  screw.  The  fin- 
ishing-roll, which  is  made  of  the 
shape  it  is  desired  the  head  to 
be,  is  at  the  opposite  side  of  the 
machine,  and  is  brought  up  to 
the  head  in  the  same  manner, 
though  it  is  fixed  in  a  vertical 
position.  As  the  first  roll  is 
bringing  the  edge  of  the  head 
down  to  the  former,  the  finish- 
ing-roll is  brought  up  and  com- 
pletes the  head.  Hooks  are 
placed  in  the  follower,  which 
take  hold  of  the  lower  edge  of 
the  head,  so  that  it  is  drawn  off 
by  means  of  the  hand-wheel  and 
screw  on  the  top  of  the  machine. 
Clark's  Boiler-Head  Flang- 
ing -  Machine,  made  by  Jacob 
Clark,  of  Germantown,  Pa.,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  plate  to  be  flanged  is  clamped  between  two  disks  and  rotated  with  its 
edge  projecting  over  a  short  vertical  roller.  A  swiveling-roller  turns  the  flange  down  as  the 
plate  passes  quite  rapidly  under  it.  This  upper  or  swiveling  roller  is  carried  in  a  housing 
supported  by  two  parallel  levers,  which  are  actuated  by  worm-gearing  and  hand-wheel,  as 
shown.  By  the  motion  obtained  by  the  combined  action  of  the  parallel  levers  the  upper  roll 
swivels  from  a  horizontal  to  a  vertical  position,  directly  round  the  center  of  the  fillet  in  the 


3>  4._Kent1s  flanging-machine. 


366 


FLAX-MACHIXES. 


head  being  flanged,  giving  a  smooth,  easy  motion  for  the  flow  of  the  metal  into  its  new  form. 
The  saddles  carrying  the  two  rollers  are  adjustable  along  the  bed,  thus  making  heads  of  vary- 
ing diameters  without  formers.  No  hole  is  necessary  in  the  plate.  Heads  of  exactly  uniform 
diameters  are  made  as  rapidly  as  the  furnace  can  heat  them. 

Kent1  a  Flanging- Machine.— Figs.  3,  4,  5,  and  6  show  a  machine  (patented  by  William 
Kent  February  15, 1887)  for  bending  and  flanging  connecting  pieces  or  saddles  for  water-tube 

boilers  or  shapes  of  similar  con- 
struction in  which  two  parallel 
plates  of  metal  require  to  be 
flanged  in  opposite  directions.  The 
connecting  piece  to  be  made  by  the 
machine  is  shown  in  Pig.  3.  Re- 
ferring to  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  the  follow- 
ing is  a  description  of  the  machine : 
A  is  the  frame  of  the  machine. 
B  C  are  shafts,  having  mounted 
thereon,  outside  the  frame,  gear- 
wheels, adapted  to  mesh  with  each 
other.  F  F  are  leaves  pivoted  be- 
tween the  sides  of  the  frame  so  as 
to  be  capable  of  a  swinging  move- 
ment, while  at  the  same  time,  when 
in  their  normal  position  they  are  in 
the  same  horizontal  plane  with  the 
ledge  between  them,  thus  forming 
a  platform  upon  which  the  blank 
may  be  placed.  To  the  inside  of 
each  leaf  are  secured  segment-gears 
G,  with  which  mesh  the  cogs  H  on 
the  shafts  B  C.  Upon  the  blank 
/  is  superimposed  an  anvil,  J,  of 
suitable  shape,  according  to  the 
product  desired.  By  turning  the 
wheels  external  to  the  frame  the 
cogs  H  will  operate  in  conjunction 
with  the  segment-gears  G  to  fold 
the  leaves  F  upward.  This  opera- 
tion is  continued  until  the  leaves 
have  caused  the  blank  to  be  bent  at 
the  desired  angle  (in  this  instance 
a  right  angle),  when  the  blank  is  ready  for  the  operation  of  the  flanging  mechanism,  as  seen 
at  Fig.  4.  The  mechanism  for  flanging  consists  of  a  series  of  /oils,  L,  preferably  three  in 
number,  the  outside  edges  of  all  but  one  being  beveled.  These  rolls  are  journaled  within  a 
box,  _ZV,  secured  on  a  shaft,  0.  This  shaft  0  is  mounted  within  suitable  bearings  on  cross- 
pieces,  P,  secured  to  the  frame,  and  is  operated  by  gearing  (not  shown).  As  the  shaft  is  re- 
volved the  rolls  will  gradually  bend  the  edges  of  the  blank  and  form  thereon  an  outwardly 
projecting  flange,  as  shown  in  Figs.  5  and  6. 

FLAX-MACHINES.  When  flax  is  pulled,  the  stalk  may  be  said  to  be  made  up  of  three 
distinct  parts.  There  is  first  the  wood,  then  the  bark,  and  lastly  the  glossy  varnish  of  the 
bark.  The  woody  matter  in  flax  is  of  no  value ;  the  difficulty  is  how  to  get  rid  of  it  and  to 
save  the  bark.  To  accomplish  this  the  flax  must  be  retted,  and  it  is  either  spread  over  a 
field  and  exposed  to  the  weather  for  some  time,  which  is  called  "  dew-retting,"  or  the  straw 
is  steeped  in  water.  In  a  short  time  the  vegetable  part  rots,  the  gum  on  the  outside  dis- 
solves, and  the  stalks  are  taken  out  of  the  water  and  dried.  But  the  wood  is  like  a  fixed 
finger  inside  a  glove,  and,  although  weakened,  has  still  to  be  removed.  Scutching  is  the 
process  by  which  the  wood  is  removed  and  the  outside  skin  saved.  The  difficulty  is  to  get 
the  woody  part  out  without  injury  to  the  skin,  which  is  the  valuable  part  of  the  plant  and 
forms  the  flax-fiber.  There  are  four  methods  of  doing  this.  The  first  is  by  striking  the 
flax  repeated  blows,  then  taking  it  in  handfuls,  holding  it  over  a  wooden  rest,  and  striking 
it  sharp  blows  with  a  wooden  blade.  The  second  plan  is  to  run  the  retted  straw  through 
fluted  iron  rollers,  and  when  the  heart  is  thus  broken  into  short  bits  to  take  the  straw  in 
handfuls  and  hold  it  against  two  end  blades  rapidly  revolving  upon  a  shaft.  The  process 
known  as  the  "  Garden  "  process,  and  which  promised  great  things  a  short  time  ago,  consists 
in  pricking  the  straw  with  needles.  This  cuts  the  straw  into  lengths  so  small  as  to  make  it 
practically  dust.  The  straw  comes  easily  away.  But  it  is  obvious  that  the  skin  is  damaged 
at  the  same  time,  because  the  heart  of  the  stalk  must  be  got  at  through  this  outer  skin. 

The  Spiegelberg  flax- Scutching  Machine  (Figs.  1  and  2). — A  new  scutching-machine  has 
been  devised  by  Mr.  A.  Spiegelberg,  which  is  claimed  to  show  material  improvement  over 
older  devices.  The  flax-straw  is  fed  into  the  machine,  one  end  always  overlapping  the  preced- 
ing one.  Heavy  fluted  rollers  flatten  the  tubular  stalks,  which  action  does  not  spoil  the  fiber, 
but  only  takes  the  resistance  out  of  the  straw.  Then  the  flax  proceeds  to  the  small  rollers, 
lightly  fluted,  just  sufficient  to  obtain  a  thorough  grip  of  the  flax,  and  by  means  of  suitable 
mechanism  these  rollers  receive  a  lateral  or  shaking  motion,  which  bends  the  stalks  and  al- 


Fio.  6. 
FIGS.  5,  6.— Kent's  Hanging-machine. 


FLAX-MACHINES. 


367 


lows  the  wood  to  fall  out,  and  also  prevents  the  outer  skin  from  becoming  crushed  or  cut.  as 
is  the  case  with  the  needle-points,  or  the  series  of  fluted  rollers — run  at  a  high  speed — of  other 
machines.  The  fiber  then  passes  to  the  second  part  of  the  machine,  as  illustrated  herewith, 
which  somewhat  resembles  an  intersecting  heckling-machine.  The  "  strike  "  of  flax  is  se- 
cured between  a  pair  of  India-rubber  gripping-rollers  C  C\  which  bring  it  into  contact  with 
a  pair  of  rapidly  revolving  beaters  D  Dl.  After  this  operation  has  gone  on  for  a  given  time 
the  beaters  are  caused  to  revolve  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  gripping-rollers  C  Cl  and  E  E1 
are  respectively  automatically  opened  and  closed  in  the  interval  by  means  of  cam-bars  F  F\ 
and  the  cams  G  and  levers  H.  In  this  manner  both  ends  of  the  strike  are  sufficiently  operated 


FIG.  2. 
FIGS.  1,  2.— Spiegelberg  flax-scutching  machine 

upon  before  they  are  allowed  to  proceed  downward  to  the  delivery  roller  J  J1,  and  thence 
to  the  delivery-apron  K.  L  is  the  first-motion  shaft,  carrying  fast  and  loose  pulleys,  con- 
nected with  similar  pulleys  on  the  shaft  Jf,  from  which  the  beaters  are  driven.  The  taking-in 
rollers  B  Bl  derive  motion  from  suitable  gearing  N,  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  allow  itself 
to  become  automatically  disengaged  upon  the  reversal  of  the  machine.  The  principal  part 
of  the  process,  however,  is  that  involved  in  the  breaking-machine,  which  can  not  be  substi- 
tuted by  hand  or  other  process,  while  the  cleaning  might  be  done  in  the  ordinary  way ;  in 
fact,  when  the  flax  is  well  retted  the  breaking  is  done  so  completely  that  a  little  handling 
cleans  the  fiber  entirely  from  all  show.  The  two  machines  may  be  worked  separately.  It  is 
obvious  that,  the  fiber  being  uninjured,  there  is  a  much  larger  output,  and  the  heckle  gives 
far  more  yield  in  line.  About  the  importance  of  scutching  there  can  be  no  question.  Vast 
countries  "produce  grasses  and  fibers  which  are  of  the  highest  value.  The  difficulty  always 
has  been  to  separate  the  fiber  from  the  gummy  exterior  and  from  the  inside  pith  or  wood. 

The  Wallace  Flax-cleaning  Machine. — A  flax-cleaning  machine  of  novel  design,  devised 
by  Mr.  John  0.  Wallace,  of  Belfast,  Ireland,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  3.     It  is  shown  with  the  buf- 


368  FURNACES,   BLAST. 


fer  alongside,  which  is  used  for  dislodging  the  woody  matter.  The  machine  is  about  6  ft.  6 
in.  high  by  4  ft.  wide,  and  5  ft.  long  over  all ;  its  working  capacity  being  put  at  1  cwt.  of  ret- 
ted flax  per  hour.  It  consists  of  an  upper  feed-table,  on  which  the  flax  straw  is  fed  to  three 
pairs  of  fluted  rollers,  which  deliver  the  flax  downward  between  five  pairs  of  pinning-tools, 
alternating  with  six  pairs  of  guide-rollers.  The  pinning-tools  somewhat  resemble  hand- 
hackles,  and  are  attached  to  two  vertical  frames,  to  which  a  horizontal  to-and-fro  motion  is  im- 
parted, and  the  pins  interlace  as  the  two  sides  approach.  The  fibrous  material  is  drawn  down- 
ward by  the  rollers,  which  have  an  intermittent  motion,  and  at  each  momentary  pause  the 
pricking-pins  enter  the  material  and  are  rapidly  withdrawn  from  it.  By  degrees  this  fibrous 
descending  curtain  is  delivered  on  to  a  sloping  receiving- table  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine, 


-^^ — 
FIG.  3.— Wallace  flax-cleaning  machine. 

over  which  table  the  woody  substance  has  previously  passed  to  a  receiver  in  a  crushed  and 
semi-pulverized  condition  and  perfectly  free  from  fiber.  Three  attendants  are  required  for 
one  machine ;  but  when  large  quantities  of  fiber  have  to  be  cleaned  the  same  attendants  are 
sufficient  for  three  or  four  of  the  machines  placed  alongside  each  other.  The  attendants  for 
one  machine  for  flax  are  a  boy  or  a  girl  to  prepare  straw  in  bundles,  another  to  feed  the 
straw  to  the  machine,  and  a  man  to  attend  the  buffer  to  clear  off  the  broken  woody  portions. 
The  two  attendants  who  prepare  the  bundles  and  feed  the  straw  can  attend  to  two  other  ma- 
chines, but  each  machine  must  have  a  man  to  buff  or  clean  the  flax.  The  driving  power  for 
each  machine  is  two  horse-power.  It  is  claimed  that  this  machine  can  be  successfully  used 
for  cleaning  ramie  or  rheea  fiber. 

Flight,  Mechanical :  see  Aerial  Navigation. 

Flour-Bolter :  see  Milling-Machines,  Grain. 

Fly-Frame :  see  Cotton-Spinning  Machines. 

Flying-Machine :  see  Aerial  Navigation. 

Fodder-Cutter :  see  Ensilage-Machines. 

Folder :  see  Book-Binding  Machine  and  Presses,  Printing. 

Forced  Draft :  see  Engines.  Steam,  Marine. 

Forging :  see  Presses,  Forging. 

Fork,  Hay :  see  Hay  Carriers  and  Pickers. 

Forming-Lathe :  see  Lathe,  Metal- Working. 

Friction  of  Engines :  see  Engines,  Steam,  Stationary  Reciprocating. 

Friezer :  see  Molding-Machines,  Wood. 

Fuel  Consumption:  see  Furnaces,  Blast,  and  Locomotives.  Fuel-Feeding-  Devices : 
see  Stokers,  Mechanical.  Fuel,  Gas :  see  Gas-Producers.  Fuel,  Petroleum :  see  Engines, 
Steam,  Stationary  Reciprocating. 

Furnace,  Bullion  Melting:  see  Mills,  Silver.  Furnace,  Glass-Making- :  see  Glass- 
Making.  Furnace,  Open-Hearth  :  see  Steel,  Manufacture  of.  Furnace,  Petroleum  :  see 
Engines,  Steam,  Stationary  Reciprocating. 

FURNACES,  BLAST.  Recent  Development  of  American  Blast-Furnaces.—^  paper 
read  by  Mr.  James  Gayley,  superintendent  of  the  Edgar  Thomson  Furnaces,  Braddock,  Pa., 
at  the  New  York  meeting  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  in  September,  1890,  gives  a  very  full 
history  of  the  development  in  blast-furnace  pi  actice  since  1880.  We  extract  from  this  paper 
as  follows : 


FURNACES,   BLAST.  369 


The  development  of  blast-furnace  practice  in  America  in  the  direction  of  large  yields  is 
mainly  the  history  of  our  working  since  the  year  1880,  as  the  advancement  that  has  been 
made  in  the  last  decade  is  greater  than  that  in  the  third  of  a  century  previous.  A  new  era 
in  the  manufacture  of  pig-iron  began  in  1880  with  the  putting  in  blast  of  the  Edgar  Thomson 
furnaces.  These  furnaces  at  once  leaped  to  the  front  as  pig-iron  producers,  and  have  main- 
tained that  position — with  but  one  brief  interruption — ever  since.  As  an  example  of  the  best 
work  that  was  done  in  the  ten  years  previous  to  that  time,  the  Lucy  furnace  No.  2,  of  Carne- 
gie, Phipps  &  Co.,  of  Pittsburgh,  may  be  noted.  This  furnace  was  built  in  1877,  of  the  follow- 
ing dimensions :  Total  height.  75  ft. ;  diameter  of  bosh,  20  ft. ;  diameter  of  hearth,  9  ft. : 
cubical  capacity,  15.400  ft.  The  bell .  generally  in  use  was  11  ft.  in  diameter.  In  the  con- 
struction of  this  furnace,  the  noticeable  features  are  a  narrower  hearth  and  a  wider  top  than 
are  now  put  in  furnaces  of  the  same  cubical  capacity ;  but  at  that  time  it  was  considered  an 
excellent  shape,  and  certainly  did  produce  some  excellent  results.  As  early  as  1878  this 
furnace  had  made  a  monthly  output  of  3,286  tons,  on  a  coke  consumption  of  2,793  Ibs.  per 
ton  of  iron ;  and  in  one  week  shortly  afterward  made  821  tons.  For  the  first  12  full  months 
the  output  was  33,552  tons,  on  a  coke  consumption  of  2,850  ibs.  The  amount  of  air  blown 
was  16,000  cub.  ft.  per  min.,  which  entered  the  furnace  through  six  8-inch  tuyeres ;  the  tem- 
perature of  the  blast  was  915°,  and  the  pressure  at  tuyeres  5  Ibs.  The  ore  mixture  yielded  in 
the  furnace  60  per  cent  iron.  The  work  that  was  don^  at  this  furnace  was  unquestionably 
the  best,  all  things  considered,  that  had  been  accomplished  prior  to  the  starting  of  the  Edgar 
Thomson  furnaces. 

Furnace  "A"'  of  the  Edgar  Thomson  works  was  erected  in  1879.  The  dimensions  of  this 
furnace  are  as  follows :  Height,  65  ft. ;  diameter  of  bosh,  13  ft. ;  diameter  of  hearth,  8  ft.  6 
in. ;  cubical  capacity,  6.396  ft.  Six  tuyeres,  4  in.  in  diameter,  were  used ;  these,  projecting  7 
in.  inside  the  crucible,  made  the  efficient  diameter  of  hearth  7  ft.  4  in.  The  tuyeres  were 
placed  5  ft.  6  in.  above  the  hearth-line.  The  interior  lines  made  very  small  angles  with  each 
other — so  small,  in  fact,  that  the  arc  of  a  circle  drawn  from  the  top  to  the  tuyeres  will  not 
deviate  more  than  2  in.  from  the  lines  as  given.  Particular  attention  was  given  to  rounding 
the  angles.  The  bosh  was  located  about  midway  in  the  furnace,  making  the  bosh-wall  very 
steep.  The  batter  of  this  wall  was  If  in.  to  the  foot,  which  is  equivalent  to  an  angle  of  84°. 
The  furnace  was  lined  throughout  with  small  bricks.  The  stove  equipment  consisted  of  three 
Siemens-Cowper-Cochrane  stoves,  15  ft.  in  diameter  by  50  ft.  in  height.  This  furnace  was 
"  blown  in "  in  January,  1880.  The  ore  mixture  yielded  in  the  furnace  54*5  per  cent  iron. 
The  output  of  the  first  full  week  was  442  tons,  and  reached  537  tons  for  the  fourth  week. 
The  best  week's  output  was  671  tons.  The  blast  was  heated  to  an  average  temperature  of 
1,050°,  the  utmost  that  the  stoves  would  furnish ;  the  pressure  at  the  tuyeres  was  6£  Ibs. 

The  volume  of  air  forced  into  this  furnace  was  15,000  cub.  ft.  per  min.,  or  as  much  as  was 
used  elsewhere  for  furnaces  of  more  than  twice  the  capacity.  The  results  obtained  were  sur- 
prising. Considering  the  cubic  capacity  of  the  furnace,  the  rate  of  driving  was  certainly 
excessive,  and  that  the  results  on  Jfuel  were  so  low,  as  compared  with  the  subsequent  con- 
sumption on  larger  furnaces  where  the  same  practice  was  employed,  is  mainly  due  to  the  nar- 
row furnace-stack.  These  fuel  results  were  much  lower  than  any  obtained  from  the  larger 
furnaces  in  the  next  five  years. 

The  second  furnace  erected  at  these  works  had  general  dimensions  as  follows :  Height,  80 
ft. ;  diameter  of  bosh,  20  ft.;  diameter  of  hearth,  11  ft. ;  cubical  capacity,  17,868  cub.  ft.  The 
stock  was  distributed  at  the  top  by  a  double  bell,  in  which  the  central  cone  remained  station- 
ary ;  while  the  outer  conical  ring,  being  lowered,  cast  the  stock  toward  the  wall  and  center 
of  the  furnace.  One  feature  of  this  construction,  differing  from  that  of  other  furnaces  then 
using  coke  for  fuel,  was  the  large  hearth,  providing  more  space  for  combustion.  The  in-walls 
of  the  hearth  were  straight,  and  the  diameter  11  ft.  There  was  an  increased  number  of 
tuyeres,  eight  being  used,  and  an  increased  elevation  of  tuyeres  above  the  hearth-level,  all  of 
which  were  necessary  for  rapid  driving  and  large  yields.  No  American  furnace  up  to  that 
time  had  been  constructed  with  so  large  a  hearth  "as  this  one  at  the  Edgar  Thomson  works. 
In  another  respect  this  furnace  was  well  prepared  by  its  designers  for  a  high  productive  ca- 
pacity, viz.,  in  its  equipment.  Fire-brick  stoves  of  "the  most  approved  type  were  erected. 
Substantially  built  blowing  engines  were  provided,  and  they  were  rendered  efficient  by  an 
ample  supply  of  boilers — a  point  in  which  other  furnaces  were  then  sadly  lacking.  At  the 
same  time,  all  the  flues  and  mains  were  constructed  sufficiently  large,  arid  in  the  most  sub- 
stantial way.  In  fact,  no  furnace  previously  erected  had  been  planned  on  such  a  liberal  basis ; 
consequently,  large  yields  were  to  be  expected.  The  furnace  was  put  in  blast  in  April,  1880. 
In  the  following  month  an  output  of  3,718  tons  was  made,  and  the  next  month  showed  4,318 
tons ;  thus  fully  justifying  the  claims  of  its  designers  by  eclipsing  all  previous  records.  The 
weight  of  limestone  was  25  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  ore.  An  analysis  of  the  cinder 
showed :  silica,  32*31  per  cent :  alumina,  13*20  per  cent. 

The  limestone  contained  a  very  small  quantity  of  magnesia.  The  blast  entered  the  fur- 
nace through  eight  bronze  tuyeres  of  5^  in.  diameter,  and  was  heated  to  a  temperature  of  1.100°. 
The  silicon  in  the  iron  averaged  about  2  per  cent.  The  rapid  wear  of  the  furnace-walls, 
through  the  use  of  such  a  large  volume  of  air,  gradually  increased  the  consumption  of  coke 
to  over  3,000  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron.  At  the  end  of  the  first  12  full  months  the  output  was  48.- 
179  tons,  on  an  average  coke  consumption  of  2,859  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron.  The  second  year 
showed  an  average  consumption  of  3,200  Ibs.  of  coke,  with  a  decrease  in  yield.  The  furnace 
was  blown  out  after  a  blast  of  two  years  and  five  months,  having  made  a  total  product  of 
112,060  tons,  on  an  average  coke  consumption  of  3,149  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron.  The  results  ob- 

24 


370 


FURNACES,   BLAST. 


tained  in  this  blast  determined  several  important  changes  in  construction.  The  crinoline 
structure  was  torn  down  and  replaced  by  an  iron  jacket  ;  the  bosh-walls  were  protected  so  as 
to  preserve  as  far  as  possible  the  original  lines,  and  the  hearth  was  surrounded  with  water- 
cooled  plates.  The  double  bell  was  also  found  to  possess  no  special  advantage,  and  was  aban- 
doned. 

The  practice  of  rapid  driving,  begun  on  furnace  "A,"  and  further  developed  on  this  one, 
had  an  important  effect  on  the  general  practice  of  this  country.  The  great  outputs  obtained 
from  this  furnace  by  the  use  of  a  large  volume  of  air,  was  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  ; 
the  practice  of  fast  driving  soon  became  the  accepted  one,  and  with  our  national  ardor  it  was 
prosecuted  enthusiastically.  In  every  direction  engines  that  had  been  running  along  for 
years  at  a  methodical  gait  were  oiled  up  and  started  off  at  a  livelier  pace  ;  new  boilers  were 
added;  the  old  iron  hot-blast  stoves,  not  supplying  sufficient  heat,  were  torn  down  and  re- 
placed by  the  more  efficient  fire-brick  stoves.  At  many  works  rapid  driving  degenerated  into 
excessive  driving.  True,  the  outputs  increased  ;  so  also  did  the  consumption  of  fuel,  and  that 
at  a  surprising  rate,  until  it  was  thought  well-nigh  impossible  to  produce  a  ton  of  iron  with 
2,600  Ibs.  of  coke.  Although  the  practice  of  rapid  driving  has  been  much  decried,  yet  in 
many  ways  it  has  resulted  beneficially.  It  has  brought  in  an  equipment  of  hot-blast  stoves, 
boilers,  engines,  etc.,  sufficient  to  accomplish  a  large  amount  of  work  without  a  constant 
strain  on  every  part  —  a  condition  very  rare  prior  to  1880  ;  and  it  has  also  developed  a  con- 
struction of  the  furnace-stack  by  which  larger  outputs  from  a  single  lining  can  be  obtained 
with  less  irregularity  in  the  working. 

Furnace  "  D  "  of  the  Edgar  Thomson  works,  built  in  1882,  was  of  different  construction 
from  either  of  the  preceding.  It  was  constructed  with  special  regard  to  the  better  protection 
of  the  brick-  work  of  hearth  and  bosh.  The  general  dimensions  were  as  follows:  Height,  80 
ft.;  diameter  of  bosh,  23  ft.;  diameter  of  hearth,  11  ft.  6  in.;  stock-line,  17  ft.  ;  bell,  11  ft; 
cubical  capacity,  21,478  ft.  The  bosh  is  placed  at  about  the  center  of  the  stack,  making  very 
steep  walls.  The  hearth  is  also  made  wider  by  6  in.  than  in  furnaces  previously  described. 
The  hearth-walls  are  surrounded  by  cast-iron  plates  with  a  coil  inside  for  the  circulation  of 
water.  Around  the  bottom  of  these  plates  is  a  gutter,  through  which  waste  water  from  the 

cooling  plates  flowed,  affording  better  protection  to 
the  bottom  of  the  hearth.  Above  this  row  of  plates, 
at  the  tuyere  breasts,  is  another  circle  of  cooling 
plates,  partially  inserted  in  the  brick-work.  The 
walls  of  the  bos'h  are  incased  in  a  jacket  of  wrought 
iron,  i  in.  in  thickness.  This  jacket  is  bolted  on  to 
the  mantle.  The  bosh-walls  inside  the  jacket  were 
made  but  22£  in.  thick,  so  that  the  cooling  effect  of 
the  air-currents  on  the  jacket  would  prevent  any 
very  rapid  wear  of  the  brick-work.  This  furnace 
was  put  in  blast  in  1882.  In  the  first  12  full  months 
the  output  was  65,947  tons,  on  an  average  of  2,570 
Ibs.  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron,  thus  exceeding,  by  over 
11,000  tons,  the  best  output  that  had  previously 
been  obtained  in  the  same  time  from  any  furnace 
at  these  works,  and  with  a  much  smaller  consump- 
tion of  fuel.  The  record  for  the  best  month  dur- 
ing this  period  was  6,131  tons,  on  a  coke  consump- 


r— rnmasi: 


tion  of  2,387  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron.     The  amount  of 
air  blown  was  27,000  cub.  ft.  per  min.,  which  was 


per 

heated  to  an  average  temperature  of  1,000°.  The 
pressure  of  blast  at  the  tuyeres  varied  between  9 
and  10  Ibs.  After  a  blast  of  17  months'  duration 
this  furnace  was  blown  out,  having  made  a  total 
output  of  90,317  tons,  on  an  average  coke  consump- 
tion of  2,613  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron. 

Furnace  "C"  was  reconstructed  in  1885,  with 
the  following  dimensions  :  Height,  80  ft.  ;  diameter 
of  bosh.  20  ft.  ;  diameter  of  hearth,  10  ft.  ;  diameter 
of  stock-line,  16  ft.  3  in.  The  bosh-walls  had  an 
angle  of  79°,  and  all  the  lines  were  joined  by  curves. 
The  cubic  capacity  was  16,680  ft.  In  February, 
1885,  the  furnace  was  "  blown  in."  The  volume  of 
blast  was  rapidly  increased  until,  in  the  following 
month,  it  reached  31,000  cub.  ft.  per  min.  The 
blast  entered  the  furnace  through  eight  tuyeres,  7 
in.  in  diameter,  and  was  heated  to  an  average  tem- 
perature of  1,200°.  The  pressure  at  the  tuyeres  was 
8|  Ibs.  The  average  monthly  output  from  March 
to  August,  inclusive,  was  5.122  tons,  on  a  coke  con- 
sumption  of  2,874  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron.  Attempts 
were  made  later  to  increase  the  economy  by  reduc- 
ing the  volume  of  blast  to  28,000  cub.  ft.  As  a  result  the  output  increased  to  an  average  of 
6,050  tons  per  month,  on  a  coke  consumption  of  2,400  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron. 


Fio.  l.-Blast-furnace. 


FURNACES,   BLAST. 


371 


This  furnace  was  again  reconstructed  in  1887,  the  hearth  being  widened  to  11  ft.  diam- 
eter, the  bosh  to  21  ft.,  and  the  stock-line  reduced  to  15  ft.  The  cubic  capacity  was  increased 
to  17,230  ft.  The  furnace  was  "  blown  in  "  in  March,  1887.  On  account  of  the  brick-work  in 
the  bosh  being  very  much  worn,  the  furnace  was  blown  out  after  a  run  of  2  years  7  months 
and  17  days — exclusive  of  the  time  the  furnace  was  banked.  The  output  for  the  blast  was 
203,050  tons,  on  an  average  coke  consumption  of  2,342  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron.  The  output  for 
the  first  12  full  months  was  72,554  tons,  on  a  coke  consumption  of  2.230  Ibs.  For  the  second 
12  months,  during  which  no  stoppage  occurred,  the  output  was  83,219  tons.  The  best  output 
made  in  any  one  month  was  7,680  tons.  The  furnace  shown  in  Fig.  1  was  built  in  1886.  The 
total  height  is  80  ft. ;  the  diameter  of  hearth,  11  ft. ;  the  diameter  of  bosh,  23  ft.  The  bell  is 
12  ft.  in  diameter,  and  the  stock-line  16  ft.  The  cubic  capacity  is  19,800  ft.  There  are  7 
tuyeres,  each  6  in.  in  diameter.  The  furnace  was  started  in  October,  1886,  and  was  in  blast — 
exclusive  of  two  stoppages — 2  years  7  months  and  10  days,  and  made  in  that  time  224,795 
tons  of  iron,  on  an  average  coke  consumption  of  2,317  Ibs.  The  output  for  the  first  12  full 
months  was  88,940  tons  on  2,150  Ibs.  of  coke.  The  efficiency  of  the  cooling  plates  on  the  bosh- 
walls  was  very  marked  in  this  case.  The  exterior  brick-work  was  in  as  good  condition  at  the 
end  of  the  blast  as  at  the  beginning.  The  interior  of  the  boshes  had  widened  out  18  in.,  but 
with  such  uniformity  that  the  greatest  variation  did  not  dpceed  2  in.  From  the  bosh-line  to 
the  top  of  the  furnace  the  wear  was  much  greater.  Thfe  furnace  was  relined  and  blown  in 
again  in  September,  1889.  The  construction  was  the  same  in  every  particular,  except  that 
the  diameter  of  the  bosh  was  reduced  to  22  ft.,  and  the  stock-line  to  15  ft.  6  in.  The  lining 
runs  straight  from  bosh  to  stock-line.  This  change  reduced  the  cubic  capacity  to  18,200  ft. 
The  same  number  and  size  of  tuyeres  are  used.  The  volume  of  air  blown  is  25,000  cub.  ft. 
per  min.,  a  reduction  of  2,000  cub!  ft.  from  that  used  in  previous  blast.  The  best  output  for 
any  one  week  is  2,462  tons.  The  temperature  of  blast  averages  1,100°  and  the  pressure  9|  Ibs. 
The  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases  is  340°.  Counting  the  time  the  furnace  was  running 
in  the  first  blast,  and  up  to  the  end  of  May,  1890,  in  the  second  blast,  including  also  the  time 
spent  in  relining,  the  period  covered  is  3  years  and  5  months ;  and  in  that  time  this  furnace 
has  made  an  output  of  301,205  tons,  a  record  which  is  unparalleled.  The  ores  used  were  from 
the  Lake  Superior  region,  and  yield  through  the  furnace  62  per  cent  of  iron.  The  proportion 
of  limestone  carried  was  28  per  cent  of  the  ore  burden,  and  about  1,200  Ibs.  of  cinder  was 
made  per  ton  of  iron.  The  average  analysis  of  the  cinder  is  as  follows :  silica,  33  per  cent ; 
alumina.  13  per  cent. 

In  the  period  covered  by  the  last  decade  there  are  three  steps  in  the  development  of 
American  blast-furnace  practice  that  might  be  mentioned  :  first,  in  1880,  the  introduction  of 
rapid  driving,  with  its  large  outputs  and  high  fuel  consumption ;  second,  in  1885,  the  produc- 
tion of  an  equally  large  amount  of  iron  with  a  low  fuel  consumption,  by  slow  driving ;  and 
third,  in  1890,  the  production  of  nearly  double  that  quantity  of  iron,  on  a  low  fuel  consump- 
tion, through  rapid  driving.  An  abstract  of  the  results  given  by  Mr.  Gayley  is  shown  in  the 
following  table : 

Blast-Furnace  Practice — Abstract  of  Results. 


DESIGNATION  OF 
FURNACE. 

Year  in 
which  fur- 
nace com- 
menced the 
blast. 

Cubic 
capacity. 

Volume  of 
air  per 
minute. 

Total  output 
from  blast. 

IN  FIRST  TWELVE   FULL  MONTHS. 

Output. 

Average 
daily  output. 

Average  coke 
consumption. 

Capacity  for 
one  ton  of  iron 
per  day. 

Isabella 

1876 

1878 
1880 
1880 

ISso 

isx.> 
1885 
1887 
1886 
1889 

Cub.  ft. 
15,000 
15,400 
6,396 
17,868 
21.478 
16:680 
18,950 
17.230 
19.800 
18,200 

Cub.  ft. 

16.666 
15,000 
80,000 

27,000 
31,  000  t 
22.000 
24.000 
27,000 
25,000 

Toni. 
117,575 
92,128 

Tons. 
28,000 
33,552 

Tons. 
76 
91 
71* 
132 
180 
178 
204 
198 
244 
310 

Lbs. 
3.000 
2,850 
2,400 
2,859 
2,570 
2,677 
2.250 
2.230 
2.150 
1,920 

Cub.  ft. 
197 
169 
90 
135 
119 
90 
92 
87 
81 
59 

Lucy  No.  2. 

Edgar  Thomson,  A  .  . 

D! 

c. 

D. 

C. 
F. 
»                           F. 

112,090 
90,317 
118.000 
150,377 
203.050 
224,795 

48,179 
65.947 
64,998 
74,475 
72.554  % 
88.940 
113,000  § 

*  Estimated.  t  After  running  9  months  the  volume  of  air  was  reduced  to  28,000  cub.  ft. 

t  The  second  12  months,  by  reason  of  a  continuous  blast,  show  an  output  of  83,219  tons  on  2,396  Ibs. 
of  coke.  §  Estimated  from  record  made  to  date. 

NOTE. — On  the  completion  of  the  12  months  in  blast,  the  record  for  furnace  F,  blast  of  1889,  shows  an 
output  of  413,526  tons,  and  an  average  coke  consumption  of  1,892  Ibs. 

A  Modern  Blast-Furnace  Plant. — One  of  the  most  recent  complete  blast-furnace  plants  is 
that  of  four  furnaces  built  in  1890  at  the  South  Chicago  Works  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Co.,  and 
known  as  Xos.  5,  6,  7,  and  8.  The  furnaces  are  built  in  a  line  extending  east  and  west, 
with  the  cast-houses  branching  off  to  the  south,  and  they  may  be  considered  as  constituting 
two  separate  plants  of  two  furnaces  each.  The  individuals  of  each  pair  are  side  by  side,  and 
126  ft.  from  center  to  center.  Each  furnace  is  80  ft.  high.  Xos.  5  and  6  are  similarly  con- 
structed, each  having  a  bosh  of  22  ft.,  hearth  of  12*  ft.,  and  a  stock-line  of  16  ft.  In  No.  7 
the  bosh  is  20  ft.,  but  in  other  respects  the  lines  are  the  same  as  in  Xos.  5  and  6.  Xo.  8  is 
considered,  so  far  as  the  lines  are  concerned,  as  quite  a  radical  change  from  the  other  three, 
for  its  bosh  is  only  19^  ft.,  hearth  13  ft.,  and  stock-line  13i  ft.,  thus  showing  a  tendency  to 
spread  out  at  the  hearth  and  contract  in  the  upper  portions"  Xos.  5  and  6  are  built  with  five 
and  Xo.  7  with  nine  rows  of  bosh-plates.  Each  furnace  is  supported  by  eight  columns  20  ft. 


372 


FURNACES,   BLAST. 


high,  and  is  re-enforced  at  the  hearth  with  a  steel  jacket  1£  in.  thick  by  7  ft.'  high.  Nos.  5 
and  6  are  furnished  with  7-in.  bronze  tuyeres  that  extend  into  the  furnace  1  ft.  No.  7  has  a 
telescope  arrangement  for  the  tuyere,  water-jacketed  breast,  and  water-block,  all  the  parts 
being  made  of  bronze,  and  so  easily  adjusted  that  there  is  very  little  delay  in  replacing  them 
when  necessary  to  make  repairs.  Each  furnace  has  four  Massiek  &  Crooke  hot-blast  stoves, 
22  ft.  in  diameter  and  70  ft.  high.  They  are  arranged  in  a  line  just  north  of  and  parallel  to 
the  line  of  furnaces.  Two  of  each  of  the  four  stoves  are  "  on  wind  "  and  two  "  on  gas,"  the 
change  being  made  every  half-hour  in  such  a  manner  that  there  is  a  fresh  stove  "  on  wind  " 
all  the  time.  These  stoves  at  present  maintain  an  average  temperature  of  only  1,250°  F.  to 
the  hot-blast.  Directly  north  of  the  line  of  stoves  is  the  stock-yard.  Here  the  coke,  ores,  and 
flux  are  all  handled.  The  coke  is  unloaded  as  needed  from  three  rows  of  trestles  placed 
parallel  to  the  line  of  stoves,  and  back  of  these  are  three  more  trestles,  from  which  the  flux 
and  ore  can  be  unloaded  when  necessary.  Usually  the  ore  is  unloaded  directly  from  the 
boats  on  to  the  docks  and  taken  to  the  hoists  in  barrows.  It  is  handled  at  the  docks  by  1& 
Brown  hoisting  and  conveying  machines,  having  an  aggregate  capacity  of  8,000  tons  per  24 
hours.  A  double  hoist-tower  and  hoist-engine  are  placed  between  each  second  and  third 
stove.  They  are  the  ordinary  crane- hoists,  and  each  cage  carries  two  barrows.  The  harbor 
was  made  by  dredging,  and  is  2,600  ft.  long  by  150  ft.  wide,  with  an  average  depth  of  20  ft. 

West  of  the  furnaces  are  the  boiler  and  engine  houses.  The  former  is  87  ft.  by  291  ft.,  and 
has  40  horizontal  tubular  boilers  6  ft.  by  20  ft.  The  water  used  in  these  boilers  and  around 
the  furnaces  is  pumped  from  the  lake.  The  engine-house  is  57  ft.  by  250  ft.  It  is  equipped 
with  10  Southwark  blowing-engines,  having  steam-cylinders  40  in.  by  60  in.,  and  6  cylinders 
89  in.  by  60  in.  The  valves  are  of  the  regular  Porter-Allen  link-motion.  Two  of  these  engines 
are  held  in  reserve  for  contingencies,  either  one  of  which  can  be  turned  on  to  any  furnace.  In 
the  pump-house  are  8  compound  duplex  Worthington  pumps,  with  steam  cylinders  29  in.  and 
18-J-  in.,  water-cylinders  18  in.  in  diameter,  and  a  stroke  of  21  in.  West  of  the  engine-house  is 
the  main  water-tank,  which  is  17  ft.  deep  and  40  ft.  in  diameter,  and  is  supplied  by  means  of 
three  centrifugal  pumps  placed  at  the  lake.  In  addition  to  the  main  tank  there  are  four  of 
smaller  capacity,  so  placed  as  to  be  convenient  to  the  furnaces  which  they  are  to  supply. 

The  ores  smelted  by  this  plant  are  the  hematites  of  the  Lake  Superior  region.  They  may 
be  roughly  classified  as  hard  and  soft  ores.  In  making  the  mixture,  about  15  per  cent  of  the 
former  to  85  per  cent  of  the  latter  is  mixed  with  a  dolomite  for  the  flux,  and  coke  for  the 
fuel.  The  richest  ore  will  analyze  about  62  per  cent  of  Fe  (iron),  and  the  poorest  will  not  fall 
below  50  per  cent  of  Fe.  They  show  on  an  average  about  1-30  per  cent  of  Si02  (silica),  -021 
per  cent  of  S  (sulphur),  and  *09  per  cent  of  P  (phosphorus).  The  dolomite  contains  1  per 
cent  of  Si02,  1  per  cent  of  A1803  (alumina),  53  per  cent  of  CaC03,  and  45  per  cent  of  MgCo3 
(magnesium  carbonate). 

These  furnaces  are  built  to  make  300  tons  of  pig-iron  each  per  day.  The  iron  is  run  from 
the  furnaces  into  ladles  of  12  tons'  capacity  each,  and  taken  by  locomotives  to  the  steel-mill 
in  the  liquid  state.  The  cinder  is  carried  off  by  Weimer  cinder-buckets  and  dumped  into  the 
lake  before  it  has  time  to  harden. 


Horizontal  'Section. 


FIG.  2.— The  Kennedy  furnace. 


The  Kennedy  Gas-regulating  and  Cut-off  Valve. — Hugh  Kennedy,  of  Sharpsburg,  Pa., 
manager  of  the  Isabella  furnaces,  has  designed  a  gas-regulating  and  cut-off  valve  which  has 
been  found  a  very  convenient  arrangement,  since  one  furnace  may  be  cut  off  without  stopping 


FUBXACES,   GAS. 


373 


the  others.  In  a  furnace-plant  which  comprises  several  furnaces,  it  has  been  found  conducive 
to  the  regularity  of  work  to  cause  the  gas  from  all  the  furnaces  to  discharge  into  one  main 
flue,  from  which  the  boilers  and  stoves  are  supplied.  Valves  have  been  placed  in  the  main 
flue,  in  order  to  be  able  to  cut  it  off  from  an  individual  furnace,  so  that  the  men  can  get  access 
to  parts  where  the  presence  of  gas  would  be  dangerous.  Owing  to  the  large  size  of  the  flues 
and  the  necessarily  large  dimensions  of  the  valves,  it  has  been  found  difficult  to  shut  off  the 
gas  perfectly.  Mr.  Kennedy,  instead  of  making  the  flue  continuous,  divides  it  by  cross-walls 
into  parts  corresponding  to  the  number  of  furnaces,  and  connects  the  adjacent  parts  with 
each  other  by  removable  pipe-connections.  The  construction  of  the  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
The  U-shape"d  pipe  shown  is  attached  to  a  plate-casting  having  holes  registering  with  the 
openings  of  the  pipe.  This  plate  is  set  in  another  plate,  and  is  provided  with  a  rack  and 
pinion,  as  shown,  by  which  it  may  be  moved  longitudinally.  The  whole  is  placed  on  top  of 
the  main  flue,  the  partition-wa.l  "in  which  is  located  between  the  two  openings  referred  to. 
A  shifting  of  the  pipe  and  the  plate  to  which  it  is  attached  enables  the  operator  to  cut  off 
completely  the  connection  between  the  two  adjoining  parts  of  the  main  flue. 

FURNACES,  GAS.  Classification. — The  different  kinds  of  furnaces  for  burning  gaseous 
fuel  are  thus  classified  in  a  paper  in  the  Proc.  of  the  List,  of  Mech.  Eng.,  January,  1891 : 

Gas-furnaces  may  properly  be  divided  into  four  classes,«iamely :  (a)  with  reversing  regen- 
eration ;  (b)  with  continuous  "regeneration  ;  (c)  non-regenerative ;  and  (d)  with  blow-pipe  or 
forced  blast. 

(a)  Furnaces  with  reversing  regeneration  are  of  several  different  kinds  : 

1.  The  ordinary  Siemens  furnace,  in  which  both  gas  and  air  are  heated  before  admission 
to  the  interior  of  the  furnace,  by  being  passed  through  the  well-known  arrangement  of  brick 
chambers  filled  with  checker- work  or  loosely  piled  bricks. 

2.  The  Batho  or  Hilton  furnace,  in  which  the  regenerative  chambers,  instead  of  being 
partly  or  entirely  underground,  are  incased  in  cylindrical  wrought-iron  vessels  erected  upon 
the  ground-level. 

3.  Furnaces  in  which  the  air  only  is  regenerated  by  being  passed  through  chambers,  the 
gas  being  admitted  direct  from  the  flues  by  which  it" arrives  from  the  producers.    Jn  these 
furnaces  the  whole  of  the  escaping  gases  or  waste  heat  has  to  pass  through  one  of  the  two  air- 
chambers  on  its  way  to  the  chimney. 

4.  The  furnace  recently  described  by  Mr.  Head  (Iron  and  Steel  Institute  Journal,  1889),  in 
which  a  portion  of  the  waste  heat  is  taken  back  to  rhe  gas-producer. 

5.  The  various  regenerative  blast-furnace  stoves  of  the  Cowper,  Whitwell,  and  other  kinds. 

(b)  In  furnaces  with  continuous  regeneration,  the  air,  before  admission  to  the  interior  of 
the  furnace,  is  heated  in  flues  or  pipes  by  radiation  or  conduction  from  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
nace, and  through  thin  walls  which  separate  the  air-flues  from  the  flues  that  carry  the  spent 
gases  or  waste  heat  to  the  chimney. 

(c)  In  non-regenerative  furnaces  the  air  is  admitted  to  the  interior  of  the  furnace  at  its 
natural  or  atmospheric  temperature. 

(d)  Blow-pipe  or  forced-blast  furnaces  are  of  two  kinds :  First,  those  in  which  the  air  is 
supplied  at  its  natural  or  atmospheric  temperature  by  a  fan  or  blower ;  second,  those  in  which 
the  air  so  supplied  is  heated  by  the  spent  gases  or  waste  heat  from  the  furnace,  by  being 
passed  either  through  coils  or  stacks  of  pipes,  or  else  through  brick  tubes  or  flues,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Radcliffe  furnace  and  others. 


FIG.  1.  FIG.  3. 

FIGS.  1-3. — Siemens  regenerative  gas-furnace. 

A  Neiv  Siemens  Regenerative  Gas-Furnace. — Messrs,  John  Head  and  P.  Pouff.  in  a  paper 
before  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  read  in  1889,  describe  a  novel  form  of  regenerative  fur- 


374 


FURNACES,   GAS. 


nace.  We  extract  from  their  paper  as  follows:  In  the  new  Siemens  furnace  the  gaseous 
products  of  combustion  from  the  heating-chamber  of  the  furnace  are  delivered  under  the 
grate  of  the  producer,  these  gases  consisting  of  intensely  hot  carbonic  acid,  water  in  the 
gaseous  state,  and  nitrogen.  The  economy  of  fuel  resulting  from  the  conversion  of  carbonic 
acid  into  carbonic  oxide  is  diagrammatically  illustrated  by  means  of  the  sketch  (Fig.  1)  of  a 
gas-producer.  Assuming  that  the  producer  contains  only  coke  in  the  incandescent  state,  this 
coke,  if  fed  with  oxygen,  will  produce  carbonic  acid  in  the  lower  zone,  which  will  be  converted 
into  carbonic  oxide*  in  the  upper  zone  ;  but  if  fed  with  hot  carbonic  acid  instead  of  oxygen, 
one  half  of  the  fuel,  comprising  the  lower  zone,  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  an  economy  in 
weight  of  fuel  to  the  same  extent  will  be  realized.  In  the  new  Siemens  furnace  the  waste 
gases  are  directed  partly  through  an  air-regenerator  and 
partly  under  the  grate  of  the  producer,  there  to  be  recon- 
verted into  combustible  gases,  and  to  do  the  work  of  dis- 
tilling hydro-carbons  from  the  coal ;  in  fact,  the  gas-pro- 
ducer in  this  case  absorbs  or  utilizes  the  heat  formerly 
deposited  in  the  gas-regenerators  of  furnaces,  and  in  doing 
this  transforms  spent  gases  into  combustible  gases. 

For  the  propulsion  of  the  gases  through  the  converter 
a  steam-blast  is  employed.  This  steam  is  superheated  by 
the  waste  gases  from  the  furnace,  and,  mixing  with  them, 
forms  a  very  hot  blast  under  the  grate.  The  diagrams 
(Figs.  2  and  3)  show  the  relation  which  exists  between  the 
ordinary  and  the  new  type  of  Siemens  furnace.  The  func- 
tion in  both  is  the  same.  In  the  first  case  the  waste  gases 
are  partly  directed  through  two  regenerators,  while  in  the 
second  case  the  waste  gases  are  partly  directed  through  an 
air- regenerator  and  partly  through  a  converter-producer. 
In  both  cases  the  waste  heat  from  the  furnace  is  entirely  FIG.  6. 


FIG.  5. 

FIGS.  4-8. — Siemens  regenerative  gas-furnace. 


FIG. 


utilized,  and  the  gas  and  air  reach  the  furnace  in  an  intensely  heated  condition.  In  both 
cases,  again,  there  is  a  reversal  in  the  direction  of  the  flame  in  the  furnace,  which  insures  uni- 
form heating  of  the  furnace-chamber  and  the  materials  contained  in  it. 

This  furnace  may  be  constructed  in  various  forms,  that  shown  in  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8 
having  been  used  with  success  for  heating  and  welding  iron.     It  is  a  radiation-furnace,  heated 


FURNACES,   GAS. 


375 


by  means  of  a  horseshoe-flame  ;  this  form  of  flame  offers  advantages  in  this  as  in  ordinary 
regenerative  gas-furnaces,  but  its  adoption  is  not  obligatory,  as  the  flame  may  be  made  to 
traverse  the  heating-chamber  from  end  to  end  in  the  usual  manner.  The  same  letters  indi- 
cate the  same  parts  in  all  the  figures.  A  A1  are  reversible  regenerators  for  air,  on  the  top  of 
which  is  built  the  gas-producer  or  converter  B,  of  which  F  F1  are  the  charging-hoppers  and 
N Nl  the  grates.  The  heating-chamber  E  adjoins  the  producer  resting  on  the  ground,  or  in 
some  cases  a  pit  may  be  provided  below  it.  CC1  are  the  flues  leading  the  combustible  gas  to 
the  furnace-chamber  E,  the  passage  of  the  gas  in  these  flues  being  controlled  by  the  valves 
D  Dl  at  the  two  ends  of  a  rocking  beam,  so  that  the  outlets  are  opened  and  shut  alternately 
to  convey  the  gas  to  one  or  other  of  the  ports  G  G1  of  the  heating-chamber  E.  HH1  are  the 
air-ports  of  the  heating-chamber,  communicating  through  the  flues  K K1  with  the  regener- 
ators A  A1.  II1  are  steam-jets  placed  in  the  return-flues  L  Ll  for  directing  a  portion  of  the 
waste  products  of  combustion  to  the  grates  of  the  converter.  Jis  the  valve  for  reversing  the 
direction  of  the  air  flowing  into  the  furnace,  and  of  the  products  of  combustion  through  the 
regenerators  to  the  chimney-flue.  0  Ol  are  hinged  caps  for  alternately  admitting  and  shutting 
off  the  products  of  combustion  from  the  heating-chamber  to  the  converter.  These  caps  are 
worked  automatically  by  means  of  connections  attached  to  the  rocking  beam,  the  same  move- 
ment which  closes  D  opening  O1,  and  that  which  closes  Dl  opening  0 ;  Q  q  are  doors  for 
giving  access  to  the  grates  of  the  converter  for  clearing  th\m. 

The  modus  operattdi  of  the  furnace  is  as  follows :  Gas  from  the  converter  B  passes  through 
the  flue  C1  and  the  valve  D1  to  the  gas-port  G1,  and  into  the  combustion-chamber  hl  gl.  Air 
for  combustion  passes  through  the  regenerator  A\  the  air-flue  K\  and  the  air-port  Hl  into 
the  combustion-chamber,  where  it  meets  the  gas  from  the  converter,  and  combustion  ensues. 
The  horseshoe-flame  sweeps  round  the  heating-chamber  E,  the  products  of  combustion  pass- 
ing away  by  the  second  combustion-chamber  h  g,  and  going  partly  through  the  regenerator  A 
and  reversing-valve  J  into  the  chimney-flue,  and  partly  down  the  flue  G,  whence  they  are 
drawn  by  means  of  the  steam-jet  /  through  the  capped  inlet  L  under  the  grates  of  the 
producer  B,  there  to  be  converted  into  combustible  gases.  From  time  to  time  the  direction 
of  the  flame  in  the  furnace  is  reversed  by  manipulating  the  rocking  beam,  carrying  the  valves 
D  D1  and  the  reversing-valve  J  in  the  usual  manner  of  working  regenerative  gas-furnaces. 
An  auxiliary  steam-jet  is  provided  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  atmospheric  air  to  start  the 
producer  when  the  furnace  is  first  heated  up. 

The  following  advantages  are  claimed  for  the  new  furnace  as  compared  with  solid  fuel 
furnaces  used  for  heating  "and  welding  iron,  viz. :  A  saving  in  fuel,  amounting  to,  say,  two 
thirds  in  weight,  after  allowing  for  raising  steam  in  separate  boilers,  this  saving  being  fully 
equal  to  5  cwt.  of  coal  per  ton  of  iron  heated.  A  reduction  in  the  waste  of  iron  equal  to  5 
per  cent  upon  the  weight  of  metal  heated.  A  saving  in  labor  and  repairs  which  will  probably 
compensate  for  the  extra  cost  of  the  new  furnace. 

The  Pettibone-Loomis  Open-Hearth  Furnace  (Fig.  9). — This  furnace  is  designed  for  all 
kinds  of  open-hearth  work  using  manufactured  or  natural  gas,  and  is  particularly  effective 
with  water-gas  for  very  high 
heats.  Gas  and  air  are  used 
under  uniform  pressure  ;  the 
former  being  conducted 
through  the  pipes  a  a  a"  to 
the  burners  J2,  the  air  pass- 
ing through  the  pipes  J,  where 
it  is  heated  by  the  waste  prod- 
ucts of  the  furnace,  and 
thence  through  the  pip'es  b  b' 
to  the  burners,  where  the  two 
are  thoroughly  mixed,  deliv- 
ering a  flame  of  great  inten- 
sity tangentiallv  into  a  round 
furnace.  After  circulating 
over  the  bath  the  products 
are  taken  out  near  the  top  of 
the  hearth  through  the  pas- 
sage F  and  air-heater  C  to 
the  stack.  The  burners  are 
movable,  and  the  flame  can 
be  directed  on  to  the  bath,  or 
horizontally,  as  desired.  The 
claims  for  this  furnace  are  :  1 


FIG.  9.— Open-hearth  furnace. 


Low  cost  and  durability.  2.  Thorough  and  active  combus- 
tion of  gas  with  application  of  heat  to  metal  by  radiation  or  contact.  3.  Character,  intensity, 
and  volume  of  flame  under  control  of  the  operator.  4.  Economy  of  fuel  and  certain  results. 

Gas-Furnace  for  Melting  Metals. — Fig.  10  shows  one  of  many  styles  of  furnace  made  by 
the  American  Gas-Furnace  Co.  of  Xew  York.  This  style  of  furnace  'is  in  use  for  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  brass,  as  also  for  making  tests  and  smaller  melts  of  iron,  steel,  glass,  etc. 

The  combustion-chamber  consists  of  the  bottom  A,  and  the  cylinder  B, .both  firmly  secured 
to  the  distributing-ring  C.  The  burners  D  penetrate  the  "  bottom  "  lining  A.  The  bottom 
is  held  in  position  by  the  iron  platform  L.  The  cylinder  B  is  secured  to  the  distributing- 
ring  C  by  the  hinged  bolts  0.  The  cover  H  is  hinged  to  the  shaft  K,  so  as  to  lift  clear  of  the 


376 


FURNACES,   GAS. 


furnace-top  when  swung  to  either  side.     The  "  feed-hole"  in  cover  ffis  sufficiently  large  to 
give  free  access  to  the  crucible  without  removing  the  cover,  thus  confining  the  heat  while 

feeding  the  crucible.  The  small 
cover  I  closes  the  feed-hole.  The 
crucible  stands  upon  a  conical  fire- 
brick support.  By  means  of  outlets 
for  the  products  of  combustion, 
both  at  the  bottom  and  top  of  the 
furnace,  the  greater  heat  can  (in  a 
measure)  be  made  to  act  either  upon 
the  bottom  or  top  of  the  crucible. 
When  the  vent  on  top  is  tightly 
closed,  the  greatest  heat  will  be  be- 
low, while  the  partial  opening  of 
the  cover  /  will  draw  it  upward. 
Air  under  pressure  is  supplied 
through  the  pipe  F.  The  consump- 
tion of  gas  is  according  to  the  qual- 
ity of  the  gas  and  the  temperature 
required.  The  furnace  shown  in 
the  cut  will  require  from  200  to  250 
cub.  ft.  of  gas  per  hour,  and  melt  40 
Ibs.  of  copper  in  30  min. 

The  Howe  Experimental  Regen- 
erative G as- Furnace.  —  Mr.  Henry 
M.  Howe,  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  En- 
gineers, February,  1890,  describes  a 
furnace  used  by  him  in  experiments 
on  the  thermal  properties  of 'slags.  It  was  necessary  to  have  command  of  a  very  high  tem- 
perature, at  least  1,400°  C.  (2,552°  F.).  arid  to  make  such  dispositions  that  the  platinum-ball 
used  for  a  pyrometer,  and  the  silicate  or  silicates  experimented  on,  should  be  at  approxi- 
mately the  same  tempera- 
ture at  the  moment  of 
withdrawing  the  former. 
The  regenerative  gas-fur- 
nace shown  in  section  in 
Fig.  11  is  made  with  two 
regenerators,  loosely  filled 
with  lumps  of  fire-brick. 
Through  one  of  the  regen- 
erators at  a  time  part  of 
the  air  used  for  combus- 
tion is  brought  under 
pressure  from  a  blower, 
the  products  of  combus- 
tion passing  out  through 
the  other  regenerator  and 
to  waste.  Common  illu- 
minating gas  is  used  for 
fuel,  and  is  brought  in 
alternately  through  pipes. 
With  this  gas  is  mixed  a 
considerable  quantity  of 
air,  brought  alternately  by 
the  pipes  H H'.  It  was 


FIG.  10.— Gas-furnace. 


FIG.  11.— Howe  gas-furnace. 


found  necessary  to  thus  mix  quite  a  large  volume  of  air  with  the  gas  before  admitting  it 
into  the  furnace,  to  prevent  rapid  decomposition  of  the  gas  with  deposition  of  carbon.  At 
intervals,  usually  of  5  min.  each,  the  furnace  was  reversed  by  means  of  common  three-way 
gas-cocks.  Although  only  part  of  the  air  and  none  of  the  gas  was  pre-heated  in  this  furnace, 
a  temperature  of  1,400°  C.  was  reached  in  it ;  the  hearth  of  the  furnace  was  made  of  a  molded 
brick,  with  depressions  for  five  platinum  crucibles  N  N',  and  for  the  platinum-ball  J/.  Cru- 
cibles and  balls  were  introduced  and  removed  through  the  doorway  L,  closed  with  a  tightly 
fitting  molded  wedge-brick. 

^  Refractory  Materials  for  Gas-Furnaces. — Clay  fire-brick,  of  nearly  pure  silicate  of  alu- 
mina, free  from  iron,  is  usually  employed  in  ordinary  heating-furnaces,  but  for  the  intense 
heat  required  in  steel-melting  furnaces  a  more  durable  material  is  needed.  For  the  roofs  of 
such  furnaces  silica  brick,  composed  of  nearly  pure  quartz,  with  from  1  to  2  per  cent  of  other 
materials,  chiefly  lime  and  alumina  to  give  binding  quality,  are  used.  For  the  basic  open- 
hearth  furnace  there  is  required  a  material  which  will  not  be  acted  upon  by  the  basic  slag, 
and  at  the  same  time  will  withstand  the  highest  temperatures.  Such  a  material  is  magnesite 
brick,  made  from  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  containing  when  burned  about  90  per  cent  of 
magnesia  and  10  per  cent  of  silica  and  oxides  of  alumina  and  iron. 


FURNACES,   PUDDLING  AND    HEATING. 


377 


FURNACES,  PUDDLING  AND  HEATING. 

in  Fig.  1.  It  has  a  hollow  fire-bridge  C,  with  a  tr 
orifices,  c,  lead  upward.  The  air  is  preheated 
in  the  flue  P,  which  connects,  as  shown,  with 
the  space  E  in  the  fire-bridge  under  the  fuel- 
chamber  A,  and  the  grate-bars  a  is  an  air- 
chamber  Z>,  formed  by  a  tight  box  d.  Lead- 
ing into  this  air-chamber  are  a  number  of 
air-pipes  e,  into  the  bell-shaped  mouth  of 
which  the  nozzles  of  steam-pipes  /  are  pro- 
jected, so  that  the  steam  draws  in  air.  Above 
the  bridge  is  a  cold-air  flue  g,  connected  with 
a  number  of  openings  with  the  furnace  above 
the  fire-bridge.  It  is  provided  with  a  valve 
to  regulate  the  admittance-  of  cold  air  when 
required.  While  in  the  ordinary  type  of 
puddling-furnaces  the  consumption  of  good 
Pittsburgh  coal  was  2,200  Ibs.  at  the  Arethu- 
sa  Works,  Newcastle,  Pa.,  with  the  James 
modifications  the  consumption  was  but  1,800 
Ibs.  with  the  same  coal.  Similar  results  were 
attained  in  the  heating-furnaces  of  the  plate- 
mill. 

The    Stubblebine    Heating  -  Furnace     is 
shown  in  Figs.  2,  3,  and  4.     It  has  been  in- 


The  James  Puddling-Fumace  is  shown 
transverse  flue  K,  from  which  a  number  of 


FIG.  1.— James  puddling-furnace. 


troduced  in  the  Bethlehem  and  Catasauqua  (Pa.)  rolling-mills.  The  gases  from  the  furnace 
are  split  when  issuing  from  the  reverberatory  chamber  into  three  parts,  the  one  passing 
through  the  up-take  through  the  stack.  On  either  side  thereof  two  flues  lead  to  two  heating- 
chambers,  in  which  are  placed  coils  of  pipe  through  which  air  is  blown  and  in  which  it  is 


If  SB 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  4. 


FIG.  3. 

FIG.  2-4.— Stubblebine  furnace. 

preheated.  The  heated  air  issues  from  two  nozzles  into  mixing  flues  in  the  side  walls  of  the 
furnace.  In  this  manner  the  gas  in  the  preheating  chambers  is  drawn  by  the  suction  created 
into  the  mixing  flues,  which  discharge  them  into  the  flame  at  the  fire-bridge.  The  furnace 
works  well  on  billets,  and  on  large  or  small  fagots.  It  heats  quickly,  and  the  flame  is  under 
such  control  that  the  waste  by  oxidation  is  A'ery  low. 

FURNACES,  ROASTING.  Roast  ing-furnaces  are  either  oxidizing  or  chloridizing, 
according  as  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  used  is  to  convert  the  metals  in  the  ores  treated 
to  oxides  or  chlorides.  There  are  six  kinds  of  roasting-furnaces  in  common  use,  viz. :  kilns, 
muffle-furnaces,  reverberatory  furnaces  (Fortschaufelungsofen),  shaft-furnaces,  mechanical 
hearth-furnaces,  and  cylindrical  furnaces. 

Reverberatory  furnaces,  which  are  most  commonly  used  for  calcining  fine  ores,  consist  of 
a  long  brick  hearth,  with  a  low  roof,  and  a  series  of  small  doors  on  one  or  both  sides.  At  one 
end  of  the  hearth  is  a  fire-box,  and  at  the  other  a  flue  connecting  with  the  chimney,  a  dust- 
chamber  usually  being  interposed.  The  fine  ore  to  be  roasted  is  fed  in  through  a  hole  in  the 
roof  at  the  flue  "end,  and  is  gradually  worked  forward  toward  the  fire-box  end  by  men  using 
long  rabbles  through  the  doors  in  the  sides.  The  flames  from  the  fire-box  draw  over  the  ore 
toward  the  flue,  the  low  roof  throwing  them  down  on  to  the  ore.  The  roasted  ore  is  pulled 
out  of  the  furnace  through  the  doors  next  to  the  fire-box.  Reverberatory  furnaces  are  fre- 
quently built  with  two  hearths,  and  sometimes  three  or  four,  placed  one  above  the  other,  the 
flames  drawing  successively  through  each.  The  object  of  this  arrangement  is  obviously  to 


378  FURNACES,   ROASTING. 

increase  the  length  of  the  hearth,  and  its  utility  is  determined  by  the  character  of  the  ore  to 
be  roasted.  The  length  of  the  hearth,  according  to  Dr.  E.  D.  Peters,  Jr.,  is  limited  chiefly  by 
the  capacity  of  the  ore  to  generate  heat  during  its  oxidation,  the  immediate  influence  of*  the 
fireplace  being  seldom  capable  of  maintaining  the  requisite  temperature  upon  a  hearth  over 
16  ft.  in  length  without  resorting  to  the  use  of  a  forced  blast,  or  of  a  draft  so  powerful  as 
greatly  to  increase  the  loss  in  dust,  as  well  as  the  consumption  of  fuel.  An  ore  carrying  less 
than  10  per  cent  sulphur  will  not  furnish  sufficient  heat  to  warrant  the  addition  of  a  second 
hearth  to  the  first  16  ft. ;  an  increase  to  15  per  cent  will  be  sufficient,  however,  to  heat  a  sec- 
ond hearth,  while  a  20  per  cent  sulphur-ore  will  work  rapidly  in  a  three-hearth  furnace.  The 
addition  of  a 'fourth  hearth  is  rendered  justifiable  by  the  increase  of  the  average  sulphur  con- 
tents to  25  per  cent.  As  there  seems  to  be  almost  no  limit  to  the  extent  of  surface  over  which 
the  requisite  temperature  may  be  obtained  in  the  calcination  of  highly  sulphureted  ores, 
much  longer  furnaces  have  been  used,  120  ft.  being  the  extreme  inside  limit.  The  width  of 
the  furnace  should  be  as  great  as  is  compatible  for  convenient  manipulation.  Experience  has 
shown  16  ft.,  inside  measurement,  to  be  the  extreme  limit.  The  capacity  of  a  large  reverber- 
atory  furnace  varies  from  6  to  16  tons  per  24  hours,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  ore. 
The  cost  of  calcining  ranges  from  $1.25  per  ton  upward. 

In  the  shaft-furnaces  the  material  to  be  roasted  is  allowed  to  fall  as  a  shower  of  dust 
through  a  shaft  that  is  traversed  from  bottom  to  top  by  the  flames  from  a  lateral  fireplace. 
In  one  class  of  shaft-furnaces  the  dust  falls  freely ;  in  others  there  are  obstacles  in  the  way. 
The  well-known  Stetefeldt  furnace  is  the  most  successful  furnace  of  the  open-shaft  class,  and 
the  Grerstenh5fer  and  Hasenclever  may  be  taken  as  types  of  the  latter  class.  The  Stetefeldt 
furnace  is  generally  used  for  chlondizing  roasting,  but  experiments  have  shown  that  it  may 
be  also  an  efficient  oxidizing  furnace,  although  it  has  not  yet  come  into  practical  use  for  that 
purpose.  The  capacity  of  the  Stetefeldt  furnace,  according  to  Mr.  C.  A.  Stetefeldt,  is  from 
35  to  80  tons  per  24  hours.  If  the  ore  is  so  base  that  75  or  80  per  cent  of  it  is  in  the  form 
of  sulphurets,  35  tons  is  the  maximum  limit  for  really  good  work.  In  most  cases,  how- 
ever, where  the  ores  contain  only  a  moderate  percentage  of  sulphurets,  a  large  furnace  will 
easily  handle  from  60  to  80  tons  per  24  hours,  but  the  latter  figure  is  probably  the  economical 
limit. 

The  mechanical  hearth-furnaces  are  hearth-furnaces  with  mechanical  devices  for  raking 
or  stirring  the  charge.  They  have  circular  hearths,  rotating  under  fixed  rakes ;  or  fixed  hearths, 
either  circular  or  rectangular,  and  movable  rakes. 

The  cylindrical  Boasting-furnaces  are  cast-iron  cylinders,  lined  with  fire-brick,"  through 
which  the  flame  draws  from  a  stationary  fire-box  at  one  end  to  the  flue  and  dust-chamber  at 
the  other.  The  charge  is  stirred,  so  that  all  its  parts  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  flame, 
by  the  rotation  of  the  cylinder.  The  Bruckner,  Douglas,  White,  and  Howell- White  furnaces 
are  types  of  this  class. 

The  cost  of  roasting  varies  with  the  character  of  the  ore,  the  kind  of  furnace,  and  the  cost 
of  fuel  and  labor.  The  lead-smelters  at  Denver,  Col.,  roast  ore  in  reverberatory  furnaces  at 
an  average  cost  of  $2  per  ton.  With  a  mechanical  hearth-furnace  at  the  Haile  mine,  North 
Carolina,  pyrites  concentrates  are  roasted  preparatory  to  chlorination  at  a  cost  of  $2.62|  per 
ton.  Under  favorable  circumstances,  pyrites  concentrates  have  been  roasted  in  the  West, 
even  where  labor  and  fuel  is  high,  for  as  low  as  $1  per  ton. 

KILNS. — The  ordinary  type  of  roasting-kiln  is  too  well  known  to  require  description. 
They  are,  obviously,  used  in  roasting  coarsely  broken  ores  only.  A  modification  of  the  com- 
mon kiln  which  is  in  general  use  for  calcining  iron-ores  may  be  termed  shaft-kilns,  working 
upon  the  same  principle  as  shaft-furnaces — i.  e.,  the  ore  being  desulphurized  while  descending 
through  a  rising  current  of  flames,  but,  as  in  the  kilns,  the  ore  is  in  coarse  lumps  and  is  made 
to  descend  slowly  rather  than  in  a  shower  of  fine  ore  as  in  the  shaft-furnaces.  The  Gjers  kiln 
and  the  Davis-Colby  roaster  are  furnaces  of  this  class. 

The  Gjers  kiln,  extensively  used  in  calcining  iron-ores,  is  a  circular  shaft-furnace  built  of 
fire-brick  cased  with  malleable  iron  plates.  The  bottom  of  the  brick- work  rests  in  a  cast-iron 
ring,  and  the  whole  is  supported  by  cast-iron  pillars  about  2£  ft.  high,  leaving  a  clear  space 
between  the  bottom  of  the  kiln  and  the  floor.  The  latter  is  covered  by  iron  plates,  in  the 
center  of  which  is  fixed  a  cast-iron  cone  8  ft.  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  8  ft.  high,  extend- 
ing up  within  the  shaft.  Around  the  lowest  tier  of  plates  incasing  the  kiln  are  openings  which 
are  usually  closed  by  doors,  but  which  serve  for  admission  of  air  or  tools  in  case  the  ore  becomes 
sintered.  The  ore,  mixed  with  a  proper  proportion  of  coal,  is  fed  into  the  furnace  at  the  top, 
which  is  surrounded  by  a  gallery  for  the  workmen.  The  roasted  ore  descending  is  caused  by 
the  interior  cone  to  pass  outward  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace.  These  furnaces  are  usually 
33  ft.  in  height ;  at  the  base  they  are  18  ft.  in  diameter,  widening  to  24  ft.  10  ft.  higher 
up.  The  upper  part  of  the  kiln  is  cylindrical,  and  24  ft.  in  diameter.  A  kiln  of  this  size  has 
a  capacity  of  about  8,000  cu.  ft.,  and  calcines  about  115  tons  of  iron-ore  per  24  hours,  the  con- 
sumption of  coal  amounting  to  1  ton  for  25  tons  of  ore. 

The  Davis- Colby  Ore-Roaster,  which  is  also  much  used  for  desulphurizing  iron-ores,  consists 
of  a  circular  hollow  shaft  with  walls  about  2  ft.  in  thickness,  in  which  are  located  fire  arches  fed 
with  gas,  which  gas  may  be  taken  from  any  source — gas-producers,  natural  wells,  or  the  waste- 
pipes  of  blast-furnaces.  The  gas-mains  enter  flues  built  in  the  masonry  directly  over  the 
fire  arches,  and  the  gas  is  drawn  through  openings  left  in  the  top  or  bottom  into  the  arches, 
where  it  takes  air  and  is  consumed — the  resulting  flames  being  drawn  directly  into  and  through 
the  ore.  In  the  center  of  the  kiln  there  is  a  smaller  hollow  shaft,  starting  from  the  bottom 
and  extending  up  through  the  entire  portion  of  the  kiln  and  terminating  in  the  draft-stack — 


FURNACES,   ROASTING. 


379 


being,  in  fact,  the  draft-stack  itself.  In  the  walls  of  this  central  shaft,  and  opposite  the  fire 
arches,  are  a  series  of  openings  through  which  the  products  of  combustion  are  drawn  directly 
into  the  stack  and  discharged  so  that  the  heat  from  the  burning  gases  is  drawn  across  a  nar- 
row body  of  ore  instead  of  up  through  the  overlying  mass,  and  the  liberated  sulphur  allowed 
to  pass  off  directly.  There  may  be  any  number  of  rows  of  fire  arches,  and  below  each  of  these 
is  a  row  of  openings  for  admission  of  air. 

The  latest  form  of  these  roasters  is  30  ft.  in  height,  and  17  ft.  diameter  at  bottom  and  14 
ft.  at  top,  with  the  central  flue  terminating  in  a  draft-stack  48  in.  in  diameter.  The  ore  is 
dumped  into  the  top  of  the  kiln  and  occupies  the  annular  space  between  the  two  walls.  De- 
scending by  gravity,  it  first  meets  the  current  of  gas  from  the  upper  set  of  fire  arches  and 
gets  a  preliminary  drying  and  warming.  Passing  thence  before  the  next  and  lower  arches  it 
gradually  reaches  a  red  and  even  white  heat,  every  part  of  the  ore  rolling  and  turning  over 
in  its  passage,  and  being  subjected  while  highly  heated  to  drafts  of  air,  the  liberated  sulphur 
passing  directly  off  into  the  central  stack.  The  annular  space,  being  14  in.  at  the  top  and 
gradually  increasing  to  29  in.  at  the  bottom,  gives  opportunity  for  constant  moving  of  the 
ore  and  Decreases  the  chances  of  its  adhering  to  the  walls.  The  roasted  ore  is  drawn  through 
chutes  directly  into  bins,  barrows,  or  conveyers.  The  discharge  of  ore  is  regulated  by  draw- 
ing from  the  chutes,  and  the  heat  by  varying  the  amount  of  gas.  The  furnaces  vary  in  ca- 
pacity, according  to  the  ore.  At  the  Croton  mines,  Brewster,  N.  Y.,  from  200  to  300  tons 
per  day  are  said  to  be  run  through  each  furnace.  Mr.  W.  H.  Hoffman  (Trans.  A.  I.  M. 
E.,  October,  1891)  thus  describes  the  practice  there:  "A  series  of  experiments  was 
made  to  determine  the  best  size  for  economical  roasting  (the  ore  containing  2  per  cent  sul- 
phur), and  at  the  end  of  three  months  a  size  that  would  pass 
through  a  2|-in.  ring  was  adopted  as  giving  the  most  rapid  work  for 
the  quantity  of  fuel  consumed.  Crude  Lima-oil  is  used  for  roasting, 
the  furnaces  being  remodeled  for  this  purpose.  Through  experi- 
ments conducted  by  our  general  foreman,  Mr.  T.  Blass,  we  found 
the  average  consumption  of  fuel-oil  to  be  3'75  gals. ;  but  by  enlarg- 
ing the  combustion  chambers  we  have  reduced  this  amount  to  a 
little  over  3'6  gals,  per  ton  of  raw  ore.  The  cost  of  the  oil  is  2| 
cents  per  gal.,  making  a  fuel  cost  of  8$  cents  per  ton  of  raw  ore. 
The  labor  of  filling  and  discharging  amounts  to  only  3  cents  per 
ton,  as  this  work  is  largely  automatic.  The  average  temperature  is 
1250°  F.,  and  the  ore  is  roasted  down  to  about  0'5  per  cent  sulphur." 

A  modification  of  this  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  in  which  the 
draft-stack  is  cut  off  and  surmounted  by  a  bell,  the  draft  being 
downward  and  outward  at  the  bottom  of  the  kiln.  In  this  case  the 
ore  is  dropped  from  self-dumping  cars  directly  on  to  the  bell  which 
distributes  the  charge,  and  falling  by  gravity  "is  drawn  directly  into 
the  furnace  barrows,  thus  avoiding  all  handling  of  ore  from  the  FIG  l.— Roasting-furnace. 
mine  to  the  furnace-top. 

MECHANICAL  HEARTH-FURNACES. — The  Rotary- Pan  Furnace  (Fig.  2)  used  at  the  Haile 
mine,  North  Carolina,  for  roasting  fine  pyrites  for  chlorination,  is  a  combination  of  the  rever- 
beratory  furnace  with  the  mechanical  hearth-furnace.  It  is  a  reverberatory  furnace  with 
step-hearths  and  a  circular  rotating  hearth  at  the  fire-box  end.  The  charge  is  fed  at  the  flue 
end  and  gradually  worked  forward  by  hand  to  the  circular  hearth,  where  the  roasting  is  fin- 


FIG.  2.  —The  rotary-pan  furnace. 

ished.  Thies  and  Phillips  (Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  xix,  601)  give  the  capacity  of  this  furnace, 
roasting  pyrites  concentrates,  as  3£  tons  per  24  hours.  A  double-hearth  reverberatory  furnace 
with  400  sq.  ft.  hearth  area,  at  the  same  place  and  with  the  same  ore,  desulphurizes  2§  tons 
per  24  hours.  Each  furnace  consumes  -£  cord  of  wood  per  ton  of  roasted  ore,  and  requires  the 
labor  of  4  men,  which  is  not  very  good  practice  compared  with  what  is  done  with  single- 
hearth  reverberatory  furnaces  in  the  West. 

The  Spence  Automatic  Desulphurizing  Furnace  consists  of  a  series  of  hearths  placed  one 
above  another,  with  a  mechanical  device  for  raking  and  stirring  the  charge  on  each.  Each 
hearth  has  an  opening  at  alternate  ends,  through  which  the  charge  drops  to  the  next  hearth 
below.  On  each  hearth  there  is  a  rake  of  nearly  the  same  width  as  the  hearth,  which  is 
moved  backward  and  forward  from  end  to  end  of  the  furnace  by  a  rod  working  through  a 
stuffing-box  at  one  end.  The  ends  of  the  rods  outside  the  furnace  are  supported  by  a  rack  or 
carriage  which  travels  on  a  railway.  The  necessary  supply  of  air  is  admitted  through  adjust- 


380 


FURNACES,  ROASTING. 


able  ports  below  the  lowest  hearth.  The  number  of  hearths  varies  from  three  to  seven, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  ore  to  be  roasted.  Connected  with  the  furnace  is  a  pair  of 
7  x  10  engines,  which  run  at  40  revolutions  per  minute,  and  quietly  and  positively  operate  by 
means  of  geared  wheels  the  rods  to  which  the  toothed  rakes  in  the  furnace  are  attached.  The 
charge  is  raked  at  intervals  of  about  five  minutes,  and  in  the  mean  while  the  rakes  are  pulled 
to  the  back  end  of  the  furnace  and  the  driving-engines  are  stopped.  Connected  with  the 
furnace  there  is  also  a  small  auxiliary  engine,  which  runs  constantly,  and  by  suitable  mechan- 
ism puts  the  large  engines  and  rakes  in  operation  at  the  proper  times.  The  ore  is  fed  into  a 
hopper  on  the  top  of  the  furnace,  and  is  gradually  admitted  to  the  latter  through  a  port 
which  is  opened  and  closed  by  the  movement  of  the  rakes.  Falling  on  to  the  uppermost 
hearth  it  is  gradually  worked  along  until  it  drops  through  the  hole  to  the  next  hearth  below, 
when  it  is  worked  backward,  dropping  on  the  third  hearth,  and  so  on.  From  the  lowest 
hearth  it  is  discharged  into  a  bin  or  cars,  through  a  port  which  is  also  opened  and  closed  by 
the  movement  of  the  rakes.  When  the  rakes  have  finished  the  forward  stroke  the  engines 
reverse  automatically,  and  the  rack  returns  to  position  and  stops  until  the  auxiliary  engine 
puts  the  driving-engines  in  operation  for  another  cycle.  This  furnace  was  especially  designed 
for  roasting  fine  pyrites  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  has  given  excellent  results 
in  that  work,  fine  ore  with  from  40  to  47  per  cent  sulphur  having  been  desulphurized  to  1-5 
to  2-5  per  cent  sulphur,  at  the  rate  of  from  7$  to  10  tons  per  24  hours.  In  roasting  pyrites 
for  sulphuric-acid  manufacture  no  extraneous  fire  is  used,  the  pyrites  itself  burning  freely 
on  the  lower  shelves.  In  roasting  fine  auriferous  pyrites  down  to  £  or  £  per  cent  sulphur 
preparatory  to  chlorination,  a  fire-box  connected  with  the  lowest  shelf  is  used  with  the  fur- 
nace. At  the  Treadwell  mill,  Douglas  Island,  Alaska,  six  Spence  furnaces  were  used  for 
desulphurizing  pyrites  concentrates  for  chlorination,  with  the  result  that  slightly  more  than 
3  tons  per  24  hours  were  roasted  "  dead,"  with  an  expenditure  of  £  cord  of  wood  per  ton  of 
ore.  Two  men  per  shift  attended  to  six  furnaces. 

The  O'Hara  Roasting- Furnace  (Fig.  3)  is  a  mechanical  reverberatory  furnace  made  with 
two  separate  hearths,  one  for  desulphurizing  and  the  other  for  chloridizing  the  ore,  both 


FIG.  3.— The  O'Hara  roasting-furnace. 


processes  being  performed  at  one  operation.  Attached  to  an  endless  chain  at  proper  dis- 
tances apart  are  iron  frames  formed  into  a  triangular  shape ;  on  these  frames  are  a  number 
of  plows  or  hoes  set  at  an  angle.  One  set  turn  the  ore  toward  the  center,  the  next  set  turn  it 
in  an  opposite  direction  toward  the  walls.  These  plows  move  through  the  ore  every  minute 
and  expose  a  new  surface  of  ore  to  the  flames  and  gases.  The  space  between  the  roof  and 
hearth  of  each  compartment  is  quite  small,  so  as  to  confine  the  heat  close  to  the  ore.  The 
operation  of  this  furnace  is  as  follows :  The  ore  is  fed  continually  into  a  hopper,  through 
which  it  then  falls  on  the  upper-  hearth.  The  plows,  actuated  by  the  endless  chain,  stir  the 
ore  over  and  over  on  the  hearth  and  move  it  gradually  to  the  opening,  where  it  falls  to  the 
lower  hearth.  As  the  ore  is  passed  along  in  the  upper  compartment  it  is  thoroughly  desul- 
phurized by  the  heat  furnished  by  the  fires,  as  described,  and  by  the  combustion  of  the  sul- 
phur in  the  ore.  This  action  is  assisted  by  the  oxygen  in  the  supply  as  admitted  at  intervals 
through  the  sides  of  the  furnace  by  the  openings.  For  a  chloridizing  roasting  salt  is  mixed 
with  the  ore  as  it  is  fed  into  the  hopper,  and  becomes  thoroughly  intermingled  with  it  by  the 
stirring  action  of  the  plows.  When  the  ore  falls  through  the  opening  and  on  to  the  lower 
hearth  the  fall  breaks  any  spongy  lumps  or  masses  that  may  have  been  formed,  and  the  ore 
is  again  stirred  over  and  over,  and  moved  along  through  the  flame  a.nd  gases  over  the  lower 
hearth  by  the  action  of  the  plows  toward  the  discharge-opening.  The  ore  has  become  grad- 
ually more  and  more  heated  in  its  passage  through  the  upper  hearth,  and  by  the  time  the 
extra  heat  is  required  as  stated  it  comes  immediately  in  front  of  the  same  fires  which  have 
during  the  whole  process  furnished  the  heat.  Ordinarily  the  ore  will  be  from  five  to  ten 
hours  in  passing  through  the  furnace,  according  to  its  character.  Only  one  man  is  required 
to  attend  the  fires,  no  other  attention  being  necessary,  as  the  ore  may  be  fed  to  the  furnace 
by  mechanical  means,  and  discharged  from  the  furnace  into  a  car,  conveyer,  or  elevator. 
This  furnace  is  also  used  with  excellent  results  for  oxidizing  roasting. 


FURNACES,   ROASTING. 


381 


CYLINDRICAL  FURNACES. — The  Improved  Bruckner  Roasting-Cylinder,  extensively  used 
both  for  oxidizing  and  chloridizing  roasting,  consists  of  an  iron  cylinder,  lined  with  fire-brick, 
and  provided  with  two  receiving  and  discharging  doors  midway  in  its  length,  which  come 
directly  under  the  charging  hopper,  and  discharge  directly  into  an  iron  hot-ore  car  placed 
underneath,  or,  if  desired,  into  a  pit.  The  cylinder  revolves  on  four  rollers,  and  is  caused  to 
rotate  by  spur  gear-wheels  driven  by  a  worm-gear  and  pulleys.  At  one  end  of  the  furnace  is 
an  iron  fire-box,  mounted  on  brick  foundations,  and  having  a  conical  opening  to  match  that 
on  the  cylinder,  which  is  alike  in  form  at  both  ends,  the  other  end  revolving  close  to  the  flue- 
opening.  The  furnace  and  its  conical  ends  (throats)  are  lined  throughout  with  fire-brick. 
Being  of  smaller  diameter  at  the  ends  than  at  the  center,  the  ore  is  thrown  to  and  fro,  chang- 
ing its  position  frequently,  and  exposing  new  surfaces  and  particles  to  the  action  of  the  flames 
which  draw  through  from  the  fire-box  at  one  end  to  the  flue  at  the  other.  These  cylinders 
are  commonly  made  in  two  sizes,  viz. :  6  ft.  diameter  by  12  ft.  long,  weighing  15,000  Ibs.. 
which  have  a'n  average  capacity  of  3  to  4  tons  of  ore ;  and  7  ft.  diameter  by  18  ft.  long, 
weighing  28,000  Ibs.,  with  an  average  capacity  of  6  to  8  tons.  In  the  latest  form  of  these 
cylinders  the  fire-box  is  really  a  car,  running  on  a  track  at  right  angles  to  the  longitudinal 
direction  of  the  cylinders,  and  having  a  short  flue  in  one  side  that  comes  exactly  opposite  the 
throat  of  the  furnace.  In  this  way  the  fire-box  can  be  run  opposite  a  cylinder  which  contains 
a  fresh  charge,  and  fired  on  until  the  sulphur  is  fairly^kindied.  Then  the  movable  fire-box 
maybe  wheeled  along  to  a  neighboring  cylinder,  and  thJffirst  one  left  to  complete  combustion 
of  the  sulphur  with  free  access  of  air,  and  undisturbed  by  the  reducing  gases  that  pass  up  from 
an  ordinary  grate.  After  combustion  of  the  sulphur  it  is  necessary  for  a  perfect  roast  to 
again  connect  the  fire-box  with  the  cylinder,  and  supply  a  little  extraneous  heat  to 
complete  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphates.  It  is  estimated  that  two  horse-power  are  re- 
quired to  drive  a  charged  cylinder  at  an  average  speed.  At  the  smelting-works  of  the  Ana- 
conda. Mining  Company,  Anaconda,  Mont.,  156  Bruckner  cylinders  are  in  constant  use, 
desulphurizing  ore  containing  about  35  per  cent  sulphur.  The  average  charge  is  9  tons,  which 
in  24  hours  is  roasted  down  to  10  per  cent  sulphur,  or  in  36  hours  to  3  per  cent.  For  each 
cylinder  1  ton  of  Rock  Springs  coal  (much  inferior  to  that  of  Pennsylvania)  is  required  per  24 
hours.  Two  men  attend  to  three  furnaces.  Dr.  Peters  states  that  the  saving  in  cost  in  Butte, 
Mont.,  by  using  Briickner  cylinders  rather  than  ;reverberatory  furnaces  amounts  to  40  per 
cent.  Mr.  R.  H.  Terhune  states  (Irans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  xvi,  18)  that  the  best  results  obtained 
with  the  Bruckner  cylinder,  7  x  18  ft.,  with  4  in.  brick  lining,  oxidizing  roasting,  at  the  Germania 
Smelting  Works,  near  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  was  the  desulphurization  of  a  charge  of  8  tons 
down  to  4  to  6  per  cent  sulphur,  in  24  hours.  The  amount  of  fuel  used  (Pleasant  Valley 
coal)  was  20  per  cent  of  the  charge,  and  two  men  per  shift  of  12  hours  attended  to  three 
furnaces.  A  cylinder  7  x  22  ft.  in  size  was  subsequently  introduced  at  these  works,  and  its  re- 
sults led  Mr.  James,  the  superintendent,  to  believe  that  the  economic  length  of  the  Briickner 
furnace  had  been  reached  at  22  ft. 

Arenfs  Improved  Bruckner  Cylinder  differs  from  the  preceding  in  the  shape  of  the  roast- 
ing-chamber,  which  is  not  a  true  cylinder,  but  is  made  in  the  shape  of  a  frustrum  of  a  cone, 
its  base  being  turned  toward  the  fireplace.  In  this  frustrum  of  a  cone  the  ore  seeks  the 
same  horizontal  level  when  revolved  around  its  axis  as  in  the  Bruckner,  and  is  thus  forced 
to  form  a  layer  of  graduating  thickness  in  the  chamber,  with  its  thin  end  near  the  flue  end  and 
its  thickest  or  deepest  end  toward  the  fireplace.  The  flame  coming  from  the  fireplace  is,  of 
course,  hottest  at  thaf  end ;  and  there,  in  this  furnace,  it  finds  the  most  ore  to  heat.  As  the 
flame,  in  its  passage  through  the  roasting-chamber,  loses  in  intensity,  so  the  ore  layer  becomes 
thinner ;  and  there  is  less  and  less  ore  to  heat  until  the  flue  is  reached.  In  this  manner  it  is 
claimed  that  the  charge  is  "  done "  simultaneously  at  all  points  throughout  the  roasting- 
chamber.  This  cylinder  is  usually  made  18  ft.  6  in.  long,  7  ft.  3  in.  outside  diameter  at  the 
large  end,  and  6  ft.  3  in.  at  the  smaller  end. 

The  White  Roasting- Furnace  (Fig.  4)  consists  of  a  long  cast-iron  revolving  cylinder 
inclined  toward  the  fire  end,  and  fed  at  the  upper  end  with  crushed  pulp  from  stamp  batteries 


FIG.  4.— The  White  roasting-furnace. 

or  other  pulverizer.  The  cylinder  is  made  in  sections  to  facilitate  transportation.  It  is 
supported  on  four  wheels  or  rings  resting  on  truck-wheels  and  guided  in  a  central  position 
by  rollers  in  upright  frames,  and  revolved  by  friction  of  truck-wheels  through  gears  and 
pulleys.  The  angle  of  inclination  is  changeable.  The  cylinder  is  lined  with  fire-brick 
throughout,  and  projecting  bricks  raise  portions  of  the  pulp  and  drop  it  through  the 
flames,  assisting  the  process.  Salt  for  chloridizing  is  added  before  the  pulp  enters  the 
cylinder.  The  advantages  claimed  for  this  furnace  are  that  it  is  continuous  in  its  operation, 


382  FURNACES,   SMELTING. 

discharging  its  product  regularly  into  a  pit  at  the  lower  end,  and  this  roasted  pulp  need  be 
withdrawn  only  as  required;  also  that  it  submits  the  ore  to  a  gradually  increasing  tem- 
perature, which  is  the  true  theory  of  perfect  roasting.  By  changing  the  inclination,  the  ore 
can  be  retained  to  a  longer  or  shorter  period  as  necessary.  The  furnace  is  commonly  made 
in  three  sizes,  as  follows :  40  in.  by  24  ft.,  capacity  15  to  20  tons ;  52  in.  by  27  ft.,  capacity  20 
to  30  tons  ;  60  in.  by  27  ft.,  capacity  30  to  45  tons. 

The  HoweH-  White  Roasting- Furnace  is  designed  and  works  upon  the  same  principle  as 
the  White,  but  has  an  auxiliary  fireplace  at  the  flue  end,  through  the  flames  of  which  the 
dust  from  the  roasting  ore  is  drawn,  and  much  that  would  otherwise  pass  off  unoxidized  or 
unchloridized  is  thereby  roasted.  The  larger  part  of  the  cylinder  at  the  fire  end  is  lined 
with  fire-brick,  leaving  "the  metal  on  the  smaller  portion  exposed,  as  the  greatest  heat  takes 
effect  at  the  fire  end.  Cast-iron  spirally  arranged  shelves  assist  in  raising  and  showering  the 
pulp  through  the  flames.  This  furnace  is  fed  in  somewhat  the  same  manner  as  the  White, 
and  is  made  in  the  same  sizes,  its  capacity  also  being  about  the  same. 

Hofmann's  Roasting- Furnace  is  an  improved  revolving  cylinder  furnace,  with  a  fire- 
place and  flue  at  each  end.  The  flues  are  between  the  fireplace  and  cylinder,  descending  to 
the  dust-chambers,  which  are  connected  with  the  main  flue.  The  arrangement  is  alike  on 
both  sides.  By  means  of  dampers  the  current  of  the  air  and  gases  can  be  made  to  pass 
through  the  furnace  in  either  direction.  The  object  of  this  double  fireplace  arrangement  is 
to  enable  the  operator  to  expose  the  charge  of  ore  to  a  uniform  temperature.  The  fire  is  kept 
first  on  one  place,  with  closed  dampers  on  the  same  side,  while  the  flue  connection  on  the 
opposite  side  is  open.  After  a  few  hours  a  fire  is  built  in  the  other  fire-box,  and  the  position 
of  the  dampers  is  reversed.  By  changing  the  fire  once  or  twice  during  roasting,  both  halves 
of  the  charge  are  exposed  to  the  required  temperature,  without  overheating  one  portion  of 
the  charge,  thus,  it  is  claimed,  producing  a  higher  and  more  uniform  chlorination  and 
diminishing  the  formation  of  balls.  This  furnace  is  especially  suitable  for  ores  which  either 
require  a  very  low  roasting  temperature  or  a  very  high  one.  By  closing  one  of  the  large 
dampers  near  the  main  flue  and  opening  the  damper  of  the  descending  flue  and  corresponding 
plug-door,  a  current  of  live  air  can  be  made  to  enter  the  furnace  together  with  the  flame, 
thus  assisting  the  combustion  of  the  fire-gases  and  the  oxidization  of  the  ore.  It  is  apparent 
that  this  arrangement  permits  the  construction  of  cylinders  of  larger  capacity  than  it  is  prac- 
tical for  furnaces  with  only  one  fireplace. 

The  Douglas  Roasting- Furnace  is  a  revolving  cylindrical  furnace  with  a  fixed  flue  within 
the  cylinder.  The  ore  to  be  roasted  is  charged  within  the  annular  space  between  the  outer 
shell  arid  the  central  flue,  through  which  the  flames  draw,  as  in  the  Bruckner,  White,  and 
other  furnaces  of  this  class.  This  arrangement  constitutes  a  revolving  muffle,  in  fact,  and  it 
is  claimed,  makes  a  more  efficient  oxidizing  furnace,  as  in  the  ordinary  cylinder  the  flames, 
coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  ore,  have  a  reducing  action  for  a  time  after  each  firing. 
This  evil  effect  is  felt  more  in  the  cylinders,  which  are  closed  from  end  to  end,  than  in  the 
ordinary  reverberatory  furnace,  which  is  furnished  with  a  large  number  of  side  openings,  by 
each  of  which  more  or  less  air  enters  to  maintain  oxidation.  In  the  Douglas  furnace  the 
admission  of  air  to  the  roasting  ore  is  regulated  by  a  register  at  the  discharge  end.  The 
loss  of  heat  by  its  transmission  through  the  walls  of  the  flue  is  trifling.  The  degree  of  heat 
required,  even  at  the  fireplace  end  of  the  cylinder,  is  small,  and  but  very  little  of  this  escapes 
into  the  chimney  after  its  passage  through"  a  flue  of  30  ft.  or  so  in  length. 

The  central  flue  may  be  constructed  of  cast-iron  pipe,  supported  by  spiders,  and  the  ore  be 
agitated  by  shelves,  as  in  the  ordinary  cylinder,  but  a  square  or  triangular  tile-flue,  supported 
by  heavy  tiles  built  into  the  lining,  is  preferable.  If  the  tiles  be  of  good  material  and  well 
locked  together  in  the  cylinder,  the  flue  and  its  supporting  shelves  can  not  work  loose  or  fall 
to  pieces.  Such  a  cylinder  is  converted  into  three  or  four  muffles,  and  t«he  ore  is  agitated  by 
a  gentle  rolling  motion,  which,  it  is  claimed,  is  preferable  to  the  pounding  action  to  which 
the  particles  are  exposed  when  dropped  from  shelves,  and  which  case-hardens  them  during 
the  plastic  state  through  which  most  ores  pass  in  the  early  stage  of  roasting.  Another 
advantage  claimed  for  the  flue  consists  in  reducing  the  current  of  air  in  contact  with  the  ore, 
and  therefore  the  amount  of  dust  carried  into  the  dust-chamber.  In  order  to  burn  the  com- 
bustion gases,  and  supply  the  necessary  surplus  of  oxygen  to  the  ore,  the  amount  of  air  and  gas 
striking  the  ore  in  the  ordinary  cylinder  is  necessarily  much  greater  and  the  current  more 
rapid  than  that  which  is  admitted  to  the  roasting  compartments  only  of  the  flue-cylinder. 

An  ore  liable  to  sinter,  such  as  galena,  or  matte  rich  in  lead,  as  well  as  the  higher  grades 
of  copper  matte,  can  not  safely  be  roasted  in  the  confined  inaccessible  space  of  the  cylinder ; 
but  all  other  ores  and  products  can  be  calcined  in  this  furnace. 

Works  for  Reference:  Roasting  Gold  and  Silver  Ores,  by  Guido  Kiistel,  1880;  Leaching 
Gold  and  Silver  Ores,  by  C.  H.  Aaron,  1881 ;  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  Gold,  and  Mercury  in  the 
United  States,  by  T.  Egleston,  vol.  i,  1887,  vol.  ii,  1890 ;  Metallurgy  of  Gold,  by  Manuel 
Eissler,  1891 ;  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  by  Manuel  Eissler,  1889  ;  Modern  American  Methods  of 
Copper- Smelting,  by  E.  D.  Peters,  Jr.,  1891 ;  The  Lixiviation  of  Silver  Ores  with  Hyposulphite 
Solutions,  1888 ;  Chloridizing,  Roasting,  and  Lixiviation  at  Yedras,  by  George  J.  Rockwell, 
Enqineerinq  and  Mining  Journal,  February  4,  1888,  et  seq. 

FURNACES,  SMELTING.  Smelting-"furnaces  may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes, 
viz.,  shaft-furnaces,  reverberatory  furnaces,  and  retort  or  closed-vessel  furnaces.  In  furnaces 
of  the  first  class  the  charge  and  fuel  are  in  intimate  contact,  there  being  no  independent 
hearth  or  fireplace.  In  furnaces  of  the  second  and  third  classes  the  fuel  and  ore  are  kept 
separate,  the  fuel  being  burned  on  an  independent  hearth.  The  Bessemer  converter,  used  in 


FUENACES,   SMELTING. 


383 


steel-making,  and  the  Manhes  converter,  used  in  copper-smelting,  are  omitted  from  this  classi- 
fication. In  lead-smelting  in  this  country  shaft-furnaces  are  invariably  used ;  in  copper- 
smelting,  shaft  or  reverberatory  furnaces,  according  to  the  character  of  the  ore.  The  large 
shaft-furnaces  used  for  the  reduction  of  iron-ores  are  described  elsewhere  (see  FURNACES, 
BLAST).  For  the  reduction  of  zinc  and  quicksilver  ores  retort-furnaces  are  employed. 

The  shaft-furnaces  used  in  lead  and  copper  smelting  are  known  as  Pilz  furnaces  if  their 
horizontal  section  is  circular,  or  Raschette  furnaces  if  it  is  rectangular.  Pilz  furnaces  are 
now  very  little  used.  Although  the  circular  form  possesses  certain  advantages,  experience  has 
shown  that  the  ordinary  blast  used  in  lead  and  copper  smelting,  seldom  exceeding  1  lb.  per 
sq.  in.,  can  not  well  penetrate  to  the  center  of  a  charge  in  a  furnace  of  greater  diameter  than 
50  in.  The  size,  and  consequently  the  capacity,  of  a  Pilz  furnace  are  therefore  limited. 

The  general  construction  of  the  Raschette  furnace,  which  is  used  in  lead-smelting,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  1.  The  crucible,  resting  upon  a  solid  foundation,  is  built  of  fire-brick  and  lined  with 
fire-clay,  the  whole  being  surrounded  by  a  curb  of  thor- 
oughly'braced  wrought-iron  plates.  Upon  the  brick-work 
within  the  curb  is  placed  the  water-jacket,  which  is  make 
of  wrought-iron  boiler-plate  in  four  parts,  two  side  and 
two  end  pieces.  It  is  so  constructed  that  no  seams  appear 
next  to  the  fire,  and  all  four  parts  are  bound  by  wrought- 
iron  forgings,  which  can  be  quickly  unfastened  when  ndfe- 
essary.  Cast-iron  spouts  are  riveted  to  the  jackets  for 
overflow  and  feed  water.  Hand-holes  are  also  provided  for 
cleaning  out  sediment,  and  in  the  side  jackets  are  openings 
for  the  tuyeres,  the  number  of  which  vary  with  the  size  of 
the  furnace.  Four  iron  columns,  resting  upon  the  founda- 
tion of  the  furnace,  support  the  brick-work  above  the  water- 
jacket,  the  brick -work  resting  upon  a  deck-frame  of 
wrought-iron  I-beams,  united  by  wrought-iron  plates  and 
bolts.  Angle-iron  corner  -  binders  hold  the  brick  -  work 
against  all  cracking.  The  slag-spout  is  shown  at  the  end 
of  the  furnace,  the  lead-well  at  the  side,  and  the  charging 
door  just  above  the  upper  floor. 

The  furnace  is  surrounded  with  a  large  pipe  of  galvan- 
ized iron,  called  the  bustle-pipe,  to  receive  the  air-blast 
from  the  main  blast-pipe  and  distribute  it  to  the  tuyeres. 
The  bustle  pipe  is  connected  with  the  tuyeres  by  flexible 
pipes,  usually  made  of  canvas.  The  tuyeres  are  short,  con- 
ical iron  pipes  pointing  into  the  furnace,  passing  through 
the  water-jacket.  The  outer  ends  of  the  tuyeres  can  be 
opened,  so  that  a  rod  may  be  inserted  to  clear  them  of  slag 
if  they  should  become  thus  clogged.  The  furnace  shown 
in  Fig.  1  is  equipped  with  the  Devereux  adjustable  tuyeres. 
These  consist  of  a  loose  iron  sleeve,  cast  with  a  central  bore 
at  a  considerable  angle,  and  capable  of  being  quickly  re- 
volved by  the  hand  to  point  the  blast  up  or  down  at  any 
angle  between  the  extremes.  The  tuyere  rests  in  the  tu- 
yere-hole formed  by  a  bronze-metal  tube  in  the  water-jacket, 
and  is  thus  cooled. 

The  average  size  of  the  Raschette  furnaces  used  at  Den- 
ver, Col.,  where  the  praptice  of  lead-smelting  has  been  car- 
ried to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection  than  anywhere  else  in 
the  world,  is  33  in.  wide  and  100  in.  long.  The  average  amount  of  ore  smelted  in  these  fur- 
naces is  40  tons  per  24  hours.  The  largest  furnace  in  use  is  60  in.  wide  and  120  in.  long,  the 
water-cooled  tuyeres  protruding  6  in.  on  either  side.  The  capacity  of  this  furnace  is  80  tons 
per  24  hours.  The  average  cost  of  smelting  in  Denver  is  $4.75  per  ton,  excluding  the  cost  of 
roasting,  which  amounts  to  about  $2  per  ton.  I  am  indebted  to  Prof.  H.  0.  Hofman,  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  for  the  foregoing  figures. 

The  general  construction  of  the  Raschette  furnace  used  for  smelting  copper-ores  is  similar 
to  that  used  for  lead,  the  main  point  of  difference  being  the  crucible.  For  the  reduction  of 
oxidized  ores  furnaces  with  an  interior  crucible  are  generally  used.  Fig.  2  shows  a  furnace 
of  this  type,  33  in.  wide  at  the  tuyeres  and  66  in.  long,  designed  by  Carl  Henrich  for  the 
Detroit  Copper  Company's  smelting- works  at  Morenci,  Arizona.  It  consists  of  a  lower  and 
an  upper  water-jacket  of  wrought  iron,  the  lower  one  supported  from  the  cast-iron  bottom 
plate  and  short  columns,  the  upper  one  resting  upon  four  long  columns  by  means  of  cast-iron 
lugs  or  brackets.  Between  the  lower  jacket  and  bottom  plate  is  a  wrought-iron  curb,  con- 
fining the  metal  crucible,  which  is  formed  with  fire-clay.  Above  the  upper  jacket  is  a  short 
sheet-iron  casing,  extending  to  the  charging  floor  and  lined  with  one  thickness  of  fire-brick, 
and  containing  the  outlet  for  connection  to  dust-chamber,  A  floor-plate  of  cast  iron  is  pro- 
vided with  inside  hoppers.  The  stack  is  of  telescope  pattern,  the  stationary  part  being  pro- 
vided with  roof-plate  and  umbrella,  while  the  movable  part  is  provided  with'balance-weights, 
that  permit  pushing  it  up  out  of  the  way  when  the  furnace  is  in  operation,  and  allows  it  to 
be  quickly  lowered  when  blowing  out.  Two  water-jackets  are  introduced  to  provide  a  water- 
cooled  surface  from  crucible  to  the  top,  in  order  to  do  away  with  brick  almost  entirely.  Both 


FIG.  1. — Raschette  furnace. 


384 


FURNACES,   SMELTING. 


upper  and  lower  jackets  are  made  in  four  sections  (two  side  and  two  end  pieces).     There 
are  fourteen  tuyeres,  five  in  each  lower  side  jacket  and  two  in  ea^h  lower  end  jacket.     Two 

distinct  sets  of  water-pipes  are  provided 
for  water  supply  and  discharge.  A 
galvanized  bustle-pipe  surrounds  the 
furnace,  and  connection  to  tuyere  el- 
bows and  nozzles  is  made  by  canvas 
hose.  The  tuyere  elbows  or  nozzles  are 
provided  with  a  ball-end,  which  makes 
a  universally  adjustable  joint  in  the 
tuyere,  which  is  made  to  suit  it. 

*  The  cross-section  of  this  furnace  at 
the  tuyeres  is  33  X  66  in.,  while  10  in. 
higher  up  a  bosh  is  begun,  so  that  30 
in.  above  the  tuyeres  the  cross-section 
is  enlarged  to  45  X  78  in.  The  four 
lower  cast-iron  jackets  terminate  at 
this  point,  where  they  are  surmounted 
by  the  other  four,  which  still  diverge 
slightly,  so  that  at  their  upper  surface, 
7  ft.  6  in.  above  the  tuyeres,  the  fur- 
nace has  an  inside  section  of  54  X  87 
in.,  which  is  retained  to  the  charging 
door,  10  ft.  6  in.  above  the  tuyeres. 
The  slag  top  is  6  in.  below  the  latter, 
and  the  crucible  is  14  in.  deep,  lined 
with  brick,  and  provided  with  a  drop 
bottom.  The  object  of  the  bosh  is  to 
increase  the  reducing  action,  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  cleaner  slags. 

In  smelting  sulphide  ores  the  Amer- 
ican practice  of  the  present  day  is  to 
do  away  entirely  with  the  ordinary 
deep  crucible,  substituting  for  it  mere- 
ly a  sloping  bottom  a  foot  or  less  below 
the  tuyeres,  from  which  the  entire  molt- 
en material  escapes  through  a  narrow 
groove  under  the  breast,  then  first  en- 
tering an  outside  crucible  or  well,  in 
which  the  matte  separates  from  the 
slag  and  is  tapped  into  molds,  while 
the  slag  flows  from  a  spout  into  iron 
pots  arranged  on  wheels  for  convenient 
dumping.  In  this  manner,  chilling  over  the  metal  in  the  crucible  and  the  troublesome  freez- 
ing of  the  tap-hole  are  avoided.  The  formation  of  sows  is  also  prevented  by  the  immediate 
escape  of  the  fused  ore  from  the  powerful  reducing  action  of  the  fuel.  Provision  is  made  to 
prevent  any  escape  of  blast  under  the  breast,  either  by  so  thoroughly  covering  the  orifice  and 
channel  that  only  a  minute  groove  exists,  which  is  constantly  filled  to  its  utmost  capacity 
with  molten  ore,  which  soon  forms  an  impervious  cover  to  its  channel ;  or  by  so  raising  the 
terminal  slag-spout,  and  lowering  the  anterior  wall  of  the  furnace,  that  the  blast  is  securely 
trapped,  just  as  sewer-gas  is  prevented  from  escaping  in  an  ordinary  drain.  This  system  of 
exterior  crucibles  was  introduced  in  this  country  by  Mr.  James  Douglas,  Jr.,  at  his*Phoenix- 
ville  Works  in  1879. 

The  height  of  the  furnace  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  ore  and  the  quality  of  the 
fuel :  refractory,  siliceous  ore,  and  dense,  strong  coke  requiring  and  permitting  the  employ- 
ment of  a  higher  furnace  than  the  opposite  conditions.  With  basic  and  easily  fusible  ores 
any  height  above  10  ft.  (from  tuyeres  to  charging  door)  is  rarely  met  with  ;  even  with  refractory 
ores  the  danger  of  reducing  metallic  iron  and  the  general  unmanageability  of  a  high  furnace 
practically  limits  the  height  to  14  ft.  Dr.  E.  D.  Peters  gives  the  cost  of  smelting  an  easily 
fusible  copper-ore  in  a  circular  water-jacket  furnace,  42  in.  in  diameter,  having  a  capacity  of 
56  tons  per  24  hours,  as  $1.98  per  ton  in  the  East,  and  $6.40  per  ton  in  Arizona. 

The  Herreshoff  Furnace  is  a  modification  of  the  above.  It  has  a  fire-hearth,  or  well,  which 
is  sometimes,  for  convenience  of  removal,  placed  on  wheels,  though  more  frequently  it  rests 
upon  solid  ground.  The  bottom  of  the  furnace  consists  merely  of  a  circular,  concave,  cast-iron 
plate,  firmly  bolted  to  the  lower  border  of  the  water-jacket,  which  extends  about  12  in.  below 
the  tuyeres.  The  bottom  is  covered  with  a  single  course  of  fire-brick  resting  on  a  shallow 
layer  of  sand.  The  outlet  of  the  furnace  is  a  small  circular  opening  in  the  water-jacket. 
There  is  a  similar  opening  in  the  back  wall  of  the  movable  hearth,  which  is  protected  by  a 
small,  separate  water-jacket.  Thus  is  formed  a  short,  water-cooled  channel  from  the  furnace 
to  the  fire-hearth.  The  slag-discharge  from  the  fore-hearth  is  several  inches  higher  than  this 
channel,  so  that  the  latter  is  covered  several  inches  deep  with  molten  material,  and  the  blast  is 
completely  trapped.  The  slag  runs  out  from  the  fore-hearth  continuously  ;  the  matte  is  tapped 
at  intervals.  In  the  latter  operation  the  slag-spout  is  plugged  with  a  ball  of  plastic  clay,  so 


FIG.  2.— Raschette  furnace. 


FURNACES,   SMELTING.  385 

that  the  blast  is  tightly  confined  even  after  the  molten  material  has  descended  below  the  top  of 
the  channel  from  the  furnace.  As  it  is  sometimes  impossible  or  inadvisable  to  close  the  tap- 
hole  in  the  fore-hearth  at  the  exact  moment  when  the  last  of  the  matte  has  escaped  and  the 
first  of  the  slag  begins  to  flow,  a  tilting  launder  is  arranged  between  the  matte-spout  and  the 
molds,  which,  when  held  up  by  a  chain,  conducts  the  liquid  to  the  regular  molds,  but  when 
released  by  a  catch,  turns  upon  a  horizontal  pivot  and  conveys  the  slag  in  the  opposite 
direction,  where  it  is  cast  in  proper  shape  for  resmelting. 

According  to  Dr.  E.  D.  Peters,  from  whose  Modern  American  Methods  of  Copper- Smelting 
this  description  is  taken,  the  cost  of  smelting  in  a  large  Herreshoff  furnace  is  very  low.  The 
number  of  men  required  per  furnace  is  10.  With  gas-house  coke  and  repairs  exceptionally 
low,  the  cost  per  ton  of  ore  at  the  Laurel  Hill  Chemical  Works,  Long  Island  City,  N.  Y.,  does 
not  aggregate  80  cents  per  ton  of  ore.  The  average  charge  of  ore  in  the  48-in.  circular  fur- 
nace at  those  works  was  56  tons  per  24  hours,  and  of  the  60-in.  furnace  84  tons.  At  Butte, 
Mont.,  a  48-in.  furnace,  with  6  2-in.  tuyeres  and  i-lb.  blast,  smelted  from  60  to  65  tons  of  cal- 
cined pyritic  concentrates  daily. 

Elliptical  cupola  furnaces,  provided  with  sectional  cast-iron  jackets,  forming  a  bosh  29  in. 
high  immediately  above  the  tuyere  level,  are  used  for  treating  the  slags  resulting  from  the 
fusion  of  the  "  mineral "  of  Lake  Superior  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  In  these  cupolas,  in 
place  of  distinct  tuyere-openings,  a  f-in.  slot  encirclea  the  entire  furnace,  just  below  the 
water-bosh.  Below  the  tuyeres  is  a  crucible  34  in.  deep,*nearly  the  full  size  of  the  furnace, 
closed  by  a  drop-bottom.  The  water-bosh,  which  is  22  in.  high,  consists  of  curved  sections  of 
cast  iron,  fitted  closely  together.  The  cupola  is  7  ft.  6  in.  high,  from  tuyeres  to  charging 
door,  and  has  a  major  axis  of  7  ft.  and  a  minor  axis  of  4  ft.  9  in. 

Reverberatory  Furnaces  are  constructed  of  very  varied  forms  and  dimensions,  but  the  prin- 
ciples of  all  are  the  same.  They  consist  of  two  main  portions— the  fireplace  (either  an  ordi- 
nary grate  or  a  gas-producer)  and  the  laboratory  part,  the  fuel  being  separated  from  the  ore, 
or  the  materials  to  be  heated,  by  means  of  a  fire-bridge,  which  is  simply  a  wall  of  refractory 
brick,  usually  furnished  with  an  air-channel  to  keep  it  cool.  The  flames  draw  over  this  bridge 
and  reverberate  into  the  laboratory  part,  which  is  connected  by  means  of  a  flue  with  the 
chimney,  which  serves  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  consumed  gases  and  the  production  of 
draft.  The  reverberatory  slagging-furnace  used  in  lead-smelting  is  a  modification  of  the  re- 
verberatory roasting-furnace  (see  FURNACES,  ROASTING).  It  has  two  hearths,  one  a  step  higher 
than  the  other,  the  lower  hearth  being  next  the  fire-bridge.  The  raw  ore,  having  been  fed  in  at 
the  flue  end  of  the  furnace,  is  gradually  worked  forward,  being  desulphurized  on  the  way,  and 
is  finally  pushed  down  to  the  lower  hearth,  where  the  heat  is  more  intense,  and  the  ore  is  fused 
or  agglomerated,  thus  preparing  it  for  the  blast-furnaces.  This  practice  is  not  pursued  every- 
where, in  many  places  it  being  the  custom  to  feed  the  roasted  ore  to  the  blast-furnaces  with- 
out slagging.  At  Denver  and  Pueblo,  Col.,  however,  the  tendency  seems  to  be  distinctly  in 
favor  of  the  preliminary  slagging. 

Reverberatory  furnaces  for  copper-smelting  are  in  general  use  in  Swansea,  and  the  method 
is,  in  fact,  distinctly  Welsh.  In  certain  copper  regions  of  the  United  States,  also,  furnaces  of 
this  class  are  exclusively  used.  The  American  reverberatories  are  modeled  closely  after  those 
of  Wales,  which  have  been  in  use  for  many  years,  the  only  improvements  having  been  in  their 
size,  which  there  is  a  constant  tendency  to  increase,  with  the  consequent  gain  in  capacity. 
The  hearth  of  the  cop  per- reverberatory  is  usually  an  elongated  oval,  the  exterior  shape  of  the 
furnace  being  rectangular,  however.  In  an  ordinary  furnace  the  hearth  is  about  15  ft.  long 
and  10  ft.  wide,  the  capacity  of  a  furnace  of  this  size  being  about  16  tons  per  24  hours.  At 
the  works  of  the  Boston  &  Colorado  Smelting  Co.,  at  Argo, 
Col.,  Mr.  Richard  Pearce  has  introduced  furnaces  with  hearths 
24  X  14  ft.,  thereby  increasing  the  capacity  to  over  28  tons 
per  24  hours. 

Within  the  past  ten  years  an  important  improvement  has 
been  made  in  copper-smelting  by  the  introduction  by  M.  Man- 
hes  of  a  system  of  Bessemerizing  copper  matte,  and  the  process 
is  now  being  quite  extensively  used.  The  improved  Manhes 
converter,  such  as  is  used  at  the  Jerez-Lanteira  smelting- 
works  in  Spain,  is  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4,  of  which  tho  former 
represents  a  transverse  section  of  the  converter,  and  the  latter 
a  side  elevation  of  the  converter  and  its  carriage.  The  appa- 
ratus consists  of  an  iron  cylinder  4  ft.  3  in.  in  length,  having 
an  outer  diameter  of  4  ft.  2  in.  It  is  made  of  iron  plates  f  in. 
thick.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  there  is  an  opening 
on  which  a  conical  chimney  is  riveted,  the  highest  part  of 
which  has  a  diameter  of  22  in.  On  one  side  of  the  cylinder, 
and  all  along  its  length,  an  air-chamber,  <7,  is  fixed,  of  Wan-  FlG"  ^- 
gular  shape,  and  in  this  11  tuyeres,  T  T,  of  f  in.  diameter  are 
inserted.  In  front  of  each  tuyere  there  is  a  hole  made  in  the  outside  of  the  air  reservoir,  which 
is  closed  by  a  wooden  stopper.  Through  these  holes  the  tuyeres  are  kept  free  for  the  entrance 
of  the  air.  At  one  of  the  ends  of  the  air  reservoir  tubes.  A.  are  fixed  for  the  entrance  of  the 
blast,  and  these  tubes  are  so  arranged  that,  the  highest  being  connected  with  the  air  main, 
whatever  position  the  converter  takes  on  turning  on  its  axis,  the  supply  of  air  is  kept  up  un- 
interruptedly. On  the  outside  of  the  converter,  and  at  half  of  its  length,  a  toothed  segment, 
E,  is  placed,  for  the  purpose  of  moving  the  converter  on  its  axis  in  the  manner  to  be  described 


38G 


FURNACES,   SMELTING. 


FIG.  4.— Manh6s  converter  and  carriage. 


hereafter.  On  both  sides  of  this  toothed  segment,  and  about  12  in.  from  the  end  of  the  con- 
verter, two  flat  ribs  of  iron  are  placed.  Lastly,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  converter  two  strong 
hooks  are  provided  to  lift  it  by  means  of  a  crane  or  differential  pulley-block  whenever  required. 
The  carriage  which  supports  the  converter  runs  on  rails,  and  each  wheel  has  fastened  to  it 
a  toothed  wheel  which  gears  into  a  small  pinion.  By  means  of  the  handles,  M,  the  wheels  are 

turned,  giving  to  the  carriage  a  smooth  forward  or 
backward  movement.  On  the  carriage  there  are 
four  loose  wheels,  R,  on  which  the  converter  rests, 
and  which  facilitate  the  movement  of  the  converter 
round  its  axis.  For  the  purpose  of  complete  move- 
ment the  carriage  carries  a  shaft,  in  the  center  of 
which  is  a  worm-wheel  geared  to  the  tooth  segment, 
E.  The  shaft,  when  operated  by  the  handle,  M, 
places  the  converter  in  the  inclined  position  suitable 
for  loading,  unloading,  blowing,  or  discharging  the 
slag  as  it  may  be  required. 

The  operation  of  the  Manhes  process  at  Jerez- 
Lanteira  is  thus  described  by  Senor  Sanchez  Massia, 
who  is  in  charge  of  the  works  there :  The  carriage 
runs  on  rails  placed  at  a  level  5  ft,  lower  than  the 
floor  of  the  blast-furnace  in  which  the  matte  is  made, 
and  on  being  brought  in  front  of  the  same  the  han- 
dle, M,  is  turned,  and  the  converter  is  inclined  so  as 
to  allow  the  matte  to  run  into  it.  When  the  charge 
is  in  the  converter  this  is  raised  to  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, and  is  carried  under  the  chimney  for  the  outlet 
of  the  gases  and  fumes,  and  after  being  thus  placed 
the  air-chamber  is  connected  with  the  air-main. 
The  air  is  then  admitted,  and  the  converter  inclined 
so  that  the  air  may  enter  and  go  through  the  charge 
at  a  convenient  depth.  This  depth  varies  with  the 
quality  and  composition  of  the  matte  treated,  and 
may  also  vary  at  different  stages  of  the  operation. 
The  blast  oxidizes  the  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  antimony,  and  these  pass  to  the  chimney,  while 
the  non-volatile  impurities  are  also  oxidized  and  combine  with  the  silica  of  the  lining.  Some- 
times silica  is  added  to  the  charge,  by  which  means  the  lining  is  made  to  last  longer.  Usual- 
ly a  lining  lasts  for  24  hours,  and  for  continual  work  three  converters  should  be  kept,  which 
is  easy  enough,  as  the  cost  of  each  is  only  about  $500.  Should  the  slag  be  in  excess,  the  blow- 
ing is  stopped  and  the  converter  inclined  to  let  out  a  part  of  it ;  then  the  converter  is  brought 
to  its  proper  position  and  the  blowing  continued.  During  the  operation  a  man  is  kept  con- 
tinually at  work  to  clear  the  tuyeres,  and,  as  particles  of  slag  and  matte  are  expelled  from  the 
converter,  the  men  in  attendance  are  protected  by  a  kind  of  horizontal  umbrella  of  iron  fixed 
on  their  shoulders.  The  end  of  the  operation  is  recognized  by  the  intense  green  color  of  the 
flame,  which  indicates  that  some  copper  is  being  burned.  At  this  stage  the  blowing  is  stopped, 
the  converter  inclined,  the  slag  raked  out,  and  the  copper  run  into  ingot-molds. 

Whatever  may  be  the  quality  of  the  matte  acted  upon,  success  can  always  be  attained, 
since  this  depends  upon  the  depth  at  which  the  charge  is  blown.  This  depth  can  always  be 
regulated  by  the  inclination  of  the  converter.  The  weight  of  the  charge  may  vary  within 
wide  limits,  but  at  Jerez-Lanteira  it  is  usually  one  ton.  The  time  employed  in  treating  each 
charge  varies  from  20  to  40  minutes,  according  to  the  yield  of  the  matte,  the  shortest  time 
being  for  the  richest  matte.  The  heat  left  by  one  charge  in  the  converter  is  enough  for  the 
next,  and  therefore,  when  the  working  of  the  converter  does  not  keep  pace  with  the  smelting 
of  the  ores,  it  is  better  to  store  the  excess  of  matte  and  remelt  it  again.  The  amount  of  coke 
used  for  smelting  is  8  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  matte.  The  slag  always  contains  some 
copper,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  usually  sent  back  to  be  passed  through  the  cupola.  The  fumes 
from  the  converter  are  made  to  pass  through  a  gallery  55  m.  in  length,  with  the  object  of 
collecting  some  of  the  antimony  contained  in  the  ores. 

When  the  Manhes  system  of  dealing  with  copper  mattes  is  compared  with  the  usual  method, 
a  very  great  economy  of  fuel  is  claimed.  At  Jerez-Lanteira,  where  water-power  is  used  for 
the  blowing-engines,  the  fuel  consumed  is  only  one  seventh  of  what  would  be  required  in  the 
usual  method.  The  mattes  from  which  the  best  results  are  obtained  are  those  containing  20 
per  cent  iron  and  25  per  cent  sulphur.  The  air  is  injected  at  a  pressure  of  half  an  atmosphere, 
or,  say,  7-J  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  This  process  has  been  introduced  at  the  works  of  the  Parrot  Silver 
and  Copper  Co.,  at  Butte,  Mont.,  with  very  good  results. 

Works  for  reference :  Modern  American  Methods  of  Copper- Smelt  ing,  by  E.  D.  Peters, 
Jr.,  1891 ;  Copper- Smelting,  by  H.  M.  Howe ;  Copper-Smelting,  its  History  and  Processes, 
by  H.  H.  Vivian,  1881 ;  Elements  of  Metallurgy,  by  J.  A.  Phillips,  1887 ;  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Metallurgy,  by  W.  C.  Roberts-Austen,  1891 ;  The  Mines  and  Reduction  Works  of 
Butte,  Mont.,  by  E.  D.  Peters,  Jr..  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1885 ;  Copper  Re- 
fining in  the  United  States,  by  T.  Egleston.  Transactions  American  Institute  Mining  Engi- 
neers, vol.  ix ;  The  Basic  Process  applied  to  Copper-Smelting,  by  Percy  C.  Gilchrist,  'Journal 
of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  January,  1891 ;  The  Bessenieriz'ng  of  Copper  Mattes,  by 
T.  Egleston,  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  May,  1885;  Lead  Slags,  by  M.  W.  lies,  Mineral 


GAINIXG-MACH1NES.  38? 

Resources  of  the  United  States,  1883  and  1884;  Lead-Smelting,  by  O.  H.  Hahn,  Mineral  Re- 
sources of  the  United  States,  1886 ;  The  Desilverization  of  Lead,  by  H.  0.  Hof mann,  Mineral 
Resources  of  the  United  States,  1887. 

Fuse :  see  Torpedo. 

Gadding:  see  Quarrying-Machines. 

trAINING-MACHINES.  Gaining  is  grooving  at  right  angles  to  the  fiber  of  the  wood, 
or,  more  properly,  to  the  length  of  the  stick  or  plank ;  and  it  may  be  done  by  routing-tools, 
cutting  both  wit'h  their  ends  and  with  their  sides,  making  a  channel  by  reason  of  the  tool 
and  the  timber  having  relative  motion  to  each  other  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the 
stick ;  or  by  saws  or  cutters  mounted  on  an  axis  parallel  with  the  face  of  the  timber,  and 
working  the  groove  with  their  peripheral  cutters ;  or  by  a  saw  having  a  wobbling  motion  by 
reason  of  being  set  at  an  angle  to  an  axis  parallel  with  the  face  and  length  of  the  piece. 

In  some  of  the  most  improved  gaining-machinery  the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  cutters 
is  at  the  same  speed  back  and  forth  across  the  timber,  so  that  cutting  can  be  from  either  side 
or  both,  as  desired.  In  others  the  table  has  stops — sometimes  as  many  as  12  in  number — 
which  are  set  to  locate  the  position  of  the  gains  lengthwise  of  the  timber ;  and  the  depth  to 
which  the  cutters  act  is  determined  by  movable  stops  in  the  front  saddle  on  which  the  spin- 
dle is  carried,  so  that,  when  the  machine  is  once  set  for  a  particular  kind  of  work,  no  laying 
out  is  required  for  duplication.  In  others,  again,  there  iAa  boring  attachment,  having  both 
horizontal  and  vertical  movement,  and  a  radial  adjustment  by  which  angular  holes  may  be 
bored. 

The  Bentel  &  Margedant  Gaining- Machines. — In  the  automatic  traverse  gaining-machine, 
made  by  the  Bentel  &  Margedant  Co.,  for  cross-gaining,  square,  angular,  and  double-angular 
gaining,  a  special  point  is  the  arrangement  for  feeding  the  cutter-head  and  carriage  across 
the  table,  either  by  hand  or  by  power  feed.  The  machine  bears  a  horizontal  mandrel  across 
its  front  face,  a  cutter-head  to  the  right,  and  a  table  in  front.  By  pressing  a  lever  at  the  top, 
either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  the  cutter-head  is  made  to  move  across  the  table  with  long 
or  short  stroke,  as  desired,  by  power ;  or  the  same  motion  may  be  more  slowly  imparted  by 
operating  a  hand-wheel  in  front  of  the  cutter-head  mandrel.  A  horizontal  gang-gaining  or 
grooving  machine  made  by  the  same  firm,  and  brought  out  during  the  spring  of  1892,  is  in- 
tended for  cutting  a  number  of  grooves  or  gains  at  once.  There  is  a  long  horizontal  mandrel, 
bearing  a  number  of  heads  which  are  adjustable  in  their  distance  apart.  The  material  is 
clamped  and  held  securely  on  the  table  which  moves  across  the  machine  under  the  cutter- 
heads.  It  has  both  power  "and  hand  feed.  Its  use  is  specially  appropriate  for  making  filing- 
cases,  desks,  and  similar  work.  It  takes  in  work  up  to  8  ft.  2*  in.  long  and  24  in.  wide. 

The  Berry  &  Orton  Gaining- Ma-chine. — A  machine  which  is  a  combination  of  a  cross- 
gainer  and  grooving  machine,  and  a  three-spindle  vertical  boring-machine,  is  made  by  Berry  & 
Orton.  It  has  a  carriage  or  table  as  long  as  the  longest  timbers  to  be  worked,  mounted  on  roll- 
stands  so  as  to  be  readily  and  rapidly  moved  by  power  or  hand ;  and  this  has  right  and  left 
traverse  in  front  of  two  columns,  one  of  which,  to  the  left,  bears  the  vertical  boring-spindles, 
and  the  other,  to  the  right,  the  cross-gaining  head.  The  carriage  has  the  same  stops  and 
bolsters  as  are  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  gaining-machine ;  and  the  three  spindles  of 
the  boring-machine  have  both  vertical  and  horizontal  adjustment,  and  are  brought  to  their 
work  by  counter-balanced  levers.  The  object  of  this  machine  is  to  save  handling  by  doing 
all  the  operations  of  gaining,  grooving,  and  boring  of  a  piece  of  timber  when  once  in  position 
on  the  table. 

The  Fay  Groover-Head. — A  very  desirable  addition  to  grooving-machines  is  the  solid  ex- 
pansion groover-head,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  which  is  arranged  so  that  without  removing  or 
changing  the  cutters  they  will 
extend  to  double  their  width. 
There  are  two  disks,  having  a 
distance-washer  between  them, 
and  each  bearing  a  toothed  scor- 
ing-bit on  each  side.  There  are 
also  in  each  disk  slots  which  re- 
ceive the  edges  of  gaining-bits 
having'  the  minimum  width 
which  it  is  desired  to  gain  with 
the  head.  For  gaining  this  min- 
imum width  each  of  the  gain- 
ing-bits  is  held  by  both  the 
disks  ;  but  for  increasing  the 
width  the  disks  are  placed  far- 
ther apart,  so  that  each  bit  is  held  FlG-  l--Fay  groover-head, 
by  only  one  edge,  in  only  one  disk. 

The  Hoyt  Groover-Head. — An  expansion-gaining  or  grooving-head,  made  by  Hoyt  &  Bro., 
consists  of  a  hub  having  two  radial  projections,  on  each  of  which  there  is  "bolted  a  tool- 
holder,  each  tool-holder  bearing  two  tools,  one  of  which  is  parallel  to  the  radial  projections  from 
the  hub,  and  the  other  at  a  desirable  angle  thereto.  By  set-screws  these  tools  may  be  set  in 
and  out  so  as  to  cut  to  a  greater  or  less  width. 

In  the  use  of  the  gaining-inachine  it  must  be  remembered  that  one  head  will  do  for  all 
work  when  the  width  of  the  gains  exceeds  that  of  the  cutters ;  although,  of  course,  where 
there  are  many  gains  to  be  cut  of  a  width  greater  than  any  cutter  on  hand,  it  may  be  best  to 


388 


GAS-PRODUCERS. 


use  wider  cutters  in  order  to  save  the  time  of  the  machine.  This  is  a  commercial  question, 
the  solution  of  which  must  be  effected  on  the  ground  and  with  full  knowledge  of  the  condi- 
tions ;  but  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  machine  lends  itself  to  either  way  of  working. 
One  piece  of  work  to  which  the  gaining-machine  is  specially  well  adapted  is  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  hatch-gratings,  or  other  light  work  of  that  character,  where  a  number  of  pieces  can 
be  done  at  once  and  with  accuracy,  so  that  they  will  fit  together  in  erecting. 
Gap-Lathe :  see  Lathes,  Metal- Working. 

(fog-Engines:  see  Engines,  Gas.  Gas,  Fuel:  see  Gas-Producers.  Gas-Furnace:  see 
Furnaces,  Gas.  Gas-Generator:  see  Aerial -Navigation.  Gas-Pressure  Regulator:  see 
Regulators. 

Gaskets,  Packing :  see  Packing. 

GAS-PRODUCERS.  GAS-FUEL. — The  increasing  use  of  various  kinds  of  gas  as  fuel, 
both  in  the  industrial  arts  and  for  domestic  purposes,  makes  important  a  knowledge  of  the 
different  processes  for  producing  fuel-gas,  and  of  the  heat-giving  power  of  the  several  kinds. 
An  elaborate  study  of  this  subject  is  given  in  a  paper  by  W.  J.  Taylor,  read  before  the  Amer- 
ican Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  February,  1890  (Transactions,  vol.  xviii). 

"  The  extravagant  claim,"  says  Mr.  Taylor,  "  of  some  oil-gas  advocates  is  still  heard,  that 
by  vaporizing  oil  with  steam  and  then  passing  the  mixture  through  a  coil  of  hot  iron  pipe,  an 
oil-water-gas  containing  26,600  heat-units  is  formed  from  1  Ib.  of  oil  carrying  originally  21,- 
000  heat-units,  while  the  only  energy  expended  on  the  gas  has  been  by  the  introduction  of  a 
little  steam  and  a  little  extraneous  heat.  Theoretically,  1  Ib.  of  oil  converted  into  water-gas 
carries  26,600  heat-units,  but  this  is  only  obtainable  by  a  large  expenditure  of  energy,  the 
amount  of  which  is  difficult  to  calculate ;  even  with  apparatus  of  theoretically  perfect  effi- 
ciency, it  could  not  be  less  than  the  quantity  of  heat  added  to  the  calorific  energy  of  the  oil. 
The  cheapest  artificial  fuel-gas  per  unit  of  heat  is  common  producer-gas,  or  "  air-gas,"  as  it 
might  be  termed,  since  the  oxygen  for  burning  carbon  to  carbon  monoxide  is  derived  mainly 
from  air.  The  associated  atmospheric  nitrogen  dilutes  the  carbon  monoxide,  making  air-gas 
the  weakest  of  all  useful  gases — that  is,  the  lowest  in  combustible,  both  by  weight  and  by 
volume.  Next  in  the  order  of  heat-energy  comes  water-gas,  in  which  the  oxygen  for  com- 
bining with  carbon  to  form  carbon  monoxide  is  derived  from  water-vapor,  and  hydrogen  is 
liberated.  For  equal  volumes,  this  gas  has  more  than  double  the  calorific  power  of  air-gas. 
Third  in  the  ascending  scale  stands  coal-gas,  the  ordinary  illuminating  gas  distilled  from 
bituminous  coal,  which  carries  more  than  double  the  heat-energy  of  water-gas.  Last,  and 
highest  in  the  list,  is  natural  gas,  which  we  can  not  duplicate  in  practice  by  any  known  pro- 
cess. The  calorific  power  of  natural  gas  is  about  50  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  coal-gas. 
The  introduction  of  natural  gas  for  metallurgical  purposes  has  largely  stimulated  the  pro- 
duction and  use  of  artificial  gas  made  from  coal  and  from  oil,  if  the  vapors  of  the  latter  can 
be  fairly  considered  a  gas." 

The  Loomis  Gfas  Process. — This  process  was  introduced  in  1887,  and  has  come  into  ex- 
tended use  in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  producing  gas  for  fuel  and  illuminating  pur- 
poses from  bituminous  slack  coal,  anthracite  screenings,  and  other  low-cost  fuels.  Essentially 
a  water-gas  process,  the  producer  or  blast-gases  of  excellent  quality  are  successfully  applied 
to  industrial  work,  making  in  combination  with  the  water-gas  a  very  economical  fuel-gas 
plant.  Fuel-gas  made  by  this  process  is  being  distributed  in  cities 
and  towns  for  domestic  uses,  and  is  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  in- 
dustrial work,  such  as  steel-melting,  melting  iron,  brass,  copper, 
silver,  and  other  metals,  tube  and  plate  welding,  smiths'  forges,  re- 
heating, hardening,  tempering,  and  annealing  furnaces,  pottery- 
kilns,  etc.  For  illuminating  purposes  the  water-gas  is  either  car- 
bureted or  the  non-luminous  gas  used  with  incandescent  burners, 
such  as  the  Welsbach.  Figs.  1  and  2  show  sections  of  the  genera- 
tor, which  is  a  cylindrical  iron  or  steel  shell  7  to  10  ft.  in  diameter, 
and  from  12  to  14  ft.  in  height,  lined  with  fire-brick,  a  is  the  top 
door  for  feeding  fuel  and  supplying  air  for  combustion,  d  is  the 
water-gas  outlet,  M  and  N  cleaning  doors,  b  fire-brick  arches  for 
grate,  C  passage  for  producer-gas  to  cooler.  Figs.  3  and  4  repre- 
sent complete  plant  of  two  generators.  With  fire  in  the  genera- 
tor, the  exhauster  D  draws  air  into  the  top  door  a  down  through 
the  bed  of  fuel,  the  resultant  producer-gas  being  drawn  up  through 
the  vertical  cooling-boiler  C  to  the  exhauster,  and  by  it  delivered 
into  the  producer-gas  holder.  When  the  fuel  is  in  a  state  of  in- 
candescence the  top  door  a  is  closed,  and  the  blast  stopped  by 
closing  the  valve  B;  steam  being  admitted  at  E  passes  up  through 
the  hot  carbon,  the  resultant  water-gas  passing  out  at  the  top  of 
the  generator  through  the  seal  F  and  scrubber  G  to  the  water-gas 
holder.  Producer-gas  can  be  made  continuously,  and  enriched  by 
admitting  steam  into  the  top  of  the  generator.  The  quantity  of 
water  and  producer  gas  varies  with  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  fuel 
used  and  the  method  of  operating.  The  average  make'is  from  35,- 
000  to  45,000  cub.  ft.  of  water-gas,  and  from  100,000  to  150,000  cub. 
ft.  of  producer-gas,  from  a  ton  of  coal. 
The  following  analyses  are  of  gases  of  an  average  quality,  and  not  made  under  exceptional 
conditions : 


FTG.  l. 


FIG.  2. 
FIGS.  !,«.—  Gas- generator. 


GAS-PRODUCERS. 


389 


FIG.  4. 
FIGS.  3,  4.— The  Loomis  fuel-gas  process. 


C.O, 

CO.  

H 

Heavy  hydrocarbon. 
Marsh-gas 


Water-gas. 
4-00 


^90 -72  combustible. 


CO, 

H° 
N.'.' 


Prodncer-gas. 
3-00 

'    ^"^l'  32-30  combustible. 
.'     64-70 


5-96 
5*98 


100-00 


100-00 


The  Rose  Fuel-Gas  Process  is  a  combined  water  and  oil  gas  method,  the  principal  object 
aimed  at  being  the  thorough  decomposition  of  the  hydrocarbons  by  injecting  them  in  small 
quantities  at  a  number  of  different  points,  thus  avoiding  the  cooling  down  of  the  apparatus 
which  would  grow  out  of  the  introduction  of  large  quantities  of  hydrocarbons  at  any  one 
point.  The  process  will  be  found  fully  described  in  United  States  letters  patent  to'J.  M. 
Rose,  dated  October  13,  1891. 

The  Archer  Fuel-Gas  Process  has  recently  been  introduced  into  iron  and  steel  works  in 
the  United  States  with  very  satisfactory  results.  Crude  Lima  oil  is  generally  the  fuel  used, 
but  other  low-class  oils  or  residuum  left  from  crude  oil  after  the  illuminating  oil  has  been 
removed  are  also  suitable.  The  oil  is  forced  by  a  small  pump  through  a  |-in.  pipe  into  the 
producer  in  which  the  gas  is  made.  During  its  passage  from  the  pump  to  the  producer  the 
oil  is  heated  by  passing  through  a  coil  of  pipes  forming  part  of  the  apparatus.  On  reaching 
the  vaporizers  the  oil  is  brought  into  contact  with  steam,  superheated  in  a  similar  manner, 
by  which  it  is  instantaneously  decomposed,  and  a  gas  of  great  heating  power  is  the  result. 


390 


GAUGE-SAW. 


For  heating  purposes  the  gas  is  conveyed  immediately  as  it  is  made  through  pipes  to  the  fur- 
nace or  burner,  where,  by  the  admixture  of  atmospheric  air,  perfect  combustion  is  obtained  in 
the  process  of  consumption. 

Taylor's  Revolving  Bottom  Gas-Producer  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  object  of  the  revolving 
bottom  is  to  avoid  the  difficulty  of  getting  rid  of  the  ash  and  clinker  common  to  all  the  older 
forms  of  producers  with  stationary  grates.  The  revolving  bottom  is  of  greater  diameter  than 
the  bottom  of  the  combustion-chamber,  and  placed  at  such  a  distance  therefrom  that,  when  it 
is  revolved,  the  ash.  which  forms  its  own  dome  or  slope  at  an  angle  of  about  55°,  is  discharged 
uniformly  by  its  own  gravitation  over  the  periphery  and 
into  the  sealed  ash-pit  below  (which  is  under  pressure),  all 
without  stopping  the  producer,  or  much  interference  with 
making  gas.  The  grinding  is  done  as  fast  as  the  ash  rises 
too  far  above  the  central  air  and  steam  discharge,  say  every 
6  to  24  hours,  according  to  the  rate  of  working.  The  door 
of  the  ash-pit  is  opened  once  a  day  for  taking  out  the  ash 
and  clinker.  The  injected  air  and  steam  are  introduced 
through  a  central  pipe  and  discharged  radially  therefrom, 
in  order  to  prevent  too  .much  travel  of  the  gas  next  the 
walls,  which  is  the  line  of  least  resistance,  the  opening  be- 
ing placed  at  a  point  sufficiently  high  to  clear  the  required 
bed  of  ash. 

The  American  Oil-Gas  Machine,  recently  invented  by 
E.  P.  Reichelm  and  George  Machlet,  Jr.,  of  the  American 
Gas-Furnace  Co.,  is  described  by  the  inventors  as  follows : 
"  The  oil  is  disintegrated  by  contact  with  a  powerful  stream 
of  air,  which  enters  through  the  bottom  of  the  generator. 
The  resulting  spray  is  driven  successively  through  a  num- 
ber of  compartments  closed  by  perforated  disks,  the  holes 
in  which  are  graded  in  fineness  upward,  each  hole  or  per- 
foration acting  as  a  spraying  tube,  and  this  spray  becomes 
finer  and  finer  until  the  topmost  disk  discharges  only  a 
homogeneous  mixture  of  air  and  atomized  oil.  The  vio- 
lent atomizing  of  the  oil  produces  intense  cold,  and  the 
moisture  contained  in  the  injected  air  is  condensed  and 
frozen  into  small  bodies  of  ice,  which  return  with  the  oil 
that  does  not  pass  from  the  generator  as  gas  to  a  tank  be- 
low it,  where  it  melts  and  deposits  as  water.  The  desired 
pressure  in  the  generator  and  the  proportionate  supply  of 
oil  are  maintained  by  self-acting  devices.  The  oil  return- 
ing from  the  generator  unconverted  is  resubjected  to  the  spraying  process  until  converted. 
The  returning  oil  only  comes  in  contact  with  the  fresh  air  injected,  while  fresh  oil.  which  is 
fed  into  a  separate  compartment,  replaces  the  oil  converted  into  gas.  The  gas  is  of  good 
quality  for  mechanical  purposes,  producing  a  minimum  of  oxidation." 

GAUGE-SAW.  On  all  sawing-machines  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  gauge  which  is  at  once 
accurate  and  easily  operated.  There  are  numbers  of  them  upon  the  market,  some  for  square 
work  only,  others  only  for  bevel  work.  One  which  is  shown  (Fig.  1)  is  a  combination  gauge, 
made  by  H.  L.  Beach,  for  both  square  and  beveled  sawing.  Its  essential  or  main  feature  is  the 


FIG.  5.— Taylor's  gas-producer. 


FIG.  1.— Combination  gauge-saw. 

use  of  an  eccentric  and  lever  for  locking  its  two  adjustable  portions.  There  is  a  sliding  piece 
running  in  a  groove  regulating  the  distance  of  the  gauge  from  the  saw-disk  ;  and  this,  by  a 
single  motion  of  its  lever,  is  loosened  or  tightened.  The  fence  proper  is  pivoted  on  a  hori- 
zontal axis,  and  may  be  set  at  any  degree  of  bevel  with  the  vertical,  as  indicated  by  a  pointer 
and  a  graduated  circumference ;  the  same  simple  eccentric  and  lever  loosening  or  locking  it 
by  a  pinching  device.  There  are  two  adjusting  set-screws  for  keeping  it  in  alignment  with 
the  saw.  It  may  be  readily  attached  to  any  common  saw-table. 

Gauge:    see  Measuring  Instruments,  Mechanical.     Gauge-Lathe:    see  Lathes,   Wood- 
Working. 


GEAR-CUTTING   MACHINES. 


391 


GAUGES,  STEAM.  Bristol's  Recording  Pressure-Grange. — This  instrument  (shown  in 
Figs.  1  and  2)  is  a  recent  invention  of  Prof.  W.  H.  Bristol,  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. Fig.  1  represents  the  instrument  complete  and  ready  for  application.  Fig.  2  shows 
the  pressure-tube  with  the  inking-pointer  attached  ;  the  front  of  case,  dial,  and  cover  of  clock 


FIG.  1. 


Fio.  2. 


FIGS.  1,  2.—  Bristol's  recording  pressure-gauge. 


being  removed.  The  pressure-tube  A  is  of  flattened  cross-section,  and  bent  into  approxi- 
mately a  sinusoidal  form.  A  flexible  strip  B,  of  the  same  metal  as  the  tube,  is  secured  at  the 
ends  and  along  the  bands,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  bent  tube  may  be  considered  as  a  series 
of  Bourdon  springs  placed  end  to  end.  Pressure  applied  to  the  tube  produces  a  tendency  to 
straighten  each  bend,  or  collectively  to  elongate  the  whole.  This  tendency  to  lengthen  the 
tube  is  resisted  by  the  flexible  strip  J2,  and  thereby  converted  into  a  multiplied  lateral  motion. 
The  inking-pointer  is  attached  directly  to  the  end  of  the  pressure-tube,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
The  usual  mechanism  and  multiplying  devices  are  dispensed  with,  since  the  motion  of  the 
tnbe  itself  is  positive  and  of  sufficient  range.  The  special  advantage  of  this  is  evident,  con- 
sidering that  in  all  other  pressure-gauges  the  movement  of  the  tube  or  diaphragm  is  small, 
and  requires  a  system  of  mechanism  to  multiply  the  motion  many  times  before  it  is  available 
for  indicating  purposes.  These  multiplying  devices,  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions, 
are  liable  at  any  moment  to  be  a  source  of  error.  In  the  instrument  illustrated  the  tube  is 
designed  for  a  range  of  180  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. ;  for  other  ranges  its  sensitiveness  may  be  varied 
at  will,  by  changing  its  proportions,  as  length,  shape  of  cross-section,  or  thickness.  The 
printed  charts  for  receiving  the  rec- 
ord make  one  revolution  in  24  hours, 
and  are  provided  with  radial  arcs  and 
concentric  circles,  the  divisions  on  the 
radial  arcs  corresponding  to  differ- 
ences in  pressure,  while  those  on  the 
concentric  circles  correspond  to  the 
hours  of  the  day  and  night.  The  in- 
strument is  adapted  for  a  vacuum  as 
well  as  for  a  pressure-gauge,  and,  if 
sufficiently  sensitive,  it  will  serve  as 
a  barometer,  and  measure  changes  of 
atmospheric  pressure.  Another  ap- 
plication of  the  pressure-tube  is  in 
the  recording  thermometer.  The  tube 
may  be  filled  with  a  very  expansible 
liquid,  such  as  alcohol,  and  sealed. 
Variations  in  temperature  produce 
expansion  of  the  inclosed  liquid, 
which  in  turn  give  deflections  of  the 
tube  to  correspond. 

GEAR  CUTTING  MACHINES. 
Bron'n  &  SJiarpe's  Automatic  Gear- 
Ciitter,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  automatic 
in  all  its  motions,  cutting  through 
for  each  tooth,  and  revolving  the 
wheel  until  all  the  teeth  are  cut.  thus 
enabling  the  operator  to  attend  to 
other  work.  The  indexing  is  done 
by  a  worm  and  worm-wheel  moved  by 
change-gears.  The  blank  being  put  in  place,  and  the  cutter-head  adjusted  for  length  of 
stroke,  the  wheel  is  lowered  by  a  screw  having  a  dial  reading  to  thousandths  of  an  inch,  until 


FIG.  1. — Gear-cutter. 


392 


GEAR-CUTTING   MACHINES. 


the  proper  depth  of  cut  is  obtained,  when  the  cutter  passes  through  the  blank  and  back  by  a 
quick  return  movement ;  the  wheel  is  then  moved  the  proper  distance  for  the  next  tooth,  and 
so  on  until  finished.  The  cutter-head  is  adjustable  at  any  angle  for  cutting  bevel-wheels,  the 
degrees  being  marked  on  a  graduated  arc,  no  other  change  being  required.  There  is  also  pro- 
vision for  moving  the  cutter  out  of  center  each  way,  for  cutting  bevel-wheels. 

Rilgrarrfs  Bevel-Gear  Cutter  is  shown  in  Figs.  2  and  3.     The  principle  of  the  machine  is 
explained  as  follows :  It  is  possible  to  make  with  any  system  of  interchangeable  gears  a  rack 


FIG.  3. 
FIGS.  2,  3.  — Bilgram's  bevel-gear  cutter. 

which  will  correctly  gear  with  any  wheel  of  the  set.  Any  wheel  that  gears  correctly  with  this 
rack  must  therefore  also  gear  correctly  with  any  other  wheel  of  the  set ;  and  from  this  it 
follows  that  if  any  number  of  wheels  are  made  to  gear  correctly  with  this  rack,  they  must 
also  gear  correctly  with  one  another.  If  the  wheels  were  made  of  some  soft  material,  say 
wax,  the  teeth  could  be  formed  by  simply  rolling  the  blank  into  the  rack,  care  being  taken 
that  the  pitch-line  of  the  blank  will  roll  on  that  of  the  rack  without  slip.  The  desirable 
clearance  can  be  obtained  by  giving  this  rack  just  the  converse  of  clearance.  Gears  are,  how- 
ever, made  of  material  that  can  not  be  removed  by  pressure,  and  the  process  must  therefore 
be  modified.  The  teeth  of  the  rack  might  be  made  of  hardened  steel,  with  sharp  edges  at  the 
ends ;  and  by  giving  them  a  lateral  motion  the  material  could  be  cut  away  instead  of  being 
pressed  to  one  side.  The  diagram  (Fig.  2)  shows  how  the  tooth  of  an  involute  rack  would 
cut  its  way  through  the  rolling  blank,  thus  forming  one  of  the  spaces  between  two  teeth. 

This  is,  in  fact,  the  process  by  which  this  gear-cutter  accomplishes  its  work.  The  cutting- 
tool  represents  one  tooth  of  a  rack  pertaining  to  an  interchangeable  set  of  gears,  and  it  obtains 
a  reciprocating  motion  in  the  manner  of  a  shaper-tool,  while  the  blank  receives  a  movement 
as  though  it  were  rolling  on  its  pitch  surface.  In  bevel-gears  the  tool  representing  the  rack- 
tooth,  while  cutting,  passes  through  the  varying  depths  or  pitches  :  therefore  the  straight  line 
or  involute  rack-tooth  is  the  only  available  one  for  this  purpose.  The  tool,  instead  of  running 
parallel  with  the  pitch  line,  must  run  parallel  with  the  bottom  of  the  space.  This  will  be 
more  readily  understood  if  it  is  considered  that  the  rack  of  a  bevel-gear  is  nothing  else  but  a 
bevel-gear  forming  a  pitch  angle  of  180°  at  the  apex,  or  a  flat,  circular  disk,  with  teeth  con- 
verging from  the  circumference  toward  the  center.  The  tool,  in  catting,  should  follow  the 
outline  of  the  teeth  of  this  imaginary  plane-wheel :  and  it  is  evident,  therefore,  that  only  one 
side  of  the  converging  space  can  be  formed  correctly  at  a  time. 


GEAR-CUTTING   MACHINES. 


393 


The  machine,  then,  consists  of  two  principal  parts— the  shaper,  which  holds  and  operates 
the  tool,  and  what  may  be  called  the  evolver,  which  holds  and  moves  the  blank.  In  order 
that  the  blank  shall  imitate  the  movement  of  a  rolling  cone,  the  axis  must,  in  the  first  place, 
be  moved  in  the  manner  of  a  conical  pendulum.  To  accomplish  this,  the  bearing  of  the  arbor 
which  carries  the  blank  is  secured  in  an  inclined  position  between  two  uprights  to  a  semi- 
circular horizontal  plate,  which  can  be  oscillated  on  a  vertical  axis  passing  through  the  apex 
of  the  blank.  To  complete  the  rolling  action,  the  arbor  must,  in  the  second  place,  receive 
simultaneously  the  proper  rotation,  and  this  effect  is  produced  in  the  machine  by  having  a 
portion  of  a  cone  (corresponding  with  the  pitch-cone  of  the  blank)  attached  to  the  arbor,  and 
held  by  two  flexible  steel  bands  stretched  in  opposite  directions,  thus  preventing  this  cone 
from  making  any  but  a  rolling  motion  when  the  arbor  receives  the  before-described  conical 
swinging  motion.  One  end  of  each  of  the  two  bands,  of  course,  is  attached  to  the  cone,  while 
the  other  is  attached  to  the  framework  of  the  evolver. 

Mathematically  speaking,  a  cone  does  not  terminate  at  the  apex,  but  is  extended  beyond, 
and  thus  consists  of  two  opposite  sides  or  surfaces  meeting  in  the  apex.  Basing  on  this  prin- 
ciple, the  rolling  cone  above  described  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the  apex  opposite  that  on  which 
the  blank  is  placed,  in  order  to  avoid  an  interference  with  the  tool. 

The  feed  mechanism  effects  a  slow  intermittent  movement  of  the  semicircular  plate  which 
supports  the  inclined  arbor,  thereby  producing  a  slowly  progressing  rolling  of  the  blank  while  the 
reciprocating  tool  forces  its  way  through  the  metal.  The  feed  can  be  reversed  or  disengaged 
altogether,  permitting  the  blank  to  be  rolled  to  the  one  or  the  other  side  by  a  hand-crank. 


FIG.  4. — Automatic  gear-cutter. 

The  arbor  carrying  the  blank  can  be  rotated  independent  of  the  rolling  cone  by  means  of  a 
worm-wheel,  worm  and  index  plate,  which  enables  the  blank  to  be  presented  to  the  cutting  de- 
vice at  properly  spaced  divisions  corresponding  with  the  number  of  teeth  of  the  desired  wheel. 

It  is  essential  that  the  tool  should  be  so  adjusted  that  the  lowest  point  of  the  cutting 
side  should  move  exactly  toward  the  apex  of  the  blank,  and.  in  order  to  set  the  tool,  a  gauge 
is  provide^  by  which  the  tool  can  be  adjusted.  A  distance-block  is  used  between  this  gauge 


394 


GEAR-CUTTING   MACHINES. 


and  the  tool ;  this  mode  admits  of  a  high  degree  of  accuracy,  since  variations  of  distances  can 
readily  be  detected  by  the  touch  when  the  eye  ceases  to  discern. 

When  a  wheel  is  to  be  cut  out  of  the  solid,  the  tool  is  at  first  adjusted  at  a  slight  distance 
from  its  correct  position,  and  after  each  cut  the  feed-motion  of  the  evolver  causes  the  blank 
to  slowly  roll,  and  allows  the  tool  to  cut  out  the  stock  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  diagram. 
All  spaces  are  now  treated  in  the  same  manner  by  using  the  index  device,  whereupon  the  tool 
is  properly  adjusted  for  one  and  then  for  the  other  side,  each  adjustment  being  followed  by  a 
repetition  of  the  process  in  order  to  finish  both  sides  of  the  teeth. 

In  securing  the  blank  to  the  arbor,  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  placing  its  apex  exactly 
in  the  center  of  the  evolver.  A  special  device  enables  the  operator  to  gauge  the  distance  of 
the  ends  of  the  teeth  from  the  center  of  the  evolver,  and  whenever  this  distance  agrees  with 
that  calculated  from  the  drawing,  the  apex  of  the  blank  is  in  its  right  place. 

The  inclination  of  the  arbor  which  holds  the  blank  is  made  adjustable,  so  as  to  adapt  it  to 
the  angle  of  the  desired  gear.  This  adjustment  must  be  exactly  concentric  with  the  center 
of  the  evolver — i.  e..  the  apex  of  the  blank.  The  rolling  cone  is  made  detachable,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  replaced  by  such  cones  as  correspond  with  the  angle  of  the  blank  to  be  cut ;  but  as 
the  number  of  cones 'required  would  be  unlimited,  means  have  been  devised  to  make  a  limited 
number  of  cones  suffice. 

The  tool  consists  of  a  triangular  bar  of  hardened  steel,  forming  at  the  point  an  angle  of  30°, 
15°  on  each  side,  and  held  by  a  special  holder.  By  grinding,  it  can  be  more  or  loss  truncated 
to  suit  the  pitch  of  the  gear  to  be  cut.  By  this  form  of  tool  a  higher  degree  of  accuracy  is 
attainable  than  with  tools  having  curved  faces  made  to  a  gauge.  The  proper  up-and-down 
and  sidewise  adjustment  is  effected  by  two  slides1  working  at  right  angles,  and  operated  by 
screws.  The  clamp  which  fastens  the  tool-holder  is  so  constructed  that  it  also  clamps  the 
slides  to  the  apron,  securing  the  necessary  stability.  The  box  in  which  the  apron  works  is 
made  in  parts,' and  the  faces  are  turned  true  with  the  pin-holes,  in  order  to  get  these  faces 

exactly  at  right  angles  with 
the  pin.  The  latter  is  fast 
in  the  apron,  and  revolves 
in  the  two  sides,  in  which  it 
has  taper  fits  that  the  wear 
may  be  taken  up.  A  device 
for  lifting  the  apron  during 
the  return-stroke  prevents 
the  dragging  of  the  tool. 

The  tool-bar  is  moved  by 
a  Whitworth  quick-return 
motion,  which  is  attached 
directly  to  the  belt-pulley. 
A  double  counter-shaft  con- 
nected by  cone-pulleys  is 
employed  to  change  the 
speed,  if  a  shorter  or  longer 
stroke  is  desired. 

Eberhardfs  Automatic 
(rear-Cutter  (Fig.  4)  shows  a 
machine  for  cutting  spur- 
gears  only,  made  by  Gould 
&  Eberhardt,  Newark,  N.  J. 
It  is  designed  to  cut  gears 
of  a  pitch  as  coarse  as  3-in. 
and  20-in.  face  in  steel,  and 
is  arranged  so  that  two  cut- 
ters, one  blocking  and  one 
finishing,  may  be  placed  and 
run  through  "together.  The 
cutter  -  spindle  has  ample 
bearings  on  each  side  of  the 
cutters.  The  wheels  to  be 
cut  are  held  on  the  hori- 
zontal mandrel,  which  has  a 
rigid  outward  support  and 
bearing.  The  cutter  is  held 
by  a  spindle  at  right  angles 
to  the  work-mandrel,  on  a 
slide  which  is  fed  automati- 
cally by  the  screw  seen  in 
the  cut. 

The  Pratt  &  Whitney  Rack-Cutting  Machine,  shown  in  Fig.  5,  cuts  the  teeth  of  racks  at 
any  pitch,  the  spindle  driving  two  cutters,  which  block  out  and  finish  teeth  at  the  same  time. 
Several  racks  may  be  cut  at  one  time.  The  receiving-table  has  a  vertical  adjustment  and  a 
transverse  horizontal  traverse.  The  feed  is  automatic,  with  self-acting  adjustable  stop-motion. 
The  cone  is  driven  by  a  belt,  and  actuates  the  cutter-spindle  through  the  medium  oi^gears. 


FIG.  5.— The  Pratt  &  Whitney  rack-cutting  machine. 


GEAR-CUTTING   MACHINES. 


395 


Swasey' s  Process  for  Generating  and  Cutting  Spur-Gears. — A  new  process  for  generating 
and  cutting  the  teeth  of  spur-wheels  is  thus  described  by  Ambrose  Swasey,  of  the  firm  of 
Warner  &  Swasey,  Cleveland,  0.  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  L\,  vol.  xii,  1891):  "In  the  new  process, 


FIG.  0. — Swasey's  gear-cutter. 

instead  of  making  all  gears  so  that  they  will  run  into  a  rack,  the  rack  is  transformed  into  a 
cutting-tool,  and  by  it  the  teeth  of  wheels  of  any  diameter  are  generated  and  cut  at  the  same 
time.  Fig.  6  illustrates  a  gear  generating  and  cutting  engine  constructed  on  this  principle. 
The  cutters  are  shown  in  position  as  they  appear  in  the  machine  when  the  teeth  are  cut  partly 
across  the  face  of  the  wheel.  The  cutting-spindle  and  the  main  spindle  which  carries  the 
wheel  are  connected  by  means  of  change-gears,  the  number  of  teeth  to  be  cut  in  the  wheel 
determining  their  proportion,  on  a  similar  principle  as  the  change-gears  of  an  engine-lathe, 
thereby  causing  the  cutting-spindle  to  make  as  many  revolutions  as  there  are  teeth  required 
in  the  wheel,  while  the  main  spindle  makes  one  revolution. 

The  cutting-tool  is  composed  of  a  series  of  cutters  rigidly  connected,  which  revolve,  and 
at  the  same  time  move  longitudinally,  or  endwise,  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  wheel  to 
be  cut;  and  at  the  same  speed,  it  is  continually  revolving  at  the  pitch-line,  the  motions  being 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  a  rack  engaging  with  a  revolving  gear. 

As  it  would  be  impracticable  to  continue  moving  the  whole  series  of  cutters  endwise,  they 
are  bisected,  and  these  segments  are  connected  in  series  forming  two  sections,  which  revolve 
upon  a  cammon  axis,  and  each  section  is  given  an  independent  endwise  motion  by  means  of 
a  cam.  When  one  section  is  engaged  in  cutting,  it  is  carried  endwise  in  the  same  direction 
and  at  the  same  velocity  that  the  pitch-line  of  the  wheel  is  revolving,  until  disengaged  from 
it,  when  the  cutters,  while  continuing  to  revolve,  are  carried  back  by  the  cam  to  their  original 
position,  ready  for  the  next  tooth.  By  means  of  both  sections,  as  they  continually  revolve 
and  alternately  slide  forward  while  cutting,  and  back  when  disengaged,  there  is  a  continuous 
cutting  and  generating  process  of  the  teeth  in  the  revolving  wheel.  The  head  carrying  the 
cutters  is  automatically  fed  across  the  face  of  the  wheel,  and  when  the  cutters  have  proceeded 
once  across  the  gear  is  completed. 


396 


GEAR-CUTTING   MACHINES. 


Fig.  7  is  a  side  elevation  of  a  bisected  cutter ;  and  Fig.  8  shows  a  series  of  six  cutters,  the 
end  one  being  in  elevation  and  the  others  in  cross-section — these  having  cutting  portions, 


Fia.  7.— Cutter. 


FIG.  8.— Set  of  cutters. 


which  in  cross-section  represent  the  teeth  of  a  rack,  with  the  addition  to  the  diameter  of  a 
given  proportion  of  the  pitch  by  which  the  clearance  and  fillets  at  the  bottom  of  the  teeth 
are  made.  If  their  cutting  portions  are  formed  of  cycloids,  then  the  whole  set  of  gear-wheels 
cut  with  them  will  be  of  the  epicycloidal  or  double-curve  system.  If  they  are  formed  simply 
of  straight  sides,  then  a  set  of  involute  or  single-curve  gears  will  be  generated  and  cut,  or 
their  cutting  portions  may  be  composed  of  both  straight  lines  and  cycloids  and  produce  Prof. 
McCord's  recent  system  of  gearing,  which  has  composite  teeth  with  the  contours  partly  invo- 
lute and  partly  epicycloidal. 

All  the  cutters  in  a  series  are  made  exactly  alike  and  interchangeable,  the  thickness  of 
each  or  the  distance  from  the  center  of  one  to  the  center  of  that  adjoining  being  equal  to  the 
pitch  of  the  gear  to  be  cut.  As  indicated  in  Fig.  7,  the  two  segments  of  a  cutter  are  first 
made  whole,  with  four  holes  an  equal  distance  from  the  center,  through  which  the  rods  pass 
that  fasten  them  together.  After  the  cutters  are  nearly  completed  they  are  bisected  with  a 
narrow  tool,  leaving  two  holes  in  each  segment. 


FIG.  9.— Swasey's  gear-cutter-section  of  head. 

Fig.  9  is  a  cross-section  of  the  head,  showing  the  mechanism  for  revolving  and  reciprocat- 
ing the  cutters.  The  rods  which  extend  through  the  cutters  serve  not  only  to  hold  them 
firmly  together  but  to  revolve  them,  and  at  the  same  time  act  as 
slides  for  the  reciprocating  motion.  The  spindles  on  either  side  of 
the  cutters,  through  which  the  rods  extend,  are  revolved  independ- 
ently and  at  the  same  speed  by  means  of  a  parallel  shaft,  having  a 
pinion  at  each  end,  which  engages  with  a  large  gear  on  each  spin- 
dle. By  this  means  the  four  rods  carrying  the  two  cutter  sections 
are  revolved  from  each  end,  thus  avoiding  the  torsional  strain  which 
would  result  if  driven  from  one  end  only.  The  pair  of  rods  for 
each  section,  after  passing  through  one  of  the  spindles,  terminates 
in  semi-cylindrical  blocks.  From  each  of  these  blocks  a  stud  ex- 
tends, on  "which  is  journaled  a  roll,  engaging  with  a  cam  attached 
rigidly  to  the  head.  This  cam  is  shown  in  Fig.  10,  the  working 
portions  being  made  in  the  form  of  a  screw-thread,  which,  if  ex- 
tended all  the  way  around,  would  have  a  lead  equal  to  the  thickness 
or  pitch  of  the  cutter.  As  each  section  of  the  cutters  engages  with 
the  wheel  but  three  fourths  of  a  revolution,  the  thread  portion  of  the 
cam  which  carries  the  cutters  forward  extends  only  three  fourths  of 
its  circumference,  leaving  the  other  one  fourth  for  the  reverse  curves  of  the  cam  to  bring  the 
cutters  back  to  their  starting-point.  Provision  is  made  for  adjusting  one  section  of  the  cut- 


FIG.  10.— Cam. 


GLASS-MAKING. 


397 


FIG.  1.— Siemens  tank-furnace. 


ters  so  as  exactly  to  coincide  with  the  other.  The  variation  in  the  spacing  from  one  tooth  to 
another  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  as  the  series  of  cutters  act  upon  both  sides  of  a  number  of 
teeth  at  the  same  time,  and  serve  to  average  and  eliminate  any  local  inaccuracies  in  the  di- 
vision of  the  index  and  driving-gears ;  also  to  obviate  any  tendency  to  crowd  the  wheel  from 
one  side  to  the  other. 

The  endwise  motion  of  the  cutters  and  the  revolving  of  the  wheel  at  the  pitch-line  being 
exactly  the  same,  the  process  of  generating  and  cutting  the  teeth  goes  on  continuously  and 
uniformly  around  its  entire  periphery,  so  that  one  part  is  not  heated  more  than  another,  but 
all  the  teeth  are  cut  under  exactly  the  same  conditions,  and  when  the  revolving  cutters  have 
once  passed  across  the  face  all  the  teeth  in  the  gear  are  completed  and  given  the  correct  form 
for  each  diameter  of  wheel ;  and  as  by  the  Willis  theory  all  gears  are  cut  to  run  into  a  rack, 
so  by  this  process  the  Sang  theory  is  put  into  practice  and  a  rack  is  made  to  cut  correctly  all 
gears. 

Gear-Cutter :  see  Watches  and  Clocks. 
.  Gears :  see  Carriages  and  Wagons. 
Gin,  Cotton :  see  Cotton-Grin. 

Glassing-Machine:  see  Leather- Working  Machinery. 

GLASS-MAKING.  The  Siemens  Continuous  Tan/c-Furnace.—The  use  of  the  melting- 
pots  in  glass-making  is  now  altogether  abandoned,  and  the  batch  is  introduced  into,  melted 
in,  and  worked  from  a  tank  occupying 
the  entire  bed  of  the  furnace,  which  lat- 
ter is  heated  by  the  well-known  Sie- 
mens regenerative  gas  system.  Two 
floating  bridges  or  partitions  divide  the 
tank  into  three  compartments  —  the 
melting  compartment,  the  refining  com- 
partment, and  the  working-out  com- 
partment. In  the  illustration,  Fig.  1 
is  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  furnace, 
and  Fig.  2  is  a  transverse  section  taken 
through  the  melting  compartment  look- 
ing toward  the  rear  of  the  furnace. 
The  raw  material  (or  batch)  is  fed  into 
the  melting  compartment  through  the 

door  at  the  back  end  of  the  furnace,  and  the  partially  melted  glass  passes  under  the  floating 
bridge  into  the  refining  compartment,  where  the  metal,  by  the  influence  of  the  higher  tem- 
perature maintained  upon  its  surface,  is  completely  purified,  and  sinks  to  flow  under  the 
other  bridge  into  the  working-out  compartment  in  a  thorough  workable  condition.  Air-pass- 
ages are  provided  to  maintain  the  sides  of  the  tank  at  the  requisite  temperature  to  prevent 
any  egress  of  glass  through  them,  and  the  floating  bridges  are  renewed  as  often  as  they  be- 
come burned  out.  The  flames  play  across  the  furnace  from  the  gas  and  air  ports,  which  lead 
to  the  regenerators  of  the  regenerative  gas-furnace.  In  order  to  regulate  the  temperature  of 
the  different  parts  according  to  the  various  stages  of  preparation  of  the  glass  in  the  several 
compartments,  the  gas  and  air  ports  are  constructed  of  larger  or  smaller  dimensions,  or  their 
number  varied  according  to  the  amount  of  heat  required  at  the  different  points.  This  is  also 
facilitated  by  means  of  division  walls  (not  shown  in  the  illustrations),  which  may  be  built  over 
the  floating  bridges  to  separate  the  compartments.  The  temperature  of  the  working-out  com- 
partment is  further  controlled  by  regulating  the  draft  of  the  furnace  chimney,  by  diminishing 
which  more  or  less  flame  must  necessarily  pass  over  the  bridge  into  this  compartment  from 
the  refining  compartment. 

About  the  first  improvement  made  on  the  Siemens  continuous  tank-furnace  just  described 
was  the  idea  of  Mr.  Frederick  Siemens  to  construct  the  tank  in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe  or 

segment  of  a  circle,  with  the  feed- 
ing-door and  communications  to 
and  from  the  regulator  arranged 
on  the  flat  side  of  the  segment, 
for  the  purpose  of  cooling  the  ex- 
terior surface  of  the  tank  and  ren- 
dering it  available  for  working- 
out  holes.  He  also  arranged  a 
series  of  working-out  compart- 
ments on  the  inner  side  of  the 
curvilinear  wall,  each  compart- 
ment communicating  by  means  of 
a  passage  with  the  melting-cham- 
bers. In  the  continuous  refining 
FIG.  2.-S,emens  tank-furnace.  and  working.out  of  glass  it  al?S 

became  necessary  to  remove  or 

avoid  the  impurities  which  were  found  to  float  upon  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tank  or 
pot,  and  therefore  Dr.  Siemens  contrived  a  device  to  do  that  important  work  in  a  simple  and 
inexpensive  way.  He  constructed  a  fire-clay  vessel  or  boat  of  oblong  shape  to  swim  in  the 
liquid  glass  contained  in  the  tank,  and  this  boat  was  perforated  below  its  draft-line  so  that,  as 
it  floats,  the  melted  material  flows  into  the  boat  through  these  holes  entirelv  free  from  the  im- 


398  GLASS-MAKING. 


purities  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tank  or  pot.  To  further  assist  the  process 
of  fining  and  working-out  of  the  glass,  the  boat  is  made  in  two  compartments,  the  second  of 
which  is  the  working-out  compartment :  the  dividing  partition  is  provided  with  apertures 
near  its  bottom,  so  that,  as  the  glass  flows  into  the  boat  free  from  impurities,  as  above  de- 
scribed, it  becomes  more  fluid  in  the  first  compartment  by  the  action  of  the  heat  upon  its 
surface  than  below,  and  consequently,  in  becoming  denser,  it  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  this  first 
compartment,  whence  it  flows  through  the  apertures  named  into  the  second  compartment, 
which  is  within  convenient  reach  of  the  working-out  hole  of  the  furnace. 

It  had  been  observed  that,  in  this  glass-melting  process,  the  metal  as  it  "  fines  "  sinks  below 
the  surface,  and  that,  consequently,  in  order  to  work  out  the  metal  to  the  best  advantage, 
the  depth  of  the  tank  had  to  be  very  considerably  increased,  so  that  below  the  fluid-molten 
metal  there  should  be  a  layer  of  metal  in  a  semi-fluid  or  partially  solid  condition  lining  the 
tank.  One  of  the  later  glass-making  patents  to  Frederick  Siemens  covered  this  important 
point.  He  uses  a  deep  tank,  in  which  there  are  boats  or  floating  fining- vessels  made  of  refract- 
ory material,  and  provided  with  projecting  horns  which  serve  as  fenders  to  keep  them  from 
close  contact  with  the  sides  of  the  tank. 

Another  improvement  upon  the  regenerative  tank- furnace  for  continuously  melting  glass 
consisted  in  placing  the  regenerators  at  the  sides  of  the  tank  and  forming  an  open  cave  below 
the  tank,  communicating  with  air-spaces  on  each  side,  for  the  purpose  of  cooling  the  bottom 
and  sides  and  receiving  such  metal  as  may  leak  through  in  any  open  accessible  space. 

A  patent  was  also  granted  in  1885  for  an  improvement  in  the  art  of  subjecting  a  charge 
in  a  glass-melting  tank  to  the  gradual  application  of  heat,  consisting  of  treating  such  charge 
in  a  tank  so  arranged  and  adapted  that  the  surface  of  the  molten  metal  contained  therein 
shall  be  preserved  constantly  level,  and  having  a  bottom  wholly  or  partially  inclined  from  the 
charging  end  toward  the  gathering  end,  whereby  said  charge,  when  melted,  becomes  of  vary- 
ing depth  above  said  bottom  and  below  the  'hot  gases  forming  the  source  of  heat.  It  is 
claimed  for  this  invention  that  the  heat  can  be  applied  more  uniformly  to  the  charge  or 
batch,  and  the  latter  becomes  more  thoroughly  fluxed,  preventing  also  the  formation  of  de- 
posits in  the  tank,  or  what  are  technically  known  as  "cords"  or  "stones." 

Tank-furnaces  are  used  principally  in  bottle-works  and  in  the  manufacture  of  rolled  plate, 
but  window-glass  of  a  low  grade  has  also  been  shown  as  made  in  one  of  these  tank-furnaces. 
In  some  instances  they  are  fired  by  common  coal  from  one  end,  the  working-holes  being  on 
the  other  three  sides.  A  new  practice,  which  was  introduced  in  France  some  few  years  ago 
by  M.  Clemandot,  a  celebrated  glass  manufacturer,  has  found  much  favor  among  glass-makers. 
It  is  the  coating  with  nickel  of  molds,  blow-pipes,  and  tools  used  in  glass-blowing.  This  coat- 
ing prevents  the  oxide  of  iron  from  being  introduced  into  the  glass  from  impure  cullets. 

Cutting  Glass. — Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  cut  glass  by  machinery,  but  up  to 
within  a  few  years  no  considerable  amount  of  success  has  been  met  with.  There  was  a  ma- 
chine in  operation  at  the  Paris  Exposition  which  had  just  been  brought  out,  and  was  supposed 
to  be  for  cutting  several  tumblers  at  a  time,  although  only  single  glasses  were  cut  in  public. 
The  tumbler  was  mounted  upon  a  holder  pressing  upon  the  face  of  a  horizontally  revolving 
wheel,  the  holder  being  weighted  sufficiently  to  give  the  proper  pressure  to  grind  out  the 
flutes.  The  apparatus  was  automatic,  raising  and  revolving  the  tumbler  a  sufficient  distance 
to  cut  the  next  flute,  and  again  lowering  it  against  the  grinding-wheel,  repeating  the  opera- 
tion until  all  the  flutes  around  the  tumbler  are  cut.  There  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any 
means  for  regulating  the  penetration  of  the  grinding-wheel,  pressure  being  simply  depended 
upon  for  action. 

An  American  glass-cutting  machine,  invented  by  Messrs.  Charles  &  J.  P.  Colne,  has  been 
used  for  some  years  in  the  successful  cutting  of  decanters,  goblets,  sugar-bowls,  mustard-pots, 
tumblers,  etc.  *  It  is  not  entirely  automatic,  but  is  adapted  to  cut  all  geometrical  shapes  and 
patterns,  as  well  as  a  great  variety  of  styles  of  cutting.  The  rapidity,  the  regularity,  and  the 
perfection  of  the  work  done  with  this  machine  insure  considerable  saving  in  the  original  cost 
price  of  cut  articles. 

Pressing  or  Molding  Glass. — When  pressing  glass  continuously  for  a  long  time  the  molds 
often  get  heated  too  high,  and  in  this  state  glass  is  very  apt  to  stick  to  them.  This  incon- 
venience is  now  done  away  with  by  a  system  of  blowing  air  into  the  molds.  By  means  of  a 
revolving  fan  or  other  device,  and  tin  pipes  arranged  around  the  furnace,  a  continuous  stream 
of  air  is  furnished.  India-rubber  pipes  are  attached  to  the  tin  pipes  at  suitable  places.  By 
means  of  these  pipes,  after  each  pressing,  or  as  often  as  necessary,  a  stream  of  air  is  sent  in- 
side of  the  mold,  thereby  cooling  it.  The  air  circulating  in  the  pipes  may  also  be  used  for 
ventilation  and  for  cooling  the  glass-house.  Of  late,  attempts  have  been  made  to  use  presses 
for  pressing  glass  by  steam  or  compressed  air.  One  of  these  presses  has  a  set  of  molds  carried 
upon  a  revolving  bed,  and  is  operated  by  a  presser  like  a  hand-press.  The  power,  however,  is 
applied  to  the  presser  by  means  of  an  auxiliary  steam-engine,  which  is  continually  at  work. 
Whenever  an  article  is  to  be  pressed,  by  suitable  leverage  the  presser  is  forced  down,  then  re- 
leased ;  the  bed-plate  revolves  far  enough  to  bring  another  mold  under  the  presser,  and  the 
operation  is  repeated  as  often  as  desired.  Mechanism  is  attached  and  operated  also  by  steam 
so  as  to  push  the  pieces  out  of  the  mold  after  they  are  pressed.  These  are  the  principal 
features  of  the  invention. 

In  the  other  press  steam  is  replaced  by  compressed  air  contained  in  a  reservoir,  which  may 
be  filled  by  means  of  an  air-compressing  engine.  The  bed-plate  carrying  the  molds  has  a 
rectilinear 'motion.  When  an  article  is  to  be  pressed  the  mold  is  brought  under  the  presser; 
by  means  of  suitable  valves  and  pipes  air  is  sent  to  a  cylinder-piston  carrying  the  plunger. 


GOVERNORS. 


399 


The  pressure  of  the  air  forces  the  presser  down  into  the  mold,  the  valve?  are  reversed,  and 
the  piston  and  presser  fly  back.  A  new  mold  is  now  under  the  plunger.  The  operation  may 
be  repeated  as  often  as"  desired  by  simply  opening  and  closing  the  air- valves.  In  this  press, 
as  in  the  other,  the  pieces  are  forced  out  of  the  molds  by  rising  plugs  or  bottoms.  The  differ- 
ent motions  of  this  press  are  entirely  automatic,  with  the  exception  of  operating  the  air- 
valves.  In  order  to  form  the  air-bubbles  which  are'  often  seen  inside  of  solid  pieces  of  glass, 
they  have  been  pressed  with  cavities  on  the  outside,  and  after  being  reheated  they  are  closed 
by  pressing  the  outside  down  with  suitable  tools,  thus  inclosing  the  air  in  the  cavities. 

Rolling  PI  ate- Glass.— X  new  method  and  apparatus  for  rolling  plate  and  sheet  glass  has 
been  introduced  by  Mr.  James  W.  Bonta,  of  Wayne,  Pa.  The  main  features  of  the  operation 
are :  first,  rolling  "the  glass  plate  on  one  side,  then  placing  it  between  platens,  then  raising 
both  platens,  then  rotating  the  same,  then  lifting  one  of  said  platens,  and  then  rolling  the 
other  side  of  the  plate.  The  machine  for  accomplishing  this  work  has  combined  with  a 
presser  roller  a  movable  platen  for  passing  the  glass  underneath  this  roller,  and  a  vertically 
sliding  frame  having  journals  which  carry  the  second  platen.  There  are  special  devices  for 
bringing  the  platens  together  and  locking  their  journals,  and  for  raising,  lowering,  and  ro- 
tating the  locked  platens,  as  well  as  for  releasing  the  latter  with  the  unrolled  side  of  the  glass 
uppermost,  so  that  it  may  be  ready  for  the  next  part  of  the  operation. 

Gold-Mill :  see  Mills,  Gold. 

GOVERNORS.     We  present  a  variety  of  the  latest  improved  types  of  governors. 

BalVs  Shaft- Governor. — Mr.  Frank  H.  Ball  has  recently  made  a  new  application  of  a 
dash-pot  to  centrifugal  governors,  which  seems  to  be  free  from  the  difficulty  formerly  en- 
countered with  dash-pots  in  this  connection.  It  is  thus  described  in  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E., 
vol.  ix : 

"  The  principles  involved  may  be  understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  1.  The  governor  here 
shown  is  one  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  shifting  eccentric  governors.  The  introduction  of  the 
spring  S  between  the  dash- 
pot  and  the  movable  part  of 
the  governor  is  the  new  feat- 
ure. Its  operation  and  effect 
are  as  follows :  Suppose  the 
long  spring  D  be  drawn  up 
until  its  initial  tension,  in  dis 
tance  of  stretch,  shall  corre- 
spond exactly  with  the  dis- 
tance between  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  weight  and 
the  axis  of  revolution.  This 
is  what  is  called '  full  theoretic 
tension.'  The  condition  is  the 
same  as  would  be  obtained  if 
the  weights  were  first  placed 
at  the  center  of  the  shaft,  and 
after  attaching  the  spring 
without  any  tension  the 
weight  was  then  moved  out 
to  the  position  shown.  With 
this  relation  between  the  position  of  the  weight  and  the  tension  of  the  spring,  the  increase  and 
decrease  of  centrifugal  force  caused  by  moving  the  weight  to  or  from  the  axis  of  revolution 
would  exactly  harmonize  with  the  changes  of  resistance  of  the  spring  due  to  said  motion ;  and 
if  the  two  forces  were  in  equilibrium  in  one  position,  they  would  be  so  in  every  position  at  the 
same  speed.  This  condition,  as  has  already  been  said,  should  be  expected  to  give  uniform 
speed  of  the  engine  at  every  position  of  the  governor,  but  has  been  found  impracticable  on 
account  of  its  instability.  The  object  of  the  dash-pot  and  spring  here  shown  is  to  allow  the 
theoretically  perfect  adjustment  of  the  long  spring,  and  to  furnish  ample  stability  without 
making  the  governor  sluggish,  or  in  the  least  preventing  a  quick  and  delicate  balancing  of 
the  forces.  This  spring  8  is  arranged  for  both  compression  and  extension,  and  has  a  range  of 
deflection  sufficient  to  allow  the  full  motion  of  the  governor,  from  one  extreme  to  the  other, 
without  regard  to  the  motion  of  the  piston  of  the  dash-pot  to  which  it  is  attached.  The  re- 
sistance of  this  spring  S.  having  no  initial  tension,  is  entirely  out  of  harmony  with  the  other 
spring,  and  combined  with  them  produces  exactly  the  effect  when  motion  takes  place  that  is 
obtained  ordinarily  in  centrifugal  governors,  by  using  springs  with  less  than  the  full  theoretic 
tension :  and  if  the  dash-pot  piston  should  remain  stationary,  the  same  change  of  speed 
would  be  found  between  the  extreme  positions  of  the  governor ;  but  by  reason  of  the  move- 
ment of  this  piston,  the  tension  on  spring  S  is  released,  and  it  then  ceases  to  be  a  factor  in  the 
speed,  which  is  only  the  result  of  the  long  spring,  and.  as  has  been  previously  shown,  it  must 
be  the  same  at  every  position  of  the  weight.  This  theory,  though  somewhat  obscure,  seems  to 
be  correct,  and  its  practical  operation  under  careful  tests  proves  it  to  be  so." 

Governors  are  now  made  of  various  types,  embodying  this  principle,  and  have  been  found 
to  compel  the  same  number  of  revolutions  per  min.  of  the  engine  under  any  condition  of  load 
or  boiler-pressure  within  the  full  capacity  of  the  engine. 

Smith's  Governor  is  shown  in  Figs.  2  and  3.  It  is  described  at  length  in  Trans.  A.  S.  J/. 
E.,  vol.  xi.  It  was  designed  on  the  basis  of  the  following  propositions :  First,  a  governor  to 


FIG.  1. — Ball's  shaft-governor. 


400 


GOVERNORS. 


be  sensitive  must  be  as  free  as  possible  of  friction.     Second,  to  be  powerful,  the  forces  which 
are  in  equilibrium  must  be  large  compared  with  the  resistance  of  the  valve  to  be  moved. 


FIG.  2. — Smith's  governor. 

Third,  in  order  that  the  shaft  may  not  be  thrown  out  of  balance  by  change  of  position  of 
the  governor-weights,  these  weights  must  be  symmetrical.     Fourth,  that  the  engine  may 

make  long  runs  the  joints  of  the  governor  must  be  so 
constructed  as  not  to  require  oil,  or  be  capable  of  lu- 
brication while  in  motion. 

This  governor  was  designed  in  1883,  and  has  been 
applied  to  a  number  of  engines  with  unbalanced  as 
well  as  balanced  valves.  A  smalj  shaft  B  is  journaled 
in  the  hub  of  the  fly-wheel,  and  is  parallel  to  the  main 
shaft.  The  eccentric,  whose  center  is  at  1),  is  fixed  to 
one  end  of  the  shaft  B,  and  the  cross-arm  d  to  the 
other.  The  center  of  the  eccentric  may  thus  move 
about  B,  across  the  shaft,  and  produce  the  variable 
valve-motion.  Each  end  of  the  cross-arm  d  is  con- 
nected by  a  link  C  to  an  arm  e,  pivoted  at  P.  The 
flying-weight  W  fixed  to  the  arm  a,  also  pivoted  at: 
P,  tends  to  move  outward  as  the  speed  increases.  It 
is  resisted  by  a  weight  E  acting  on  the  arm  b,  also 
pivoted  at  P,  which  moves  inward  when  W  moves 
outward.  The  spring  S,  whose  axis  is  radial,  also 
acts  on  arm  b,  and  assists  the  weight  E  to  urge  W  in- 
ward. The  valve  resistance  V  also  assists  the  weight 
E.  The  arms  a  b  c  are  all  formed  in  one  piece.  The 
weights  W  and  E  and  spring  S  move  as  nearly  as 
possible  upon  radii  from  the  center  of  rotation.  "For 
the  purpose  of  reducing  the  friction  to  a  minimum, 
the  pivot  P,  which  sustains  the  greatest  strain,  and 


FIG.  3.— Smith's  governor— section. 


the  bearings  at  the  ends  of  arms  &,  are  made  in  the  form  of  knife-edges  of  hardened  steel. 
They  require  little  or  no  oil,  and  are  inclosed  so  as  not  to  gather  dust.  The  joints  of  the  links 
C  support  little  strain,  and  are  usually  made  simple  pin  connections.  The  eccentric  being 
mounted  on  the  small  shaft  B,  which  has  a  long  bearing  in  the  hub  of  the  fly-wheel,  requires 


GOVERNORS. 


401 


little  force  to  move  it.  The  shaft  B  may,  besides,  be  oiled  while  the  engine  is  running,  by 
means  of  a  small  pipe  extending  from  the  center  of  the  main  shaft  to  the  middle  of  shaft  B, 
so  that  the  friction  here  is  also  reduced  to  a  very  small  amount.  This  governor  is  readily 
adapted  to  run  in  either  direction.  The  spring  has  only  to  take  up  the  difference  of  centrif- 
ugal force  of  the  weight  W  in  its  inner  and  outer  positions,  instead  of  the  whole  of  that  force, 
as  in  most  governors.  The  spring  may  therefore  be  small  and  short,  and  still  not  be  strained 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  fatigue  the  metal.  A  common  compression-spring,  such  as  is  in  use 
under  cars,  has  been  employed,  and  found  simple  and  effective.  If  a  spring  breaks,  the  en- 
gine stops.  The  initial  tension  of  the  spring,  which  is  what  supplies  the  greater  part  of  the 
centripetal  force  in  most  governors,  is  here  replaced  by  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  weight  E, 
which  force  is  practically  constant  within  the  range  of  speed  variation.  A  variation  of  speed 
of  less  than  1  per  cent  between  no  load  and  0'7  cut-off  may  be  readily  obtained  in  practice, 
and  this  regulation  can  be  maintained  during  long-continued  runs.  When  this  governor  is 
applied  to  center-crank  engines  with  valve  connections 
outside  of  the  fly-wheel  the  eccentric  can  be  dispensed 
with,  and  replaced  by  a  wrist-pin  D'  formed  on  the  end  of 
an  arm  extending  from  the  cross-arm  d,  as  shown  in 
dotted  lines  to  the  left  of  Fig.  3. 

The  Mice  Automatic  Engine-Governor  is  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  It  consists  of  two  balls  hung  on  pivots,  and  held 
in  equilibrium  against  centrifugal  force  by  two  elliptic 
springs,  whose  tension  may  be  increased  or  diminished  by 
the  tension-bolt  which  connects  them.  The  balls  are  con- 
nected to  a  lever,  which  in  its  turn  is  connected  with  the 
eccentric  through  the  hollow  crank-pin.  The  balls  are 
cast  hollow,  and  may  be  loaded  with  shot.  (See  ENGINES, 
STEAM  STATIONARY  RECIPROCATING,  for  the  Rice  engine.) 

The  Mclntosh  &  Seymour  Governor. — Fig.  5  repre- 
sents the  governor  used  on  the  Mclntosh  &  Seymour  en- 
gines (see  ENGINES,  STEAM  STATIONARY  RECIPROCATING)  up 
to  150  horse-power  with  the  weights  in  their  two  extreme  positions,  the  details  of  the  different 
parts  being  shown  in  Fig.  6.    In  common  with  other  so-called  shaft-governors,  it  is  a  device 


FIG.  4. — Rice  governor. 


FIG.  5. — Mclntosh  and  Seymour  governor. 

for  regulating  the  speed  of  the  engine  by  centrifugal  weights  and  opposing  springs,  which 
control  the  point  of  cut-off  by  swinging  the  eccentric  across  the  shaft.  The  centrifugal 
weights  are  pivoted,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  inclined  jaws.  When 
the  weights  move,  the  inclined  jaws 
acting-  through  the  blocks  (which 
slide  in  them  and  turn  on  a  boss 
on  the  pendulum)  change  the  posi- 
tion of  the  pendulum.  This  may 
be  termed  a  wedging  action,  and 
though  the  slightest  force  acting 
on  the  weights  is  sufficient  to  affect 
the  position  of  the  pendulum,  the 
reverse  is  not  true,  and  the  weights 
are  undisturbed  by  the  effort  of 
the  valve-gear  on  the  pendulum. 
The  freedom  from  friction  of  the 
governor  is  due  principally  to  the 
use  of  a  plate-spring  opposing  the 
centrifugal  force  of  each  weight 
and  acting  through  a  steel  pin, 
hardened  and  resting  in  hardened 

26 


FIG.  6.— Mclntosh  and  Seymour  governor— details. 


402 


GOVERNORS. 


steel  cup  sat  both  ends.  The  cup  in  the  weight  is  situated  at  the  center  of  gravity,  so  that 
the  centrifugal  force  is  directly  resisted  by  the  spring  in  a  frictionless  manner.  The  double 
spring  will  keep  the  tension  on  the  weights  equal,  notwithstanding  any  slight  inequality  in 
the  adjustment  of  the  length  of  the  pins.  Since  the  two  weights  move  together  in  an  opposite 

direction,  they  are  in  statical  equilibrium  in 
all  positions.  The  pressure  of  the  valve-gear 
transmitted  through  the  pendulum  and  blocks 
is  transferred  several  times  during  each  revo- 
lution between  the  opposite  jaws  of  each 
weight.  This  action  is  important,  since  it 
affords  every  opportunity  for  a  most  delicate 
balancing  of  the  centrifugal  force  and  oppos- 
ing resistance  of  the  spring. 

The  speed  of  the  engine  can  be  changed, 
if  it  is  desired,  by  adding  to  or  taking  from 
the  weight  of  the  centrifugal  weights. 

The  Giddings  Governor,  shown  in  Fig.  7, 
consists  of  two  eccentrics ;  the  auxiliary  eccen- 
tric rotating  on  the  hub  of  the  governor-disk 
by  the  usual  system  of  weight-arms  and  levers 
as  shown.  This  eccentric  has  a  cross-head 
strap  which  gives  a  motion  square  across  the 
shaft,  preserving  a  constant  lead.  The  main 
eccentric,  as  shown,  fits  over  this  cross-head 
by  means  of  lugs,  and  its  throw  is  varied  by 
the  movements  of  the  same,  thereby  changing 
the  travel  of  the  valve  to  give  the  required 
port-opening  for  varying  loads  and  boiler- 
pressures,  at  the  same  time  preserving  uni- 
formity of  motion.  This  combination  of  two 
eccentrics  gives  great  stability,  as  it  is  me- 
chanically locked  in  every  position. 

The  Armington  &  Sims  Automatic  Cut-off 
Regulator  (Figs.  8  and  9)  consists  of  a  wheel 
which  is  fixed  to  the  engine-shaft,  to  which 
are  hinged  the  weights  1 1 ;  these  weights  are 
controlled  by  springs,  one  end  of  the  same  be- 
ing seated  in  a  pocket  fixed  on  the  spoke  of 

FIG.  7.— Giddings  governor.  the  wheel,  or  in  some  cases  attached  directly 

to  the  rim  of  the  wheel.     The  inner  eccentric, 

marked  C\  having  ears  attached,  is  placed  close  to  the  regulator-wheel,  and  is  free  to  turn 
upon  the  shaft.  From  the  ears  rods  (2  2)  are  connected  with  the  regular  weights.  On  the 
outside  of  the  inner  eccentric,  and  free  to  turn,  is  placed  an  eccentric  ring  I),  from  which  a 
rod  (3)  is  connected  to  the  toe  of  one  of  the  weights.  On  this  outer  eccentric  ring  are  the 


FIG.  8.— Armington  and  Sims  governor. 


FIG.  9. — Armington  and  Sims  governor. 


usual  eccentric  straps,  to  which  are  directly  attached  the  valve-rod.  When  the  engine  is  run- 
ning at  its  greatest  velocity,  the  weights,  due  to  the  centrifugal  force  overcoming  the  springs, 
will  be  out.  The  eccentricity  of  the  two  combined  eccentrics  is  then  the  distance  shown  at  A, 
in  Fig.  8.  The  other  extreme,  when  the  engine  has  its  greatest  load  requiring  later  cut-off, 
the  position  of  the  weights  will  be  as  shown  in  Fig.  9.  It  will  be  seen  that  when  the  weights 
are  in  such  position,  the  inner  eccentric  has  been  moved  back,  and  the  outer  eccentric  forward 
or  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  the  eccentricity  by  this  combined  movement  is  increased. 
This  is  sufficient  to  allow  the  steam  to  follow  the  piston  to  about  seven  tenths  of  the  entire 


GOVERNORS,   PUMP. 


403 


stroke.  This  wide  range  from  the  simple  lead  of  valve,  as  shown  at  A,  causes  extreme  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  regulator.  The  lead  in  all  positions  of  the  eccentrics  remains  constant  and  is 
practically  unchanged. 

The  Woodbury  Engine  -  Governor 
(Fig.  10)  is  of  that  class  in  which  the 
point  of  cut-off  or  valve-closure  is 
effected  by  moving  the  eccentric  across 
the  shaft,  thereby  varying  the  length 
of  the  valve  travel.  The  movement  of 
the  eccentric  is  operated  by  centrifu- 
gal weights,  the  centripetal  or  opposing 
force  being  furnished  by  a  single  spiral 
spring.  Fig.  10  is  a  side  elevation  of 
the  governor.  The  weight  A  is  bolted 
to  the  eccentric  arm,  and  is  therefore 
pivoted  to  the  fly-wheel  at  B<  the  same 
point  as  the  eccentric  itself.  The 
weight  A'  is  adjustable  on  the  lever  D, 
which  is  pivoted  to  the  fly-wheel  at  B', 
and  connected  to  eccentric  C  through 
the  link  E.  Rubber  buffers  (not  shown) 
at  point  a  and  point  b  form  stops  for 
the  extreme  inward  position  of  the 
weights,  and  the  one  at  c  for  the  ex- 
treme outward  position.  In  the  posi- 
tion shown,  the  weights  are  at  their  ex- 
treme inward  point  of  movement,  the 

center  of  eccentric  being  at  d,  and  cor-  FIG.  10.— Woodbury  engine-governor, 

responding  to  point  of  cut-off  by  the 

valve  at  f  stroke.  In  the  extreme  outward  position  of  the  weights  the  center  of  the  eccentric 
is  moved  to  e,  where  the  eccentric  gives  to  the  valve  its  least  travel,  the  point  of  closure  or 
cut-off  being  at  zero.  (See  ENGINES,  STEAM  STATIONARY  RECIPROCATING,  for  the  Woodbury 
engine.) 

GOVERNORS,  PUMP.  The  Albany  Steam  Trap  Go's  Pump-Governor  is  shown  in 
Figs.  1  and  2.  Fig.  2,  in  section,  represents  a  closed  vessel  containing  one  within  it,  which 
is  termed  a  movable  bucket,  having  screwed  into  its  bottom  a  short  piece  of  pipe  which  serves 
as  a  guide  for  the  same  as  it  rises  and  falls,  and  also  as  an  exit-pipe  to  allow  the  water  to  pass 

from  the  bucket  on  its 
way  to  the  pump.  On  the 
upper  side  of  the  governor 
is  a  slide-valve  for  supply- 
ing the  pump  with  steam ; 
this  valve  is  in  a  small 
steam-chest  into  which  the 
steam  from  the  boiler  is 
first  introduced.  The  face 
on  which  this  valve  slides 
contains  three  ports,  two 
of  them  being  in  connec- 
tion with  each  other  and 
leading  thence  into  the 
chamber  to  which  the 

FIG.  l.-Albany  pump-governor.  FIG.  2,-Pump-governor.         s^am  -  pipe    is   connected 

that  conveys  the  steam  to 

operate  the  pump,  while  the  other  port  is  smaller  than  the  two  just  mentioned.  When  the 
bucket  is  at  its  highest  position  the  valve  will  be  at  its  extreme  point  to  the  right,  closing  the 
first  two  ports  and  leaving  the  third  one  open  to  a  passage  under  the  valve  from  the  interior 
of  the  governor  to  the  atmosphere.  The  valve  is  caused  to  move  over  the  ports  by  the  rising 
and  falling  of  the  bucket  through  the  intervention  of  a  bell-crank  lever.  The  operation  is  as 
follows :  The  space  between  the  bucket  and  outer  case  must  first  be  filled  with  water  by  the 
water  running  in  from  the  system  of  heating-pipes ;  the  valve,  however,  that  admits  the 
steam  to  the  steam-chest  must  first  be  closed  until  this  space  is  once  filled,  for  the  condition 
of  the  apparatus  is  such  that  when  there  is  no  water  in  this  space  the  bucket  will  be  necessari- 
ly in  its  lowest  position,  and  consequently  the  two  ports  for  admitting  steam  to  the  pump 
will  be  wide  open,  and  the  pump  will  at  once  commence  racing,  since  there  will  be  no  water 
present  for  the  pump  to  act  on.  This  space  having  been  filled  with  water,  and  the  bucket  in 
its  highest  position,  the  two  steam-ports  being  closed,  and  the  pump  at  a  state  of  rest,  the 
introduction  of  the  water  of  condensation  through  the  check-valve  in  the  receiving-pipe  shown 
on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  governor,  flowing  over  into  the  bucket,  will  cause  it  to  descend 
when  it  has  received  within  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  overcome  the  floating  power 
of  the  water  surrounding  it ;  in  descending  it  will,  through  the  intervention  of  the  bell-crank 
lever,  cause  the  slide-valve  to  be  moved  toward  the  left,  opening  thereby  the  steam-ports  for 
admitting  the  passage  of  the  steam  from  the  steam-chest  to  the  pump,  which  will  start  the 


404 


GOVERNORS,   PUMP. 


pump  in  operation.     If  the  pump  is  of  a  capacity  greater  than  the  supply  it  will,  after  a  few 
strokes,  take  water  from  the  bucket  enough  to  so  lessen  its  weight  that  the  surrounding 

water  will  float  it  upward  and  cause  the  slide-valve  to 
move  to  the  right,  thus  closing  the  steam-ports  and 
stopping  the  pump's  operation  until  a  sufficient  amount 
of  the  water  of  condensation  shall  have  been  received 
anew  into  the  bucket  to  cause  it  to  descend  and  again 
operate  the  pump.  This  operation  continues  on  repeat- 
ing itself. 

The  Mason  Steam-Pump  Governor  is  shown  in  Fig. 
3.  It  is  attached  directly  to  the  piston-rod  of  the 
pump  and  operates  a  balanced  valve  placed  in  the  steam- 
pipe,  thereby  adjusting  the  amount  of  steam  to  the 
needs  of  the  pump.  It  consists  mainly  of  a  cylindrical 
shell,  or  reservoir,  filled  with  oil  or  glycerine.  The 
plunger  A  A  is  connected  through  the^arm  /  to  some 
reciprocating  part  of  the  pump  or  engine,  and  works 
horizontally  and  in  unison  with  the  strokes  of  the  pump, 
thereby  drawing  the  oil  up  through  the  check-valves 
D  D  into  the  chambers  JJ,  whence  it  is  forced  alter- 
nately through  the  passages./? B,  through  another  set 
of  check- valves  MM,  into  the  pressure-chamber  E  E. 
The  oil  then  returns  through  the  orifice  C,  the  size  of 
which  is  controlled  by  a  key  inserted  at  N,  into  the 
lower  chamber,  to  be  repumped  as  before.  In  case  the 
pump  or  engine  works  more  rapidly  than  is  intended, 
the  oil  is  pumped  into  the  chamber  EE  faster  than  it 
can  run  through  the  outlet  at  (7,  and  the  piston  O  G  is 
forced  upward,  raising  the  lever  L  with  its  weight  and 
throttling  the  steam.  In  case  the  pump  runs  slower 
than  is  intended,  the  reverse  action  takes  place,  the 
weight  on  the  end  of  the  lever  L  forces  the  piston  G  G 
As  the  orifice  at  C  can  be  increased  or  diminished  at  the 


Fia.  3.— Mason  pump-governor. 


down,  and  more  steam  is  let  en. 
will  of  the  engineer,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  action  of  every  portion  of  each  stroke  can  be 
controlled.  The  secondary  chamber  H  also  fills  with  oil  and  acts  as  a  cushion,  preventing 
the  main  piston  G  G  from  dropping  too  suddenly  or  fluctuating. 

The  Fisher  Steam-Pump  Governor,  made  by  the  Fisher  Governor  Co.,  of  Marshalltown, 
Iowa,  is  shown  in  Fig.  4,  The  valve  in  the  main  shell  is  a  double  one,  the  upper  disk  being 
the  largest,  so  that  there  is  always  an  upward  pressure  on  the  valve-stem.  The  upper  wheel  on 
the  valve-stem  in  yoke  is  simply  for  a  lock-nut ;  the  lower  one  is  fastened  in  place  by  a  small 
lock-nut  below  it,  and  by  turning  this  wheel  to  the  right  the  valve-stem  is  screwed  up  into 
the  bottom  of  the  piston-rod,  which  raises  the  valve  and  ad- 
mits the  steam  to  the  steam- chest  of  the  pump.  Above  the 
yoke  there  is  a  brass  cylinder  in  which  is  a  piston  with  an  or- 
dinary cup  leather-packing,  which  piston  rests  upon  a  steel 
coil-spring.  At  the  top  of  the  pipe-work  over  the  governor  is 
a  small  globe-valve,  and  from  this  point  a  ^-in.  pipe  is  taken  to 
and  connected  with  the  discharge-pipe  from  the  pump,  which 
brings  the  water-pressure  from  the  pipes  or  mains  on  to  the 
top  of  the  piston.  If  the  valve  is  raised  by  the  hand-wheel 
until  the  pump  has  brought  the  pressure  in  the  pipes  or  mains 
to  the  point  desired,  and  the  upper  wheel  or  disk  is  then  set  up 
tight — as  a  lock-nut — against  the  bottom  end  of  the  piston- 
rod,  the  governor  will  hold  the  pressure  uniform  at  the  point 
set.  The  small  angle- valve  is  for  a  relief- valve,  to  relieve  the 
pressure  between  the  piston-head  and  globe-valve  above,  when 
the  globe-valve  is  closed.  The  small  down  pipe  is  to  carry  off 
any  clrip  or  waste.  The  whole  device  is  intended  to  be  placed 
in  the  steam-pipe  between  the  steam-chest  and  throttle-valve, 
and  as  close  to  the  steam-chest  as  possible.  When  the  water- 
pressure  falls  below  the  point  set,  by  the  opening  of  a  valve, 
or  hydrant,  or  an  automatic  sprinkler-head,  or  in  any  way,  the 
pressure  being  less  on  the  piston,  the  steam  raises  the  valve, 
gradually  increases  the  speed  of  the  pump,  and  maintains  the  FIG.  4.— Fisher  pump-governor, 
pressure  at  the  point  desired :  and  when  the  water  is  not  being 

used  the  increased  pressure  on  the  piston  gradually  forces  the  valve  to  its  seat,  which  stops 
the  pump  until  the  pressure  falls  again. 

Grain-Elevator:  see  Elevators.    Grain-Mills:  see  Milling-Machines,  Grain. 

Grate;  see  Boilers,  Steam. 

GRINDING,  EMERY.  Qualities  desired  in  Emery-Wheels.— In  a  lecture  on  the  sub- 
ject of  emery-wheels,  delivered  by  Mr.  T.  Dunkin  Paret,  President  of  the  Tanite  Co.,  before 
the  Franklin  Institute,  and  printed  in  the  Journal  of  the  Institute  for  March,  1890,  he  sums 
up  the  necessary  qualities  as  follows :  "  Such  a  wheel  must  have  tenacity  to  withstand  the 


GRINDING-MACHINES.  405 

centrifugal  strain  generated  by  its  revolution  at  the  speed  of  from  f  to  If  mile  per  rnin.  Its 
ability  to  resist  heat  must  be  great,  inasmuch  as  the  friction  of  grinding  rapidly  raises  the 
metal  being  ground  to  a  red  and  even  an  almost  white  heat.  It  follows,  from  the  above  facts, 
that  the  proper  base  for  a  perfect  wheel  should  be  some  organic  substance,  either  vegetable  or 
animal." 

Experiments  with  Emery-  Wheels. — Mr.  Paret,  in  the  lecture  above  referred  to,  says :  "  To 
obtain  the  maximum  result  from  any  emery-wheel,  it  must  be  perfectly  round,  perfectly  cen- 
tered, must  be  run  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  and  be  so  solidly  mounted  and  so  free  from  ad- 
hering metal  as  to  allow  of  continuous  contact  between  work  and  wheel.  With  equal  speed 
and  proportional  pressure  a  wheel  6  in.  thick  ought  to  cut  off  six  times  as  much  metal  from 
a  bar  6  in.  wide  as  a  wheel  1  in.  thick  would  from  a  1-in.  bar. 

"  Experiments  were  made  with  only  one  make  of  wheel,  the  size  being  about  14  X  If  in. 
In  comparing  the  cost  of  various  processes,  the  same  rate  for  labor  was  charged  against  wheel, 
file,  and  cold  chisel.  Charging  a  moderate  price  for  the  wheel  (33£  per  cent  discount  from 
list),  the  maximum  cost  of  grinding  off  1  Ib.  of  cast  iron  was  11-6  cents.  Charging  a  low  price 
(60  per  cent  discount  from  list),  the  minimum  cost  was  2*4  cents.  The  cost  per  Ib.  of  filing 
off  cast  iron  was  35'9  cents.  In  one  half  hour's  steady  work  the  emery-wheel  removed  17  Ibs. 
of  brass,  the  cold  chisel  1  Ib.  4£  ozs.,  and  the  file  only  8  ozs.  The  wheel  removed  7  Ibs.  12  ozs. 
of  cast  iron,  the  cold  chisel  2  Ibs.  5£  ozs.,  and  the  file  only  5f  ozs.  The  wheel  removed  2  Ibs. 
8  ozs.  of  wrought  iron,  the  cold  chisel  10|  ozs.,  and  the  file  2f  ozs.  The  wheel  removed  3  Ibs. 
7  ozs.  of  saw-steel,  tne  cold  chisel  1£  oz-,  and  the  file  only  1  oz.  The  soft  metal  (brass) 
clogged  the  file  and  reduced  its  cut,  so  that  the  wheel  removed  34  times  as  much  as  the  file 
did.  The  hard  saw-steel  resisted  the  file  so  that  the  wheel  removed  55  times  as  much  as  the 
file  did.  Cast  iron,  which  neither  clogged  much  nor  resisted  greatly,  gave  the  file  greater 
play,  and  the  wheel  only  removed  about  21  times  as  much  as  the  file.  In  all  these  experi- 
ments the  work  was  forced  against  the  wheel  by  hand,  and  such  experiments  gave  but  uncer- 
tain results,  owing  to  the  inequality  of  pressure  and  to  the  personal  factor.  Fatigue,  strength, 
skill,  prejudice— all  might  affect  the  results. 

"  Every  wheel  which  tends  to  glaze  badly  with  metal  is  dangerous  as  compared  with  one 
which  does  not  glaze.  Every  free-wearing  wheel  is  comparatively  safe.  He  who  wants  safe 
wheels  should  avoid  all  that  glaze  quickly.  He  should  use  large  flanges  with  very  thin 
wheels.  He  should  have  mandrel-holes  of  moderate  size  and  very  slightly  larger  than  the 
spindle.  He  should  mount  the  wheels  substantially.  And  still,  to  be  absolutely  safe,  he  may 
add  coverings  and  guards,  provided  these  are  not  of  cast  iron,  but  are  of  wrought  iron,  boiler- 
plate, or  tough  steel.  Another  established  point  is  that,  as  a  general  rule,  increased  wear  of 
wheel  indicates  increased  product  in  the  amount  of  metal  ground.  It  is  a  nice  point  (yet  to 
be  decided  by  the  invention  and  long  use  of  a  competent  test  machine)  just  how  far  wheel 
consumption  and  metal  removal  are  proportionate.  The  careful  observations  thus  far  made 
seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  a  reasonable  average  maximum  removal  of  metal  compatible 
with  economical  consumption  of  wheel  material ;  that  if,  by  increased  speed  or  pressure,  the 
wheel  is  made  to  wear  out  faster  than  this,  more  metal  can  be  removed,  but  that  the  gain  in 
metal  removal  is  far  more  than  balanced  by  the  increased  loss  of  wheel  material." 

Gomnetitive  Trials  of  Emery-Wheels. — A  commission  of  experts,  consisting  of  Dr.  Cole- 
man  Sellers,  Prof.  J.  E.  Denton,  and  Alfred  R.  Wolff,  in  1889  and  1890,  made,  on  behalf  of 
the  Tanite  Co.,  an  extensive  investigation  into  the  relative  merits  of  the  emery-wheels  made 
by  fifteen  different  manufacturers  in  the  United  States.  From  the  preliminary  report  of  this 
commission,  made  in  1891,  it  appears  that  of  the  fifteen  varieties  six  were  found  too  unsafe  to 
warrant  their  general  use,  57  per  cent  of  the  wheels  bursting  under  the  same  conditions  which 
other  wheels  passed  through  uninjured.  Eleven  varieties  (among  which  are  included  the  six 
unsafe  varieties)  were  found  to  be  such  slow  cutters  that  the  average  metal  removal  of  ten  of 
them  was  less  than  the  general  average  of  all  the  wheels.  Of  the  fifteen  varieties,  only  four 
were  found  to  be  rapid  cutters.  Of  these,  one  wore  so  rapidly  that  the  cost  of  its  rapid  cut 
was  unreasonable.  This  left  three  safe,  effective,  and  satisfactory  wheels,  one  of  which,  how- 
ever, was  demonstrated  to  work  at  a  greater  cost  than  the  others.  The  rivalry  was  thus  nar- 
rowed to  two  wheels,  but,  in  the  judgment  of  the  board,  further  trials  are  still  necessary  be- 
fore the  relative  values  can  be  determined. 

Grinding-Lathe :  see  Lathes,  Metal- Working.  Grinding-Machine,  Saw:  see  Saws, 
Metal- Working.  Grinding  Machinery,  Ore :  see  Ore-Crushing  Machines. 

GRINDING-MACH1NES.  The  Sellers  Drill- Grinding  Machine  is  represented  in  Fig.  1, 
with  a  drill  in  place  ready  to  be  ground.  The  drill  is  carried  in  a  holder  which  is  pivoted  to 
the  top  of  the  main  upright.  The  adjustment  of  the  drill  to  any  required  angle  of  point  be- 
tween 90°  and  130°  of  included  angle  is  effected  by  swinging  this  holder  about  its  center. 
The  lips  of  the  drill  are  chucked  by  two  jaws,  which'are  opened  and  closed  by  the  hand-wheel 
A.  The  back  end  of  the  drill  is  steadied  by  an  adjustable  center-stop  B.  This  stop  is  made 
reversible,  being  provided  with  a  male  center  at  one  end  and  a  female  center  at  the  other,  the 
latter  to  be  used  with  the  small  drills  having  no  center-holes  in  their  ends.  The  grinding- 
wheel  is  carried  on  a  shaft  at  the  top  of  the  water-box  C.  The  lever  Z>,  raised  and  lowered 
by  the  right  hand  of  the  workman,  passes  the  face  of  the  grinding-wheel  back  and  forth  over 
the  lip  of  the  drill.  The  hand-wheel  E  adjusts  the  face  of  the  stone  to  the  lip  of  the  drill  ; 
that  is,  it  regulates  the  cut  by  setting  up  the  stone  closer  to  or  farther  from  the  part  to  be 
ground.  To  this  hand-wheel  is  adapted  an  adjustable  stop,  which  enables  an  adjustment  to 
be  made  separately  when  grinding  each  lip,  and  yet  permits  them  both  to  be  gauged  to  the 
same  length  by  means  of  this  final  stop.  If  the  final  grinding  of  both  lips  is  made  without 


406 


GRINDING-MACHINES. 


any  adjustment  of  the  stone,  the  same  result  is  obtained  without  the  use  of  this  stop.  The 
grinding-wheel  is  protected  by  a  cover,  except  where  the  drill  comes  in  contact  with  it.  In 
this  cover  is  a  curved  water-way,  through  which  water  is  delivered  by  an  endless-belt  pump, 
and  from  which  it  is  thrown  on  the  face  of  the  stone  and  on  the  end  of  the  drill  in  a  continuous 
stream.  The  ball-handle  F,  operated  by  the  left  hand  of  the  workman,  rotates  the  drill  back 
and  forth  in  front  of  the  grinding-wheel  in  a  way  to  insure  the  proper  clearance. 

The  Sellers  Tool  Grinding  and  Shaping  Machine,  represented  in  Fig.  2,  is  intended  for 
grinding  and  shaping  all  the  faces  of  almost  any  kind  of  lathe,  planer,  slotter,  and  shaper  tools. 
The  main  features  of  the  machine  are  as  follows  :  A  grinding-wheel  is  mounted  in  a  cast-iron 
frame  forming  a  large  tank,  which  receives  the  water  used  for  flooding  the  tool  in  grinding. 
Slide-rests  are  provided,  by  which  a  vertical  and  two  horizontal  motions  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  can  be  imparted  to  the  tool-holding  chuck.  The  slide-rests  and  chuck  are  carried  upon 
a  vertical  slide,  which  may  be  moved  up  and  down  by  the  long  lever  which  is  operated  by  the 
left  hand  of  the  attendant,  the  object  of  this  movement  being  to  move  the  tool  in  a  vertical 
plane  up  and  down  past  the  grinding-surface  of  the  stone,  and  thus  produce  a  plane  surface 
on  the  tool.  In  grinding  curved  surfaces  no  vertical  movement  is  given  to  the  chuck  holding 


FIG.  1.— Drill-grinding  machine. 

the  tool,  but  it  is  made  to  rotate,  to  produce  the  curve  desired.  If  the  curve  of  the  tool  is  not 
a  circular  one,  then  a  "  former  "  plate  is  required.  Means  are  provided  by  which  any  sample 
tool,  whether  ground  by  hand  or  otherwise,  can  be  used  as  a  templet  for  grinding  the  "former 
plate  "  to  be  afterward  used  for  the  reproduction  of  the  shape  of  this  sample  tool.  These 
formers  simply  consist  of  small  cast-iron  plates  \  in.  thick.  The  chuck  which  holds  the  tool 
can  be  rotated  in  two  planes  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  and  the  exact  amount  of  rotation 
in  either  plane  is  indicated  by  graduated  circles  and  verniers,  so  that  any  desired  angle  of 
tool  or  of  clearance  can  be  accurately  obtained.  For  grinding  the  curved-face  tools,  the 
former  plate  is  first  selected  and  placed  in  the  machine  ;  then  the  tool  to  be  ground  is  placed 
in  the  swinging-chuck  with  the  base  of  the  tool  toward  the  left,  and  pushed  forward  against 
the  end  gauge  until  the  index-finger  of  this  gauge  points  to  the  number  given  in  a  table  fur- 
nished by  the  makers,  showing  the  vertical  and  horizontal  angles  which  they  have  found  best 
in  practice,  plus  the  amount  required  to  be  ground  off  the  tool.  The  tool  is  clamped  in  the 
chuck  and  the  chuck-swing,  so  that  the  entire  curve  of  the  tool  will  rub  against  the  end  gauge. 
The  oscillation  of  the  index-figure  is  noted,  and  the  chuck  adjusted  by  means  of  the  handle 
on  the  left,  until  these  oscillations  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  tool  will  then  be  in  the 
best  position  for  grinding. 

For  grinding  lathe,  boring,  and  chasing  tools,  planer-hook  tools,  and  slotting-splining 
tools,  supplementary  chucks  are  used  and  set  to  the  angles  given  for  corresponding  straight 


GRINDING-MACHINES. 


407 


tools.  The  periphery  of  the  grinding-wheel  is  not  at  right  angles  to  the  flat  surfaces  of  the 
wheel,  but  is  formed  so  that  in  the  section  the  grinding  surfaces  will  form  a  V  containing  an 
angle 'of  90°.  With  this  shape  of  ?tone  a  vertical  surface  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 
stone  can  be  ground  by  moving  horizontally  the  chuck  with  tool  toward  the  center  of  the 
wheel ;  then,  without  disturbing  the  tool  or  making  any  change  whatever,  a  vertical  surface 
at  right  angles  to  the  former  surface  can  be  ground  by  moving  the  tool  horizontally  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  wheel. 


FIG   2.— Tool-grinding  machine. 

Lapping- Machine. — This  is  a  grinding  device  consisting  of  a  lead  or  other  soft  metal 
surface,  on  which  emery  or  oil  is  used.  The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  3  is  made  by  the  Pratt  & 
Whitney  Co.,  for  grinding  thin,  flat  pieces  that  can  not  well  be  clamped  for  milling  without 
retaining  their  winding  irregularities.  With  this  machine  it  is  claimed  that  an  unskilled 
workman  can  grind  a  true  surface  at  much  less  expense  than  milling  would  cost.  The 
diameter  of  lap  is  18  in. ;  weight  of  machine,  1,100  Ibs. ;  speed  of  lap,  1,500  revolutions 
per  min. 

Brou'n  &  Sharpens  Universal  Grinding- Machine. — This  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  4,  is  suit- 
able for  both  straight  and  taper,  internal  and  external  grinding,  and  is  used  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  spindles  and  boxes,  either  hard  or  soft  cutters,  either  straight  or  angular  reamers, 
arbors,  jewelers'  rolls,  and  standard  external  and  internal  gauges.  The  sliding-table  carries  a 
swivel-table,  which  turns  upon  a  center-pin.  Thfs  provides  for  grinding  tapers  without 
throwing  the  head  and  foot  stock  spindles  out  of  line.  In  order  that  the  swivel-table  may  be 
set  accurately,  it  is  provided  with  an  adjusting  screw.  A  scale  shows  the  taper  both  in  .degrees 
and  in  inches  per  foot.  The  table  may  be  fed  and  reversed  automatically  or  by  hand.  The 
cross-feed  is  operated  by  hand.  The"  head-stock  is  attached  to  a  base-plate  bolted  to  the 
swivel-table,  and  turns  upon  a  center-pin.  Its  circumference  at  the  lower  edge  is  graduated 
to  degrees.  The  foot-stock  spindle  is  adjusted  by  a  lever,  and  there  is  a  spring  to  accommo- 
date the  expansion  of  the  work. 


408 


GRINDING-MACHINES. 


The  machine  will  swing  work  between  centers  12  in.  diameter  and  30  in.  long.  The 
swivel-table  can  be  moved  to  either  side  of  its  central  position  to  grind  tapers  from  0  to  2  in. 
per  ft.  For  grinding  work  on  the  face-plate  or  chuck,  the  head-stock  can  be  set  at  any  angle 
within  the  whole  circumference.  Two  tapers  can  be  ground,  either  internal  or  external,  with- 
out changing  any  of  the  settings.  The  work  can  be  ground  upon  fixed  centers,  being  driven 
by  a  pulley  which  revolves  upon  one  of  them,  or  the  head-stock  spindle  can  be  revolved  while 
the  work  is  held  in  a  chuck.  Wheels  are  used  from  ^  in.  to  12  in.  diameter. 


FIG.  3.— Lapping-machine. 


FIG.  4. — Universal  grinding-machine. 


Brown  &  Sharpens  Cutter  and  Reamer  Grinder. — This  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  5,  is  exten- 
sively used  for  sharpening  straight  or  taper,  shell  or  shank  reamers ;  and  for  grinding  edge  and 
bevel  cutters  of  any  angle ;  straddle  and  face  mills,  cotter  and  hollow  mills,  and  straight  or 
taper  milling  cutters,  cut  either  straight  or  spiral,  with  holes  or  shanks.  It  can  also  be  used 
for  sharpening  worm  or  thread  tools.  In  operating  the  machine  the  work  is  moved  on  and 
off  the  wheel,  there  being  no  lateral  movement  of  the  wheel. 

The  Newman  Emery  Planer,  made  by 
the  Tanite  Co.,  is  ?hown  in  Fig.  6.  This 
machine  is  used  especially  for  grinding 
dies,  chilled  castings,  and  steel,  and  also 
as  a  substitute  for  the  ordinary  planer. 
The  principal  dimensions  are  as  follows : 
Floor-space,  29  X  36  in. ;  length  of  spin- 
dle, 42|  in. ;  diameter  of  spindle  in  bear- 
ings, 2  in. ;  diameter  of  spindle  between 
flanges,  !•£  in. ;  size  of  pulley  on  spindle, 
5i  X  5J  in. ;  throw  of  spindle,  9f  in. ;  size 
of  table,  36  X  10  in. ;  vertical  movement 
of  table,  17  in. ;  horizontal  movement  of 
table,  36  in.  As  a  maximum  this  machine 
has  taken  a  cut  £  in.  deep,  and  has  taken 
a  iVm-  cut  over  a  surface  of  100  sq.  in.  in 
6  min.  and  9  sec.  The  ordinary  cut  is  -fa 
to  -sV  in. 

The  Tanite  Surf  ace- Grinder  is  shown 
in  one  of  several  forms  in  Fig.  7.  The 
surfacing-table  is  24  X  8  in.,  and  is  adapted 
for  wheels  14  X  3  in.  With  this  machine 
many  small  jobs  may  be  done  which  would 
otherwise  go  to  the  planer.  The  leading 
dimensions  are :  Height  from  floor  to  cen- 
ter of  spindle,  37|  in. ;  distance  between 
wheels,  18|  in.  :  floor-space,  22  X  26  in. ; 
length  of  spindle,  29  in. ;  diameter  of  spin- 
dle in  bearings,  1^  in. ;  diameter  of  spindle 
FIG.  5.— Cutter  and  reamer-grinder.  between  flanges,  1  in. 

The  Densmore  Saw-Gummer  is  shown 

in  Fig.  8.     At  A  are  the  driving-pulleys,  journaled  between  arms  on  a  lower  cross-piece,  in 
which  is  also  socketed  the  lower  extremity  f  the  elevating  screw  B.     On  the  upper  cross-head 


GRINDINGL-MACHINES. 


409 


is  swiveled  a  yoke,  to  which  is  journaled  a  shaft  (7,  carrying  pulleys  D.  These  transmit  mo- 
tion from  the  driving-pulleys  A  to  the  pulley  E,  on  the  emery-wheel  shaft.  The  shaft  C 
passes  through  a  metallic  block  F,  which  fits  loosely  upon  it,  and  which  is  ground  off  to  a 


FIG.  6.— Emery 


point  on  its  under  side,  to  form  a  bearing  for  an  adjusting  screw.  This  block  is  also  bored 
to  receive  the  arm  Gr,  which  supports  the  grinding-wheel.  The  arm  O  is  movable  in  the 
block,  and  can  be  fastened  in  any  desired  position  by  the  set  screw  R.  1  is  a  counterbalance 


FIG.  7.— Surface-grinder. 


FIG.  8 — Densmore  saw-gaimmer. 


for  the  wheel.  J  is  a  stock,  secured  in  place  as  desired,  by  a  set  screw  not  shown,  and  sup- 
ported from  below  by  the  hand-wheel,  by  which  it  can  be  eleVated  and  depressed.  The  stock 
has  ways  for  a  saw-bar,  or  a  carriage  with  clamps  for  the  blade.  The  saw-disk,  in  case  a  circu- 
lar saw  is  to  be  gummed,  is  attached  to  the  end  K  ot  the  saw-bar,  and  the  latter  is  properly 
adjusted  and  fastened  to  the  stock,  in  such  position  ns  to  bring  the  saw-teeth  properly  under 
the  emery-wheel.  The  stock  is  then  adjusted  so  as  to  bring  it  to  a  proper  height  by  means 


410 


GRINDING-MACHINES. 


of  the  elevating  screw,  and  the  arm  O  is  depressed  in  front  until  the  wheel  is  in  proper  posi- 
tion. The  wheel  is  previously  adjusted  to  the  proper  angle  of  the  tooth  by  partially  rotating 
the  arm  in  the  block  F,  and  securing  it  when  the  wheel  is  at  suitable  inclination.  When  the 
apparatus  is  to  be  used  to  gum  a  straight-edged  saw,  the  blade  is  confined  in  a  carriage,  and 
the  wheel  is  set  in  relation  thereto,  as  already  described.  The  saw  is  gradually  carried  for- 
ward by  the  carriage  as  each  tooth  is  gummed. 


FIG.  9.—  Knife-grinder. 

The  Tanite  Automatic  Planer  Knife- Grinder  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  In  this  machine  the 
knife  is  ground  with  a  straight  bevel  with  no  change  until  the  wheel  is  worn  out,  or  it  can  be 
modified  to  grind  a  concave  bevel,  or  square  edges. 


FIG.  10.— Car  brass-grinder. 

The  Tanite  Car  Brass-Grinder  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  The  brass  is  clamped  between  the 
jaws  of  the  chuck  by  a  cam-motion  actuated  by  a  handle.  The  chuck  fits  into  planed  guides, 
and  thus  travels  square  with  the  motion  of  the  wheel.  The  table  is  moved  horizontally  by 
the  crank  and  connecting-rod,  and  also  rises  and  falls  on  planed  ways,  being  pressed  up  by 
springs.  The  hand-wheel  gives  vertical  adjustment  to  the  bed  by  means  of  a  chain  beneath 
the  base  of  the  machine. 


GUN,   CARBONIC-ACID. 


411 


Groover :  see  Gaining-Machines. 
Grubber :  see  Pulverizers  and  Harrows. 

GUN,  CARBONIC-ACID.     An  arm  invented  by  M.  Paul  Giffard,  in  which  liquefied  car- 
bonic acid  is  used  to  yield  the  propelling  gas.     Fig.  1  shows  the  gun,  and  Fig.  2  a  longitu- 


FIG.  1. — Giffard  gun. 

dinal  section  of  the  gas-chamber.  The  charge  of  liquefied  gas,  which  replaces  powder,  is 
inclosed  in  a  steel  capsule  /  made  fast  to  the  barrel  and  screwed  at  m  into  the  butt.  This 
capsule  terminates  behind  in  a  valve  g  pressed  by  a  spring  and  the  gas  against  a  hard  rubber 
seat  A,  and  provided  with  a  rod  j  that  traverses  at/  a  tight  packing  i  of  soft  leather.  A 
rubber  packing  /  secures,  on  another  hand,  the  tightness  of  the  threading  m.  As  soon  as  the 


FIG.  2.— Giffard  gun— gas-chamber. 

trigger  is  pressed  the  hammer  strikes  the  extremity  p  of  the  rod/  and,  through  its  impact, 
thrusts  the  valve  g  to  a  distance  regulated  by  the  stop  e.  There  then  escapes  through  c  a 
certain  quantity  of  liquefied  gas,  which  expels  the  projectile  that  has  previously  been  intro- 
duced into  the  barrel  through  a  sort  of  cock  d.  As  for  the  valve  g,  that  is  at  once  closed  by 
the  pressure  of  the  liquid. 

Gun :  see  Fire- Arms  and  Ordnance.     Gun-Lathe :  see  Lathes,  Metal- Working. 

GUN,  PNEUMATIC.  The  improved  pneumatic  ordnance  designed  by  John  Rapieff  is 
adapted  to  the  firing  of  projectiles  containing  high  explosives.  It  consists,  as  shown  in  Figs. 
1,  2,  and  3,  of  a  gun-barrel  A  that  is  provided  from  its  breech  to  a  point  beyond  the  trunnions 


FIG.  1.— Rapieff  pneumatic  gun. 

with  a  surrounding  jacket  B,  connected  by  openings  with  the  breech-end  of  the  barrel,  thus 
forming  an  annular  space  or  reservoir  C  around  the  barrel  for  the  passage  of  the  fluid  press- 
ure to  the  breech.  The  barrel  and  jacket  are  secured  together  to  form  a  rigid  structure,  thus 
the  jacket  carries  the  gun  trunnions  D.  both  hollow,  and  connected  by  balanced  swing-joints 
E  with  fluid  supply-pipes  F  that  lead  and  branch  from  a  fixed  main  central  supply-pipe,  the 
connection  between  the  branches  and  the  main  pipe  being  also  balanced,  and  a  swing- 
joint  //. 


412 


GUN,   CARBONIC-ACID. 


The  jacket  is  formed  preferably  of  three  or  more  sections — the  trunnion  section,  an  inter- 
mediate section  or  sections,  and  the  valve  section — bolted  together.  The  trunnion  and  inter- 
mediate sections  are  supported  from  the  barrel  by  radial  webs  or  studs,  leaving  ample  space 
for  the  free  passage  of  the  fluid  from  the  trunnions  to  the  breech.  The  breech-end  of  the  bar- 
rel contiguous  to  the  main  valve  4  is  continued  by  an  inner  flanged  bonnet  6,  having  lantern- 
openings  c  for  the  admission  of  the  fluid-pressure,  and  having  radial  and  longitudinal  pas- 
sages to  obtain  efficient  work  of  the  valve.  The  valve  section  of  the  jacket  is  provided  with 
ribs  supporting  an  inner  jacket,  which,  with  the  bonnet,  forms  a  chamber  for  the  main  valve, 
from  the  back  portion  of  which  chamber  through  one  of  the  ribs  a  passage  is  formed  to  the 
auxiliary  valve.  The  forward  part  of  the  barrel,  which  is  free  of  jacketing,  is  supported  by  a 


truss  attached  to  the  trunnion  section  of  the  jacket  by  bolts  and  keys.  The  barrel  is  supported 
on  the  truss  by  chairs  which  are  adapted  to  transverse  and  vertical  motion,  so  that  the  align- 
ment of  the  barrel  can  be  easily  adjusted.  The  gun-carriage  K,  mounted  to  turn  upon  a  suit- 
able base  L,  is  formed  in  the  main  of  sheet,  angle,  I,  and  channeled  irons,  braced  and  also 
tied  together ;  the  vertical  sides,  each  formed  by  a  pair  of  legs,  are  housed  by  sheet-metal  and 
secured  at  their  upper  ends  to  inner  and  outer  castings,  forming  the  trunnion-bearings.  The 
carriage  carries  the  motors — electric,  pneumatic,  hydraulic,  etc. — for  training  the  gun  and 
for  elevating. 

The  gun-carriage  is  provided  with  locking  wedges  d,  by  which  the  carriage,  after  each 
training  movement,  is  securely  held  in  its  position  upon  the  base.  These  wedges  are  operated 
to  release  the  carriage  just  in  advance  of  the  movement  of  the  motor  to  train  the  gun  ;  and 
in  the  preferred  arrangement,  the  fluid  passing  through  passages  in  the  head  of  the  central 
supply-pipe  &,  before  passing  to  the  motor,  will  first  flow  to  the  cylinders  M  to  operate  the 
wedge-pistons  ./V,  and  having  raised  them  will  then  pass  to  the  motor  to  operate  it.  The  ar- 


GUN,   CARBONIC-ACID. 


413 


rangement  is  also  such  that  as  soon  as  the  carriage  stops  the  fluid  acts  to  return  the  wedges, 
to  secure  the  carriage.  The  wedges  thus  prevent  any  local  motion  of  the  carriage  with 
respect  to  its  base,  so  that  during  the  firing  the  base  and  the  foundation  are  brought  to- 
gether to  resist  recoil. 

The  carriage  is  formed  with  front  and  rear  hooks  e  to  engage  with  flanges  on  the  base,  to 
reduce  all  lateral  and  vertical  motions  during  recoil.     The  carriage,  besides  the  platform  to 


FIG.  3.— Rapieff  pneumatic  gun. 

operate  the  firing,  training,  and  elevating  mechanism  automatically,  is  also  provided  with 
means  for  training  it  by  hand  from  a  special  platform  g,  and  with  eyes  and  hooks  for  tackle 
training.  The  balanced  swing-joints  of  the  trunnions,  and  the  branch  supply-pipes  with  the 
main  pipe,  are  in  the  main  similarly  constructed.  They  each  consist  of  an  inner  pipe  h  (Fig.  1), 
having  radial  passages,  and  an  outer  casing  i  having  an  annular  passage,  with  which  the  radial 
passages  communicate,  so  that  both  are  constantly  open,  and  the  joint  balanced  by  the  press- 
ure of  the  fluid,  whatever  the  relation  between  the  pipe  and  casing.  The  joint  between  the 
two  is  packed  by  suitable  packing  carried  by  a  packing-carrying  annulus  k  which  surrounds 
the  inner  pipe,  having  openings  corresponding  to  the  radial  passages  in  the  pipe  and  supports 
both  the  packings  /,  arranged  upon  opposite  sides  of  the  joint,  whereby,  upon  the  removal  of 
the  annulus,  the  packings  are  simultaneously  bodily  removed  therewith,  and  without  the 
necessity  of  disturbing,  removing,  or  dismantling  any  other  parts.  These  packings  are  spaced 
and  supplied  with  a  liquid  for  sealing,  and  if  need  be  lubricating,  the  joint.  To  prevent  the 
leakage  of  the  fluid  through  the  metal  of  the  casing,  which,  being  of  cast  metal,  may  be  more 
or  less  porous,  there  is  interposed  between  the  carrying  annulus  and  the  casing  a  ring  or 
lining,  formed  preferably  of  bronze  or  copper ;  and  in  addition  to  the  packings  carried  by  the 
annulus,  the  latter,  and  also  the  ring  or  lining,  is  stepped  and  sealed  against  packings,  held 
on  corresponding  steps  on  the  pipe  and  -casing. 

In  this  joint,  and  in  others  belonging  to  the  gun,  the  connected  pieces  are  arranged,  metal 
to  metal,  to  insure  perfect  alignment,  and  the  packing  recess  has  its  sides  opposite  to  that  of 
the  fluid-pressure  angularly  disposed,  so  that  the  packing,  whether  solid,  hollow,  or  cup- 
shaped,  is  crowded  toward  the  joint  by  the  fluid-pressure.  The  recess  is  formed  with  a  re- 
stricted portion,  so  that  the  connected  pieces  will  bite  upon  the  packing  to  obtain  ah  initial 
sealing,  and  this  restricted  portion  is  also  large  enough  to  receive  any  excess  of  the  packing 
that  may  be  forced  into  it  on  the  complete  assembling  of  the  pieces.  This  arrangement  also 
permits  the  use  of  many  face-to-face  joints  properly  packed.  The  valves  of  the  gun  consist 
of  a  main  firing-valve  4,  controlling  the  openings  c  between  the  jacket-reservoir  and  the  gun- 
breech  behind  the  projectile ;  an  auxiliary  valve  32  (Fig.  2),  arranged  in  a  casing  secured  to  the 
valve  section  of  the  jacket,  for  opening  and  timing  the  opening  of  the  main  valve,  said  auxil- 
iary valve  also  embracing  a  tappet  fly-over  valve  Jfi,  a  tripping-lever  or  detent  60,  and  a  sup- 
plemental valve  66  for  moving  the  lever  or  detent ;  and  a  pilot-valve  70,  located  in  a  casing 
in  the  left-hand  trunnion,  with  a  hand-lever  for  operating  it,  the  said  valve  controlling  the 
admission  of  fluid  through  the  pipe  69  to  automatically  operate  the  auxiliary  valve.  The 
main  valve  is  an  annular  one,  normally  seated  to  close  the  breech  communication,  and  held 
seated  by  the  fluid-pressure  on  its  back  end ;  the  auxiliary  valve  in  its  normal  closed  position 
connecting  the  fluid-pressure  passage  for  this  purpose,  'is  also  held  in  this  position  by  the 
fluid-pressure.  The  auxiliary  valve  is  a  piston-valve,  having  differential  areas  controlling 


414  -GUN,   CARBONIC-ACID. 

passages  26,  31,  for  the  fluid  to  hold  the  main  valve  closed,  and  when  moved  closes  one  of 
said  passages  (31)  on  the  pressure  side,  and  opens  the  other  (#6')  to  the  atmosphere,  so  that 
the  pressure  may  exhaust  from  behind  the  main  valve  and  allow  the  fluid- pressure  on  the 
other  side  of  the  main  valve,  acting  upon  a  shoulder  for  that  purpose,  to  operate  to  move  said 
valve  open.  The  tappet  fly-over  valve  is  normally  held  closed,  and  so  allows  the  fluid-pressure 
to  act  upon  the  larger  area  of  the  auxiliary  valve  as  well  as  upon  the  area  of  itself,  has  its 
initial  motion  imparted  by  the  movement  of  the  tripping-lever  or  detent  by  hand,  or  through 
the  action  of  the  supplemental  valve  by  the  admission  of  pressure  from  the  trunnion  on  the 
opening  of  the  pilot-valve.  The  movement  of  the  tappet-valve  shuts  off  the  fluid-pressure 
from  the  larger  area  (back  chamber  53)  of  the  auxiliary  valve  and  from  the  like  area  (back 
chamber  J^2)  of  itself,  then  opens  connection  with  its  back  chamber  to  the  atmosphere  through 
opening  58.  The  back  chamber  of  the  tappet-valve  being  exhausted,  the  fluid-pressure  acts 
upon  the  differential  shoulder  of  the  valve  and  automatically  moves  it  the  remaining  part  of 
its  stroke  till  it  seats  on  buffer  in  the  back  chamber,  thus  avoiding  all  personal  equation  in 
firing.  Its  tappet  59  participates  in  this  motion,  having  been -farther  projected  into  the  back 
chamber  53  of  the  auxiliary  valve.  In 'this  position  of  the  tappet- valve  the  back  of  auxiliary 
valve  is  open  to  the  atmosphere  through  bulb  51,  and  tappet- valve  to  opening  58.  This  ex- 
hausts said  back  chamber,  and  the  auxiliary  valve  moves  open  by  the  fluid-pressure  upon  its 
first  differential  shoulder,  the  second  differential  shoulder  being  idle.  The  auxiliary  valve 
moves  under  this  pressure  until  the  pressure  is  allowed  to  act  upon  the  second  differential 
shoulder,  when  the  valve  is  forcibly  seated  to  its  buffer  35  at  end  of  the  back  chamber.  In 
the  latter  part  of  its  stroke  it  meets  the  tappet  59  of  the  tappet-valve  and  forces  the  tappet- 
valve  almost  to  its  normal  position,  then  the  pressure  is  admitted  in  back  chamber  of  the 
tappet-valve,  which  completes  the  movement.  The  fluid-pressure  is  then  admitted  to  back 
chamber  of  the  auxiliary  valve  and  moves  this  valve  back  to  its  normal  position. 

In  the  passage  composed  partially  by  the  pipe  56  between  the  fluid-pressure  supply  31  and 
the  back  chamber  of  the  auxiliary  valve,  there  is  placed  a  regulating  cock  55  and  the  "bulb  51, 
by  means  of  which  the  duration  of  opening  of  the  auxiliary  and  main  valve  is  regulated — the 
regulating  cock  is  adapted  to  vary  the  size  of  the  admitting  orifice  for  the  pressure,  and  the 
bulb  its  capacity.  The  passage  from  auxiliary  valve  is  extended  to  near  the  bottom  of  the 
bulb  to  insure  the  effectiveness  of  the  operation  of  the  bulb. 

The  supplemental  valve  operating  the  tripping-lever  is  composed  of  two  piston-valves  66, 
67,  of  different  areas,  joined  loosely  together,  the  stem  of  one  of  the  valves  being  connected 
to  the  tripping-lever.  The  smaller  valve  is  normally  seated  by  pressure  from  the  reservoir 
through  pipe  68,  while  the  pressure  to  the  larger  valve  is  admitted  by  pipe  69  during  the  mo- 
ment of  firing  by  the  opening  of  the  pilot-valve.  The  tripping-lever  or  detent  is  provided 
with  a  trigger  61,  held  in  position  by  a  spring  63,  arranged  in  such  manner  that  when  the 
movement  of  the  lever  is  complete  it  removes  the  trigger  from  the  end  of  the  tappet-valve, 
so  that  the  latter  may  be  free  to  return. 

All  the  valves  are  constructed  so  that  the  leakage  of  the  pressure  is  prevented  by  seating 
them  endwise  against  seats  and  buffers  in  their  respective  chambers ;  and  their  seating  faces 
may  be  concaved  or  grooved  to  insure  more  complete  seating  and  longer  life  of  the  seat.  The 
pilot- valve  70,  controlling  the  admission  of  fluid  from  the  jacket-reservoir  to  the  supplemental 
valve,  is  held  closed  by  the  fluid-pressure,  a  spring  being  provided  to  return  the  valve  closed 
should  the  pressure  be  absent.  The  stem  of  this  valve  is  perforated  longitudinally  and  with 
radial  openings,  so  that,  should  the  pressure  leak  past  its  valve  when  seated,  it  will  pass  to  the 
atmosphere  without  danger  of  passing  to  the  supplemental  valve,  the  exhaust  from  the  cham- 
ber of  the  latter  being  regulated  by  screws  73  adjacent  to  the  stem  of  the  pilot-valve. 

The  gun-breech  is  opened  for  the  insertion  of  the  projectile  and  tightly  closed  by  a  packed 
breech-gate  0,  pivoted  to  the  breech-casting  and  adapted  to  rotate  and  swing  open  and  shut. 
The  breech-gate  has  an  interrupted  flange,  so  that  it  and  its  gate-lever  o  need  be  moved  but 
a  fraction  of  the  circle  to  release  the  gate.  With  the  gate  is  connected  a  locking-gear  p, 
which,  as  the  lever  is  first  moved  to  release  the  gate,  the  latter  moves  the  locking-gear 
through  connecting-rods  p*  and  lever  pl  into  position  to  positively  lock  the  auxiliary  and  sup- 
plemental valves  and  tripping-lever  60  against  accidental  movement  from  their  normally  closed 
position,  as.  for  instance,  by  inadvertently  moving  the  pilot-valve  hand-lever.  The  packing- 
gear  is  provided  with  a  spring  or  similar  device,  so  that  upon  the  opening  of  the  gate  it  is 
automatically  locked  against  accidental  movement  until  the  gate  is  closed.  The  gun-breech 
is  also  provided  with  a  vent-opening  just  in  rear  of  the  projectile  which  is  normally  open  to 
the  atmosphere,  so  that,  should  the  fluid-pressure  leak  past  the  mam  valve  into  the  barrel,  the 
projectile  will  be  in  no  danger  of  being  prematurely  fired  therefrom.  This  vent  may  be  con- 
trolled by  a  spring-pressed  valve  held  open  against  any  pressure  caused  by  a  leakage"  into  the 
barrel,  but  which  will  automatically  close  upon  the  sudden  admission  of  the  pressure  into  the 
barrel.  It  may,  however,  be  controlled  positively  by  a  valve  moving  positively  in  unison  with 
the  auxiliary  valve  or  any  other  movable  part  of  the  system,  as  through  rods  from  p*  with  the 
tripping-lever  60.  so  that  upon  the  early  movement  thereof  the  vent- valve  will  have  closed  the 
vent,  and  thus  prevent  the  leakage  of  the  fluid-pressure  when  the  projectile  is  to  be  fired. 

The  loading-carriage  consists  of  a  wheeled  truck  running  on  a  circular  way  having  the 
training  axis  of  the  gun-carriage  as  its  center.  The  wheeled  carriage  supports  a' pair  of  rails, 
inclined  to  an  angle  of  loading.  On  these  rails  is  supported  the  projectile-trough,  that  can 
be  moved  back  and  forth  by  a  pinion  and  rack  or  a  winch,  operated  by  a  hand-lever,  to  deliver 
the  projectile  into  the  breech  of  the  gun.  The  trough  is  held  in  position  by  a  spring-pressed 
detent,  carried  by  the  truck,  acting  against  a  stop  on  the  trough.  The  trough  also  carries  a 


HAMMERS,   POWER. 


415 


FIG.  1.— The  Jenkins  cushioned  hammer. 


loading-ram,  moved  by  rope  and  pulleys  connected  with  a  hand-operated  winch  supported  by 
the  truck,  to  force  the  projectile  into  the  gun-barrel.     The  truck  is  also  adapted  to  transfer 
projectiles  from  the  magazine  to  the  gun.    (See  also  TORPEDOES.) 
Hammer,  Pile-Driving:  see  Pile-Driving. 

HAMMERS,  POWER.     No  important  improvement  has  been  made  in  steam-hammers 
during  the  last  ten  years,  but  a  notable  event  in  the  history  of  steam-hammers  is  the  erection 
and  completion  in  1891  of  the  largest  ham- 
mer in  the  world,  at  the   Bethlehem  (Pa.) 
Steel- Works.    A  description  of  this  enor- 
mous hammer  is  given  below  : 

The  hammer  stands  in  the  center  of  a 
very  large  building,  and  over  a  year  has  been 
spent  in  its  construction.  A  pit  58  ft.  X  62 
ft.  was  dug  for  the  foundation,  and  on  walls 
30  ft.  high  the  anvil  stands.  To  give  the 
foundation  a  certain  elasticity,  a  layer  of 
twenty  steel  slabs  on  top  of  Ohio  white-oak 
timbers  was  made,  and  the  surface  was  ren- 
dered perfectly  smooth.  The  anvil  was  built 
by  depositing  on  top  of  the  steel  slabs  and 
their  timbers  twenty-two  blocks  of  solid  cast 
iron.  The  average  weight  of  these  blocks  is 
70  tons,  and  the  entire  weight  of  the  mass  of 
iron  and  steel  forming  the  anvil  and  foun- 
dation is  nearly  1,800  tons.  The  anvil  foun- 
dation and  the  hammer  foundation  are  en- 
tirely separate  and  independent  of  each 
other.  The  hammer  itself  is  a  majestic 
looking  structure,  rising  to  a  height  of  90  ft. 
The  housings,  composing  the  first  section, 
from  a  large  arch.  These  housings  are  each 

composed  of  a  single  120-ton  casting.  The  width  of  the  hammer  is  42  ft.  The  housings, 
whose  bases  are  10  ft.  by  8  ft.,  are  firmlv  clamped  into  the  foundation-walls  at  each  side,  and 
are  fastened  to  washers  lying  beneath  the  walls  at  a  depth  of  33  ft. 

Around  the  entire  periphery  of  the  hammer,  to  the  height  of  the  first  section,  15  ft.,  is  a 
platform  of  levers  controlling  the  working  of  the  machine.  Above  is  another  arch  of  hous- 
ings, which  weigh  80  tons 
apiece.  This  arch  is  capped 
by  a  steam-chest,  a  casting  of 
65  tons.  Here,  at  the  height 
of  some  70  ft.,  is  another  plat- 
form. On  the  top  of  this 
steam-chest,  and  in  the  center 
of  this  platform,  is  superadded 
the  huge  cylinder,  24  ft.  high, 
with  an  internal  diameter  of 
76  in.  In  the  zenith  of  the 
arch  is  the  large  tup  or  ram  of 
the  hammer,  an  enormous  piece 
of  metal  about  19^  ft.  long, 
10  ft.  wide,  and  4  ft.  thick,  the 
weight  of  which  is  almost  100 
tons.  Connected  to  this  is  the 
piston-rod,  of  steel,  40  ft.  long 
and  16  in.  in  diameter.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  tup  and  keyed 
to  it  is  the  die-hammer.  This 
is  a  large,  square  block  of  iron, 
faced  with  steel,  and  is  the 
piece  which  will  strike  the 
metal  that  is  being  forged. 
The  piston-rod  has  a  stroke  of 
16£  ft.,  and  the  weight  of  tup, 
piston-rod,  and  piston  aggre- 
gates 125  tons. 

Jenkins1  Upright  Cushioned 
Helve-Hammer. — Fig.  1  shows 
a  power-hammer  made  by  Jen- 
kins &  Lingle,  of  Bellefonte,  Pa. 


FIG.  2.— Bradley  cushioned  strap-hammer. 


The  blow  or  stroke  is  cushioned  by  means  of  four  rubber  cushions,  two  of  which  are  placed 
above  and  two  below  the  fulcrum  bearing  the  helve.  This  fulcrum  is  made  in  the  form  of  a 
cross-head,  to  which  the  head  is  pivoted ;  the  cross-head  being  free  to  move  up  and  down  as 
the  strain  comes  on  the  helve.  The  makers  claim  that  a  cushion  placed  directly  at  the  ful- 


416 


HAMMEES,   POWER. 


crum  is  more  effective  than  when  placed  at  a  distance  from  it,  as  every  inch  farther  from  the 
fulcrum  requires  proportionately  more  movement  of  the  cushions  to  produce  the  same  result 

on  the  ram.  The  end  of  the  helve  joining  the  ram  is 
wood,  and  simply  enters  into  an  opening  provided  in 
the  ram. 

The  Bradley  Upright  Cushioned  Strap-Hammer, 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  has  a  helve  of  steel,  in  an  arched 
form,  with  the  head  or  ram  carrying  the  die  sustained 
and  operated  by  an  endless  leather  strap,  suspended 
between  spool-shaped  bearings,  and  extending  length- 
wise of  the  helve.  This  device  allows  of  the  utmost 
opening  between  the  dies,  either  at  rest  or  in  action, 
and  its  elasticity  and  freedom  of  motion  increases 


FIG.  3. — Dead-stroke  power-hammer. 


FIG.  4.— Dead -stroke  power-hammer. 


the  throw  of  the  ram,  while  at  the  same  time  the  stroke  of  the  eccentric  is  shortened.  The 
hammer  is  operated  by  an  eccentric  at  the  rear,  connected  by  a  pitman  to  the  saddle  or  oscil- 
lator which  carries  the  helve,  and  by  this  helve  motion  is  imparted  to  the  head  or  ram.  In 
this  way  the  blow  is  made  to  imitate  the  action  of  a  hand-hammer. 

Dead-Stroke  Power-Hammer. — Fig.  3 
shows  a  dead-stroke  power-hammer,  made 
by  Dienelt  &  Eisenhardt,  of  Philadelphia. 
The  ram,  or  striking  part  of  the  hammer, 
is  suspended  on  an  elastic  or  flexible  belt 
(generally  of  leather),  attached  to  the  ex- 
treme points  of  a  semicircular  steel  spring. 
The  upper  part  of  the  steel  spring  is  con- 
nected by  a  rod  with  a  crank-pin,  which, 
being  set  in  motion  by  belting,  gives  the 
reciprocating  movement  necessary  to  raise 
or  lower  the  ram,  in  its  guides,  with  a  speed 
and  force  entirely  regulated  by  the  fric- 
tion-pulley. One  peculiarity  of  this  ham- 
mer is  that,  although  none  of  the  force 
with  which  the  ram  descends  is  lost,  the 
rebound  is  taken  up  by  the  spring  and  belt 
on  which  it  is  suspended,  before  reaching 
the  working  parts  above  it.  In  this  way 
the  shaft-bearings,  crank-pins,  and  set-screws  are  preserved  from  breakage.  It  may  be  readily 
adjusted  to  work  exclusively  on  thick  metals,  yet  for  ordinary  work  a  50-lb.  hammer,  for  ex- 
ample, will  strike  good  alternate  blows  on  a  3-in.  or  f-in.  bar  without  any  change  in  the  ad- 
justment. Fig.  4  shows  a  hammer  of  the  same  kind  set  in  a  wall-bracket.  This  hammer  has 


FIG.  5. — Pneumatic 
hammer. 


FIG.  6.— Pneumatic  hammer. 


HARVESTER,   COTTOX. 


41' 


C     J 


FIG.  7.— Pneumatic  hammer. 


a  shorter  stroke  than  the  standard  hammer ;  hence  it  is  not  so  powerful  in  its  blow,  although 
it  moves  very  rapidly  if  desired. 

Pneumatic  Hammer. — The  Hackney  pneumatic 
hammer  is  shown  in  Figs.  5,  6,  and  7.  Hammers 
of  this  kind  strike  their  blows  through  power  de- 
rived from  air  which  has  been  compressed  in  a  cyl- 
inder by  a  piston.  The  air  acts  when  imparting  its 
force  precisely  like  a  powerful  compressed  spring 
suddenly  released,  and,  in  fact,  it  is  such  a  spring ; 
hence  such  hammers  are  sometimes  called  air-spring 
hammers.  Fig.  5  is  the  single  standard  hammer 
designed  for  comparatively  light  forging.  Fig.  6  is 
a  double  standard  hammer,  and  is  suitable  for 
heavy  work.  The  same  principles  of  working  are, 
however,  embodied  in  each,  as  is  shown  in  the  dia- 
gram cut  (Fig.  7).  The  crank-yoke  is  attached  di- 
rectly to  the  air-cylinder  below,  which  is  thus  given 
a  vertical  reciprocating  motion  in  the  slides. 
Within  this  cylinder  is  a  piston  attached  to  the 
hammer-head, 'the  air,  more  or  less  of  which  is  con- 
fined above  and  below  the  piston,  serving  to  trans- 
mit motion  to  it  and  to  cushion  it  at  the  end  of 
each  stroke.  The  admission  and  confinement  of 
air  in  the  cylinder  are  controlled  by  valves,  by  which 
air  may  not  only  be  confined  above  the  piston  but 
also  below  it,  thus  holding  the  piston  between  two 
air-springs,  each  of  which  opposes  the  action  of  the 
other  ;  and  this  opposition  is  regulated  at  the  will 
of  the  operator,  so  that  it  may  be  increased  till  the 
force  of  the  blow  is  reduced  to  nothing,  or  dimin- 
ished so  that  the  full  force  of  the  hammer  is  real- 
ized :  the  intensity  of  the  blow  depending  upon  the  position  of  the  valves. 
Harness,  Fire :  see  Fire  Appliances. 
Harpoon :  see  Hay  Carriers  and  Rickers. 
Harrow :  see  Pulverizers  and  Harrows. 

HARVESTER,  COTTON.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  successful  cotton-harvester 
arise  from  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  crop.  A  field  of  cotton  is  not  harvested  once  for  all,  as 
is  a  field  of  grain,  chiefly  because  the  cotton  on  the  plant  does  not  ripen  all  at  once.  It 
therefore  may  happen  that  on  the  same  plant  there  may  be  lint,  ready  for  picking,  imma- 
ture bolls,  and  even  the  flower  or  bloom.  In  the  eastern  States  of  the  South  it  is  common  to 
gather  three  crops;  the  first  early  in  the  autumn,  the  last  usually  in  December.  It  is, 
therefore,  essential  beyond  all  other  considerations,  that  a  cotton  -  harvesting  machine 
should  be  so  constructed  that  it  will  remove  only  the  lint  from  the  plants,  and  nothing 
else.  This  implies  two  things :  first,  that  the  plant  itself,  with  its  bolls  and  blooms,  shall  be 
left  unimpaired  by  the  action  of  the  machine ;  and,  second,  that  the  gathered  cotton  shall  be 
free  from  leaves,  sticks,  or  other  trash.  The  early  attempts  at  inventing  cotton-machines, 
and  most  of  the  modern  efforts,  have  failed  because  of  non-fulfillment  of  one  or  the  other  of 
these  conditions.  The  trouble  with  most  of  them  has  been  that  they  would  not  only  gather 
the  cotton,  but  a  good  deal  of  the  plant  at  the  same  time;  and  even  if  this  were  not 
detrimental  to  the  harvesting  of  subsequent  crops  from  the  same  plant,  it  would  be  fatally 
uneconomical,  for  the  reason  that  the  cost  of  getting  the  trash  out  of  the  cotton  which  is  gath- 
ered far  overbalances  the  gain  incident  to  the  use  of  machine-picking.  It  has  become  almost 
a  maxim  in  the  South  that  "  cotton  can  only  be  picked  by  brains."  A  great  many  machines 
have  been  devised  which  have  failed  simply  because  they  could  not  get  at  the  cotton  at  all. 
Others  have  been  provided  with  claws  and  fingers,  and  all  kinds  of  catching  contrivances, 
which  would  entangle  the  cotton,  but  which,  as  already  stated,  would  make  no  discrimination 
between  lint  and  trash.  The  makers  of  the  earliest  machines  discovered  that  large  claws  or 
fingers  would  generally  pick  the  boll  with  the  lint,  and  then  the  sizes  of  the  fingers  or  claws 
were  diminished,  until  finally  it  was  attempted  to  gather  cotton  with  ordinary  card  clothing. 
After  this  came  attempts  to  pump  the  cotton  from  the  plant ;  and  then  followed  efforts  to 
make  it  adhere  to  an  electrically  excited  belt.  None  of  these  attempts  has  been  even  meas- 
urably successful.  Most  of  the  inventors  have  erred  in  the  belief  that  what  is  wanted  in  a 
cotton-harvester  is  a  machine  which  will  imitate  the  operations  of  a  man  in  pick- 
ing cotton.  This  is  a  mistake.  What  is  wanted  is  a  contrivance  which  will  not  only 
take  cotton  off  the  plants,  but  which  will  take  nothing  but  cotton ;  or,  in  other 
words,  which  will  discriminate.  The  most  promising  cotton-harvester  which  thus 
far  has  been  produced  is  that  invented  by  Mr.  Charles  T.  Mason,  Jr.,  of  South  Caro- 
lina ;  and,  so  far  as  is  known,  Mr.  Mason  appears  to  have  been  the  first  person  to 
have  recognized  the  correct  principles  of  cotton-harvesting  as  above  briefly  out- 
Btem  tooth-  lined.  He  invented,  first,  what  he  calls  a  " stem,"  which  is  a  device  which  will 
take  cotton  and  nothing  but  cotton  from  the  plants.  He  has  also  invented  several 
forms  of  machines  which  operate  that  stem  to  bring  it  into  contact  with  the  cotton  out  of 
the  successive  plants  of  a  row.  The  principle  of  Mr.  Mason's  stem  will  be  readily  under- 

27 


418 


HARVESTER,   COTTON. 


stood  from  Fig.  1,  which  represents  a  piece  of  thin  sheet-metal,  A,  in  which  has  been  cut  a 

V-shaped  slot,  B.  This  slot  is  shown  in  the  figure  very  much  enlarged  over  actual  size,  its 
length,  in  practice,  being  about  a  third  of  an  inch.  In  the  metal  plate  is  punched  a 
series  of  these  V-shaped  slots  arranged  in  rows,  after  which  the  plate  is  corrugated 
and  bent  to  form  a  cylinder  or  completed  stem,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  in  the  slot  B  there  is  formed  a  sharp  tooth  L.  This  tooth  is  so  placed  that 
it  does  not  project  above  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  or  stem,  or,  in  other  words,  it  is 
guarded  by  the  adjacent  metal.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  there  is  considerable 
open  space  in  the  slot  in  front  of  the  tooth  L.  Now,  when  the  stem,  Fig.  2,  is  brought 
up  to  a  mass  of  loose  cotton  lint,  the  latter,  by  its  own  elasticity,  will  enter  the  space 
in  front  of  the  tooth  L  and  will  become  engaged.  When  the  cylinder  or  stem  is 
turned  with  the  points 
of  its  teeth  foremost, 
nothing  which  is  not  as 
elastic  as  cotton  will  en- 
ter the  space  in  front  of 
the  tooth,  but  the  sur- 
face of  the  stem  will 
slide  or  rotate  in  contact 
with  it.  Therefore  it  is 

*Stem!'     impossible  to  make  the 
stem  gather  leaves,  or 

stalks,  or  bolls,  or  any  other  hard 

substance.      So  accurately  will 

this  stem  discriminate,  that  it 

may  be  taken  in  the  closed  hand 

and  rotated  point  foremost,  and 

yet  will  not  scratch  the  skin ;  but 

the  instant  that  it  touches  the 

elastic  cotton,  engagement  fol- 
lows.    It  will  be  obvious  that,  in 

order  to  use  such  a  slot  as  this,  a 

mechanism    must  be   provided 

which  will  rotate  the  sterns  points 

foremost,  gather  the  cotton,  and 


Fio.  3.— Mason  cotton-harvester. 


then  rotate  them  in  the  opposite  direction  to  throw  the  cotton  from  the  teeth.     The  mechan- 
ism must  also  carry  the  stems  bodily  into  and  out  of  the  plants,  while  the  machine  itself  is 

progressing  forward  along  the  row.  It  will 
be  clear  that  there  are  many  ways  in  which 
this  can  be  done.  Thus,  the  stems,  mounted 
on  suitable  frames,  may  be  dipped  into  the 
plants  from  above,  which  perhaps  is  objec- 
tionable on  account  of  the  necessary  height 
to  be  given  to  the  machine,  or  they  may  be 
introduced  laterally.  One  form  of  the  ma- 
chine which  Mr.  Mason  has  devised,  and 
which  has  been  successfully  used,  is  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  3  and  4,  Fig.  3  being  a  verti- 
cal section  and  Fig.  4  a  plan.  The  body  con- 
sists of  a  box-shaped  frame  mounted  on  two 
wheels.  The  frame  is  divided  into  two  parts 
or  sections,  with  a  passage-way  in  the  center, 
so  that  the  machine,  so  to  speak,  straddles 
the  cotton-row.  In  each  section  of  the  ma- 
chine there  is  a  vertical  shaft,  and  on  this 
shaft  the  cotton-stems  are  arranged  radially 
and  in  tiers  one  above  the  other.  Motion  is 
communicated  to  the  shaft  by  gearing  from 
the  wheels,  so  that  the  shaft 'rotates,  and  in 
so  doing  carries  the  stems  into  the  plants, 
and  then  into  the  compartments  of  the  ma- 
chine. In  connection  with  the  stems  a  re- 
versing gear  is  arranged,  so  that  the  stems 
are  made  to  turn  on  their  own  axes,  points 
forward,  while  in  the  plants,  and  in  a  reverse 
direction  when  they  enter  the  boxes.  The 
stems,  therefore,  gather  the  cotton,  carry  it 


FIG.  4.— Mason  cotton-harvester — plan. 


into  the  boxes,  reverse,  and  thereby  clear 
themselves  of  the  cotton ;  and  the  latter  then 
falls  upon  a  horizontal  belt,  which  conveys 
it  to  the  rear,  where  it  engages  with  elevator-belts,  and  these  in  turn  carry  it  upward  and 
deliver  it  into  the  bags  hung  on  the  rear  of  the  machine.  The  machine  is  drawn  by  a  horse 
or  mule,  and  as  it  passes  over  the  rows  of  plants  the  stems  are  carried  backward  in  each  rev- 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


419 


olution  at  the  same  rate  of  speed  as  that  at  which  the  machine  moves  forward.  Therefore, 
the  stems  are  practically  stationary  in  the  plants,  and  all  dragging  is  prevented.  Actual 
experiment  has  proved  that  the  capacity  of  this  machine  is  from  3,000  to  3,500  Ibs.  per 
day.  A  committee  of  the  National  Cotton  Planters'  Association  has  reported  that,  under 
conditions  of  actual  test,  "  the  machine  gathered  a  fairly  clean  cotton  at  the  rate  of  240  Ibs. 
of  seed-cotton  per  hour  from  plants  that  would  not  yield  more  than  1  bale  of  line  cotton 
to  every  3  acres  " ;  and  that  the  committee  could  "  discover  no  damage  done  in  the  opera- 
tion of  the  machine  to  the  plant  in  any  way,  either  to  the  unopened  bolls  or  the  leaves  on 
the  stalk."  The  machine  described  is  manufactured  by  the  Mason  Cotton  Harvester  Com- 
pany, of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  further  details  concerning  it  will  be  found  in  the  following 
letters-patent  granted  to  Mr.  Charles  T.  Mason,  Jr.,  namely,  286,032,  Oct.,  1883;  293.484, 
293,485,  Feb.  12,  1884;  311,344,  Jan.  27,  1885;  312,647,  Feb.  24,  1885;  331,514,  Dec.  1,  1885; 
337,007.  March  2,  1886 ;  345.246,  July  6,  1886 ;  and  345,312,  July  13,  1886. 

HARVESTING-MACHINES,  GRAIN.  The  construction  of  binding-harvesters  has 
been  changed  to  some  extent  as  regards  the  harvester  part,  and  radically  in  the  binder  part, 
since  the  year  1880,  and  the  use  of  this  compound  implement  has  been  largely  increased  by 
the  very  preferable  employment  of  twines  instead  of  wire  to  bind  the  sheaves  of  grain. 
Manila  twine  was  early  chosen  by  Holmes,  Gorham,  Appleby,  and  other  early  workers  in  the 
invention  of  the  grain-binder,  and  manila  hemp  still  holds  favor  for  this  purpose.  Sisal  hemp 
comes  very  near  it  as  a  suitable  fiber.  Without  a  proper  twine  the  machine  would  have  been 
far  from  the  remarkable  success  it  has  become.  Grain-binders  now  consume  in  the  United 
States  more  than  60.000  tons  of  twine  annually.  There  is  no  consequential  objection  to  the 
twine ;  but  the  wire,  from  which  small  fragments  broke  away  in  the  operation  of  thrashing  by 


FIG.  7. 


FIGS.  1-7.— Operation  of  Appleby  knotter. 


FIG.  5. 


machinery,  injured  the  expensive  bolting-cloths  of  the  flouring-mills  to  an  appreciable  extent, 
owing  to  the  sharp  cutting  edges  of  the  fragments  becoming  flattened  by  the  mill  machinery. 
It  was  claimed,  also,  that  farm  animals  were  sometimes  choked  or  injured  internally  by  bits 
of  the  wire,  as  these  were  found  in  the  stomach  and  bowels  after  death.  A  grave  prejudice 
was  aroused  against  grain-binders,  employing  wire  as  the  binding  material,  which  the  substi- 
tution of  twine  has  quite  allayed. 

The  introduction  of  the  binding-harvester  has  been  a  tremendous  stimulus  to  grain-grow- 
ing not  only  in  this,  its  native  country,  but  throughout  South  America,  Europe,  Australasia, 
and  parts  of  Africa.  Some  3  ft.  of  twine  will  bind  a  convenient  sheaf.  It  must  be  strong 
enough  to  bear  about  70  Ibs.  tensile  strain  when  made  with  a  loose  enough  twist  to  avoid 
kinking,  and  must  be  spun  free  from  swells  and  bunches  unfit  to  pass  through  the  mechanical 
knotter.  The  finer  it  can  be  spun,  without  sacrifice  of  necessary  tensile  strength,  the  more 
economical  its  use.  In  practice,  it  runs  from  about  400  to  600  ft.  per  lb.,  making  it  cost  per 
acre,  at  current  prices,  from  28  down  to  about  18  cts.  Other  fibers  besides  those  named  are 
used  to  a  moderate  extent,  also  mixtures  of  the  above  with  jute,  ramie,  and  even  American 
hemp.  The  Lowry  twine  is  the  latest  improvement  in  grain-binding  material — an  improve- 
ment in  the  direction  of  economy.  It'  is  made  of  the  tough  slough-grass  which  grows  abun- 
dantly on  low-lying  wet  land  throughout  the  United  States  in  the  great  prairie  basins,  and  is 


420 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


FIG.  8.—  Knotter  complete. 


deemed  useless  for  any  other  purpose.     It  is  twisted  or  spun,  without  preliminary  preparation 

other  than  combing  it  straight,  into  a  uniform,  strong  twine,  by  special  machinery  devised  by 

George  A.  Lowry,  of  Iowa,  which  also  at  the  same  time 
wraps  it  with  light  cotton  thread,  at  the  instant  before 
spooling,  in  a  long,  open  spiral  turned  opposite  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  twist  given  the  twine  in  spinning.  The  thread- 
wrapping  serves  to  hold  the  grass- twine  twist  firm,  and  also 
prevents  protrusion  of  short  ends  that  would  possibly  inter- 
fere with  the  work  of  a  mechanical  knotter.  By  enlarging 
and  otherwise  slightly  modifying  the  lines  of  the  knotting 
mechanism  of  grain-binders,  this  grass-twine  and  the  or- 
dinary hempen  twines  can  be  used  interchangeably  on  the 
same  machine — an  obvious  practical  convenience.  At  pres- 
ent prices,  the  cost  of  it  per  acre  of  grain  is  considerably 
less  than  of  the  ordinary  twines ;  and  the  ease  of  manufac- 
ture is  also  in  its  favor.  At  fiist,  reduction  in  the  cost  of 
harvesting  was  the  only  consideration  in  introducing  the 
mechanical  binding,  but  it  has  proved  to  be  scarcely  the 
most  important.  So  precarious  is  the  state  of  grain  crops 
when  just  fit  for  the  sickle  that  either  premature  or  dilato- 
ry harvesting  forfeits  large  value.  However,  with  the  bin- 
der the  crop  is  quickly  taken  off  at  the  time  deemed  best. 
In  the  United  States,  the  birthplace  of  the  binder,  the  year- 
ly yield  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley  has  been  enormously  augmented  since  the  advent  of 

the  use  of  the  twine.     Present  crops  of  over  1,300,000,000  bushels  of  small  grains  in  a  year 

could  not  have  been  approached  without  it.     The  quality  of 

crop  has  also  visibly  improved.     The  binding-harvester  has 

therefore  become  the  most  important  among  the  farmer's 

machines,  though  the  rapid  improvements  of  ten  years  have 

not  yet  had  time  enough  to  ripen  all  its  possibilities.    Not 

taking  up  the  improvements  from  their  crudity  from  the 

beginning  of  the  decade  step  by  step,  we  merely  instance  some 

advanced  examples  in  common  use  at  the  end  of  the  decade, 

which  enable  the  farmer  or  his  boy  to  sit  the  machine,  drive 

unaided  round  and  round  his  fields,  and  reap,  bind,  and  de- 
liver the  grain-sheaves  in  groups  of  a  sufficient  number  to 

form  a  stook,  at  the  rate  of  from  1  to  !-£  acres  an  hour,  ac- 
cording to  capacity  of  team.    It  is  used  with  horses,  oxen,  or, 

as  in  the  broad  California  valleys,  with  the  same  steam-engine 

which  has   previously  plowed,   harrowed,   and   seeded    the 

ground  for  it,  and  which  will  also  thrash,  clean,  and  bag  the 

grain  for  market.     The  principles  of  the  Marsh  harvester, 

really  designed  to  carry  men  to  do  the  binding,  has  generally 

been  relied  on  as  the  foundation  for  the  machine  ;  but  there 

is  now  a  breaking  away  from  these  limitations,  to  reduce 

weight,  draft,  and  cost,  by  special  construction,  treating  the 

reaping,  gaveling,  and  sheafing  as  one  continuous  operation. 
The  Knotter. — The  germ  of  the  binding-harvester  upon 

which  all  other  parts  are  a  growth,  is  the  knotter,  one  type  of 

which  is  seen  performing  its  successive  movement  in  tying 

the  knot,  in  Figs.  1  to  6  inclusive.     The  completed  knot, 

with  a  segment  of  the 

band,  is  seen  in  Fig.  7. 

The     beveled    pinion, 

seen  in  Figs.  8  and  9, 

which    represents    the 

complete  appliance  in 

two    positions,   rotates 

the  knotter  one  revo- 
lution,   and    the  loop 

thus     formed    in    the 

doubled  twine  is  then 

quickly    stripped     off 

from  the    knotter    by 

mechanical          means, 

leaving    a    bow    still 

pinched   in   the   knot- 
ter, and  which  has  been 

passed  securely  through 

the  tightly  drawn  loops. 

This  bow  of  the  knot  is 

finally  pulled  from  the 

grip  of  the  knotter  by  FIG.  10.— Twine-looper  and  knotter. 


FIG.  9. — Knotter  complete. 


\ 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


421 


FIG.  11.— Binder-table. 


FIG.  12.— Binder-table. 


the  strain  of  the  bound  sheaf  as  the  latter  is  expelled  from  the  binder-table  by  suitable  dis- 
charging-prongs.  At  the  instant  of  tying,  the  twine  has  been  severed  by  a  small  blade  be- 
tween the  knotter  and  a  retaining 
device  to  hold  the  end  of  the  twine 
which  communicates  with  the  source 
of  supply  carried  in  a  box  on  the  ma- 
chine. The  simplified  diagram  from 
the  McCormick  Co.  (Fig.  10)  will 
serve  to  show  the  usual  plan  of  lead- 
ing the  twine  necessary  for  a  band 
up  around  the  gavel  to  be  bound, 
and  presenting  it  upon  the  knotter 
and  to  the  action  of  the  retainer  be- 
yond, so  that  the  latter  may  in  due 
time,  when  releasing  the  end  last 
held,  seize  the  new  end  at  the  instant 
of  severance,  holding  it  upon  the 
knotter  parallel  with  the  held  end 
already  there,  while  the  knotter,  with 
a  rapid  whirl,  forms  the  next  knot. 
The  bowl-like  knob  seen  in  Fig.  1  at  the  heel  of  the  jaw  of  the  knotter  serves  to  open  and 
close  the  jaw  for  the  reception  and  release  of  the  two  branches  of  the  twine  which  are  to  form 
a  knot  of  the  free  ends,  and  derives  motion  from  a  stationary  cam-track,  which  it  encounters 

during  its  rotation  with  the 
knotter.  In  this  class  of  bin- 
der the  grain  delivered  from 
the  reaper-apron  is  propelled 
by  a  pair  of  alternating  doub- 
le-fluked packers  protruding 
upward  through  the  slotted 
table  (Figs.  11,  12).  The  tip 
of  the  twine-needle  is  seen  at 
the  top  of  the  middle  slot  (Fig. 
12).  When  a  sufficient  bulk 
of  grain  has  been  packed 
against  the  upright  double 
compressor-post,  seen  at  bot- 
tom of  Fig.  12,  to  overcome 
the  adjusted  resistance  of  the 
post,  the  latter  automatically 
trips  the  shifter  for  starting 
the  needle-arm  shaft  and  knot- 
ting mechanism,  producing 
the  following  series  of  move- 
ments :  The  needle  rises  and  completes  the  encircling  of  the  gavel  with  twine ;  the  knot  is 
tied ;  both  branches  of  the  twine  are  severed  just  beyond  the  knot ;  a  new  end  of  twine  is 
retained ;  a  pair  of  discharging-arms  applied  behind  the  sheaf  ejects  it  from  the  table ;  the 
drop-boards  seen  on  either  side 
of  the  double  compressor-post 
(Fig.  12)  are  lowered  on  their 
hinges  to  make  way  for  the  out- 
passing  sheaf  ;  the  drop-boards 
are  returned ;  the  needle  is  low- 
ered to  its  position  of  rest ;  the 
trip  is  automatically  relocked ; 
and  the  packing  of  grain  for  an- 
other sheaf  is  resumed. 

All  these  movements,  though 
serial,  are  performed  so  quickly 
as  to  appear  simultaneous,  but 
the  nice  timing  of  them  for  a 
virtually  perfect  result  has  been 
achieved,  notwithstanding  the 


FIG.  13. —Knotter— driving  parts. 


difficulties  arising  from  the  rough 
jolting  of  harvest-work  and  the 


FIG.  14. — Knotter— driving  parts. 


necessity  of  cheapness  of  con- 
struction. Figs.  13  and  14  show 
in  some  detail,  from  two  direc- 
tions, the  mechanism  that  is  above  the  table,  and  that  is  associated  with  the  binding  function. 
Reaping  Mechanism. — Fig.  15  shows  the  relation  of  the  binder  portion  to  the  reaper  por- 
tion of  the  machine.  At  the  rear  of  the  binder-table  is  a  spring  wind-board,  restraining  the 
heads  of  the  moving  grain.  At  the  front  is  a  hinged  wind-board,  adjustable  by  hand  for  con- 
trolling the  butts  of  the  grain,  but  this  is  often  superseded  by  a  small  endless  apron  (Fig.  16), 


422 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


driven  on  rollers  supported  on  a  flat  frame  placed  on  edge,  hinged  at  the  upper  end  and  ad- 
justable to  different  backward  slants,  by  hand,  in  the  same  way,  to  suit  varying  lengths  of 


FIG.  15.— Reaping-machine. 

grain  (Fig.  17).     Further,  the  whole  binder  combination  is  by  a  hand-lever,  easily  slid  back- 
ward or  forward,  on  rails  fixed  to  the  reaper-frame,  to  insure  proper  location  for  the  band  on 

the  sheaf  in  grain  of  extreme  variations  as  to  length  of 
straw.  Chain-gear,  arranged  by  McCormick  (as  in  Fig. 
18)  is  commonly  used  to  convey  power  from  a  chain-wheel 
turned  by  a  spline  on  the  main  binder-shaft  under  the 
binder.  This  chain  drives  all  the  binder  mechanism. 
The  driven  chain-wheel  at  the  top  is  fixed  on  the  knotter- 
shaft  and  makes  one  revolution  for  each  sheaf.  It  oper- 
ates the  knotter,  ejector,  twine-retainer,  and  cutter,  and. 
by  means  of  the  connecting-rod  shown,  simultaneously 
rocks  the  needle-shaft  below,  to  advance  and  withdraw 
the  needle  at  the  proper  juncture  to  encircle  the  packed 
gavel  with  twine,  present  the  twine  to  the  knotter,  and 
then  open  the  way  for  the  reception  of  more  grain  from 
the  packers.  The  packers  of  this  class  of  twine-binder 
run  continuously,  but  the  rear  projection  on  the  needle 
prevents  them  from  taking  hold  of  grain  while  the  needle 
is  up.  At  the  end  of  each  such  revolution  the  entire  bin- 


FIG.  16.— Carrier-apron. 


der  mechanism,  except  the  packers,  is  stopped  automatically  by  a  spring-shifter,  one  style 
of  which  (McCormick's)  is  seen  in  Fig.  19,  and  pauses,  inoperative,  until  again  tripped  by 
pressure  of  incoming  grain 
to  repeat  the  single  revolu- 
tion necessary  to  bind   and 
eject. 

The  devices  so  far  shown 
belong  to  what  is  known  as 
the  Appleby  type  of  twine- 
binder,  although  similar 
practical  results  in  automat- 
ically tying  sheaves  with 
twine  are  reached  by  some 
differences  of  mechanical  de- 
tail in  the  Holmes  binder, 
with  equal  success.  Utiliza- 
tion of  the  mechanical  press- 
ure on  a  tripping  arm,  by  the 
packed  grain,  to  start  the 
binder  mechanism,  is  an  es- 
sential of  all  the  twine-bin- 
ders in  vogue,  to  relieve  the 
operator  from  care  over  the 
binder  routine.  Once  ad- 


FIG.  17.— Carrier-table  and  binder. 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


423 


justed  for  given  tightness  of  band,  position  of  band,  and  size  of  sheaf,  the  binder  is  self- 


The  Holmes  Binder. — The  knotter  (Fig.  20)  of  the  Holmes  binder  is  a  hollow  shell  rotated 
by  its  pinion  and  having  a  barbed  volute  hook  centered  on  its  lower  end  in  a  plane  trans- 


FIG.  18.— Chain  driving  binder  mechanism. 

versal  with  its  axis.  The  shell  contains  a  spindle  carrying  at  its  lower  end  a  secondary  hook 
accommodated  to  the  bottom  surface  of  the  primary  hook  and  normally  in  a  state  of  pressure 
against  the  barb,  held  there  by  a  spiral  spring  at  the  top  connecting  the  spindle  and  shell. 


FIG.  19.— Spring-shifter  and  needle. 

When  the  knotter  rotates  the  top  of  its  spindle  strikes  a  stop  just  before  the  rotation  is  com- 
pleted, while  its  shell,  continuing  to  rotate,  opens  a  gap  between  its  barb  and  the  end  of  the 
arrested  secondary  hook  on  its  spindle,  admitting  the  two  branches  of  twine  which  are  to  be 
drawn  through  the  turn  of  the  knot  (Fig.  21).  The  knotter  then  makes  a  retrograde  revolu- 


424 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


tion  to  its  original  position,  during  which  the  turn  of  the  knot  encounters  a  stationary  strip- 
per which  plows  the  turn  of  the  knot  free  from  the  hooks,  while  the  ends,  still  pinched  against 
the  barb,  are  drawn  through  the  turn  to  complete  the  knot.    The  ejection  of  the  sheaf  forcibly 
_  releases  the  knot  ends  from  the  barb.     The  device  shown  by  Fig.  22 

for  retaining  the  twine  end  is  a  sliding  grasper  united  with  a  station- 
ary cutting  blade,  shown  in  progressive  action  in  Figs.  23,  24,  and  25. 
The  relation  of  these  parts  and  the  cam-gear  which  drives  them  in 
unison  is  shown  in  Fig.  26.  The  spiral  spring  on  the  small  lever 
which  slides  the  grasper  is  arranged  at  such  an  angle  as  to  equalize 
the  holding  power  of  the  grasper  on  all  sizes  of  twine ;  and  the 
grasper  swings  from  a  pivot  above  it  to  render  twine  to  the  knotter- 
positively,  as  the  forming  of  the  knot  progresses.  As  this  retaining 
device  cuts  off  and  seizes  the  twine  end  in  one  operation,  and  severs 
only  one  branch  of  the  twine,  it  does  not  drop,  unused,  with  each, 
sheaf,  the  portion  of  twine  gripped,  as  is  done  in  the  Appleby  type ; 
the  flat  coil  form  of  the  knotter  also  admits  of  bringing  it  down  ex- 
tremely close  upon  the  straw,  as  seen  in  Fig.  27.  Fig.  28  shows 
Wood's  method  of  packing  by  an  overhanging  wheel  armed  with  three 
folding  packer-teeth,  which  withdraw  successively  from  the  grain 
when  they  have  propelled  it  as  far  forward  as  possible.  The  auto- 
matic tripping  device  arrests  the  rotation  of  the  two  packer-wheels 
when  it  starts  the  operations  of  binding  before  described  in  the  Appleby  binder,  and  again 
starts  their  rotation  each  time  the  needle  returns  to  its  position  of  rest  below  the  table. 


FIG.  20.— The  Holmes 
knotter. 


FIG.  21.— The  Holmes  knotter  in  position. 

The  ejector  is  swung  by  a  crank  to  which  it  is  pivoted  about  midway  of  its  length,  the  top 
being  pivoted  to  a  hinged  guide-rod,  thus  causing  the  two  tines  of  the  ejector  to  execute  the 


.22. 


FIG.  23.  FIG 

FIGS.  22-25.— Cutter,  different 


FIG.  25. 


movement  of  a  pitchfork  as  ordinarily  operated  by  the  two  hands  of  a  man,  as  seen  in  the 
dotted  line,  Fig.  29.     The  direction  of  withdrawal  avoids  the  tendency  to  foul  discharged 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


425 


FIG.  27.— The  Holmes  binder  in  operation. 


FIG.  29.— The  ejector. 


426 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


sheaves  and  carry  them  back  over  upon  the  mechanism  of  the  binder,  as  may  occur  with  a 
rotary  ejector.  The  mechanism,  except  the  needle  when  at  rest,  is  placed  above  the  table,  and 
is  seen  in  a  general  view  in  Fig.  30,  which  also  exhibits  a  number  of  sheaves  deposited  on 


Fia.  30.—  The  Holmes  binder  complete. 


Wood's  sheaf-carrier.     Fig.  31  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  sheaf-carrier  folds  backward, 
wing-like,  to  deposit  its  load.     The  operator  can  thus  group  his  sheaves  in  such  a  manner  as 


Fro.  31.— Sheaf-carrier  unloading. 


to  greatly  reduce  the  labor  of  stocking.  Fig.  32  shows  this  binder  with  the  back  half  of  the 
table  omitted.  The  packers  and  ejectors  are  in  pairs.  The  pair  of  parallel  bars  in  the  table  are 
adjustable  higher  or  lower  to  determine  the  size  of  gavel.  The  automatic  tripping  is  effected 
by  grain  pressure  upward  upon  the  tail  of  the  trip- lever  (Fig.  33),  also  seen  in  Fig.  30  to  the 


FIG.  32.— Binder— rear  view. 


FIG.  33.— Trip-lever. 


right  of  the  packer-wheel.  Figs.  34  and  35  show  a  manner  of  adapting  the  Wood  machine  to 
harvesting  flax,  which  is  usually  left  in  bunches  instead  of  sheaves.  A  slotted  table  with  a 
series  of  teeth  movable  in  the  slots  is  substituted  for  the  binder  mechanism.  The  operator, 
by  one  movement  on  a  foot-lever,  unloads  the  sheaf -carrier  and  lifts  the  series  of  teeth  to 
check  the  delivery  of  flax  from  the  table  as  often  as  a  sufficient  bunch  accumulates  on  the 


carrier. 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


427 


FIG  34.— Wood's  flax-harvester.    _. 


FIG.  35.— Wood's  flax-harvester. 


FIG.  36.— The  Appleby  knotter  and  sheaf. 


FIG.  37— The  Holmes  knotter  and  sheaf. 


428 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


The  Appleby  and  Holmes  types  of  mechanism  are  the  only  two  in  general  use.     Fig.  36 
gives  the  Appleby  with  its  sheaf  about  to  be  ejected,  and  Fig.  37  the  Holmes  knotter  with  the 

knot  nearly  completed,  and  its  sheaf. 
Both  depend  somewhat  upon  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  sheaf,  when  relieved  from 
compression,  to  insure  a  tight  band ; 
but  the  latter  less  than  the  former,  be- 
cause it  makes  its  knot  closer  to  the 
grain.  Wood's  (Holmes)  binder  squares 
the  butts  of  the  gavel  with  an  oscillating 
board  armed  with  several  flanges  to  also 
move  the  grain  downward,  placed  on 
edge  at  the  front  of  the  receptacle.  The 
upper  end  of  the  board  rotates  in  a 
plane  coincident  with  that  of  the  table, 
while  the  lower  end  receives  a  slight 
reciprocating  motion  from  being  linked 
to  a  suitably  placed  pivot :  and  the  re- 
sult is  a  series  of  rapid  alternating  rak- 
ing strokes  to  move  the  grain  downward 
from  the  elevator,  on  the  table,  and  to 
square  the  butts  (Figs.  38,  39). 

Features  of  the  Wood  binder  not 
here  described  are  so  similar  to  corre- 
sponding features  of  the  Appleby  type 
that  they  do  not  need  a  separate  "de- 
scription. The  relation  of  the  Wood 
binder  to  the  harvester  appears  in  Fig. 
40.  The  harvesters  used  with  the  Ap- 
pleby type  of  binder  to  do  the  reaping 
are,  as  a  rule,  triple-apron  machines  of 
the  type  formerly  used  with  wire  bind- 
ers, and  modeled  on  the  original  har- 
vester invented  by  the  Marsh  Bros,  to 
carry  men  with  it  at  the  side  where  the 
grain  is  delivered  over  the  driving-wheel 
from  an  elevator,  to  do  the  binding  by 
hand  and  drop  their  sheaves  on  the 
ground  alongside.  Wood  has  modified 
this  harvester  by  deflecting  the  horizon- 
tal platform  apron-conveyer  and  ex- 
tending it  up  the  elevator,  and  placing 
a  lightly  framed  float  upon  the  surface 
of  the  elevator7  portion  to  hold  the  as- 
cending grain  against  the  elevator  to 
give  pressure  enough  to  force  it  up.  To 
counteract  a  tendency  of  the  moving 

FIG.  39.-End  board.  aPron  to  lift  awaJ  from  its  proper  place 

in  the  angle  at  the  foot  of  the  elevator, 

he  drives  all  three  rollers  positively  by  suitable  gear,  thus  drawing  the  bottom  of  the  cloth 
tight  and  keeping  the  top  surface  slack.  Lightness,  reduced  friction,  and  a  decreased  num- 
ber of  rollers  and  quantity  of  cloth  are  the  objects. 


FIG.  40.— The  Holmes  binder  with  Wood's  harvester. 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


429 


The  triple-apron  and  single-apron  arrangements  are  outlined  in  Figs.  41  and  42.     The 
ration  of  the  single-apron  construction  is  displayed  in  Fig.  43 ;  that  of  the  triple-apron 


operation 


FIG.  41.— Triple-apron  rolls. 


FIG.  42.— Single-apron  rolls. 


construction  in  Fig.  44.  For  transporting  this  class  of  binding-harvesters  on  the  road  a 
stout  two-wheeled  truck  is  commonly  used  (Fig.  45),  as  the  wheels  of  the  machine  track  too 
widely  for  rural  roadways  and  narrow  bridges.  For  this  purpose  the  tongue  is  made  attach- 
able to  one  end  of  the  machine.  So  far  as  practicable,  rolled  iron  or  steel  framework  for 


FIG.  43.— Single-apron  operating. 

binding-harvesters  has  superseded  wood,  to  resist  the  effects  of  weather  and  maintain  integ- 
rity of  alignment.     So,  also,  chain-gearing  is  employed  when  it  can  be  made  available,  in 


FIG.  44. — Triple-apron  operating. 

preference  to  cog-gearing,  as  it  obviates  the  accurate  lining  of  shafts,  runs  freely,  and  wears 
only  in  the  chain-links,  which  are  cheaply  replaceable  without  delays,  and  its  use'lightens  and 
cheapens  construction. 

Driving-Gear. — Fig.  46  is  an  improved  arrangement  of  the  driving-power  by  the  Mil- 
waukee Co.     Fig.  47  is  Shaughran's  adjusting  device  for  the  harvester  reel,  made  by  McCor- 


430 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


mick.     At  a  is  seen  the  right-hand  portion  of  the  reel-shaft.     Its  support  is  pivoted  at  b  and  c. 
The  reel  may  be  moved  backward  and  forward  by  the  hand-lever  d,  and  upward  and  down- 


Fio.  45.— Wood's  harvester  ready  for  shipment. 

ward  by  the  hand-lever  e,  with  their  respective  connecting-rods,  to  adapt  the  position  of  the 
reel  in  relation  to  the  grain,  the  sickle-bar,  and  the  conveyer  which  receives  the  grain.  At  / 
is  a  lifter-spring  so  attached  as  to  sustain  a  greater  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  reel  and  its 


FIG.  46.^Milwaukee  driving-gear. 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


431 


support,  to  render  easy  the  manipulation  of  lever  d.     The  levers  have  spring-latches,  and 
maintain  the  reel  in  any  given  position  for  the  time  being. 


FIG.  47.— Shaughran's  gear  and  adjusting  device. 


The  Milwaukee  Harvester  Co.'s  adjustable  reel  support  (Fig.  48)  has  but  one  hand-lever, 
which  locks  the  reel  in  any  position  forward  or  backward  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and 


FIG.  48. —Milwaukee  adjustable  reel  support. 

upward  or  downward  when  turned  on  its  own  axis  by  the  operator.    A  lift-spring  in  the  for- 
ward arm,  not  visible  in  the  figure,  sustains  the  weight  of  reel  and  forearm. 

Aultman,  Miller  &  Co.,  of  Ohio,  make  a  binding-harvester  (Fig.  49)  in  which  the  cloth  con- 


432 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


veyer  is  confined  to  the  platform,  and  the  grain  is  moved  up  the  elevator  to  the  binder  under 
a  suspended  float  carrying  a  pair  of  raking  teeth,  and  by  a  gang  of  teeth  with  tedder  action 
derived  from  a  crank-shaft  working  under  the  elevator-boards.  The  teeth  are  propelled  in 
slots  in  the  elevator,  and  serve  the  double  purpose  of  elevating  the  grain  and  packing  it  under 
the  knotter,  which  is  modeled  on  the  Appleby  plan.  "  This  machine  packs  the  grain  upward. 
Walter  A.  Wood  makes  a  rake-elevator  binding-harvester  (Fig.  50)  which  has  cloth-conveyer 


FIG.  49. — Aultman's  harvester. 

on  platform  only,  and  elevates  and  packs  the  grain  with  a  rotary  rake  having  teeth  on  four 
arms.  The  rake-heads  rock,  so  as  to  feather  and  draw  out  of  work,  as  soon  as  they  arrive  at 
the  edge  of  the  binder-table.  They  are  held  in  work  by  tail-guides  at  the  forward  end.  The 
raking  device  is  in  the  form  of  a  reel,  which  is  journaled  only  at  the  forward  end ;  thus  the 
entire  rear  line  of  harvester  and  binder  is  left  open,  as  seen  in  Fig.  51,  giving  unobstructed 
passage  to  the  grain,  however  long  the  straw  may  be.  There  is  a  light  cloth-and-frame 
extension  behind  the  platform  to.  keep  the  heads  of  tall  grain  from  touching  the  stubble 
behind  the  harvester.  The  knotter  works  beneath  the  binder-table  which  is  slotted  just  above 

it,  and  is  a  hook  of  the  Appleby 
type.  The  twine-needle  is  piv- 
oted above  the  space  for  the 
sheaf.  The  discharger  recipro- 
cates. The  grain  is  elevated 
only  along  the  small  arc  re- 
quired for  the  action  of  the 
rake-heads  upon  it,  lightening 
both  weight  and  work.  The 
driving-wheel  is  located  just  in 
front  of  the  binder,  not  under 
it,  as  in  other  binding-harves- 
ters, and  its  power  is  conveyed 
back  to  the  binder,  pla|form- 
conveyer,  and  elevator  by  a 
tumbling-rod.  As  the  driving- 
wheel  and  grain-wheel  are  not 
centered  on  the  same  transverse 
line,  the  latter  is  arranged  as  a 
caster  to  avoid  cramping  in 
turning.  It  is  attached  far 

enough  back  to  balance  the  machine,  the  principal  weight  of  which  is  brought  as  near  the 
driving-wheel  as  practicable.  The  weight  of  the  tongue,  and  of  the  driver,  whose  seat  is 
slightly  forward  of  the  driving-wheel  center,  on  the  hounds  of  the  tongue,  aids  in  balancing 
the  machine." 

A  very  considerable  part  of  the  harvesting  in  the  large  grain-fields  of  the  Pacific  coast  is 
now  performed  with  the  wide-cut  "  header,"  sometimes  drawn  by  a  long  string  of  animals,  but 
preferably  by  a  traction  engine.  The  header  cuts  the  straw  near  the  top,  leaving  the  stubble 
standing  high,  and  taking  off  little  more  than  the  grain-ears.  This  renders  the  duty  of  the 
conveyer  mechanism  so  light  as  to  admit  of  taking  a  swath  15  or  20  ft.  wide,  and  even  wider. 
From  the  platform-conveyer  the  grain-ears  are  elevated  between  canvas  belts  to  a  point  over 
the  driving-wheel,  and  there  shot  into  a  long  supplemental  conveyer  swung  well  out  from 
the  side  of  the  machine  to  deliver  them  into  large  tender-wagons  traveling  alongside  to 
receive  loads  and  haul  to  the  thrasher. 


FIG.  50.— Wood's  harvester. 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


433 


7  m 


28 


434 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


A  thrashing,  cleaning,  and  separating  attachment  is  carried  on  some  of  these  headers. 
This  elaborate  mechanism  is  known  as  a  combined  harvester.  Fig.  52  shows  it  as  made  by 
the  Benicia  Agricultural  Works.  It  spouts  the  cleaned  grain  into  sacks  handled  by  men 
riding  on  the  machine,  who  transfer  it,  ready  for  market,  to  the  tender- wagon  alongside  as 
fast  as  the  sacks  are  filled.  Tho  straw  from  the  thrasher  serves  as  fuel  for  the  engine,  which 
is  made  with  a  fire-box  expressly  designed  as  a  straw-burner.  This  use  of  engines  in  harvest- 
ing, where  farming  is  done  on  a  large  scale,  the  ground  level  and  affording  good  footing  for 
the  engine-wheels  under  the  influence  of  a  steadily  dry  summer  climate,  is  rapidly  extending, 
having  proved  economical  both  in  respect  of  money  and  time.  Fig.  53  exhibits  one  of  the 
wide-cut  headers  (Geiser's),  with  traction  engine  attached,  in  the  field. 


FIG.  52.— Thrashing,  cleaning,  and  separating  harvester. 

Headers  are  sometimes  employed  in  fields  of  small  size  in  localities  where  straw  is  not 
valuable  for  sale.  No  binding  mechanism  is  used  in  this  mode  of  harvesting.  The  "  Buck- 
eye "  harvester,  for  example,  is  adapted  for  use  either  as  a  header  or  binder.  When  used  as  a 
binder  it  is  run  low,  bringing  its  sickle  near  the  ground  to  cut  long  straw  for  binding  into 
sheaves.  As  a  header  it  is  used  with  the  binding  mechanism  off,  and  with  the  sickle  raised 
high  enough  to  merely  clip  the  ears,  and  leave  the  straw  standing  in  the  field.  Attached  to 
the  delivery  side  of  the  machine  is  an  extension  conveyer,  the  extremity  of  which  is  held  at 
any  requisite  height  by  a  rod  controlled  by  the  operator  of  the  machine,  and  which  is  fur- 
nished with  an  endless  apron  to  spout  the  harvested  heads  into  an  attendant  wagon. 

Corn- Harvester. — Fig.  54  is  a  sled  with  a  folding  wing  each  side  armed  with  a  blade  set 
for  work  diagonally  with  the  line  of  progression.  The  rapidity  with  which  this  very  recently 
designed  device  has  been  adopted  by  farmers  demonstrates  the  existence  of  a  great  need  for 
corn-harvesting  machinery.  In  this  particular  device  the  bladed  wings  are  adjustable  to 
whatever  slant  will  cut  off  the  corn-stalks  most  easily  ;  when  they  are  ripened  to  a  point  of 
dryness,  a  decidedly  slanting  cut  is  required.  The  blades,  if  serrate-edged,  remain  efficiently 
sharp  a  long  time  and  do  more  thorough  work  than  if  smooth  or  knife-edged.  Buck-saw 
blades  are  used.  A  lever  serves  to  transfer  the  weight  of  the  front  end  of  the  sled  upon  a 
caster-wheel  beneath,  when  it  is  necessary  to  turn  about  at  the  ends  of  rows,  in  response  to 
•direction  of  draft.  One  horse  suffices  for  draft.  Two  men  ride  the  harvester,  standing  back  to 
back,  with  a  transverse  hand-rail  by  which  to  steady  themselves.  The  horse  readily  follows  the 
proper  line  between  the  corn-rows,  the  reins  being  allowed  to  remain  looped  to  the  rail  within 
•easy  reach.  The  men  on  either  side  receive  the  severed  stalks  in  their  arms  until  a  gallows-hill 
is  passed  uncut  by  momentarily  folding  the  adjacent  wing  of  the  harvester,  when  they  set  their 
armf  uls  in  stook  against  the  selected  gallows-hill,  resume  position  on  the  harvester,  re-extend 
the  folded  wing,  and  proceed  as  before.  A  crank-lever  below  the  hand-rail,  moved  by  the  foot, 
folds  and  extends  the  wing.  Both  wings  are  folded,  for  safety,  when  driving  along  out  of  work. 
Some  of  these  sled  machines  are  made  with  the  deck  adjoined  to  the  runners  adjustably,  so 
as  to  gauge  the  height  of  cut.  The  attendants  do  not  draw  the  stalks  forcibly  against  the 
blades,  but  permit  them  to  be  slightly  inclined  forward,  when  the  blades  slice  them  off  easily 
with  a  slant  cut.  While  the  invention  seems  simple,  it  has  been  a  long  time  coming,  and  is 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


435 


i 


436 


HARVESTING-MACHINES,   GRAIN. 


FIG.  54.— Corn-harvester. 

effective  in  light  or  only  moderately  heavy  crops,  of  which  10  acres  may  be  thus  stocked  in  a 
day  with  labor  which,  though  not  arduous,  accomplishes  somewhat  more  than  double  the 
usual  duty  of  two  men  working 
with  corn-knives.  A  notable 
step  in  advance  is  a  corn-har- 
vester devised  at  the  factory  of 
the  D.  M.  Osborne  Co.,  at  Au- 
burn, N.  Y.  The  cutters  are 
two  horizontal  disk  -  knives 
turning  toward  each  other. 
Spiked  wheels  turning  on  the 
same  shafts  with  the  knives 
force  the  corn-stalks  between 
the  knife-edges.  The  two  di- 
vider-arms in  front  are  spread 
open  to  receive  the  corn,  wheth- 
er standing  upright  or  leaning, 
and  are  edged  with  toothed- 
driven  endless  chains  to  lift 
the  corn  and  direct  its  tops 
backward  just  before  it  is  cut 
off.  The  dissevered  corn  falls 
upon  the  lower  end  of  an  in- 
clined carrier,  essentially  a  se- 
ries of  toothed  endless  chains 
or  belts  suitable  for  elevating 
the  coarse,  heavy  material 
some  8  ft.  above  the  ground- 
level.  An  accompanying  wagon 

receives  the  load,  the  corn  be- 

FIG.  55. -Bean-harvester. 

ing  delivered  on  the  wagon  in  two  bents,  one  behind 
the  other.  The  wagon-rack  is  necessarily  low  on 
the  side  next  the  harvester.  To  unload  quickly,  the 
right-hand  wagon-wheels  are  lowered  by  running 
them  in  a  trench  prepared  at  the  place  of  unloading, 
and  the  corn  is  rolled  off  at  the  side. 

Pea  and  Bean  Harvester. — B.  0.  Savage's  pea  and 
bean  harvester  (Fig.  56)  straddles  the  row  and  brings 
the  peas  or  beans  in  contact  with  two  revolving  cyl- 
inders supplied  with  picker-teeth  to  comb  the  pods 
from  the  vines,  shell  the  seeds,  and  deposit  them  in 
sacks.  Five  acres  per  day  are  claimed  as  its  duty. 

The  "  Moline"  bean-harvester  (Fig.  55)  unearths 
the  vines  and  lays  the  complete  growth  of  two  rows 
loosely  in  a  windrow,  ready  to  be  loaded,  midway 
between  their  original  place,  without  shelling  by  any 
Fia.  56.— Pea  and  bean  harvester.  violent  agitation. 


HAT-MAKING   MACHINERY.  437 

HAT-MAKING  MACHINES.  Stretching  and  Slocking.— In  the  preceding  volume  of 
this  work  (Figs.  2301  to  2315)  will  be  found  illustrations  of  hat-stretching  and  blocking-ma- 
chines which  are  operated  by  hand,  and  on  which  the  work  is  manipulated  by  the  operator. 
These  machines  have  been  materially  improved,  so  that  they  are  now  automatic  in  their 
action. 

The  Tip-Stretcher  has  a  ribbed  and  recessed  former  mounted  on  a  vertical  spindle  and 
raised  or  lowered  by  a  cam  mounted  on  a  shaft,  which  is  revolved  once  only  while  a  hat-body 
is  stretched.  This  cam  is  so  shaped  that  it  will  raise  the  spindle  rapidly  until  the  former  and 
stretching  fingers  come  into  working  relation.  It  is  then  gradually  raised  higher  as  the 
stretching  progresses.  When  the  stretching  is  completed  the  frame  is  lowered,  and  remains 
stationary  long  enough  to  remove  the  stretched  hat-body  and  put  another  on  over  the  former. 
In  addition  to  this  motion  mechanism  is  provided  which  rotates  the  hat-body  while  the 
stretching  is  going  on,  and  an  absolutely  uniform  shaping  of  the  crown  is  thus  assured — a 
result  not  easily  obtained  in  machines  of  the  old  type.  The  machine  is  capable  of  stretching 
from  20  to  30  dozen  hats  per  hour. 

The  Automatic  Brim- Stretcher  operates  in  the  same  manner  as  the  tip-stretcher.  A  hat- 
body,  which  has  its  tip  already  stretched,  is  placed  upon  the  crown-block.  The  hat-body  is 
raised  to  the  stretching-fingers,  and  slowly  rotated  by  mechanism  similar  to  that  employed  in 
the  tip-stretcher  while  the  brim  is  developed.  The  machine  is  capable  of  stretching  twice 
more  hats  than  a  hand-machine,  and  its  work  is  much  more  uniform. 

Blocking-Machine. — When  a  hat-body,  which  has  been  stretched  on  tip  and  brim,  is 
blocked  on  a  hand-machine,  the  operator  has  first  to  put  it  in  the  machine,  and  then  clamp  it 
at  the  edge  of  the  brim.  The  band-ring  has  now  to  be  brought  and  locked  and  the  hat-block 
and  brim-tongs  simultaneously  expanded,  the  one  by  a  hand-lever  and  the  other  by  a  treadle. 
And,  finally,  when  stiff  hats  are  blocked,  cold  water  is  poured  on  to  set  the  stiffening  and 
thus  fix  the  shape.  All  these  operations  are  performed  automatically  in  the  machine'shown 
in  Fig.  1.  When  the  hat-body  is  placed  over  the  block,  and  in  reach  of  the  tongs,  the  ma- 


FIG.  1. — Blocking-machine. 

chine  is  started  by  means  of  a  foot-lever  shown  on  the  right  and  inside  of  the  frame,  and 
all  the  above-described  operations  are  made  automatically ;  and  when  the  hat-body  is  blocked 
and  cooled  off,  the  machine  stops  and  the  hat-body  is  removed.  It  is  evident  that  these  ma- 
chines do  not  require  skilled  operators.  When  once  properly  adjusted  for  a  certain  size  of 
hat-body  each  performs  its  work  upon  the  hat-body  placed  upon  it. 

Pouncing- Machines. — In  former  machines  the  hat-body,  operated  on  by  the  pouncing  ma- 
terial, has  been  exposed  more  or  less  to  the  danger  of  being  wrinkled,  and,  consequently,  in- 
jured in  its  passage  through  the  machine.  The  apparatus  has  been  improved  so  that  the 
hat-body,  which  is  fed  by  two  small  conical  rollers,  is  always  perfectly  smooth,  and  the  strain 
upon  it  while  being  pounced  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  wool-hat  pouncing-machine  dif- 
fers from  the  fur-hat  machine  in  the  size  of  its  pouncing-roller,  which  is  6  in.,  while  the 
pouncing-roller  of  the  fur-hat  machine  is  only  3  in.  in  diameter.  In  both  machines  the  hat 


438 


HAT-MAKING   MACHINERY. 


FIG.  2. — Curling-machine. 


is  supported  on  a  metal  button,  held 
up  by  the  operator  with  his  right  foot, 
while  the  feeding-apparatus  is  opera- 
ted with  the  left  foot.  To  cause  the 
hat  to  run  in  or  out  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  depress  the  foot-lever,  which 
will  operate  the  feed-rollers  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  while  the  hat  is 
being  pounced.  The  facility  with 
which  a  hat  can  be  pounced  is  superi- 
or to  anything  heretofore  attained. 
The  fur-hat  machine  saves  all  block- 
ing and  handling  of  the  hat.  The 
hat  is  simply  put  in  the  machine,  is 
pounced  on  the  brim,  and  gradually 
run  into  the  tip.  During  .this  time  it 
remains  smooth,  and.  moving  slowly, 
is  not  pulled  out  of  shape ;  nor  is  the 
stiffening  taken  out  of  it. 

Curling-Machines. — The  operation 
of  curling  hat-brims  has  been  greatly 
simplified  by  the  introduction  of  au- 
tomatic machines.  The  process,  after 
the  brim  has  been  heated  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Upon  the  horizontal  table  of  the 
curling-machine  (Fig.  2)  are  mounted 
36  folding-fingers,  which  form  a  con- 
tinuous ring  around  the  edge  of  the 
hat.  These  fingers  are  movable  to- 
ward the  center  by  means  of  10 
treadle-levers,  and  are  adjustable  to 
any  size  or  oval  of  the  hat-brim  to  be 
curled.  The  hand-lever  above  the  hat 
is  pivoted  in  the  rear  of  the  machine, 
and  on  the  band-ring  a  trim  sheet- 
metal  pattern  of  suitable  size  and 
shape  is  secured.  This  pattern  is  made  in  three  sections  of  trim  metal,  and  is  held  in  place 
by  springs  which  center  it  accurately  over  the  hat-brim.  After  the  pattern  has  been  placed 
on  the  band-ring  of  the  hand-lever  the  lever 
is  lowered  upon  the  table,  and  two  adjustable 
fingers  set  within  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  the 
edge  of  the  pattern,  and  confined  in  that  po- 
sition by  means  of  the  wheel-nut  shown  above 
the  cross-bar  on  the  treadle-lever.  The  hat, 
properly  heated,  is  now  placed  on  the  ma- 
chine, the  hand-block  accurately  centered  upon 
the  chuck-block,  and  the  edge  of  the  brim 
resting  upon  the  edge  of  the  folding-fingers. 
The  hand-lever  is  rapidly  brought  down, 
forcing  the  edge  of  the  brim  between  the  fold- 
ing-fingers and  the  pattern,  when,  by  the 
motion  of  the  treadle,  the  former  are  made 
to  move  rapidly  toward  the  center,  folding 
the  edge  smoothly  and  evenly  upon  the  pat- 
tern, when,  by  a  turn  of  the  hand-lever  on 
the  left  of  the  machine,  the  folding-fingers 
are  forced  firmly  upon  the  edge  of  the  brim 
and  thus  complete  the  operation.  The  hat  is 
now  ready  to  have  its  inner  edge  trimmed. 
In  order  to  insure  accuracy  the  outer  edge  of 
the  hat-brim  is  clamped  upon  a  hat-support- 
ing table  (Fig.  3),  and,  to  prevent  any  strain 
upon  the  brim,  a  rotary  cutter  is  used  "to  trim 
the  edge  of  the  curl.  In  the  center  of  the 
revolving  hat-supporter,  which  is  mounted 
upon  an  adjustable  oval  chuck,  a  chuck-block 
of  the  same  size  and  shape  as  those  on  the 
heater  and  curler  is  firmly  fixed.  Upon  this  the 
hat  is  placed.  Twelve  sections  located  upon 
radial  sliding  pieces  are  now  closed  around 
the  edge  of  the  brim  by  means  of  a  hand- 
lever,  and  clamp  the  edge  firmly.  The  rotary  v^H^!^^ 
cutter  shown  in  Fig.  3,  on  an  inclined  spin-  FIG.  3. -Edging-machine. 


HATCH-OPERATING   MECHANISM. 


439 


die  is  now  lowered  in  place,  and  one  or  two  revolutions  of  the  hat-supporting  plate  is  suffi- 
cient accurately  to  trim  the  edge.  The  machine  is  adjustable,  and  easily  arranged  for  any 
oval  that  may  be  desired,  trimming  the  curl  to  any  width  or  shape. 

The  Blanchard  Lathe  in  Hat-Making. — Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the 
Blanchard  machine  so  as  to  enable  it  to  make  flanges  with  scooped  faces.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  machine  illustrated  in  Fig.  4  is  the  first  in  which  this  object  has  been  successfully  accom- 


FIG.  4.— Blanchard  hat-lathe. 

plished.  It  will  finish  a  hat-block  from  the  edge  of  the  band  to  the  center  of  the  tip,  and  it 
will  cut  out  a  flange  flat  or  scooped  ready  to  saw  out  the  hole  in  the  center,  and  will  make 
any  size  of  block  or  flange  from  a  given  pattern.  In  the  machines  heretofore  used  to  make 
blocks,  the  pattern  as  well  as  the  wood  was  held  between  centers,  and  it  was  impossible  to  work 
to  the  tip  of  the  block.  This  made  it  necessary  to  finish  every  block  made  on  the  machine  on 
a  wood-lathe  or  by  hand.  Another  point  in  the  old  machine  was  the  adjustment  of  the  ma- 
chine to  vary  the  sizes  and  heights  of  the  hat-block  to  be  used.  Both  of  these  points  have, 
in  this  machine,  been  corrected.  The  hat-block  is  worked  over  by  the  cutter  from  the  edge 
of  the  band  to  the  center  of  the  tips,  and  is  ready  for  sand-papering  when  taken  out  of  the  ma- 
chine. Only  one  adjustment  is  required  to  regulate  the  size  and  depth  of  a  hat-block.  In  Fig.  4 
the  machine  is  shown  as  in  use  making  a  flange.  The  flange  on  the  left  of  the  machine  repre- 
sents the  pattern,  while  the  other  represents  the  flange  as  turned  by  the  machine.  The  pat- 
tern is  secured  upon  an  oval  plate  screwed  upon  the  pattern-spindle,  and  the  block  of  wood 
on  a  similar  flange  on  the  working-spindle ;  the  saddle  upon  which  the  cutting-spindle  and 
pattern-wheel  are  secured  is  now  shifted  to  the  left  until  the  wheel  touches  the  edge  of  the 
pattern.  When  the  machine  is  started  the  pattern-wheel  will  cause  the  frame  upon  which 
the  pattern  and  working  spindle  are  supported  to  swing  to  and  from  the  cutters,  and  an  ac- 
curate copy  of  the  pattern  is  made,  the  size  of  the  copy  depending  on  the  adjustment  of  the 
pattern- wheel.  Any  style  of  flange  or  block  can  be  made  without  other  change  than  the  sub- 
stitution of  one  pattern-wheel  or  cutter  for  another.  In  Fig.  4  the  pattern-wheel  and  cutter 
intended  for  such  a  block  are  shown  as  resting  on  the  base  of  the  machine.  All  the  foregoing 
machines  are  from  designs  by  and  are  patented  to  Mr.  Rudolph  Eickemeyer,  of  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

HATCH-OPERATING  MECHANISM.  Mechanism  for  causing  the  doors  of  hatchways 
in  elevator-shafts  to  be  automatically  opened  and  closed  by  the  movement  of  the  elevator 
itself.  The  general  arrangement  of  such  mechanism  is  that,  as  the  elevator-car  ascends,  it  acts 
upon  suitable  levers  whereby  the  hatch-door  immediately  in  advance  of  it  is  opened.  After 
the  car  has  passed  through  the  opening,  the  door,  by  similar  means,  is  automatically  closed. 
The  object  is  to  prevent  a  continually  open  shaft  in  buildings  which  might  act  as  a  flue,  and 
hence  increase  the  dangers  of  fire. 

Hauling  Engines :  see  Railways,  Cable. 


440 


HAY   CARRIERS   AND   RICKERS. 


HAY  CARRIERS  AND  RICKERS.     Apparatus  for  Transporting  and  Ricking  Hay.— 
Fig.  1  represents  sectionally  a  form  of  hay-carrier  made  by  the  Janesville  Hay-Tool  Co. 

When  held  in  position  to  receive  a  load,  a 
key  is  retained  in  a  trip-block  by  a  pair  of 
movable  jaws  until  the  fork-pulley  rises, 
and  with  its  registering-head  forces  them 
apart  at  the  top,  and  allows  the  key  to  drop 
beneath  and  lock  them.  In  Fig.  1  the  car- 
rier is  shown  as  loaded,  and  the  two  jaws 
are  held  in  position  by  the  interposed  key 
until  the  trip-block  releases  them  by  lift- 
ing the  key,  which  is  ribbed  at  its  upper 
end  to  admit  the  forked  edge  of  the  trip- 
block  and  receive  its  lifting  effect. 

Hay  Forks  and  Slings. — Figs.  2  and  3 
show  the  Janesville  single  deadlock,  and 
Figs.  4  and  5  the  Harris  double  harpoon- 
fork,  both  closed  and  opened.  Fig.  6  is  the 
Janesville  wagon-sling.  Several  are  used 
in  each  wagon-load  of  hay,  laid  at  inter- 
vals, as  the  loading  proceeds,  to  remove 
the  load  in  any  number  of  lifts  determined 
on.  It  reduces  litterings  to  a  minimum. 
In  Fig.  7  it  is  seen  raising  the  final  lift 
from  a  wagon.  The  hay  forms  a  roll  when 
lifted,  and  unrolls  when  discharged,  as  wide 
FIG.  1.— Hay-carrier.  as  the  wagon-load  was  long,  and  in  the  same 

shape  in  which  it  lay  in  the  wagon.     Fig. 

8  is  a  right-angle  sling-pulley  device  by  the  same  maker,  adapted  to  work  with  the  self-lock- 
ing hay-carrier  and  the  wagon-sling  just  described.  It  is  hooked  to  the  end  rings  of  the 
sling,  the  hooks  being  separable  for  the  purpose.  As  the  rolling  of  the  hay 
progresses,  the  pulleys  mutually  approximate  until  they  meet,  and  the  point 


Fio.  2.  FIG. 

FIGS.  2,  3.— Single  hay-fork. 


FIG.  4.  FIG.  5. 

FIGS.  4,  5. — Harris  double  harpoon-fork. 


of  the  single  pulley  enters  the  open  space  of  the  double  one,  where  it  locks.     Both  are  then 
elevated  together,  until  the  registering-head  engages  the  carrier-head.    Fig.  9  shows  an  appara- 


FIG.  6. — Janesville  wagon-sling. 


HAY   CARRIERS   AND   RICKERS. 


441 


FIG.  7.—  Janesville  sling  in  position. 

tus  at  work  in  a  hay-barn.     By  the  forward  movement  of  the  horse  attached  to  the  halyard, 

the  fork-pulley  M  rises  and  engages  the  carrier  A,  when  the 

latter  grasps  its  registering-head,  unlatches  and  moves  freely 

along  the  track  H  until  the  attendant  jerks  his  trip-rope  N, 

when  the  load  is  discharged  and  the  carrier  returned  to  its 

original  place  by  the  operation  of  the  counter-weight  R,  where 

it  automatically  locks.     In  locking,  it  frees  the  fork-pulley,  so 

that  the  attendant  can  draw  the  pulley  down  with  his  trip-rope 

for  a  fresh  charge  of  hay.     The  track  may  be  prolonged  as  a 

davit  outside  the  building,  and  the  charges  of  hay  introduced 

through  an  end-door  at  the  gable. 

The  "Acme"  Hay- Gatherer  and  Hay-Raker  (Fig.  10)  are 
used  in  concert.  With  two  of  the  gatherers  or  sweeps,  and  one 
of  the  rickers,  the  crop  from  12  or  15  acres  is  stacked  in  a 
day  by  4  persons  and  5  horses.  In  operating  the  sweep  a  horse 
is  attached  at  each  flank,  and  about  £  ton  bunched  from  the 
windrow,  or  even  from  the  swaths  as  left  by  the  mowing-ma- 
chine, and  swept  upon  the  ricker-head,  a  horse  passing  on  either 
side,  and  the  teeth  of  the  sweep  passing  between  the  ricker- 
teeth  and  transferring  the  load  to  them.  The  horse  attached 
to  the  hoist  of  the  ricker,  by  means  of  a  power-drum  and  pul- 
leys, swings  the  ricker-head  aloft  on  two  long-hinged  arms, 

which,  arrested  by  a  stop,  pitch  the  hay  forward  upon  the  top  FlG  g  _gijnff  Pulle 

of  the  stack.     The  rising  of  the  ricker-head  leaves  space  for 
turning  the  sweep  about  to  drive  away.     A  counter-weight  aids  in  starting  the  ricker-head  up- 


FIG.  9. — Loading  or  unloading  hay. 


442 


HAY-LOADERS. 


ward  when  loaded  and  downward  when  empty.     The  sweep  rides  on  two  side- wheels  and  a 
rear  caster,  the  latter  supporting  the  weight  of  the  driver,  who  controls  the  dip  of  the  sweep- 


FIG.  10. — Acme  hay-gatherer  and  raker. 

teeth  by  a  hand-lever.     The  ricker-stand  may  be  moved  on  its  runners  by  two  horses  along 
the  side  of  the  line  of  the  stack,  to  make  the  stack  of  any  length. 
Hay-Fork  Gatherer  :  see  Hay  Carriers  and  Rickers. 

HAY-LOADERS,     The  "  Victor  "  Hay-Loader  (Fig.  1)  is  for  loading  hay  into  vehicles. 

It  is  of  the  class  which  is  hauled  at  the  tail  of 
the  hay -wagon,  has  an  independent  cog  and 
chain  driving-gear,  actuated  by  its  own 'ground- 
wheels,  and  may  be  shifted  from  one  wagon  to 
another  in  the  field,  as  fast  as  the  loading  of 
each  wagon  is  completed,  by  coupling  its  short 
tongue  at  the  wagon  -  tail.  Flexible  -  toothed 
rakes  receive  motion  from  a  shaft  provided  with 
alternating  cranks.  These  pick  up  the  hay 
from  the  stubble  and  pass  it  to  the  end  of  the 
loading  elevator,  up  along  which  it  is  propelled. 
The  elevator  is  a  series  of  long  rods  with  their 
lower  ends  near  the  ground,  where  they  receive 
a  circular  motion,  and  their  upper  ends  over 
the  wagon,  where  they  receive  a  link  motion. 
These  rods  are  armed  with  teeth,  disposed  barb- 
wise,  to  force  the  hay  up  the  incline  of  the  ele- 
vator, and  release  the  hold  upon  it  intermit- 
tently after  each  upward  impulse.  This  auto- 
matic loader  takes  the  place  of  men  to  pitch  the  hay  on  the  wagon  from  the  ground,  and  at 
the  same  time  saves  gleanings. 

Hay-Press  :  see  Presses,  Hay  and  Cotton. 

HAY-RAKES.  Apparatus  for  Raking  Hay  in  the  Field. — Among  the  newer  features 
in  these  devices  are  the  following  :  The  thills  for  sulky-rakes  are  arranged  by  several  manu- 
facturers so  as  to  be  quickly  changed  to  a  pole  or  tongue  (Figs.  1  to  3),  by  drawing  the  bolts 


FIG.  1.— Hay-loader. 


FIG.  1. 


FIGS.  1-3.— Hay-rake. 


which  hold  them  in  place,  and  rebolting  them  united  midway  of  the  hounds.  An  extra  single- 
tree and  a  false  pole-tip  are  supplied.  Thus  the  rake  is  rendered  available  for  either  one 
horse  or  a  span,  and  in  an  emergency  the  mower-team  may  be  shifted  to  the  rake.  In  many 
districts  farmers  rarely  use  a  single  horse  for  field-work — which  makes  this  arrangement  a 
desirable  convenience,  obviating  the  need  of  a  special  single-work  harness  for  the  hay-raking. 
The  Chamberlins  Side-Delivery  Hay-Rake  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  It  rides  on  three  wheels, 
the  rear  one  a  caster,  giving  triangular  support  and  maintaining  the  operating  axis  parallel 


HEATERS,   FEED-WATER. 


443 


with  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  suitable  height.  One  of  the  two  forward  wheels  is  connected 
by  a  chain-drive  with  a  cross-shaft  geared  by  cogs  to  an  oblique  intermediate  shaft,  chain- 
geared  in  turn  to  the  crank-shaft,  from  which  a-  set  of  four  tedder-heads  receive  motion. 
Each  tedder-head  is  armed  with  three  tines.  The  crank-shaft  being  disposed  at  an  angle  of 


FIG.  4.— Side-delivery  hay-rake. 

about  45°  from  the  line  of  travel,  the  tedders  successively  rake  and  pitch  the  swath-hay  toward 
and  finally  beyond  one  side  of  the  machine,  continuously,  into  a  loose,  well- ventilated  wind- 
row, without  rolling  or  compressing  it.  A  strip  some  10  ft.  wide  is  windrowed  without  any 
manipulation  from  the  driver.  Two  horses  are  employed.  As  it  does  not  traverse  the  surface 
actually  occupied  by  the  windrows,  there  is  a  saving  of  distance  to  be  traversed  in  any  given 
field.  This  class  of  rake  is  especially  advantageous  for  use  in  connection  with  the  automatic 
hay-loaders  of  the  class  described  in  this  article. 

In  the  "  Keystone  "  Side-Delivery  Hay-Rake  the  axle  is  the  main  driving-shaft  bevel- 
geared  to  a  shaft  with  its  axis  in  the  line  of  travel.     The  latter  shaft  carries  chain-wheels 
driving  two  rake-chains,  which  serially  draw  a  gang  of  rakes,  armed  with  curved  teeth,  trans- 
versely through  the  stubble,  and  transfer  the  mown  hay  from  the  swath  into  a  raked  windrow 
at  one"  side  of  the  machine  beyond  the  wheel. 
Hay-Sling :  see  Hay  Carriers  and  Rickers. 
Header :  see  Harvesting-Machines,  Grain. 
Heads,  Exhaust  Steam-Pipe :  see  Pipe-Heads. 
Heater,  Feed-Water :  see  Engines,  Steam  Marine. 

HEATERS,  FEED-WATER.     The  National  Feed-  Water  Heater  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.    It 

consists  of  a  coil  or  series  of  coils  of  seamless 
drawn  brass  or  copper  tubes  contained  in  an 
iron  shell. 

The  Otis  Heater  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The 
exhaust  steam  enters  the  heater  at  the  top,  as 
shown  in  the  cut.  passes  down  one  section  of 
tubes  into  the  enlarged  space  of  the  water  and 
oil  catcher,  where  the  water  of  condensation 
and  oil  is  separated,  and  the  exhaust  steam 
then  passes  up  through  the  other  section  of 
tubes,  thus  passing  twice  through  the  entire 
length  of  the  heater  and  heating  the  feed- 
water.  The  exhaust  steam  can  then  be  used 
for  other  purposes  or  exhausted  into  the  at- 
mosphere. The -water  enters  the  heater  near 
the  bottom,  and  passing  upward  in  contact 
with  the  heated  tubes,  gradually  becomes 
thoroughly  heated,  and  is  discharged  as  near 
the  top  as  practicable,  so  as  to  avoid  carrying 
the  scum  that  is  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
into  the  boiler. 

The  Cochrane  Feed-  Water  Heater  and  Purifier  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.     Each  side  is  formed 
of  one  or  more  ribbed  plates,  which  are  bolted  together  at  the  flanges,  and  the  corners  and 


FIG.  1.— National  heater. 


isntttO  UTN!  . 

FIG.  2.— Otis  heater. 


444 


HEATERS,  FEED-WATER. 


ourin 


joints  are  packed  with  cement  and  rusted  tight.     The  top  and  the  bottom  is  each  a  single 
piece.     Inside  of  the  heater,  and  covering  the  steam  inlet,  is  attached  a  separator,  within 

which  the  oil  is  collected  from  the  steam  and  con- 
veyed away  by  a  drip-pipe.  The  upper  portion  of 
the  heater  contains  separate  trays,  which  are  inclined, 
and  have  several  small  ribs  on  each  to  distribute  the 
water  and  retain  solid  substances.  Opposite  the  sep- 
arator, and  a  little  below  it,  is  a  trough,  connected  by 
an  overflow-pipe  with  the  blow-off.  Covering  the 
outlet  to  the  pump,  and  extending  down  toward  the 
bottom,  is  a  hood,  which  is  open  at  its  under  edge 
only.  Connecting  the  apex  of  this  hood  with  the 
space  above  the  water-line  is  a  vapor-pipe,  which 
serves  to  vent  any  gases  liberated  under  the  hood,  and 
to  prevent  the  water  being  so  siphoned  that  the  sur- 
face and  any  floating  scum  could  pass  under  the  edge 
of  the  hood. 


FIG.  3. — Cochrane  heater. 


FIG.  4. — Hoppes  feed-water  purifier. 


The  Hoppes  Feed-  Water  Purifier,  shown  in  Fig.  4,  is  connected  with  the  boiler  by  a  pipe 

A,  and  the  exit  or  gravity  pipe  D.    A  blow-off  pipe  is  also  connected  with  the  purifier  at  C. 

The  feed-pipe  from  the  pump  or  boiler-feed  is  attached  at  JB,  and  the 
water  is  distributed  into  the  upper  pans  through  the  pipes  leading  into 
each  pan.  These  pipes  extend  below  the  water-level  of  the  pans  and  form 
a  water-seal,  which  prevents  the  steam  from  getting  into  the  feed-pipe 
and  causing  a  water-ram.  When  the  pan  is  filled  the  water  flows  over 
the  sides  a  thin,  uniform  sheet  along  the  bottom  until  it  reaches  the  cen- 
ter, when  it  falls  into  the  pan  below,  and  so  on  over  each  successive  pan 
until  it  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  shell,  from  which  it  passes  through  the 
pipe  D  into  the  boiler.  The  water  is  heated  to  the  boiler  temperature,  and 
parts  with  the  scale-making  substances  it  contains,  the  greater  part  of 
which  adheres  to  the  under  side  of  the  pans.  While  the  purifier  is  in 
operation  the  pans  remain  full  of  water  and  afford  settling-chambers  for 
the  heavier  solids,  such  as  mud,  sand,  etc.,  while  the  carbonates,  sulphates, 
silica,  and  other  hard  scale-making  substances  adhere  to  their  under  sides. 

The  Goubert  Water-  Tube  Feed-  Water  Heater 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  It  is  essentially  composed  of 
two  cast-iron  water-chambers  connected  by  a  clus- 
ter of  seamless  drawn-brass  tubes,  rigidly  secured 
at  their  ends  to  the  tube-plates.  The  upper  water- 
chamber  is  free  to  move  vertically  as  the  tubes  ex- 
pand or  contract.  The  tubes  are  surrounded  by  a 
cast-iron  shell  provided  with  inlet  and  outlet  noz- 
zles, which  are  connected  to  the  exhaust-pipes. 
The  water  inlet  and  outlet  pipes  are  made  to  pro- 
ject inside  of  the  water-chambers  and  opposite 
them  are  placed  dish-shaped  deflectors,  the  pur- 
pose of  which  is  to  deflect  the  current  and  thereby 
promote  the  separation  of  scum  and  sediment. 
The  Wainwright  Heater  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

The  exhaust  steam  enters  at  the  opening  D  in  the  base,  passing  through 

corrugated  tubes  and  out  at  the  top  through  C.    The  water  enters  at 

the  feed-opening  A,  passing  up  and  around  the  tubes  and  out  through 

B.  The  settling-chamber  in  the  base  is  connected  with  the  water- 
space  in  the  shell.     The  blow-off  opening  in  the  settling-chamber  al- 
lows the  sediment  which  may  have  collected  to  be  blown  out  in  the  bottom  of  the  exhaust- 
nozzle  of  the  base. 

Heating-Furnace  :  see  Furnaces,  Puddling  and  Heating. 
Hide- Worker :  see  Leather- Working  Machinery. 


FIG.  5.— Goubert 
heater. 


FIG.  6.—  Wainwright 
heater. 


HORSE-POWERS. 


445 


High  Duty  Attachment :  see  Pumps,  Reciprocating. 
High  Grinding  :  see  Milling-Machines,  Grain. 
Hoist,  Air :  see  Air-Hoist. 

Hoisting-Engine  :  see  Engines,  Steam  Stationary  Reciprocating. 
Hoop  Coiler-Driyer  :  see  Barrel-Making  Machines. 
Horse-Power  of  Boilers  :  see  Boilers,  Steam. 

HORSE-POWERS.     Fig.  1  is  a  perspective  with  cover  removed,  and  Fig.  2  a  sectional 
view  of  the  Woodbury-Dingee  mounted  horse-power,  made  by  Russell  &  Co.,  of  Massillon,  Ohio. 


1.— Horse-power.    Driving-gear. 

The  master-wheel  is  socketed  for  bars  for  six  spans  of  horses,  with  circular  travel  to  rotate  it 
horizontally.  It  is  a  double-crown  gear,  engaging  four  co-operating  bevel-pinions  driving  an 
oblique  shaft.  On  this 
shaft  is  fixed  the  large 
spur-gear  that  engages 
the  pinion  of  the  tum- 
bling-rod, or  knuckle- 
joint  line-shaft.  A  pulley 
on  this  shaft  (not  shown 
in  the  cut)  belts  direct  to 
the  thrasher,  or  any  other 
stationary  farm  machine. 
Fig.  3  shows  the  manner 
of  installing  the  appara- 
tus for  operation.  The 
tumbling  -  rod  requires 
bridging  where  the  horses 
pass  over  it  on  each  round 
of  travel.  Horse-powers 
of  this  type  are  usually 
geared  to  drive  the  tum- 
bling-rod at  the  rate  of 
from  75  to  100  revolutions 


FIG.  2.— Horse-power.    Section. 


per  min.     Fig.  4  is  the  Packer  upright  horse-power.     The  position  of  the  line-shaft  aloft  has 
obvious  advantages,  but  at  some  sacrifice  of  firmness,  and  this  device  is  often  preferred  for 


FIG.  3. — Woodbury  horse-power  in  position. 

driving  the  lighter  kinds  of  stationary  farm  machines.  The  line-shaft  may  be  swung  around 
to  any  angle,  and  the  animals  used  do' not  have  their  travel  obstructed  and  their  rate  of  travel 
checked  intermittently,  as  is  the  case  with  *'  down  "  powers,  when  the  animals  step  over  the 


446 


ICE-MAKING   MACHINERY. 


tumbling-rod  ;  there  is  also  a  gain  in  safety.    The  master-wheel,  and  all  heavy  parts  of  this 
type  of  power,  are  located  on  or  very  near  the  ground,  for  stability. 


FIG.  4.— Packer  upright  horse-power. 

Hose-Repairing  Devices :  see  Fire  Appliances. 

Hot  Water,  Transmission  of  Power  by  :  see  Power,  Transmission  of. 

Hub-Boring  Machine,  Turning-Machine  ;  see  Wheel-Making  Machines. 

Hub-Machine:  see  Mortismg-Machines. 

Husking-Cutter :  see  Ensilage-Machines. 

Hydraulic  Drilling-Machine ;  see  Drilling-Machines,  Metal. 

Hydraulic  Drill :  see  Drills,  Rock. 

Hydraulic  Elevator :  see  Elevators. 

Hydraulic  Ram :  see  Engines,  Hydraulic. 

Hydraulic  Transmission  of  Power :  see  Power,  Transmission  of. 

ICE-MAKING  MACHINERY.  While  there  is  considerable  competition  between  manu- 
facturers of  ice-making  machines  and  general  refrigerating  apparatus,  there  has  been  little 
change  in  theory  and  practically  none  in  the  chemistry  of  the  art  for  some  years,  the  main 
efforts  put  forth  having  been  in  the  direction  of  avoiding  complication  in  the  working  parts 
of  the  apparatus,  reducing  the  cost,  and  establishing  the  utmost  economy  in  power.. 

The  two  chief  classes  of  ice-making  apparatus  are  known  respectively  as  "  absorption " 
and  "compression"  machines. 

ABSORPTION  ICE-MACHINES  can  be  built  and  operated  at  less  cost  than  the  superior  types 
of  compression  apparatus,  and  it  is  further  claimed  in  favor  of  the  former  that  it  is  easier  to 
pump  the  water  of  ammonia  used  in  that  machine  than  to  pump  the  highly  elastic,  gaseous 
ammonia  used  in  a  compression  machine.  The  comparison  in  the  sizes  of  the  two  pumps  is 
stated  to  be  as  1  is  to  500  in  favor  of  the  absorption  process,  not  counting  the  additional 
trouble  of  keeping  a  gas-pump  in  good  working  order,  but  this  is  probably  an  exaggeration. 
Upon  the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  that  out  of  the  many  ice-making  plants  which  are  known 
to  have  been  abandoned,  particularly  in  the  South,  the  majority  consists  of  absorption 
machines.  The  objections  raised  to  the  absorption  principle  are  that  there  is  not  the  same 
economy  of  fuel  or  water ;  that  the  action  of  the  weak  liquor  will  eat  out  pipe- work, 
necessitating  frequent  renewals  of  the  pipe  system ;  that  it  is  impracticable  to  keep  the 
ammonia  in  the  evaporator-coils  anhydrous  for  any  considerable  length  of  time,  because  the 
driers  will  become  moist,  and  that  expansion  and  contraction  strains  and  opens  the  joints  in 
the  still  and  apparatus,  and  renders  the  plant  wasteful  of  ammonia.  Be  all  this  as  it  may, 
this  system  has  steadily  increased  the  number  of  its  advocates,  and  ice-manufacture  is,  com- 
mercially and  mechanically  speaking,  making  substantial  headway. 

In  one  of  the  latest  improved  absorption  ice-machines,  the  ammonia-boiler  contains  in  its 
lower  half  coils  for  heating  water  of  ammonia,  and  its  upper  half  contains  the  rectifier.  The 
latter  consists  of  a  number  of  cast-iron  pans  bolted  together,  and  arranged  to  form  a  zigzag 
passage  through  them,  for  gas  passing  up  and  rich  liquor  passing  down.  The  extreme  upper 
end  of  the  boiler  is  connected  by  a  pipe  with  the  upper  end  of  a  coil  in  the  condenser,  which 
consists  of  an  oblong  iron  tank  open  at  the  top,  containing  one  or  more  coils  immersed  in 
water  for  condensing  the  ammonia.  The  outlets  of  the  coils  are  connected  with  a  collector, 
made  up  of  a  cylindrical  reservoir  closed  at  both  ends,  and  having  an  external  glass  gauge  to 
indicate  the  height  of  liquefied  gas  inside.  This  collector  is  connected  at  its  bottom  by  a  pipe 
with  gas-exchanger,  which  consists  of  a  closed  cylinder  containing  a  coil,  the  inlet  of  which  is 
connected  with  the  pipe  from  the  collector.  A  pipe  having  a  regulating-valve  connects  this 
coil  with  a  manifold,  to  which  is  again  connected  a  coil  lying  in  a  wooden  tank,  calked  water- 
tight on  the  bottom  and  sides,  and  surrounded  with  a  heat-non-conducting  substance ;  this 
is  called  the  "  bath."  This  last  coil  is  jointed  at  the  upper  end  with  the  manifold.  The  tank 
contains  a  solution  of  salt  and  water.  Partly  immersed  in  this  brine  are  the  cans  containing 
the  distilled  water,  which  is  to  be  converted  into  ice.  A  lattice-work  covers  the  top  of  the 


ICE-MAKING  MACHINERY. 


447 


bath,  admitting  the  cans  between  its  spaces,  and  a  separate  lid  is  also  used.  The  outlets  at 
the  bottom  of  these  last-named  coils  are  connected  by  another  manifold  which  is  in  turn,  con- 
nected with  the  gas-exchanger.  The  outlet  of  the  gas-exchanger  is  at  the  top,  and  is  connected 
by  a  pipe  with  a  coil  in  the  distilled-water  tank,  which  is  round,  of  wrought  iron,  and  closed 
at  both  ends  ;  internally,  there  are  two  coils.  The  outlet  of  the  coil  connected  with  the  gas- 
exchanger  is  connected  with  the  absorber,  which  is  a  closed  cylinder,  containing  one  or  more 
coils,  through  which  circulates  river  or  well  water.  The  pipe  from  the  distilled-water  tank 
enters  this  absorber  at  the  top,  and  extends  down  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  bottom.  There 
is  an  outlet-pipe  at  the  bottom,  which  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  poor-liquor  exchanger ; 
this  is  also  a  closed  cylinder,  and  contains  a  coil  for  partially  cooling  the  poor  liquor  drawn 
from  the  ammonia-boiler.  The  outlet  of  this  coil  is  connected  by  a  pipe  with  the  cooler, 
which  is  an  iron  tank  open  at  the  top,  containing  water  and  a  coil  immersed  therein ;  the  ab- 
sorber is  connected  with  this  coil  by  a  pipe  having  a  regulating-valve.  The  inlets  of  the  coils 
of  the  ammonia-boiler  have  a  pipe  connection  with  the  steam-boiler,  and  the  outlets  are  con- 
nected to  a  heater  consisting  of  a  closed  cylinder  containing  a  coil  for  heating  feed-water  for 
the  steam-boiler,  and  condensing  steam  to  make  ice.  The  top  of  the  heater  is  connected  by  a 
pipe  to  the  top  of  the  distilled-water  tank.  Gauges  are  employed  for  indicating  the  steam- 
pressure,  ammonia  boiler-pressure,  and  pressure  or  vacuum  in  the  absorber. 

The  operation  of  th.is  apparatus  is  as  follows :  Sufficient  ammonia-water,  26°  Beaume,  is 
pumped  into  the  machine  to  fill  the  coil  in  the  cooler,  the  exchanger,  and  the  coil  in  it — the 
absorber  until  it  shows  in  the  gauge-glass,  and  the  ammonia-boiler  until  it  is  up  to  the  lower 
gauge-cock.  Steam  is  admitted  from  the  steam-boiler  to  the  coils  in  the  ammonia-boiler.  This 
causes  the  gaseous  ammonia  to  leave  the  water  and  ascend  through  the  rectifier  in  the  top  of 
the  boiler,  and  pas!*  into  the  coils  of  the  condenser ;  and  under  the  combined  pressure  and 
temperature  of  the  water  surrounding  the  coils  the  gaseous  ammonia  turns  into  a  liquid  and 
runs  down  into  the  collector,  the  amount  of  liquefied  gas  being  shown  by  the  glass  gauge  on 
its  side.  The  liquefied  gas  then  passes  through  the  coil  in  the  gas-exchanger  and  out  through 
pipes  to  the  regulating-valve.  Between  this  valve  and  the  ammonia-boiler  a  continual  press- 
ure is  kept  up  (depending  on  the  temperature  of  the  condensing  water  used  in  the  liquefier). 
As  the  liquefied  gas  passes  through  the  valve  it  passes  into  the  pipe-manifold,  in  which  a  very 
low  pressure  exists,  and  consequently  it  expands  and  turns  into  gas  again,  producing  a  low 
temperature,  varying  from  4°  below  to  10°  above  zero,  and  as  it  circulates  through,  the  coils  in 
the  bath  of  salt  water  it  absorbs  the  heat  of  the  water  in  the  cans  through  the  medium  of  the 
salt  water,  and  results  in  its  being  frozen.  The  gas  passes  out  through  the  bottom  of  the  coils 
into  the  manifold,  and  then  into  the  gas-exchanger,  and  then  comes  in  contact  with  the  coil 
containing  the  liquefied  gas  on  its  way  to  the  bath,  and  reduces  its  temperature.  The  ex- 
panded gas  continues  on  out  at  the  top  of  the  exchanger,  and  passes  on  to  the  distilled-water 
tank,  through  a  coil  in  the  bottom,  and  cools  the  water 
used  for  filling  the  cans,  the  contents  of  which  are  to  be 
frozen.  The  gas  then  continues  on  to  the  absorber,  and 
passes  down  to  the  bottom,  where  it  is  reabsprbed  by  the 
poor  liquor,  or  the  same  water  from  which  it  was  driven 
out  in  the  ammonia-boiler. 

In  order  to  cool  the  poor  liquor  so  that  it  will  reab- 
sorb  the  expanded  gas,  it  is  drawn  out  from  the  bottom  of 
the  ammonia-boiler  through  the  coil  in  the  poor  liquor 
exchanger,  thence  through  the  coil  in  cooler,  where  it  is 
made  of  the  same  temperature  as  the  river  or  well  water, 
and  thence  into  the  absorber.  Here  the  gaseous  ammo- 
nia is  readily  absorbed  by  the  poor  liquor,  which  generates 
heat.  The  heat  is  carried  off  by  water  passing  through 
the  coils  already  mentioned.  The  now  rich  liquor  passes 
into  the  pump,  and  is  forced  through  the  poor-liquor  ex- 
changer and  then  carried  into  the  top  of  the  ammonia- 
boiler,  thence  into  the  rectifier,  where  it  meets  the  rich 
gas  coming  up,  which  its  partially  charged  wih  watery 
vapor,  and  partially  freed  from  it  by  its  contact  with  the 
rich  liquor  which  passes  down  into  bottom  of  the  ammo- 
nia-boiler, and  is  now  ready  to  go  through  the  same  pro- 
cess over  and  over  again. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  operation,  the  steam  that  was 
admitted  from  the  steam-boiler  into  the  coils  passes  out  in 
the  ammonia-boiler  to  the  heater  partially  condensed,  but 
it  does  not  furnish  enough  distilled  water  for  the  amount 
of  ice  the  machine  will  make.  The  coil  through  which  the 
feed-water  passes  to  the  steam-boiler  is  inclosed  in  the 
heater,  and  in  passing  through  it  condenses  enough  steam 
to  supply  the  machine.  The  condensed  steam  is  then  con- 
ducted to  the  distilled-water  tank  and  freed  from  the  in- 
condensible  gases  and  cooled,  and  then  drawn  out  to  fill 
the  ice-cans  as  occasion  may  require.  The  operation  is 
continuous,  one  part  not  being  delayed  by  another,  but  all 
moving  together  and  at  the  same  time.  FIG.  l.— Ammonia  cylinder. 


448 


ICE-MAKING   MACHINERY. 


The  operation  of  refrigeration  is  performed  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  exception  that 
the  heater,  distilled-water  tank,  and  the  cans  in  which  the  ice  is  made,  are  dispensed  with  ; 
the  salt  water  in  the  bath  is  circulated  through  pipes  in  the  apartments  to  be  cooled,  or,  if 
preferable,  the  coils  and  salt  water  in  the  bath  can  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  gaseous 
ammonia  allowed  to  circulate  through  pipes  in  the  apartments.  A  complete  plant  for  the 
manufacture  of  ice  consists  of  the  parts  enumerated  above,  with  the  addition  of  steam-boiler, 
water-pump,  boiler-feeder,  ice-truck,  and  dump. 

Tests  of  Absorption- Machines. —  Mr.  Frederick  Colyer,  Proc.  Inst.  of  Mech.  Eng.,  May, 
1886,  page  248,  gives  the  results  of  a  test  of  a  Pontifex-Reece  ammonia  absorption-machine 
cooling  6,388  gals,  (imperial  gal.  =  10  Ibs.)  of  water  per  hour  through  10°  F.  The  condensing 
water  used  per  hour  was  1.320  gals,  at  45^°  F.  The  fuel-consumption  was  100  Ibs.  of  very 
common  coal  per  hour.  The  steam-pressure  was  50  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  The  same  machine,  when 
employed  for  making  ice,  is  capable  of  making  15  tons  in  24  hours,  if  worked  with  three  boxes, 
In  the  test,  two  boxes  were  used,  making  10  tons.  The  coal-consumption  was  120  Ibs.  per  hour, 
or  192  Ibs.  of  coal  per  ton  (2,240  Ibs.)  of  ice — 11-7  Ibs.  ice  per  Ib.  coal. 

COMPRESSION-MACHINES. — In  the  latest  type  of  ice-making  machine  built  by  the  Consoli- 
dated Ice-Machine  Co.  the  compressors  are  set  vertically,  and  are  single-acting,  compressing 
only  on  the  up-stroke.  A  cross-section  of  the  ammonia-cylinder  is  given  in  Fig.  1.  The  gas 
has  free  entrance  to  and  exit  from  the  cylinder  below  the  piston,  thus  keeping  the  pump- 
cylinder  and  piston  cool.  The  extreme  lower  portion  of  the  pump  forms  an  oil-chamber  or 
reservoir,  which  effectually  seals  the  stuffing-box.  The  suction  and  discharge  valves  are 
located  in  the  pump-head.  There  are  two  cushioned  discharge- valves,  set  in  steel  cages,  which 
are  held  in  position  in  the  pump-heads  by  means  of  yokes  and  set-screws. 

The  suction  and  discharge  pipe  connections  are  made  outside  of  the  pump-head.  All  the 
gas  is  expelled  at  each  stroke. 

Tests  of  Compression-Machines. — An  important  test  of  a  75-ton  compression-machine  of 
the  above-described  type  has  been  made  by  Prof.  J.  E.  Denton,  and  is  published  in  Trans.  A. 
S.  M.  E.,  November,  1890.  The  principal  results  are  given  in  the  following  table  : 

Economy  depending  on  Coal  alone. 


STEAM-ENGINE. 

POUNDS  OF  ICE-MELTING   EFFECT. 

B.  T.  U.   PER  LB. 

OF  STEAM. 

150  Ibs.  condensing-pressure. 

105  Ibs.  condensing-pressure. 

150  Ibs. 
condensing- 

p  res  sure. 

105  Ibs. 
condenting- 
pressure. 

28  Ibs.  suction- 
pressure. 

7  Ibs.  suction- 
pressure. 

Suction-press- 
are,  28  Ibs. 

Suction-press- 
nre,  7  Ibs 

Suction- 
pressure. 

Suction- 
pressure. 

TYPE. 

Coal 
per 
horse- 
power. 

Water 
per 
horse- 
power. 

Per  Ib. 
of 
coal. 

Per  Ib. 
of 
steam. 

Per  Jb. 
of 
coal 

Per  Ib. 
of 
steam. 

Perlb. 
of 
coal. 

Per  Ib. 
of 
steam. 

Per  Ib. 
of 
coal. 

Per  Ib. 
of 
steam. 

28 
Ibs. 

393 
513 
640 

7 
Ibs. 

28 
Ibs. 

591 
725 
923 

7 
Ibs. 

Non-condensing          .... 

3 

2'4 
1-9 

25 
20 
16 

24 
30 
37'5 

2'90 
3'61 
4-51 

14 
17-5 
21-5 

T69 
2-11 

2'58 

34-5 
43 
54 

4-16 
5-18 
6-50 

22 

27-5 
34'5 

2-65 
3-31 
4-16 

240 
300 
366 

376 
470 
591 

Non-comp'd  condensing. 
Compound  condensing.  . 

The  above  figures  are  equivalent  to  assuming  a  boiler  efficiency  of  8'3  Ibs.  of  water  evaporated  per  Ib.  of 
coal  under  working  conditions. 

For  further  reports  of  tests,  see  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  xi,  for  trials  of  a  De  la  Vergne 
refrigerating  plant. 

Ammonia  Condensers,  which  perform  the  work  of  condensing  and  liquefying  the  ammonia 
as  it  is  discharged  from  the  compressors,  have  the  coils  in  which  the  condensation  of  the  gas 
takes  place  immersed  in  a  deep  tank  of  water,  and  the  heated  gas  enters  the  coils  at  the  top 
of  the  tank,  while  the  condensing  water  enters  the  tank  at  the  bottom  and  overflows  at  the 
top.  In  this  form,  which  is  known  as  the  submerged  system,  the  hot  gas  from  the  machine 
first  meets  the  warm  water  at  the  top  of  the  tank,  and  as  it  passes  toward  the  bottom  of  the 
coils  gradually  gives  off  its  heat  to  the  surrounding  water,  until  it  reaches  the  cool  water  at 
the  bottom,  where  it  becomes  liquefied,  and  passes  into  the  receiver.  In  an  air-condenser  the 
coils  are  not  submerged,  but  water  is  trickled  over  the  pipes,  and  both  air  and  water  absorb 
the  heat  of  compression,  and  thus  serve  to  condense  and  liquefy  the  gas.  Efforts  have  been 
made  in  the  direction  of  concentrating  all  the  air  in  a  high  condensing  pressure  system  in 
one  place,  where  it. may  be  discharged  through  a  valve,  and  a  fair  measure  of  success  has  been 
attained.  This  is  of  great  value,  as  the  presence  of  air  trapped  at  various  parts  of  the  appa- 
ratus has  frequently  required  the  evacuation  of  the  whole  system. 

A  Double-Acting  Compressor  is  shown  at  Fig.  2.  It  is  self-contained  and  horizontal,  with 
the  steam-engine  that  furnishes  power  for  it  on  the  same  bed-frame,  the  piston-rods  of  both 
gas-cylinder  and  steam-cylinder  being  in  a  direct  line  from  center  to  center.  The  wrists  con- 
necting the  driving-rods  with  the  cross-head  and  with  the  wrist-pins  on  the  outside  of  the  fly- 
wheels, avoid  the  wear  and  tear  inevitable  from  the  ordinary  crank  and  fly-wheel  system.  By 
a  special  arrangement,  consisting  of  a  chamber  formed  in  the  stuffing-box,  and  a  pipe  or  pipes 
leading  from  it  to  the  suction  side  of  the  gas-cylinder,  the  pressure  on  the  stuffing-box  around 
the  piston-rod,  as  it  comes  out  of  the  gas-cylinder,  is  equalized  with  the  back  pressure  from 
the  expansion-coils,  which  pressure  usually  ranges  from  15  to  25  Ibs.  to  the  sq.  in.  Another 


INDICATORS,   STEAM-ENGINE. 


449 


FIG.  2.— Double-acting  compressor. 


device  dispenses  with  the  use  of  water  as  a  means  of  cooling  the  piston-rod,  this  being  done 
by  a  constant  flow  of  oil  through  an  oil-chamber  built  on  the  gland  of  the  stuffing-box  itself. 

A  third  improvement  made  by  the  inventor 
(John  Ring,  of  St.  Louis)  of  the  above  machine, 
and  embodied  in  his  ice-making  system,  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  the  ammonia  goes 
through  the  expansion-coils,  in  actual  work, 
so  rapidly  that  at  the  outlet  it  still  has  in  it 
the  capacity  of  further  absorption  of  heat. 
After  leaving  the  coils  the  gaseous  ammonia 
goes  to  one  or  more  receivers,  where  a  further 
compression  is  produced  by  simply  arranging 
the  outlet-pipes  so  that  their  area  will  be 
slightly  less  than  that  of  the  inlet-pipes.  When 
expanded  into  other  coils  beyond  the  receiver, 
the  gas  can  be  utilized  to  cool  the  distilled 
water  in  ice-making,  and  additional  rooms  in 
refrigeration. 

Cold  Storage.  —  For  storing  perishable 
goods  at  temperatures  above  or  below  the 
freezing-point,  and  making  ice  in  connection 
with  the  same,  a  useful  combination  is  formed 
in  the  plant  produced  by  an  English  Cold 
Storage  Co.,  and  called  ""Hill's  Refrigerating  Apparatus  and  Dry-Cold  Air-Chamber." 

The  apparatus  consists  of:  (a)  An  ammonia-boiler,  separator,  and  condenser  with  connec- 
tions, for  producing  the  cold,  (b)  A  refrigerator  or  cold  chamber,  with  non-conducting  walls, 
the  roof  of  which  is  formed  by  a  tank  containing  a  non-congealable  liquid  which  can  be 
reduced  to  any  required  temperature  down  to  70°  F.  below  the  freezing-point.  The  working 
involves  no  risk.  A  slow-combustion  stove  is  required  containing  a  coil  for  the  rapid  genera- 
tion of  steam,  which  is  used  to  convey  heat  to  the  ammonia-boiler.  Steam  can  be  raised  by 
the  use  of  coke,  gas.  spirit,  or  oil;  or,  if  a  steam-boiler  already  exists,  then  steam  may,  of 
course,  be  taken  from  it. 

The  cold  is  produced  as  follows:  (a)  By  the  distillation  of  ammonia-gas  from  water  in 
which  it  is  held  in  solution,  (b)  By  the  conversion  of  dehydrated  gas  by  automatic  pressure 
into  liquid  anhydrous  ammonia,  (e)  By  the  automatic  evaporation  (under  control)  of  the 
liquid  anhydrous  ammonia,  (d)  By  reabsorption  of  the  gaseous  ammonia  in  the  water  in 
which  it  was  originally  held  in  solution. 

By  the  third  stage  of  the  operation  (e)  the  latent  heat  is  extracted  from  the  bulk  of  the 
liquid  anhydrous  ammonia  and  the  sensible  heat  from  the  cold-storage  bath.  Intense  cold  is 
thus  produced  in  and  stored  up  by  the  said  bath  to  the  desired  degree  of  temperature  (either 
above  or  below  freezing).  The  tank  containing  the  cold-bath  forms  the  ceiling  of  the  cold- 
chamber,  and,  being  cf  the  same  temperature  as  the  bath,  abstracts  the  heat  from  the  air  in 
the  chamber,  and  as  the  coldest  air  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  room,  the  warmer  air,  rising  to 
fill  its  place,  is  in  its  turn  cooled,  and,  falling,  a  constant  circulation  is  automatically  kept  up  ; 
at  the  same  time  the  air  is  dried  by  freezing  out  the  moisture  ordinarily  contained  in  it — a 
feature  which  presents  advantages  when  dealing  with  the  storage  of  perishable  articles  of 
food.  The  cold- bath  liquor  and  ammonia,  the  only  chemicals  used  in  the  process,  suffer  prac- 
tically no  waste,  and  neither  of  them  come  in  contact 
with  the  contents  of  the  cold-chamber.  Any  degree  of 
dry  cold  can  be  obtained ;  and  a  reserve  of  cold  can  be 
stored  up  and  given  out  automatically  as  required. 

A  valuable  paper  and  discussion  on  refrigerating  and 
ice-making  machinery  and  appliances  appear  in  Proc. 
List,  of  Mech.  Engrs.,  May.  1886. 

INDICATORS,  STEAM  ENGINE.  The  Tabor 
Indicator  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  special  peculiarity 
of  the  Tabor  indicator  lies  in  the  means  employed  to 
communicate  a  straight-line  movement  to  the  pencil. 
A  stationary  plate  containing  a  curved  slot  is  firmly  se- 
cured in  an  upright  position  to  the  cover  of  the  steam- 
cylinder.  This  slot  serves  as  a  guide  and  controls  the 
motion  of  the  pencil-bar.  The  side  of  the  pencil-bar 
carries  a  roller  which  turns  on  a  pin,  and  this  is  fitted 
so  as  to  roll  freely  from  end  to  end  of  the  slot  with 
little  lost  motion.  The  curve  of  the  slot  is  so  adjusted, 
and  the  pin  attached  to  such  a  point,  that  the  end  of  the 
pencil-bar  which  carries  the  pencil  moves  up  and  down 
in  a  straight  line,  when  the  roller  is  moved  from  one  end 
of  the  slot  to  the  other.  The  curve  of  the  slot  just  com- 
pensates the  tendency  of  the  pencil-point  to  move  in  a 
circular  arc,  and  a  straight-line  motion  results.  The  outside  of  the  curve  is  nearly  a  true 
circle,  with  a  radius  of  1  in.  The  pencil  mechanism  is  carried  by  the  cover  of  the  outside 
cylinder,  and  consists  of  three  pieces  — the  pencil-bar,  the  back-link,  and  the  piston-rod  link. 
29 


FIG.  1. — The  Tabor  indicator. 


450 


INJECTORS. 


The  two  links  are  parallel  with  each  other  in  every  position  they  may  assume.  The  lower  pivots 
of  these  links  and  the  pencil-point  are  always  in  the  same  straight'line.  If  an  imaginary  link 
be  supposed  to  connect  the  two  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  parallel  with  the  pencil-bar,  the 
combination  would  form  an  exact  pantograph.  The  slot  and  roller  serve  the  purpose  of  this 
imaginary  link.  The  springs  are  of  the  duplex  type,  being  made  of  two  spiral  coils  of  wire. 
They  are  so  mounted  that  the  points  of  connection  of  the  two  coils  lie  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
fitting ;  this  equalizes  the  side  strain  on  the  spring,  and  keeps  the  piston  central  in  the  cylinder. 
The  Crosby  Indicator  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  movement  of  the  piston  of  the  indicator  is 
transmitted  to  the  pencil  by  a  simple  parallel  motion  which  gives  it  a  movement  in  a  straight 
line  at  right  angles  to  the  atmospheric  line.  The  movement  of  the  piston  is  multiplied 
to  give  a  diagram  of  convenientsize,  and  at  the  same  time  to  have  the  movement  of  the  spring 
so  slight  that  the  pencil  will  immediately  respond  to  any  change  of  pressure  in  the  cylinder. 
The  spring  is  of  unique  and  ingenious  design,  being  made  of  a  single  piece  of  steel  wire, 
wound  from  the  middle  into  a  double  coil,  the  ends  of  which  are  screwed  into  a  head  D 
with  four  radial  wings  having  spirally  drilled  holes  to  receive  and  hold  them  securely  in 
place.  Adjustment  is  made  by  screwing  the  spring  in  or  out  of  the  head  until  it  is  of  the 
right  strength,  when  it  is  securely  fastened. 


FIG.  2. -The  Crosby  indicator. 


FIG.  3.— The  Batchelder  indicator. 


The  Batchelder  Adjustable  Spring  Indicator  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  special  features  of 
this  instrument  consist  in  the  T-shaped  hollow  case,  adjustable  flat  spring,  positive  parallel 
motion,  and  stop-motion  for  paper  drum.  The  cylinder  is  separate  from  the  case  proper. 
The  flat  steel  spring  works  in  trie  horizontal  body  of  the  case,  one  end  being  rigidly  secured 
and  the  other  attached  to  the  connecting-rod  between  the  piston  and  pencil-lever.  The 
change  of  spring  is  made  by  removing  the  screw  that  connects  it  to  tht  piston-rod,  and  the 
one  which  holds  it  in  the  case.  Connection  is  made  with  the  piston  with  a  ball-and-socket 
joint.  The  scales  are  marked  on  the  face  of  the  case,  the  upper  one  being  for  low  pressure 
and  the  other  for  high  pressure.  The  parallel  motion  is  secured  by  confining  the  end  of  the 
pencil-lever  in  a  small  roller  which  runs  in  the  vertical  slot.  The  height  of  the  atmospheric 
line  is  adjustable  by  means  of  a  swivel  in  the  connecting-rod  near  the  pencil-lever.  The 
movement  of  the  paper  drum  is  controlled  by  the  cone-shaped  spring,  which  is  adjustable  to 
any  tension  according  to  speed. 

'INJECTORS.  The  Monitor  Injector  of  1888,  made  by  the  Nathan  Mfg.  Co.,  of  New 
York,  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  It  is  adapted  for  use  in  locomotives,  and  may  be  used  either  with 
the  lever  attachment,  as  shown,  or  with  a  quick-motion,  screw-starting  arrangement.  It  has 
a  range  of  capacity  from  50  to  100  per  cent  of  its  maximum.  It  will  lift  the  water  5  ft.  with 
30  Ibs.  steam-pressure.  To  operate  it,  the  lever-valve,  or  the  screw-valve  in  case  the  latter  is 
used,  is  opened  a  short  distance  to  lift  the  water  till  water  runs  from  the  overflow,  when  it  is 
opened  full.  The  quantity  of  water  is  regulated  by  the  water-valve  W.  When  used  as  a 
heater  the  valve  H  is  closed,  but  at  all  othei  times  it  is  kept  open. 

The  Penberthy  Automatic  Injector,  made  by  the  Penberthy  Injector  Co.,  of  Detroit,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  Referring  to  the  letters  on  the  sectional  view*  the  parts  are  as  follows :  V, 
tail-pipe;  X, coupling-nut ;  jR, steam- jet ;  £,  suction-jet ;  T, ring;  0, plug;  JV,  overflow-hinge ; 
P,  overflow-valve ;  and  Y,  delivery-tube.  The  capacity  of  this  injector  may  be  cut  down  to 
one  half  of  the  maximum  by  throttling  the  water-supply  valve. 

The  Little  Giant  Locomotive  Injector  of  1889,  made  by  the  Rue  Mfg.  Co.,  of  Philadelphia, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  It  is  used  as  a  locomotive  injector.  The  combining-tube  is  adjusted  by 
a  screw  with  fine  graduations.  The  directions  for  operating  are  as  follows :  Have  the  com- 
bining-tube in  position  to  allow  sufficient  water  to  condense  the  steam  when  the  starting- valve 
is  wide  open ;  then  open  the  starting- valve  slightly ;  when  water  shows  at  the  overflow,  open 
the  starting- valve  wide,  where  it  should  remain  while  injector  is  at  work.  The  quantity  of 
water  is  graduated  by  moving  the  combining-tube.  Toward  the  discharge  gives  more,  and 
toward  the  steam  gives  less  water.  To  use  as  a  heater,  close  overflow  by  moving  combining- 
tube  against  the  discharge,  and  open  steam-valve  to  admit  what  steam  is  required. 


IXJECTORS. 


451 


The  Little  Giant  Stationary  Injector  is  similar  to.  the  locomotive  injector,  but  has  no 
lever-starting  valve.  When  used  to  raise  water,  a  lifter  is  placed  in  the  water-pipe  with  an 
independent  jet. 


FIGS.  1-10.— Various  types  of  injectors. 


The  National  Automatic  Injector,  made  by  the  National  Brass  Mfg.  Co.,  of  Cleveland,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  It  will  lift  up  to  20  ft.,  according  to  the  surroundings,  and  will  work  equally 
well  when  taking  water  with  a  pressure.  It  does  not  need  any  adjustment  from  20  to  125  Ibs. 
steam-pressure,  and  it  will  take  water  heated  to  130°.  The  parts  numbered  in  the  sectional 
view  are  the  following:  1,  delivery-tube;  2,  combining-tube ;  3,  lifting-tube  ;  4,  steam-jet;  5, 
immediate  cut-off ;  6,  overflow-check ;  7,  overflow-cap. 


452  IRON-MANUFACTURING   PROCESSES. 

The  Metropolitan  Automatic  Injector,  made  by  the  Hayden  &  Derby  Mfg.  Co.,  of  New  York, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  Referring  to  the  letters  on  the  cut,  the  parts  are  as  follows :  S,  steam- 
jet  ;  V,  suction-jet ;  C,  D,  combining  and  delivery  tube ;  It,  ring  or  auxiliary  check ;  P,  over- 
flow-valve; 0,  steam-plug;  M,  steam-valve  and  stem;  N,  packing-nut;  K,  steam-valve 
handle ;  and  X,  overflow-cap.  It  does  not  require  any  regulation  of  any  valves  in  the  suction- 
pipe  for  varying  steam-pressure.  It  will  start  on  25  Ibs.  steam-pressure,  and  the  steam-press- 
ure can  then  be  run  up  to  140  Ibs.  and  back  again  to  25  Ibs.  without  any  adjustment  of  any 
globe-valves.  At  all  steam-pressures  from  25  Ibs.  to  140  Ibs.  it  is  absolutely  automatic,  and 
will  always  restart  should  either  the  steam  or  water  supply  be  interrupted.  It  is  either  a 
lifting  or  non-lifting  machine.  It  will  lift  20  ft.,  and  will  always  start,  no  matter  how  hot  the 
suction-pipe  becomes. 

Korting's  Universal  Double- Tube  Injector,  made  by  L.  Schutte  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  6.  It  is  a  combination  of  two  steam-jet  injectors,  the  first  one  proportioned  for 
lifting  and  delivering  the  water  under  some  pressure  into  the  second,  which  forces  it  into  the 
boiler.  •  The  quantity  of  water  delivered  by  the  first  apparatus  to  the  second  is  in  proportion 
to  the  pressure  of  steam,  so  that  the  first  acts  as  a  governor  for  the  second.  The  first  has  a 
proportionately  small  steam-nozzle  to  insure  high  suction,  and,  as  it  delivers  water  to  the 
second  under  pressure,  the  latter  can  deliver  the  water  to  the  boiler  at  a  high  temperature. 
During  working  hours  the  stop-valve  on  the  boiler  (which  may  be  any  kind  of  a  valve)  remains 
turned  on,  and  the  stopping  and  starting  are  solely  effected  by  the  lever  A  operating  the  valves 
in  the  steam-chamber  of  injector. 

The  Exhaust- Steam  Injector,  made  by  Schaeffer  &  Budenberg,  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  It  is 
designed  to  utilize  exhaust  steam.  It  condenses,  by  means  of  the  smallest  possible  quantity 
of  cold  water,  the  largest  possible  quantity  of  exhaust  steam,  and  puts  it  into  the  boiler  with- 
out the  aid  of  any  other  power  than  the  exhaust  steam  itself.  It  can  be  attached  to  any  class 
of  non-condensing  engine.  The  water  is  delivered  to  the  boiler  at  a  temperature  of  about 
190°  F.,  against  moderate  pressure.  Another  form  is  designed  to  feed  against  a  pressure  up 
to  150  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  It  is  provided  with  an  additional  inlet  by  which  live  steam  may  be  ad- 
mitted with  the  exhaust  steam.  It  is  worked  by  waste  steam  only  up  to  75  Ibs.  pressure,  and 
a  little  live  steam  is  introduced  at  the  top  of  the  injector  in  order  to  force  against  pressures 
higher  than  75  Ibs.  It  will  be  noticed  from  sectional  cut  that  the  boiler-steam  does  not  come 
in  contact  with  the  water  until  after  the  exhaust  steam  has  been  condensed  and  has  done  its 
work.  The  exhaust  steam  alone  gives  an  impetus  to  the  water  equal  to  75  Ibs. ;  it  also  heats 
it  up  to  about  190°  F.  It  takes  feed-water  up  to  90°  F.  if  working  against  a  pressure  of  105 
Ibs.,  and  up  to  86°  F.  at  120  Ibs.  of  pressure. 

The  Peerless  Automatic  Injector,  made  by  Schaeffer  &  Budenberg,  of  New  York,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  8.  It  is  adapted  for  any  service  requiring  the  lifting  of  water.  It  is  generally  made 
to  lift  from  16  to  18  ft.,  but  can  be  arranged  to  lift  22  ft.,  and  more  if  desired.  It  works  under 
all  pressures  ranging  from  80  to  150  Ibs.,  and  equally  well  whether  lifting  or  non-lifting. 
The  temperatures  of  feed-water  taken  by  this  injector,  if  non-lifting  or  at  a  low  lift,  can  be  as 
follows : 

Pressure,  Ibs...     35  to  45,      50  to  85,     90,  105,       120,  135,  150. 

Temperature. .  144  to  136,  133  to  130,  129,  122,  118  to  113,  109  to  105,  104  to  100°  F. 

Referring  to  the  letters  in  the  sectional  view,  the  parts  are  as  follows :  a,  steam-nozzle ;  b, 
combining-nozzle  with  flap;  c,  delivery-tube;  e,  cap-screw  for  overflow;  /,  overflow- valve, 
g,  tail-pipe:  h,  tail-pipe  nut ;  /,  screw-plug  with  stuffing-box;  7c,  follower-nut  on  plug,;;  /, 
packing-sleeve  toj;  m,  steam-spindle;  n,  crank  to  spindle  m;  o,  screw-nut  to  spindle  m;  and 
p,  handle  to  crank  n. 

McDanieVs  Siphon  or  Water-Lifter  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  lettered  parts  are  as  follows  : 
A,  suction-pipe ;  B,  steam  connection ;  C,  end  of  cone  or  steam-delivery ;  D,  jam-nut ;  and  E, 
adjustable  brass  nozzle.  It  will  lift  water  20  ft.  with  ordinary  steam-pressure. 

EJECTORS  OR  WATER-LIFTERS. — The  Nathan  Mfg.  Co.'s  Ejector  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  It  is 
used  as  a  means  of  raising  liquids  from  one  floor  to  another  or  conveying  them  from  vessel 
to  vessel,  and  in  breweries,  chemical  works,  and  other  places  where  the'liquid  is  to  be  kept  in 
a  heated  condition.  It  can  also  be  employed  to  great  advantage,  instead  of  pumps,  in  distil- 
leries, sugar-refineries,  paper-mills,  tanneries,  print,  dye,  and  other  works,  where  liquids  in 
different  degrees  of  density  are  required  to  be  raised  or  conveyed  from  place  to  place.  It 
will  take  the  liquid  at  a  temperature  of  175°.  The  steam  enters  at  the  left  hand,  as  shown  in 
the  cut,  and  the  suction-pipe  is  attached  beneath. 

IRON-MANUFACTURING  PROCESSES,  decent  Developments.— The  manufacture  of 
pig-iron  has  undergone  no  essential  change  during  the  last  ten  years,  except  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  blast-furnace  structure  and  its  appendages,  and  in  the  method  of  management  as 
respects  increase  of  rate  of  driving.  (On  this  subject  see  FURNACE,  BLAST.)  In  the  manu- 
facture of  wrought  iron  from  pig-iron  by  puddling  there  has  practically  been  no  improve- 
ment. The  various  forms  of  mechanical  puddling-furnaces  described  in  vol.  ii  of  this  work 
have  generally  failed  to  meet  expectations,  and  the  old-fashioned  puddling-furnace  is  still  in 
vogue.  Notwithstanding  the  rapid  substitution  of  steel  for  iron  for  constructive  purposes,  the 
tremendous  increase  in  the  consumption  of  iron  of  all  kinds  has  prevented  the  decline  of  the 
puddling  process  which  was  generally  expected  ten  years  ago,  and  the  production  of  puddled 
iron  in  1890  in  the  United  States  was  greater  than 'in  any  preceding  year.  (For  the  manu- 
facture of  steel,  see  STEEL,  MANUFACTURE  OF.) 

Direct  Processes. — The  several  new  direct  processes  described  in  vol.  ii  have  all  gone  out 


IROX-MAXUFACTURING   PROCESSES. 


453 


of  use,  never  having  practically  progressed  beyond  the  experimental  stage.  The  old  Catalan 
process  still  remains  in  existence,  but  is  being  generally  abandoned  in  the  United  States ;  but 
a  new  plant  is  now  being  erected  in  Brazil,  being  copied,  with  some  improvements,  from  an 
old  plant  in  the  Lake  Champlain  (N.  Y.)  region.  Several  new  direct  processes  have  been  ex- 
perimented with  during  the  last  few  years,  but  it  is  at  present  too  early  to  say  whether  they 
are  likely  to  be  permanent.  Three  of  these  processes — the  Adams-Blair,  the  Carbon  Iron  Co.'s, 
and  the  Imperatori — are  described  below. 

The  Adams-Blair  Direct  Process  is  a  new  direct  process  which  is  now  in  the  experimental 
stage  in  Pittsburgh.     The  apparatus  used  (Fig.  1)  consists  of  an  ordinary  open-hearth  steel 


FIG.  1. — The  Adams-Blair  direct  process. 

furnace,  on  the  top  of  which  is  placed  the  Adams  reducer,  which  has  vertical  reducmg- 
chambers  flared  downwardly  from  the  top,  with  checker-work  regenerative-chambers  on  each 
side  of  the  reducing-chambers,  and  opening  into  them.  This  checker-work  construction  is 
provided  with  solid  diaphragms,  or  baffling-walls,  which  prevent  the  upward  passage  of  the 
gas  through  the  checker-work,  forcing  it  into  the  reducing-chamber  and  through  the  body  of 
ore.  The  diaphragm  on  one  side  of  the  reducing-chamber  is  opposite  the  checker-work  on 
the  other.  The  ore  is  charged  into  these  reducing-chambers,  of  which  there  are  four,  being 
retained  in  them  by  a  movable  valve.  The  reducing  gas  enters  through  the  lower  right-hand 
checker-work.  As  this  checker-work  offers  less  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  gas  than  the 
column  of  ore  does,  the  gas  would  pass  directly  up  this  checker-work  instead  of  through  the 
ore,  were  it  not  for  the  baffling-walls ;  these  divert  the  column  of  gas,  throw  it  into  the  re- 
ducing-chamber, and  force  it  through  the  ore  body  and  to  the  checker-work  on  the  left-hand 
side  of  the  chamber.  In  this  checker-work  the  gas  rises  until  it  strikes  the  baffling-wall, 
where  it  is  forced  out  again  into  the  chamber  and  horizontally  through  it  to  the  right-hand 
side,  where  the  operation  is  repeated  until  the  gas  passes  out  through  the  upper  checker-work. 
The  reducing  gas  is  thus  brought  in  contact  constantly  and  successively  with  all  the  ore 
in  the  reducing-chamber,  absorbing  the  oxygen  from  the  ore,  leaving  the  iron  in  a  metallic 
state,  mixed  with  the  earthy  matter,  ready  to  be  fused  into  wrought  iron  or  steel.  In  from 
an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half  the  entire  body  of  ore  in  one  of  these  reducers  (which  are  of  any 
convenient  size,  according  to  the  size  of  the  open-hearth  furnace  which  is  to  be  supplied  by 
them)  is  reduced  completely,  except  where  magnetites  are  used,  in  which  case  the  operation  is 
somewhat  slower. 

The  Carbon  Iron  Co.'s  Process. — A  direct  process  is  now  in  use  at  the  works  of  the 
Carbon  Iron  Co.,  in  Pittsburgh,  which  has  given  successful  results  in  the  production  of  iron 
blooms  for  remelting  in  the  open-hearth  furnace.  The  process  has  undergone  some  modifica- 
tions since  it  was  first  described  by  A.  E.  Hunt,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Institute 
of  Mining  Engineers  (Trans.,  vols.  xvi,  p.  708,  and  xvii,  p.  678).  Prof.  G.  W.  Maynard  thus 
describes  it  as  at  present  operated,  in  the  Trans.,  vol.  xix,  p.  850 : 

"  As  at  present  practiced,  it  consists  in  charging  an  intimate  mixture  of  wet,  finely  ground 
iron-ore  and  coke  upon  the  cinder  hearth  of  an  ordinary  reverberatory  or  puddling  furnace, 
arid  heating  the  charge  with  natural  gas  in  an  atmosphere  that  is  mod'erately  oxidizing.  The 
ore  is  reduced  by  its  intimate  contact  with  the  ground  coke,  and  the  iron  is  balled  at  nearly 
a  white  heat.  Two  points  require  special  mention :  First,  the  benefit  of  mixing  the  ore  and 
coke  very  intimately,  as  by  such  mixture  it  is  found  that  the  fine  particles  of  ore  protect  the 
carbon  particles  from  too  rapid  combustion,  and  time  is  secured  for  the  thorough  reduction 
of  the  iron  oxide.  Second,  the  importance  of  using  none  but  the  richest  ores,  or  cleanest  con- 
centrates, as  it  is  only  by  such  practice  that  the  loss  of  metal  can  be  kept  down  to  a  com- 


454 


IRON-MANUFACTURING   PROCESSES. 


mercially  practicable  limit.  Sixty-five  per  cent  Lake  Superior  ores,  carrying  3  or  at  most  4 
per  cent  of  silica,  furnish  the  present  supply.  One  long  ton  of  this  ore  is  mixed  with 
600  Ibs.  of  ground  coke,  and  yields  at  the  present  time  1,325  to  1,375  Ibs.  of  squeezed 
sponge,  which  runs  nearly  93  per  cent  of  total  iron.  The  quantity  of  natural  gas  consumed 
per  ton-of  product  has  not  yet  been  ascertained,  but  it  is  roughly  estimated  at  the  amount 
required  to  puddle  a  ton  of  pig-iron  in  a  non-regenerative  furnace  of  the  same  type  as  the 
reducing-furnace — that  is,  about  35,000  cub.  ft.  of  natural  gas,  or  2,700  Ibs.  of  Pittsburgh 
coal." 

The  Imperatori  Process  is  a  sort  of  mixed  process  in  which  a  large  amount  of  rich  ore  can 
be  treated  in  presence  of  a  metallic  bath.  It  consists  substantially  in  treating  an  intimate 
mixture  of  finely  pulverized  rich  iron-ore  (at  least  50  per  cent  of  iron)  and  carbonaceous 
materials,  agglomerated  into  briquettes,  in  the  presence  of  a  metallic  bath  of  pig-iron  or  car- 
bureted iron.  The  relative  proportions  of  carbon  and  ore  are  calculated  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  carbon  is  present  in  sufficient  quantities  to  reduce  the  ore  directly  to  the  metallic 
state,  without  previously  being  transformed  into  a  carbureted  product.  A  record  of  experi- 
ments on  this  process,  made  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Nau,  will  be  found  in  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  of  Min.  Eng'rs, 
June,  1891. 

Manufacture  of  Russia  Sheet-Iron. — Mr.  F.  Lynwood  Garrison  describes  the  manufacture 
of  planished  sheet-iron  in  Russia  as  follows  (Jour.  Charcoal  Iron -Workers'  Asso'n,  vol.  viii) : 

The  ore,  containing  about  60  per  cent  iron,  5  per  cent  silica.  0-15  to  0'06  per  cent  phos- 
phorus, is  generally  smelted  into  charcoal  pig-iron  and  then  converted  into  malleable  iron  by 
puddling  or  by  a  FVanche-Comte  hearth.  Frequently,  however,  the  malleable  iron  is  made 
directly  from  the  ore  in  various  kinds  of  bloomaries. 

The  blooms  or  billets  thus  obtained  are  rolled  into  bars  6  in.  wide,  £  in.  thick,  and  30  in. 
in  length.  These  bars  are  assorted,  the  inferior  ones  piled  and  rerolled,  while  the  others  are 
carefully  heated  to  redness  and  cross-rolled  into  sheets  about  30  in.  square,  requiring  from 
8  to  10  passes  through  the  rolls.  These  sheets  are  twice  again  heated  to  redness  and  rolled 
in  sets  of  three  each,  care  being  taken  that  every  sheet  before  being  passed  through  the  rolls 
is  brushed  off  with  a  wet  broom  made  of  fir,  and  at  the  same  time  that  powdered  charcoal  is 
dexterously  sprinkled  between  the  sheets.  Ten  passes  are  thus  made,  and  the  resulting  sheets 
trimmed  to  a  standard  size  of  25  X  56  in.  After  being  assorted  and  the  defective  ones  thrown 
out,  each  sheet  is  wetted  with  water,  dusted  with  charcoal-powder,  and  dried.  They  are  then 
made  into  packets  containing  from  60  to  100,  and  bound  up  with  the  waste  sheets. 

The  packets  are  placed,  one  at  a  time,  with  a  log  of  wood  at  each  of  the  four  sides,  in  a 
nearly  air-tight  chamber,  and  carefully  annealed  for  5  or  6  hours.  When  this  has  been  com- 


FIG.  3. 

pleted,  the  packet  is  removed  and  hammered 
with  a  trip-hammer  weighing  about  a  ton.  the 
area  of  its  striking  surface  being  about  6  X  14 
in.  The  face  of  the  hammer  is  made  of  this 
somewhat  unusual  shape  in  order  to  secure  a 
wavy  appearance  on  the  surface  of  the  packet. 
After  the  packet  has  received  90  blows,  equally 
distributed  over  its  surface,  it  is  reheated,  and 
the  hammering  repeated  in  the  same  manner. 
Some  time  after  the  first  hammering,  the  packet 
is  broken  and  the  sheets  wetted  with  a  mop  to 
harden  the  surface.  After  the  second  hammer- 
ing the  packet  is  broken,  the  sheets  examined  to 
ascertain  if  any  are  welded  together,  and  com- 
pletely finished  cold  sheets  are  placed  alternately  between  those  of  the  packet,  thus  making  a 
large  packet  of  from  140  to  200  sheets.  It  is  supposed  that  the  interposition  of  these  cold 
sheets  produces  the  peculiar  greenish  color  that  the  finished  sheets  possess  on  cooling. 

This  large  packet  is  then  given  what  is  known  as  the  finishing  or  polishing  hammering. 


FIG.  4. 
FIGS.  2-4.— The  Gesner  rust-proof  process. 


KEYS. 


455 


For  this  purpose  the  trip-hammer  used  has  a  smaller  face  than  the  others,  having  an  area  of 
about  17  to  21  in.  When  the  hammering  has  been  properly  done,  the  packet  has  received  60 
blows,  equally  distributed,  and  the  sheets  should  have  a  perfectly  smooth,  mirror-like  surface. 
The  packet  is  now  broken  before  cooling,  each  sheet  cleaned  with  a  wet  fir  broom  to  remove 
the  remaining  charcoal-powder,  carefully  inspected,  and  the  good  sheets  stood  on  their  edges 
in  vertical  racks  to  cool. 

American  Polished  Sheet-Steel. — Sheet-iron  and  steel  similar  in  quality  and  in  process  of 
manufacture  to  that  of  the  Russia  sheet  is  now  made  in  the  United  States,  and  is  known  by 
various  trade  names,  as  planished  iron,  Craig  polished  sheet-steel,  etc.  The  latter  is  made  in 
sheets  28  X  60  in.,  and  from  22  to  28  gauge.  The  sheets  are  coated  with  carbonaceous  mate- 
rials, and  are  then  heated  and  hammered  in  packs,  while  hot,  under  powerful  steam-ham- 
mers. 

The  Gesner  Rust-Proof  Process  employs  apparatus  shown  in  Figs.  2,  3,  and  4.  This  con- 
sists of  a  bench  of  two  ordinary  gas  retorts  placed  side  by  side  in  a  furnace  heated  by  a  grate. 
Each  retort  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  1,000°  F.  to  1,200°  F.,  as  may  be  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  articles  to  be  treated.  After  closing  and  testing  the  retort,  the  heating  con- 
tinues for  about  20  min. ;  then  steam  is  introduced  into  a  "  hydrogen  generator,"  shown 
in  Figs.  3  and  4,  which  is  a  simple  pipe,  open  at  the  rear  end.  It  Is  claimed  that  in  the  pas- 
sage of  the  steam  through  this  generator  hydrogen  is  generated,  which  fills  the  retort.  This 
operation  goes  on  for  35  min.,  at  the  end  of  which  time  half  a  pint  of  naphtha  is  permitted 
to  flow  into  the  retort  for  10  min.  The  flow  of  hydrocarbon  is  then  stopped,  and  the  steam 
which  has  been  allowed  to  enter  the  generator  during  the  whole  operation  is  continued  for  15 
min.  longer.  The  whole  time  employed  in  the  operation  is  therefore  1  hour  and  20  min.  The 
"  purging-pipe,"  which  dips  into  an  open  vessel  of  water,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  to  the  depth  of 
1-J  in.,  carries  off  any  excess  of  gases  produced  in  the  operation.  In  cases  w^ere  articles 
treated  are  ornamental,  such  as  art  hardware,  they  are  given  a  bath  of  cold  w}»ale-oil  or  par- 
affine  oil  to  render  them  more  even  in  tone.  To  substantiate  the  claim  that  hydrogen  has  a 
function  in  the  creation  of  a  rust-proof  coating,  the  following  analysis  of  a  sample  of  the  sur- 
face of  cast  iron  prepared  by  the  process  is  given:  Carbon,  1-01  per  cent;  hydrogen,  0*22  per 
cent;  sand,  6-70  per  cent;  and  iron,  66*10  per  cent.  The  iron  is  present  as  metallic  iron  and 
as  oxides  of  various  constitution. 

Jacket,  Steam :  see  Engines,  Steam  Stationary  Reciprocating ;  also  Locomotives. 

Jack-Lifting  :  see  Drills,  Rock. 

Jenny :  see  Rope- Making  Machines. 

Jig  :  see  Coal-Breakers  and  Ore-Dressing  Machines. 

Jig-Saw:  see  Saws,  Wood. 

KEYS.  Machine-made  Keys. — Fig.  1  represents  the  shape  of  machine  keys  made  by  the 
Sandwich  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Sandwich,  111.,  in  the  following  manner :  Each  machine  con- 
sists of  three  co-acting,  revolv- 
ing steel  hammers,  the  upper 
and  principal  set  acting  on  and 
drawing  out  the  heated  rod  to 
its  required  taper,  and  the 
side-sets  acting  on  the  edge 
and  forging  the  sides  to  true 
lines.  Adjustable  gauges  regu- 
late the  length  and  taper,  self- 
acting  shears  with  gauge  cut  off 
the  forged  end  of  the  rod  to  the 
exact  length  required,  after  the 
quick  thrust  to  the  forging  roll- 
ers or  hammers,  and  self-acting 
straightening  jaws  seize  and 
straighten  each  key  as  it  drops 


FIG.  1.— Idachine-made  keys. 


from  the  shears,  and  then  drop  it  into  a  cooling-hopper.  In  the  operation  of  forging,  each 
operator  has  six  or  eight  bars  or  rods  of  the  required  size  for  the  job  in  hand,  in  his  slow 
fire.  Drawing  one  from  the  fire  and  turning  to  his  machine  he  thrusts  it  between  the  hammers 
against  the  gauge,  which  determines  the  length  of  the  key,  and  in  the  moment  while  retiring  it 
the  action  of  the  hammers  forges  it  perfectly  to  the  required  taper  and  form.  It  is  then  pre- 
sented to  the  shears,  and  the  formed  key  is  cut  from  the  rod.  He  usually  forges  and  cuts 
about  three  keys  and  returns  it  to  the  fire  for  a  new  heat,  takes  a  fresh  rod  and  repeats  the 
operation,  and  so  on  through  the  six  or  eight,  by  which  time  the  first  one  returned  is  suffi- 
ciently heated.  The  usual  sizes,  made  for  stock, "are  i,  -fa,  and  f  in.  wide,  by  from  £  to  -^  in.- 
thick  and  from  2£  to  4  in.  long. 

The  Woodruff  System  of  Keying. — The  Woodruff  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Hartford,  Conn., 
has  brought  out  a  novel  system  of  keying,  which  is  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  cuts. 

Under  tliis  system  the  key-seat  is  cut  longitudinally  in 
the  shaft,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  by  means  of  a  milling-cutter 

'WMMMMMMMMffiMfflA    (Fig.  3).     This  cutter  corresponds  in  thickness  to  the  key 
to  be  inserted,  and  is  of  a  diameter  corresponding  to  the 
length  of  the  key.     The  key  being  a  semicircle,  the  cutter 
(Fig.  3)  is  sunk  into  the  shaft  as  far  as  will  allow  sufficient 
FIG.  2.—  Woodruff  cut.  projection  of  the  key  above  its  surface  to  engage  the  key- 


456 


KEY-SEAT   CUTTERS. 


SIZE   OP 

KEYS  AND  CUTTERS 
CORRESPOND. 


Thick 


Shearing 

strrngth 

|    of  keys 

i  in  pounds. 


way  in  the  hub  it  is  designed  to  hold  in  position.     The  operation  of  cutting  the  key-seat  is 
simple,  and  does  not  require  skilled  labor.     Where  a  long  key  or  feather  is  required,  two  or 

more  keys  are  in- 
serted, in  the  man- 
ner shown  in  Fig. 
2.  Owing  to  its 
peculiar  shape,  the 
key  may  be  slight- 
ly inclined,  so  that 
it  will  serve  to  sup- 
port the  pulley  on 
FIG.  3.-Millmg-cutter.  £  vertical  shaft, 

provided  the  key-seat  in  the  hub  of  the  pulley  is  made  tapering  and 
of  the  proper  depth.  There  are  twenty-five  different  sizes  of  keys 
used  in  the  system,  the  standard  scale  of  sizes  being  such  as  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  a  large  majority  of  the  machines  now  made. 

The  accompanying  table  gives  the  size  and  strength  of  these 
standard  sizes. 

Key-Seat  Milliner-Machine:  see  Milling-Machines. 

KEY-SEAT  CUTTERS.  The  Morton  Key-Way  Cutter  made 
by  the  Morton  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Muskegon,  Mich.,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  1.  One  of  the  main  features  of  this  machine  is  the  oscillating 
guide  for  cross-head,  which  oscillates  from  the  center  line  of  the 
main  shaft,  giving  the  tool  a  straight-drawing  cut.  By  means  of  the 
adjusting-screw  to  the  left,  on  front  of  table,  the  tool  can  be  inclined 
forward  or  backward  from  a  vertical  position,  whereby  the  machine 
may  be  set  to  cut  a  key-way,  tapering  either  from  the  top  or  bot- 
tom, with  the  same  side  down.  The  stroke  of  the  machine  is  ad- 
justed, as  is  the  stroke  of  a  planer,  by  adjustable  tappets.  The  guide 
for  work  consists  of  a  plate  which  fits  in  a  groove  at  the  top  of  the 
table,  and  has  a  projection  on  each  side  of  the  tool-bar  which  forms  a  guide  to  set  work  to, 
gauging  by  bore  of  pinion. 


1.566 
2,350 
3,132 
2,937 
3,915 
4,894 
4,700 
5,872 
7,050 
6,850 
8,221 
9,591 
9,375 
10,937 
12,500 
10,545 
12.305 


11,718 
13,671 
15,625 
17,187 
21,484 
18,750 
23,437 


FIG.  1.— Morton  key- way  cutter. 

The  machine  is  made  in  different  sizes,  the  one  shown  in  the  cut  being  known  as  the  No. 
6—24  machine.  Its  capacity  ranges  from  the  smallest  key-ways  to  be  cut  up  to  one  2-£  in. 
wide  and  24  in.  long. 

The  Davis  Key-Seater  and  Slotting- Machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  frame  is  made  of 
one  casting,  together  with  the  ways.  In  the  machine  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  gears  are  1-f-in.  face, 
and  are  all  cut  gears.  The  connection-rod  is  so  arranged  as  to  keep  chips  and  dirt  from  fall- 
ing into  the  crank-pin.  The  ways  are  bored  out  and  the  top  of  frame  faced.  The  stud-pins 
to  the  clamp  are  provided  with  washers,  and  so  arranged  that  the  clamp  can  be  placed  between 
them  at  any  height  required,  and  will  not  drop  down.  A  simple  arrangement  is  also  furnished 
to  give  any  desired  draft  to  key-seat  required,  also  any  depth.  This  machine  will  cut  ^-in.  to 
1-in.  key-seats. 

The  Erie  Key-Seating  Machine,  made  by  the  Burton  Machine  Co.,  of  Erie.  Pa.,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  3.  The  arbor  is  hollow,  and-has  within  it  a  steel  bar  called  the  guide-bar,  and  is  mov- 
able up  and  down  by  means  of  a  screw  at  each  end.  It  carries  within  it  a  tool -bar,  which 
supports  two  tools  of  the  width  desired  for  the  key-seat,  and  is  connected  to  the  driving-car- 


KEY-SEAT   CUTTERS. 


457 


FIG.  3.— Erie  key-seating  machine. 


FIG.  4. -Giant  key-seater. 


458  KILNS,   LUMBER. 


riage  by  means  of  a  removable  pin.  It  is  driven  back  and  forth  through  the  guide-bar, 
cutting  in  both  directions,  and  fed  down  the  desired  depth  and  taper  by  the  screws  at  the 
ends.  The  driving  apparatus  consists  of  two  parallel  screws,  2|  in.  in  diameter,  H-in.  pitch, 
3  threads.  They  are  set  6  in.  from  center  to  center,  and  run  in  opposite  directions;  between 
them  is  an  open-sided  nut,  which  carries  with  it  a  carriage  to  which  the  cutting-bar  is 
attached. 

The  Giant  Key-Seater,  made  by  the  Giant  Key-Seater  Co.,  of  Saginaw,  Mich.,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  The  machine  consists  of  an  upright  column,  supporting  on  trunnions  a  table  in 
which  are  T-slots  for  securing  the  work  to  be  operated  upon.  Inside  the  column  is  a  vertical 
guide,  on  which  slides  the  cross-head,  having  on  its  face  a  V-groove,  for  centering  the  round 
tool-bar,  which  is  clamped.  The  cross-head  receives  its  motion  through  a  rack,  which  meshes 
in  a  spur-gear  of  wider  face  than  the  rack.  The  gear  is  keyed  on  a  horizontal  shaft,  to  which 
is  also  keyed  the  worm-gear  inside  of  gear-casing,  the  shaft  extending  through  the  casing,  and 
having  secured  to  it  a  disk,  which  has  two  circular  T-slots  turned  in  its  face,  in  each  of  which 
is  a  tappet  which  reverse  the  motion  by  shifting  the  open  and  crossed  belts  running  from 
the  counter-shaft,  as  shown.  The  tappet,  which  acts  at  the  end  of  the  slow  or  cutting  stroke, 
is  placed  in  the  outer  of  the  two  circular  T-slots  in  the  disk.  By  moving  the  tappets  in  the 
slots,  the  stroke  of  the  cutter  can  be  varied  as  desired,  without  stopping  the  machine.  To 
provide  for  forward  movement  of  cutter  in  the  work,  the  vertical  guide  is  arranged  to  slide 
in  ways  at  the  top  and  bottom,  being  moved  forward  and  back  by  wedges,  which  are  operated 
by  the  feed-lever  shown  at  the  left  of  the  machine.  As  the  cutter,  cutter-bar,  and  guide  are 
advanced,  the  rack  on  cross-head  slides  in  the  cogs  of  the  spur-gear  with  which  it  meshes ;  the 
pinion  having  a  wider  face  than  the  rack,  as  stated  above. 

KilD  :  see  Brick-Making  Machines ;  also,  Furnaces,  Roasting. 

KILNS,  LUMBER.  In  these  days  of  rapid  conversion  of  material,  and  of  short  periods 
between  the  various  processes  of  conversion,  little  could  be  done  by  the  converter  of  wood 
without  the  aid  of  efficient  lumber-drying  kilns,  taking  the  place  of  the  old-fashioned  long- 
seasoning  process  in  air  or  water. 

An  automatic  hot-blast  apparatus,  put  out  by  the  Standard  Dry  Kiln  Co.,  consists  of  a 
high-speed  blowing-fan,  directly  driven  by  an  inverted  vertical  high-speed  engine,  and  con- 
nected with  a  case  or  chamber  in  which  there  are  arranged  a  series  of  vertical  spiral  coils  of 
pipe,  through  and  about  which  the  air  enters  before  being  removed  by  the  fan.  Into  one  of 
the  series  of  pipes  (that  farthest  from  the  engine  and  nearest  to  the  entrance  of  the  air  to  be 
heated)  the  exhaust  of  the  engine  is  led,  thus  receiving  the  greatest  amount  of  condensation 
that  could  be  obtained  by  such  an  arrangement,  and  lessening  the  back-pressure  upon  the 
engine.  Some  of  the  rest  of  the  coils  in  the  duct  or  chamber  receive  live  steam,  if  desired, 
but  the  connections  are  such  that  as  many  as  desired  receive  the  exhaust  from  the  main  or 
steam-engine.  A  steam-jet  regulates  the  degree  of  humidity  of  the  air.  A  steam-trap, 
through  which  the  water  of  condensation  drains  when  live  steam  is  being  used,  automatically 
regulates  the  amount  consumed. 

A  hot-air  duct  used  in  this  device  has  a  regulator  for  controlling  the  delivery  of  air  to 
each  opening  in  the  duct,  preventing  the  air  from  rushing  by  the  openings  nearest  the  blower. 
A  series  of  semi-cylindrical  slides  drop  from  the  cross-outlets  into  the  body  of  the  main  duct, 
thus  retarding  the  air  and  forcing  it  out  through  the  cross-ducts  into  the  kiln.  The  cross- 
duct  nearest  the  heater  ordinarily  has  its  slide  projecting  farthest  into  the  main  duct, 
although,  if  desired,  any  one  section  of  the  kiln  may  be  given  an  increased  proportion  of  air. 

In  the  Standard  kiln  the  lumber  is  loaded  upon  cars  at  what  is  called  the  "  green  end,"  and 
run  into  the  kiln  on  iron  tracks  at  the  rate  of  two  or  more  cars  per  day,  in  each  of  the  rooms 
composing  the  kiln.  Each  car  holds  about  4,000  ft.  of  lumber,  and  each  room  will  contain  12 
cars ;  so  that  the  lumber  while  in  transit  remains  in  the  drying  process  from  3  to  6  days, 
depending  upon  the  class  of  stock,  before  it  is  run  out  at  the  "  dry  end  "  of  the  kiln.  The 
temperature  at  the  end  of  the  kiln  in  which  the  heated  air  centers,  and  at  which  point  the 
process  of  seasoning  is  completed,  is  about  185°  F.,  corresponding  to  an  absorbing  capacity  of 
194  gr.  per  cub.  ft.  of  air.  At  that  end  at  which  the  lumber  enters,  where  the  temperature  is 
125°  F.,  the  absorbing  capacity  is  only  about  30  gr.,  so  that  the  action  is  gradually  increasing 
— being  in  this  particular  much  easier  upon  the  stock,  drying  it  more  thoroughly  and  greatly 
lessening  checking. 

Knotter  :  see  Harvesting-Machines,  Grain. 

Knox  System  of  Blasting1 :  see  Quarry  ing-Machines. 

Knurlinjr-Tool :  see  Lathe-Tools,  Metal- Working. 

Ladders,  Fire  :  see  Fire  Appliances. 

Land  Roller :  see  Seeders  and  Drills. 

Lapping-Machine :  see  Grinding-Machine. 

Lasting'-Machine :  see  Leather- Working  Machines. 

Lathe :  see  Hat-Making  Machines,  Watches  and  Clocks,  Wheel-Making  Machines,  Mowers 
and  Reapers. 

LATHES,  METAL-WORKING.  The  Putnam  Engine- Lathe.— Figs.  1  to  6  illustrate 
a  new  standard  lathe  recently  brought  out  by  the  Putnam  Machine  Co.,  of  Fitchburg,  Mass. 
Figs.  1  and  2  represent  the  bed  in  longitudinal  and  cross-section.  This  is  a  heavy  U-shaped 
casting,  strengthened  by  a  strong  truss  extending  from  end  to  end.  This  truss  'is  stiffened 
by  a  bead  at  the  top,  and  is  connected  by  lateral  webs  to  the  sides  of  the  bed.  Ribs  placed  at 
suitable  distances  apart  extend  from  the  under  side  of  the  top  down  the  sides,  firmly  uniting 
the  members  of  the  bed.  The  front  carriage  A  is  made  higher  and  larger  than  the  back  A. 


LATHES,   METAL-WORKIXG. 


459 


The  construction  of  the  head-stock  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.    The  boxes  are  conical-shaped  on  the 
outside,  straight  on  the  inside,  and  fitted  to  correspondingly  tapered  holes,  or  seats,  in  the 


FIG.  1.— Bed— section. 


FIG.  2.— Bed— cross-section. 


metal  of  the  head-stock  casting.  They  are  split  for  adjustment,  and  are  threaded  at  their 
ends  for  the  adjusting-nuts  NN.  The  nut  N  has  a  spherically  shaped  projection,  and  in 
addition  to  serving  as  an  adjusting-nut  for  the  back  spindle-box,  is  threaded  from  the  step  S, 
which  through  a  rawhide  collar  takes  the  thrust  of  the  spindle.  0  is  a  lock-nut  to  secure  the 
step  against  turning  after  it  is  properly  adjusted.  A  steel  collar  is  fitted  with  a  feather  to 
slide  on  the  spindle,  and  is  held  in  position  by  nuts.  This,  being  adjusted  to  contact  with  the 
end  of  the  box,  holds  the  spindle  from  end-long  motion  in  one  direction,  while  it  is  held  from 
motion  in  the  other  direction  by  the  step  S.  This  construction  is  intended  to  prevent  dis- 
turbance of  adjustment  due  to  contraction  and  expansion  from  changes  of  temperature. 
When  adjusted,  the  boxes  are  restrained  from  turning  in  their  seats  by  the  adjusting-nuts, 
which  are  always  screwed  against  the  casting  ;  but  while  being  adjusted  to  the  spindle,  pins 
in  the  outside  of  the  boxes  fit  in  grooves  in  the  seats,  these  grooves  holding  the  boxes  from 
turning  around,  but  permitting  lateral  movement.  A  series  of  holes  is  drilled  around  the 
circumference  of  the  boxes,  so  that  by  placing  the  pins  in  different  holes  the  boxes  may  be 
occasionally  partially  rotated  in  their  seats,  thus  equalizing  the  wear,  and  tending  to  keep  the 
spindle  in  a  central  position. 


FIG.  3.— Head-stock. 

The  handle  L  (Fig.  3)  is  for  disengaging  or  changing  from  coarse  to  fine  or  fine  to  coarse 
feed,  which  is  done  by  means  of  the  following  arrangement :  The  feed-gear  inside  the  head  is 
on  a  feathered  shaft,  and  may,  by  moving  the  handle  to  the  two  positions  shown  by  dotted 
lines,  be  geared  to  either  the  gear  on  the  spindle  or  that  on  the  cone,  the  difference  in  feed 
between  the  two  positions  being  9  to  1.  This,  which  is  applicable  to  either  longitudinal  or 
cross  feed,  or  to  screw-cutting,  with  the  changes  of  both  gear  and  belt-feed  to  the  feed-rod, 
provides  for  a  great  range  of  feed,  from  that  fine  enough  for  any  purpose  to  that  extremely 
coarse,  for  surface-work  or  for  cutting  screws  or  worms  of  coarse  pitch. 

Fig.  4  is  a  section  through  the  carriage  and  bed.  The  feed-rod  is  at  the  front  and  the 
lead-screw  at  the  back  side.  To  lock  the  nut  and  lead-screw,  a  rod  extends  across  the  carriage 
(on  all  lathes  above  18  in.  swing)  from  the  front  to  the  rear,  where,  by  means  of  the  pirfion 
H,  it  connects  with  the  plate  /.  The  operation  of  bringing  together  or  separating  the  half- 
nuts  of  the  lead-screw  is  accomplished  by  turning  the  rod.  The  rack-gear  and  pinion-shaft 
is,  by  means  of  the  yoke  K,  provided  with  a  second  bearing,  the  working  strain  coming 
between  the  two  journals.  To  avoid  the  possibility  of  locking  the  nut  to  the  lead-screw 
while  the  gear  and  rack  are  connected,  or  vice  versa,  a  safety-pin  is  connected  with  the  yoke  K, 
and  the  hub  of  the  lever  that  operates  the  lead-screw  nuts  has  in  it  a  hole  to  which  this  pin 


460 


LATHES,   METAL-WORKING. 


is  fitted.    This  hole  is  in  such  a  position  that  when  the  rod  is  turned  to  bring  the  nuts  together 
on  the  screw  it  will  not  be  in  alignment  with  the  pin.    If,  now,  an  attempt  is  made  to  raise 


FIG.  4.— Carriage  and  feed-table. 

the  yoke  so  that  the  pinion  will  gear  with  the  rack,  the  pin  will  come  in  contact  with  the 
plain  surface  of  the  hub,  preventing  its  accomplishment.  When  the  disk  is  turned  to  the 
position  in  which  it  stands  when  the  nut  is  off  the  screw,  the  hole  is  in  alignment  with  the 
pin,  and  the  yoke  may  be  raised  to  gear  the  rack  and  pinion  together.  If,  when  the  rack  and 
pinion  are  in  gear,  an  attempt  is  made  to  connect  the  nut  with  the  lead-screw,  the  pin  will 
prevent  the  disk  (and  rod)  from  turning.  This  makes  it  impossible  to  do  damage  by  the 
attempted  operation  of  both  screw  and  rod-feed  at  the  same  time. 

In  Fig.  5  the  tail-stock  is  shown  in  two  sections.     It  has  a  long  bearing  on  the  ways,  and 
an  extension  that  serves  for  a  tool-shelf.    The  front  bearing  is  split  for  binding  the  spindle. 


Fia.  5.  -Tail-stock. 

To  overcome  the  difficulty  of  moving  it  against  the  sliding-friction  of  the  ways,  wheels  R  are 
placed  as  shown,  one  at  each  side  over  the  A's.  These  wheels  are  so  mounted  as  to  be  free  to 
move  vertically  a  short  distance,  and  are  loaded  by  adjustable  springs.  When  the  tail-stock 
is  loosened  the  springs  tend  to  assume  the  load,  thus  transferring  the  weight  to  the  wheels, 
and  transposing  the  hard  sliding  to  an  easy  rolling  motion.  The  arrangement  for  clamping 
the  tail-stock  to  the  ways  is  shown  at  B.  ft  consists  of  a  binding-bolt  and  nut,  the  face  of  the 
nut  being  cam-shaped,  to  correspond  with  the  cam-shaped  washer  underneath  it.  In  tighten- 
ing, the  somewhat  abrupt  faces  of  the  cams  take  up  the  slack  motion  by  a  slight  movement 
of  the  handle,  when  the  nut  and  thread  bind  the  tail-stock  rigidly.  Similarly,  in  loosening 
the  tail-stock  the  abrupt  angle  of  the  earns  gives  the  necessary  freedom  with  the  same  small 
amount  of  motion.  Jhe  back-rest  has  a  lever-handle  lock-nut. 

Fig.  6  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  14-in.  swing-lathe  of  this  type. 

Car-  Wheel  Lathe. — Fig.  7  illustrates  a  car-wheel  lathe  bui'lt  by  the  Niles  Tool  Works,  of 
Hamilton.  0.,  especially  designed  for  turning  steel-tired  car  and  truck  wheels  on  their  axles. 
The  problem  presented  in  this  case  is  to  grip  the  axles  by  their  journals,  keep  them  in  line 


LATHES,   METAL-WORKING. 


461 


with  each  other,  and  revolve  them  about  their  common  centers,  whether  these  should  be  true 
with  the  original  centers  of  the  axle  or  not.    This  is  accomplished  in  the  following  manner : 


FIG.  G. 

FIGS.  1-6.— Putnam  engine  lathe  and  details. 

The  lathe  is  arranged  with  two  face-plates  revolving  on  hubs  projecting  from  each  head 
turned  true  and  placed  in  exact  alignment.  Within  these  face-plates  and  revolving  with 
them  are  placed  two  very  strong,  self-centering  chucks,  with  four  swivel  jaws.  They  are 
operated  by  gearing  mounted  on  each  head-block.  These  grip  the  axle  firmly  about  the 
centers  of  the  journals,  and  with  the  face-plates  revolve  them  in  exact  line.  The  two  face- 
plates are  geared  together  in  the  same  manner  as  on  driving-wheel  lathes,  by  a  heavy  forged 
steel  shaft.  The  chucks  above  mentioned  are  used  only  to  center  the  work  and  insure  the 
wheels  being  turned  true  with  the  journals.  The  wheels  are  revolved  by  two  drivers  on  each 
face-plate,  which  engage  with  the  heads  of  the  bolts  used  to  secure  the  tire  to  the  wheel- 
center.  These  drivers  are  adjustable  both  lengthwise  and  radially  to  suit  any  wheel.  Each 
head  is  arranged  with  a  sliding  spindle,  with  centers,  which  are  capped  to  prevent  end-motion 
of  the  axle  when  used  for  turning  truck-wheels  with  inside  journals.  These  caps  can  be 
removed  and  the  spindles  run  out  "beyond  the  face-plates,  when  the  work  may  be  carried  on 
the  centers.  The  right-hand  head  is  movable  on  the  bed  by  rack  and  pinion.  As  the  chucks 


FIG.  7. — The  Niles  car-wheel  lathe. 

have  swivel-jaws,  they  will  accommodate  themselves  to  the  work  as  it  is  put  into  the  lathe. 
The  feeds  are  operated  from  the  driving-shaft  by  means  of  a  rock-shaft  placed  in  front  of  the 
machine,  and  work  through  the  means  of  a  racthet-lever  in  the  same  manner  as  on  driving- 
wheel  lathes. 

Forming- Lathe. — Fig.  8  shows  a  forming-lathe  made  by  the  Meriden  Machine-Tool  Co., 
Meriden,  Conn.  This  machine  is  designed  for  turning  large  numbers  of  pieces  to  certain 
shapes,  such  as  handles,  cocks,  packing-nuts,  glands,  bonnets,  caps,  nipples,  etc.  The  turning 
is  done  by  a  single  motion  of  one  lever.  The  first  part  of  the  motion  of  the  lever  tightens  the 
chuck,  and  a  further  movement  brings  the  forming  tool  forward  under  the  work  and  turns  it 
to  shape,  after  which  the  tool  drops  sufficiently  to  clear  the  work  during  the  reverse  motion 
of  the  lever,  which  motion  loosens  the  chuck  and  raises  the  tool  at  the  proper  time  and  in 
position  for  another  cut.  All  operations  are  performed  without  stopping  the  lathe. 


462 


LATHES,  METAL-WORKING. 


FIG.  8.— The  Meridan  f 01  ming-lathe. 


FIGS.  9,  10.— Richards1  Anglo-American  lathe. 

n 


FIG.  11.— Richards1  lathe— head-stock. 


LATHES;  METAL-WORKING. 


463 


Richards'  Anglo-American  Lathe. — Figs.  9  to  11  illustrate  a  lathe  made  by  George  Rich- 
ards &  Co.,  Limited,  of  Broadheath,  near  Manchester,  England,  and  exhibited  by  them  at  the 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1889.  It  is  called  an  Anglo-American  lathe,  and  is  intended  to  combine 
th-}  best  features  of  American  and  English  practices.  Figs.  9  and  10  show  the  machine  in 
elevation  and  plan,  while  Fig.  11  is  a  detail  section  of  the  fast  head-stock.  This,  it  will  be 
seen,  has  an  arrangement  of  back-gearing  giving  an  extra  set  of  speeds  by  equal  pinions  on 
the  spindle  and  back-shaft.  The  spindle  has  parallel  necks,  hardened  and  ground  true,  in 
which  run  taper  bushes  as  shown,  and  wear  can  thus  be  compensated  for.  The  thrust  is 
taken  up  at  the  back  end  of  the  spindle,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  metal  cap  intended  to  be 
filled  with  oil,  and  thus  the  thrust-bearing  is  efficiently  lubricated.  The  feed  is  taken  from 
the  spindle  by  the  sliding-pinion  shown  below  it,  and  the  rate  of  feed  can  be  changed  by 
causing  this  pinion  to  gear  either  with  that  on  the  spindle  or  that  on  the  cone.  The  tool- 
carriage  is  moved  by  a  rack  and  pinion  in  ordinary  work,  and  by  a  screw  in  screw-cutting. 
All  the  feed-motions  of  the  carriage  can  be  reversed.  The  guiding  surfaces,  both  back  and 
front,  are  square.  The  sliding  head-stock  is  arranged  to  set  over  slightly,  and  thus  allow  long 
tapers  to  be  turned. 

Gap  Chucking- Lathe. — Fig.  12  shows  a  gap  chucking-lathe  made  by  the  Putnam  Machine 
Co.  It  is  an  improved  tool  of  great  range  and  capacity,  with  25  and  50  in.  swing,  the  gap 


FIG.  12. — Gap  chucking-lathe. 

being  20f  in.  long.  The  cone  is  balanced,  and  has  four  shifts  for  a  wide  belt.  The  head-stock 
has  ground  journals  with  anti-friction  metal  boxes,  which  compensate  for  wear  and  preserve 
the  original  alignment  of  the  live  and  dead  centers.  The  bed-slider  is  operated  by  rack  and 
pinion. 

Pulley- Lathe.— Fig.  13  shows  a  lathe  built  by  the  Niles  Tool  Works,  of  Hamilton,  Ohio,  espe- 
cially designed  for  turning  pulleys,  gears  (both  spur,  beveled,  and  mortised),  small  fly-wheels, 


FIG.  13.— Pulley-lathe. 

and  work  of  a  similar  character.  Power  is  transmitted  to  the  spindle  through  tangent  gear- 
ing. The  pulleys,  being  first  bored,  are  placed  on  a  mandrel  and  are  driven  by  an  equalizing 
driver,  distributing  the  strain  evenly  on  the  arms.  The  tool-slides  are  mounted  upon  short, 
stiff  cross-rails,  which  are  adjustable  on  graduated  surfaces  of  the  bed  to  suit  the  diameter  of 
pulley  to  be  turned.  The  rails  may  be  set  over  at  an  angle  to  give  any  desired  degree  of 


464 


LATHES,   METAL-WORKING. 


"  crown."  Tools  are  thus  ope- 
rated on  both  sides  of  the 
machines.  Feeds  are  opera- 
ted from  the  end  of  the  driv- 
ing-shaft by  three-step  cones 
for  H-in.  belt,  communicat- 
ing power  to  the  feed-shaft 
by  means  of  gears  with  an 
in-and-out  pin.  This  ar- 
rangement gives  a  roughing 
and  finishing  feed  for  each 
adjustment  of  feed-belt.  The 
front  rest  has  compound 
movement  and  power  cross 
and  angle  feed.  The  driving 
shaft  runs  at  so  much  higher 
velocity  than  the  main  spin- 
dle that  its  speed  is  suitable 
for  polishing  while  the  lathe 
is  turning. 

Gun- Lathe  of  the  Forges 
et  Chantiers,  Havre.  —  Fig. 
14  shows  a  gun-lathe  in  the 
factory  of  "the  Forges  et 
Chantiers,  Havre,  France, 
with  a  66-ton  gun,  built  for 
the  Japanese  Government, 
mounted  in  it.  The  time  re- 
quired for  completing  such  a 
gun,  supposing  no  unfore- 
seen delay  to  occur,  is  fifteen 
months.  Ranged  in  a  row, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
shop  to  that  occupied  by  the 
lathes,  are  the  boring  and 
rifling  machines  for  the  larg- 
est calibers,  the  last-named 
operation  for  the  66-ton  guns 
just  referred  to  occupying 
for  each  fifty  days. 

The  extent  of  the  gun- 
factory  may  be  judged  from 
the  fact  that  there  are  in  it 
10  such  lathes  as  the  one 
illustrated,  capable  of  taking 
masses  of  steel  up  to  46  ft. 
in  length,  and  weighing  100 
tons  ;  and  2  rifling  machines 
for  similar  calibers.  For 
smaller  sizes,  there  are  20 
lathes  taking  in  wrork  from 
20  to  30  ft.  in  length,  and 
weighing  from  10  to  20  tons ; 
2  corresponding  rifling-ma- 
chines complete  this  section 
of  the  plant.  Of  miscellane- 
ous tools,  for  planing,  screw- 
ing, and  slotting,  there  are 
of  course  a  large  number. 
The  smaller  bays  are  devoted 
to  lighter  work  :  field  and 
mountain  artillery,  small 
mortars  and  siege-guns,  and 
projectiles. 

LATHES,  TURRET  (see  also 
SCREW  MACHINES). — Jones  & 
Lamsoris  Turret  -  Head 
Lathe.— Figs.  15  to  22  illus- 
trate a  turret-head  machine, 
which  embodies  several  de- 
partures from  the  regular 
practice  in  such  machinery, 
enabling  certain  classes  of 


LATHES,   METAL-WORKING. 


465 


FIG.  15.— Turret-head  lathe. 


FIG.  16.— The  turret. 


FIG.  18.— The  turner. 
30 


FIG.  19.— Chuck— details. 


466 


LATHES,   METAL-WORKING. 


work  to  be  done  on  it  that  have  not  heretofore  been  attempted  on  turret-head  machines.     It 

is  built  by  the  Jones  &  Lamson  Machine  Co.,  of  Springfield,  Vt. 

The  usual  form  of  turret  and  mounting  for  the  same  has  been  entirely  abandoned,  and 

what  may  be  termed  a  turn-table  is  mounted  upon  what  resembles  the  ordinary  lathe-carriage. 

This  carriage  is  fed  by  rack  and  pinion  with 
pilot-wheel  in  the  ordinary  manner,  or  automati- 
cally, as  may  be  desired,  and  the  turret  revolves 
automatically.  The  carriage  slides  on  large  90° 
Vs,  and  is  gibbed  to  the  bed  outside  front  and 
back.  The  various  tool-holders,  turning  de- 
vices, cut-off  slides,  etc.,  by  which  the  work  is 
done,  are  simply  attached  to  the  top  or  upper 
surface  of  the  turret  by  square  tongues  and 
grooves  with  bolts.  The  turret,  which  is  pro- 


portionately much  larger  in  diameter  than  usual, 
is  gibbed  all  round  its  01 


Fia.  20.— Cut-off  slide.        FIG.  21.— Tool  holder. 


outer  circumference,  and 

the  locking-pin  engages  there.  The  cutting- 
tools  do  not  extend  out  over  the  turret,  but  are 
usually  about  vertically  over  the  point  of  engagement  of  the  locking-pin,  a  fact  which  prac- 
tically relieves  the  central  bearing  of  the  turret  of  all  stress  during  the  cut,  and  enables  the 
tool  to  be  held  more  steadily,  other  conditions  being  the  same.  There  are  six  slots  for  as 
many  tool-holders,  and  there  is  a  separate  stop  for  each  one,  which  is  adjustable  independently 
of  all  the  others,  so  that  the  point  at  which  the  feed  will  be  automatically  released,  and  the 
motion  of  the  slide  positively  arrested,  may  be  independently  fixed  for  each  tool  and  opera- 
tion, instead  of  its  being  necessary  to  set  all  the  tools  but  one  to  suit  the  point  of  feedsrelease. 
The  revolving  mechanism  is  also  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  made  to  act  at  the  moment  any  tool 
clears  the  work,  so  that  no  loss  of  time  results  from  running  back  farther  than  is  necessary 
for  any  given  tool.  Where  less  than  the  full  number  of  tools  are  used,  the  revolving  mecli- 
anism  can  be  made  to  skip  one  or  more  places,  so  as  to  bring  the  next  tool  into  position 
wherever  it  may  be.  Fig.  15  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  machine,  and  Fig.  16  is  an  enlarged 
view  of  the  turret,  with  six  tools  set  upon  it.  While  the  ordinary  turret-head  lathe  or  screw- 
machine  will  distance  the  lathe  for  work  to  which  it  is  adapted,  it  has  its  limitations,  one  of 
these  being  that  there  must  be  a  comparatively  large  number  of  pieces  to  make  that  are  just 
alike,  otherwise  it  will  not  pay  to  set  the  various  tools  and  arrange  the  machines  for  doing 
the  work ;  the  number  of  pieces  needed  to  make  it  pay  to  do  this  depending  mainly  upon 
their  character.  This  difficulty  the  builders  of  this  machine  have  attempted  to  overcome  by 
arranging  the  tools  so  that  they  can  be  set  with  a  facility  approaching  that  of  lathe-tools  ;  and 
it  is  claimed  by  them  that,  if  there  is  but  one  piece  to  do,  it  will  usually  pay  to  do  it  on  this 
machine,  and  that  it  is  therefore  well  adapted  to  general  machine  shop-work  within  its  range 
of  capacity,  which  is  for  work  up  to  2  in.  in  diameter  and  24  in.  long. 

Turret-head  machines  have  not  heretofore  been  constructed  for  work  of  this  length,  nor 
for  doing  work  so  long  in  proportion  to  its  diameter  as  can  be  done  on  this  machine. 

Long  work  of  small  diameter  is  finished  by  means  of  the  tool  shown  in  Figs.  17  and  18, 
the  former  being  a  front  view  and  the  latter  a  rear  view  of  the  tool,  which  is  called  the 
"turner."  The  tool  is  adjustable  by  screws, and  can  be  moved  to  or  from  the  work  by  a  cam, 
which  is  moved  by  a  small  lever,  so  that  the  tool 
may  be  run  into  the  work  for  necking,  or,  in  the 
case  of  long  and  slender  work,  the  tool  is  opened, 
run  up  close  to  the  chuck,  where  the  work  is  held 
securely,  and  the  tool  run  in  to  the  required 
depth.  It  is  then  fed  backward  toward  the  end 
of  the  work,  the  usual  back-rest  following  behind 
the  tool,  and  bearing  on  that  portion  of  the  work 
that  has  been  trued.  In  this  way  much  of  such 
work  is  finished  at  a  single  cut  from  the  rough, 
though  where  it  is  necessary  another  cut  can  be 
run  over  it  in  the  other  direction,  the  rest  in  this 
case,  as  in  the  other,  following  the  tool.  The 
cut-off  slide,  a  separate  view  of  which  is  shown  at 
Fig.  20,  is  bolted  to  the  top  of  the  turret,  as 
shown  by  the  rear  view  of  the  machine,  and  is  so 
arranged  that  the  turret  can  be  run  up  under  the 
chuck,  and  the  cut-off  used  without  interfering 
with  any  of  the  other  tools.  Provision  is  made 
for  using  three  tools  in  the  slide,  and  as  they 
have  the  longitudinal  motion  due  to  the  move- 
ment of  the  turret,  and  can  be  fed  into  the  work 
by  a  lever  and  small  pinion,  the  three  tools  can  be  used  for  different  purposes,  such  as  neck- 
ing in,  cutting  off,  or  turning  if  desired.  The  tool-holder  for  hollow  mills,  taps,  dies,  ream- 
ers, drills,  etc.,  is  shown  by  Fig.  21.  It  is  attached  to  the  turret  in  the  same  way  as  the  other 
tools.  The  chuck  used  on  the  spindle  is  shown  by  the  group  of  cuts  (Fig.  23),  which  represent 
it  in  various  positions  and  in  detail.  It  can  be  opened  and  closed  without  stopping  the  ma- 
chine by  the  movement  of  the  lever  designated  "  roller- feed  and  chuck-lever  "  in  the  outline 


FIG.  22.— Automatic  feeder. 


LATHES,   METAL-WORKING. 


467 


view  (Fig.  15),  this  lever,  by  suitable  connections,  being  made  to  slide  the  collar  on  the  outside 
of  the  chuck  which  opens  and  closes  the  collet  in  the  manner  indicated  in  Fig.  23. 


FIG.  23. — Roller-feed  and  automatic  chuck. 

The  same  lever  is  connected  to  the  automatic  feeding  device  (Fig.  22).  There  are  two 
rollers  that  bear  on  the  stock,  one  at  each  side.  These,  while  a  cut  is  being  taken,  serve  to 
steady  the  work  and  hold  it  central  in  the  spindle.  When  the  lever  is  moved  to  open  the 
chuck,  and  its  motion  is  then  continued  in  the  same  direction,  it  moves  a  plunger  which  en- 
gages with  one  of  the  V-grooves  on  the  spiral  ring-gear  (Fig.  22),  preventing  it  from  turning. 
The  spindle  of  the  machine,  continuing  to  turn,  carries  the  spiral  pinion  with  the  two  worms, 
worm-wheels,  and  feed-rolls  with  it,  and  by  this  motion  about  the  spiral  ring-gear  they  are 
made  to  rotate  on  theii  own  axes,  and  the  stock  is  thus  fed  forward  through  the  chuck  to  the 
stop,  and  held  there  until  the  chuck  is  again  closed. 

The  principal  dimensions  of  the  machine  are :  Working  length,  24  in. ;  hole  through 
spindle,  2£  in. ;  diameter  of  turret,  16  in. ;  swing  over  bed,  16  in. ;  width  of  belt  used,  3£  in. ; 
length  of  bed,  6  ft.  8  in. ;  weight,  2,600  Ibs. 

Turret-Lathe  with  Roller-Feed  and  Automatic  Chuck. — Fig.  23  shows  the  revolving  roller- 
feed  and  automatic  chuck,  built  by  the  Jones  &  Lamson  Co.  for  their  turret-lathe  and  screw 


FIG.  24. — Turret-lathe  with  roller-feed  and  automatic  chuck. 

machines.  Fig.  24  shows  the  turret-lathe  with  the  feed  and  chuck  applied.  The  operation  is 
as  follows :  The  lever  near  the  head  is  pulled  forward  ;  this  opens  the  chuck,  at  the  same  time 
starting  the  roller  or  wire  feed,  and  the  stock  is  rapidly  fed  up  to  the  stop-gauge  ;  when  the 
lever  is  thrown  back  the  roller-feed  stops,  and  at  the  same  time  the  chuck  closes  firmly  upon 
the  stock,  and  the  next  operation  is  ready  to  be  performed.  This  is  done  with  two  strokes 
of  the  lever,  without  the  operator  leaving  his  post  and  without  stopping  or  reversing  his 
machine.  (See  also  SCREW-MACHINES.) 


468 


LATHES,  WOOD-WORKING. 


Turret  Chucking-Lathe. — Fig.  25  shows  a  36-in.  turret  chucking-lathe  made  by  the  Lodge 
&  Davis  Machine  Tool  Co.,  of  Cincinnati.  This  lathe  swings  36  in.,  is  back-geared,  with  power- 
feed,  and  has  an  8-ft.  bed.  The  cone-pulley  has  four  changes  for  3£-in.  belt ;  largest  speed  is 


FIG.  26.— Taper  and  irregular  turning-tool. 


Fio.  25.— Turret  chucking-lathe. 

14  in.  in  diameter.  The  spindle  is  of  steel,  with  l|-in.  hole  through  its  length,  and  runs  in  bear- 
ings of  phosphor-bronze  ;  the  front  bearing  is  3|  in.  in  diameter,  5|  in.  in  length.  The  turret 
is  12  in.  in  diameter,  revolves  automatically,  and  has  6  holes  bored  1£  m-  in  diameter.  The 
turret-slide  is  operated  by  a  pilot-wheel,  and  is  provided  with  adjustable  automatic  stop  to 
the  power-feed,  and  will  bore  holes  up  to  13  in.  in  length  without  resetting.  The  turret-slide 

is  actuated  on  the  shears  by  rack  and  pinion. 
The  feed  is  thrown  in  and  out  on  the  front  side 
of  the  turret.  A  friction  counter-shaft  with  re- 
verse motion  is  provided,  in  order  that  taps  and 
dies  may  be  used. 

LATHE-TOOLS. — Taper  and  Irregular  Turning 
Box-Tool  for  Turret-Lathes.  — This  tool  (Fig. 
26)  is  for  the  accurate  turning  of  taper  pins  and 
bolts  of  all  kinds  and  irregular  shapes,  such  as 
handles,  etc.  The  sliding  template  shown  in 
front  is  a  bar  of  steel,  with  its  under-side  of  the 
exact  taper  required.  The  point  of  the  screw 
beneath  bears  on  a  shoe,  which  in  turns  bears  on 
the  template.  This  screw  passes  through  an  arm 
of  the  rocking  tool-carrier.  The  pin  at  the  head 
end  of  the  sliding  template  is  held  by  a  projec- 
tion on  the  carriage.  The  carriage  is  set  in  the  proper  position,  so  that,  when  the  power-feed 
of  the  turret  is  thrown  in,  for  either  direction,  the  tool  advances  or  recedes,  while  the  tem- 
plate remains  stationary.  The  point  of  the  cutting  tool  is  thus  swung  out  or  in,  and  the  ex- 
act taper  or  form  of  the  template  given  to  the  piece  turned. 

LATHES,  WOOD-WORKING.  Improvements  in  this  machine  during  the  past  ten 
years  are  mainly  in  its  adaptation  to  special  kinds  of  work.  A  variety  of  novel  forms  of  lathe 
are  presented. 

Sack-knife  Lathe. — In  this  machine,  which  is  for  circular  turning,  there  is  a  live  and 
a  dead  center  for  the  stock,  and  a  centering  device  which  may  be  put  at  any  desired  place  in 
the  length  of  the  piece.  Some  of  the  work  is  done  by  ordinary  turning-chisels,  having  adjust- 
ing screws  so  that  they  may  be  set  accurately  as  to  the  diameter  of  the  stock  being  turned,  and 
V  and  gouge  chisels,  which  are  automatically  lifted  from  a  form  on  the  return  of  the  carriage 
bearing  them.  But  the  principal  feature  of  the  lathe,  and  the  one  from  which  it  is  named,  is 
a  back  knife,  as  long  as  the  stock  to  be  turned,  and  sliding  in  vertical  ways  at  the  back  of  the 
lathe ;  this  knife  being  either  straight-edged  and  in  one  piece,  or  sectional,  and  made  to  do 
turning  and  scoring  at  various  points  of  its  length.  It  is  set  with  the  width  of  its  blade 
vertical,  and  the  length  inclined  to  the  horizontal,  so  that  it  makes  a  shearing  cut,  from  one 
end  of  its  length  to  the  other,  operating  from  one  end  of  the  stock  to  the  other. 

Gauge-Lathes. — In  some  gauge-lathes  employing  a  pattern  of  the  same  general  outline  as 
the  finished  product  is  to  be,  the  "  former"  is  placed  upon  the  frame  which  carries  the  stock, 
but  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  center,  necessitating  its  being  of  a  greater  diameter  and  all 
its  dimensions  exaggerated.  In  others  it  is  placed  in  actual  line  with  the  stock  ;  and  in  such 
case  it  may  or  may  not  be  of  the  same  diameter ;  but,  whether  it  is  or  not,  its  outlines  should 


LATHES,  WOOD-WORKING. 


469 


be  parallel  to  those  which  it  is  intended  to  produce  in  the  finished  piece.  With  such  an 
arrangement  as  this  the  same  form  may  be  made  to  produce  several  diameters  of  finished 
pieces,  by  adjusting  its  height ;  all  the  finished  pieces  coming  of  the  same  outline. 

In  one  type  of  gauge-lathes,  made  by  the  Trevor  Manufacturing  Co.,  the  form  is  a  sheet- 
metal  pattern,  placed  edgewise  along  the  machine,  and  its  curved  upper  outlines  cause  a 
rocking  back  and  forth  of  the  cutting-knives,  which  are  given  traverse  along  the  stock,  as  the 
latter  is  rotated  between  the  live  and  the  dead  center  by  a  weight  and  cord  feed. 

A  simple  gauge-lathe  (represented  in  Fig.  1),  for  turning  all  sorts  of  irregular  forms,  con- 
sists of  an  iron  frame  with  planed  ways,  upon  which  are  head  and  tool  stocks,  a  tool-rest,  and 


an  apron  traversing  back  and  forth  by  a  screw.  The  head-stock  carries  a  spindle,  a  cone- 
driving  pulley,  and  a  small  feed-pulley.  There  is  a  self-centering  attachment,  which  receives 
and  centers  the  material  without  stopping  the  lathe.  The  tool-stock  center  rotates  with  the 
turning-stock,  making  both  centers  live.  The  tool-rest,  which  is  gibbed  to  the  planed  ways 
of  the  frame,  carries  three  cutters  and  a  supporting  ring,  and  may  be  moved  either  by  hand 
or  automatically  fed  by  a  heavy  screw  speeded  from  the  head-spindle.  The  patterns  are  cut 
from  sheet-iron  of  the  exact  profile  of  the  finished  article.  As  the  work  turns,  the  rest  bear- 
ing the  tools  has  lengthwise  traverse,  and  is  made  to  advance  or  recede  from  the  center  by 


470  LATHES,   WOOD-WORKING. 

the  sheet-iron  form,  thus  producing  articles  of  any  desired  contour,  having  all  their  sections 
circular. 

The  Ober  automatic  lathe  for  turning  irregular  objects,  such  as  spokes,  has  a  mechanism 
which  automatically  adapts  the  speed  of  the  feed-screw  and  the  rotation  of  the  pattern  and 
stock  to  the  diameter  of  the  work  being  turned.  This  mechanism  consists  of  a  small  friction- 
pulley,  which,  lying  between  two  reverse  cones  and  being  caused  to  slide  along  their  faces  by 
a  trip-lever  and  connecting-rod,  transmits  a  variable  velocity  to  the  train  of  gears  rotating 
the  feed-screws,  pattern,  and  stock. 

One  variety  of  the  Blanchard  spoke-turning  lathe  has  a  horizontal  frame  or  table  with  a 
lengthwise  opening,  through  which  vibrate  the  two  end  members  of  a  frame  which  bears  the 
stick  from  which  the  spoke  is  to  be  cut,  and  the  solid  iron  form  which  is  to  be  copied ;  these 
two  being  parallel,  the  form  above  the  stock.  Both  the  form  and  the  stock  are  mounted  be- 
tween centers,  and  have  rotation  at  the  same  speed,  by  gearing  driven  by  belted  connections 
from  below.  At  the  back  of  the  table,  which  has  planed  ways,  is  an  upright,  carrying  cutters 
rotating  upon  a  horizontal  axis  lengthwise  of  the  machine  and  parallel,  of  course,  to  the  axes 
of  the  stock  and  form.  A  projection  on  the  frame  bearing  the  cutter-head  bears  on  the  form 
and  vibrates  the  frame  from  or  toward  the  axis  of  the  cutters,  according  as  the  form  is  greater 
or  less  in  diameter.  The  carriage  bearing  the  cutters  has  a  lengthwise  traverse,  given  by  a 
cord  and  worm-feed.  The  vibrating-frame  is  pivoted  on  an  axis  below  the  table  instead  of 
above,  as  was  at  first  the  case  with  machines  of  this  class.  It  may  be  thrown  into  position  by 
a  hand-lever  at  the  right  of  the  machine,  doing  away  with  the  necessity  of  the  operator  going 
to  the  opposite  end  of  the  machine  to  adjust  the  carriage  and  centers  to  proper  position 
every  time  a  spoke  is  turned.  The  spoke-centers  always  stop  with  the  form  at  a  fixed  or  de- 
termined point,  ready  for  the  insertion  of  the  unturned  spoke.  The  movable  center  is  worked 
by  an  eccentric  lever  capable  of  holding  the  largest-sized  spokes.  The  vibrator  is  held  in 
position  against  the  pattern  and  spokes  by  heavy  adjustable  springs. 

An  automatic  spoke-lathe  brought  out  by  the  Egan  Co.,  and  shown  in  Fig.  2,  combines 
the  principal  features  of  the  Blanchard  lathe  with  new  ones.  The  bed  or  frame  is  wider  than 

is  usual,  and  the  "  V "  is  placed  some  dis- 
tance back  of  the.  center  line  of  the  cutter- 
head,  allowing  the  belt  to  press  the  front  of 
the  carriage  down  to  the  "  V  "  as  it  travels 
along.  The  construction  of  the  bed  is  such 
that  chips  are  not  liable  to  accumulate  on 
the  top  to  obstruct  the  rollers.  There  is  a 
sliding-carriage  having  four  rollers,  with 
their  journals  held  in  position  by  collars  on 
the  outside ;  the  carriage  has  adjustable 
gibs  to  the  main  frame,  to  prevent  side 
play.  The  standards  carrying  the  cutter- 
head  are  bolted  to  the  carriage  on  planed 
surfaces.  The  head  has  a  combination  of 
hook  and  gouge  knives.  The  vibrating- 
FIG.  2.— Spoke-lathe.  frame  is  cast  hollow,  and  is  connected  at 

the  top  by  hydraulic  pipe,  to  give  strength 

and  lightness.  There  are  adjustable  trunnion-boxes  to  change  the  size  of  the  spoke.  The 
gearing  is  cut  from  the  solid,  and  the  center  gear  has  double  width  of  face,  to  permit  the 
operator  to  change  the  shape  of  the  spoke.  The  back  center  gearing  is  so  constructed  that 
various  lengths  of  spoke  may  be  turned  from  one  pattern. 

An  improvement  recently  added  is  for  automatically  lifting  into  the  cut  the  frame  carry- 
ing the  spoke,  so  that  all  the  operator  has  to  do  is  to  remove  the  finished  spoke  and  put  in  the 
stick  for  a  new  one — not  even  leaving  his  position,  but  merely  pulling  a  lever,  which  sets  the 
vibrating-frame  into  the  cut;  then  the  carriage,  with  the  cutter-heads  attached,  travels  along 
the  bed,  completing  the  spoke,  the  vibrating  frame  throws  forward,  and  the  carriage  and  head 
return  to  the  starting-point  to  cut  another  spoke.  This  is,  of  course,  much  more  convenient 
than  lifting  the  frame  into  the  cut  every  time  a  spoke  is  turned.  One  of  these  lathes  has  a 
record,  made  in  a  spoke-factory  in  Mississippi,  of  2,695  spokes  per  day  of  10  hours,  which  is 
claimed  to  be  the  greatest  recor'd  ever  made  on  a  spoke-lathe.  The  average  capacity  claimed 
for  the  new  lathe  is  2,200  to  2,400  per  day — more  than  double  the  ordinary  capacity  of  such 
machines. 

The  automatic  spoke  and  handle  lathe,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  for  turning  and  squaring  wagon 
and  carriage  spokes,  although  it  has  adjustments  for  turning  common,  Sarven,  or  sharp-edged 
shapes,  making  either  light  hickory  spokes  or  heavy  ones  for  wagon,  truck,  or  artillery  wheels, 
up  to  44  in.  long  and  5  in.  diameter  There  is  a  rotating  horizontal  cylinder  composed  of 
rotating  knife  cutter-heads  placed  side  by  side  to  make  up  the  length  of  the  spoke,  each  head 
having  three  cutters  of  3-in.  face  lapping  over  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  cutting 
edge  over  the  entire  length  of  the  cylinder.  There  is  a  table  in  two  parts,  gibbed  and  sliding 
on  the  frame  in  angular  ways,  being  moved  to  and  from  the  cutters  by  either  a  hand  or  a  foot 
lever.  The  upper  part  of  this  table  supports  the  turning  centers,  and  is  pivoted  to  the  lower 
half  near  the  tail  center  by  a  steel  pivot,  in  one  of  several  holes  in  the  table,  on  which  it 
vibrates  for  oval  turning.  At  the  opposite  end  of  the  head-center  spindle  is  a  cast-iron  cam 
of  the  shape  that  it  is  desired  to  turn,  this  cam  riding  against  an  upright  shoe  extending  up 
from  the  lower  table,  and  held  snug  against  the  shoe  by  a  coiled  spring.  When  the  table  is 


LATHES,   WOOD-WORKING. 


471 


moved  toward  the  cylinder  to  where  the  turning  is  begun,  an  automatic  feed  slowly  rotates 
the  object  to  be  shaped,  and  the  cam  rotating  against  the  shoe  oscillates  the  table  in  a  path 


FIG.  3. — Spoke  and  handle  lathe. 

corresponding  with  the  shape  of  the  cam.  When  the  pivot  is  placed  directly  opposite  the 
tail  center  the  machine  will  turn  the  work  round  at  the  tail  end,  gradually  changing  in  sec- 
tion toward  the  other  end,  where  it  will  correspond  with  the  shape  of  the  cam.  For  long, 
oval,  or  irregular  turning,  where  both  ends  must  correspond  in  section  with  the  cam,  the 
vibrating  part  of  the  table  is  locked  fast  with  the  lower  part,  and  the  cam  rotates  against  a 

shoe  fastened  to  the  frame,  thus 
vibrating  both  tables  alike  at 
each  end.  The  diameter  of  turn- 
ing is  regulated  by  screws.  The 
tail-center  can  be  adjusted  at 
any  desired  distance  from  the 
spur  center  for  short  or  long 
turning,  or  at  right  angles  for 
straight  or  taper  turning.  The 
swinging  cutter-head  is  made  to 
advance  and  retreat  from  the 
work  automatically,  its  position 
being  regulated  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  table",  the  section 
turned  being  governed  by  a  cam 
upon  the  live  center  table.  It 
will  turn  square,  octagonal,  or 
any  other  section  desired. 

A  desirable  attachment  to  any 
ordinary  wood-lathe,  that  is  suf- 
ficiently strong  for  turning  rake-handles  and  similar  pieces,  is  a  concentric  slide,  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  circular  plate  having  through  it  a  number  of  circular 
holes  of  graded  sizes,  the  centers  of  all  of  them  being  the  same  distance  from  the  center  of 


FIG.  4.— Rake-handle  lathe. 


472 


LATHE-TOOLS,   METAL-WORKING. 


FIG.  1.—  Threading-tool. 


the  disk  itself,  which  rotates  on  a  horizontal  axis.  The  article  turned  is  finished  to  correct 
form  by  a  knife  on  a  swinging  arm,  which  passes  over  a  pattern  fastened  to  the  lathe-shears 
in  front. 

LATHE-TOOLS,  METAL-WORKING.     The  accompanying  engravings  illustrate  the 
most  recent  forms  of  metal-working  lathe-tools.     Fig.  1  shows  a  lathe  thread  ing-tool  as  made 

by  the  Morse  Twist  Drill  &  Ma- 
chine Co.  The  holder  of  this  tool 
is  slotted,  forming  jaws,  between 
which  the  circular  cutter  is  firmly 
held  by  a  bolt  passing  through  the 
jaws  and  the  cutter.  The  cutters 
are  furnished  to  the  V.  or  U.  S. 
standard  thread,  singly  or  in  sets, 
as  desired.  They  are  readily  re- 
moved from  the  holder.  The 
roughing  cut  for  a  thread  may  be 
taken  with  one  section  of  the  cutter  and  the  finishing  cut  with  another,  the  cutter  being  re- 
volved in  the  holder,  which  need  not  be  removed  from  the  tool-post  of  the  lathe.  The  cutters 
are  quickly  sharpened  by  grinding  the  faces. 
Fig.  2  shows  the  Gardner  &  Woodbridge  thread- 
ing tool  and  holder,  together  with  a  series  of 
tools  for  other  purposes  than  threading,  adapted 
for  the  same  method  of  holding  and  sharpen- 
ing. The  holder  is  made  of  tool  steel,  hardened 
throughout  and  finished  true,  giving  the  same 
clearance  for  each  tool.  The  single-point  cut- 
ters accompanying  are  hardened  and  ground  to 
produce  an  angle  of  60°  exactly,  with  the  proper 
width  of  flat  for  the  pitch  of  thread  (U.  S. 
standard)  that  each  is  intended  to  cut ;  simply 
grinding  the  top  of  the  cutter  parallel  with  the 
top  of  holder  when  sharpening  being  all  that  is 
required  to  keep  the  angle  and  width  of  flat  at 
the  point  correct.  The  same  single-point  cut- 
ter is  used  for  right  and  left  hand  threads. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  Woodbridge  lathe  and  plan- 
er tool.  The  tool  is  made  to  shape,  thus  saving 
the  forging  and  grindings  necessary  with  or- 
dinary tools.  Being  supported  and  backed  up 
close  to  the  cutting-edge,  and  having  no  verti- 
cal projection,  it  will  stand  heavier  cuts  and 
faster  feeds  than  ordinary  tools.  The  new  tools 
can,  without  alteration  of  form,  be  used  in  a 
planer  as  well  as  in  a  lathe.  If  the  tools  are  kept  ground  in  stock,  the  workman  has  but  to 
slip  in  a  new  tool  as  the  old  one  becomes  dull,  no  adjustment  for  height  being  necessary,  as  in 
the  forged  tool. 


S? 


FIG.  2.— Threading-tool  and  holder. 


FIG.  3. — Lathe  and  planer  tool. 

Johnson's  cutting-off  tool,  for  lathe,  planer,  and  screw  machine  use,  is  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
The  holder  in  this  tool  is  a  plain  rectangular  piece  of  machine  steel,  case-hardened,  with  recess 


FIG.  4.— Cutting-off  tool. 


FIG.  5.— Boring-tool. 


in  side,  having  the  edge  beveled  to  hold  blades,  which  have  their  edges  beveled  to  correspond 
to  the  holder.     The  small  screws  at  each  end  are  to  insure  a  tight  fit  to  the  blade  when  in 
use,  and  to  hold  the  blade  when  grinding.     This  tool  may  be  used  for  planer  or  lathe  work. 
Fig.  5  shows  a  boring  and  inside  threading  tool.     Fig.  6  shows  a  lathe-tool,  which  has  but 


LATHE-TOOLS,  METAL-WORKING. 


473 


FIG.  6. — Lathe-tool. 


DIB.    CLAMP  COLLAR  DIB  HOLDIH.  C* 

FIG.  8.— Turret-lathe  tools. 


FIG.  9.— Knurling  tool. 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  11. 
FIGS.  10,  11.— Cast-iron  tools  (see  list). 


474  LATHE-TOOLS,   METAL-WORKING. 

two  parts — the  holder,  which  need  not  be  removed  from  the  tool-post,  and  the  cutting-point, 
which  requires  only  to  be  placed  in  position  when  it  is  ready  for  use,  its  removal  being  effected 
by  giving  the  projecting  point  a  slight  turn  with  a  wrench. 

Fig.  7  shows  a  new  style  of  center  reamer.  It  is  fluted  with  three  cuts,  and  the  cutting 
edges  are  relieved.  It  will  in  all  cases  make  a  round  hole,  which  is  not  always  the  case  with 
the  old-style  one-cut  reamer. 

The  usual  set  of  tools  now  used  for  a  turret-lathe  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  These  consist  of  one 
hollow  mill  and  holder  and  one  or  two  box-tools,  one  or  two  die-holders  and  dies,  one  cutting- 
off  tool,  and  one  stop-gauge. 

The  knurling-tool,  shown  in  Fig.  9,  is  designed  for  checking  cylindrical  pieces  that  they 
may  be  held  firmly  by  hand.  The  holder  is  jointed,  that  the  knurls  may  center  themselves, 
and  be  used  in  a  weighted  lathe  without  an  extra  weight  being  applied  to  the  carriage  to  hold 
it  in  position. 

Cast-Iron  Lathe-Tools. — Cast-iron  tools  for  cutting  metals  have  been  successfully  used  in 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  shops  at  Altoona,  and  in  the  shops  of  the  Ferracute  Machine  Co., 
at  Bridgeton,  N.  J.  They  are  made  to  the  ordinary  standard  shapes  used  for  forged  tools,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagrams  (Figs.  10  and  11),  which  are  copied  from  those  used  in 
the  Altoona  shops.  The  names,  functions,  and  dimensions  corresponding  to  the  numbers  are 
given  in  the  following 

List  of  Cast-Iron  Tools. 

Number.  Name.  Dimension,  inches. 

*I.  Round  nose  for  iron  and  brass If   by  £  by  8f 

fl.  Thread-tool  for  wrought  and  cast  iron If   by  f  by  8| 

II.  Diamond  point,  right-hand,  for  lathe If  by  f  by  8* 

III.  "  "  "         1*  by  •£  by  8* 

IV.  "  side-tool,  right-hand,  for  lathe 1*  by  }  by  9 

V.  "  "  "  '•          ij  by  |  by  9 

"VI.  Round  nose  for  lathe  or  planer 1*   by    It  by    9f 

VII.  Square  nose  for  planer 1*   by    IB  by  10± 

VIII.  "         for  lathe If  by    f   by  10 

IX.  Round  nose  for  lathe  or  planer 1     by  1^  by  lOf 

X.  Square         "         "    |  by  1*  by  11* 

XI.  Diamond  point  for  lathe  or  planer 1*   by  1     by  llf 

XIII.  Square  nose  for  lathe  or  planer 2     by  1-J-  by  15 

XIV.  Diamond  point  for  lathe  or  planer 1*   by  1*  by  15f 

XV.  Oyster-knife  for  planer 1*   by  1*  by  15* 

XVI.  Diamond  point  for  planer  or  lathe 1*   by  1*  by  15* 

XVII.  "  "  left  hand 1*   by    |  by    8* 

XVIII.  "  for  lathe H  by    f  by    7 

XX.  Round  nose  for  lathe |  by  1  by    7 

XXI.  Boring-tool       "          l^by    f  by    8f 

XXIII.  Left-hand  side  or  facing  tool  for  lathe 1*   by    |  by    8 

XXIV.  Right       «  "  "         1*  by    f  by    8 

XXV.  Square  nose  for  planer 1^ by  1*  by  11* 

XXVI.  Diamond  point  for  lathe H  by    *   by    6f 

XXVII.  "  "          or  planer £  by  H   by    8* 

XXVIII.  "  for  planing  and  facing  cylinders. ...  H  by  If  by    9f 

XXIX.  "  for  planer  or  facing-mill 1±  by  H   by    9* 

XXX.  Square  nose  for  turning  cylinder  flanges If  by  If  by    9 

XXXII.  Side-tool  for  axle-lathe  "or  planer 2  by  1     by  14* 

XXXIII.  Diamond  point  for  axle-lathe  or  planer 2  by  1     by  15 

XXXIV.  Side-tool  "  "         "  2  by  1     by  14f 

XXXV.  Square  nose  "  "         "  2  by  1     by  15 

XXXVI.  «  «  "         "  2  byl  by  14* 

XXXVII.  Diamond  point  for  planer 1*  by    1  by  14* 

XXXVIIL  "  for  axle-lathe 2  by  1  by  15 

XL.  Tools  for  boring  cylinders  (Baldwin) 1*  by  1*  by    5f 

XLI.  "  «  "        H  by  1*  by    4f 

XLII.  "  «  "        1*  by  1*  by    3f 

XLIII.  Square  nose  for  lathe H  by    f  by    6f 

XLI V.  Boring-tools  for  driving-boxes If  by    ftbj    6 

For  a  given  size  of  cut,  the  shank  of  one  of  these  tools  should  be  somewhat  larger  than  in 
the  case  of  a  forging,  in  order  to  give  the  required  lateral  strength  where  it  is  fastened  in  the 
tool-post.  Otherwise  the  shapes  and  sizes  may  be  exactly  the  same.  In  general,  heavier  cuts 
and  probably  somewhat  higher  speeds  can  be  taken  with  these  tools  than  with  forged  steel 
ones,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  danger  of  drawing  temper  by  the  heat  due  to  cutting- 
friction.  The  experience  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co.  shows  that,  on  the  whole,  these 
tools,  cheaply  made  as  they  can  be,  are  superior  to  steel  tools  for  roughing-cuts,  but  that  they 
are  not  desirable  for  finishing-cuts. 

*  The  lower  of  the  two  tools  thus  numbered.  t  The  upper  of  the  two  tools  thus  numbered. 


LEATHER-WORKING  MACHINERY. 


475 


The  construction  of  these  tools  is  of  the  simplest  description.  An  ordinary  wooden  pat- 
tern of  the  exact  shape  desired  is  molded  in  the  usual  way,  with  a  small  portion  of  its  cutting 
point  in  a  cast-iron  chill.  A  tool  can  not,  of  course,  be  repaired  in  the  blacksmith-shop,  but 
must  be  melted  up  when  worn  out.  They  can  be  so  cheaply  recast  that  their  maintenance, 
as  well  as  their  original  cost,  is  much  less  than  that  of  the  ordinary  forgings.  The  best  com- 
position of  metal,  as  far  as  has  been  ascertained,  is  the  same  as  for  car-wheels,  and  no  partic- 
ular care  is  necessary  in  regard  to  the  method  of  pouring  or  the  heat  of  the  melted  metal. 

Leaching-Vat :  see  Mills,  Silver. 

LEATHER-WORKING  MACHINERY.  The  Goodyear  Method  of  Sewing  Shoes.— 
Among  many  different  methods  of  sewing  and  stitching  welted  shoes,  and  sewing  turned 
shoes,  may  be  mentioned  the  Goodyear  method.  In  the  welt  system,  the  machines  employed 
are  an  in-seamer  for  sewing  the  welts,  an  out-sole  stitcher  for  stitching  the  sole  to  the  welt,  a 
machine  for  preparing  the  welt,  a  machine  for  beating  out  the  welt,  and  chane  ling-machines. 

The  curved  awl  and  the  curved  needle  are  employed,  and  the  lock-stitch  is  used.  The 
out-sole  stitcher  is  now  a  lock-stitch  machine,  which  stitches  in  any  kind  of  channel,  or 
"  aloft "  if  desired.  In  either  case  it  shows  the  "  fair-stitch,"  or  the  welt  and  out-sole  in 
perfect  imitation  of  hand-work.  The  tension  of  the  machine  is  regular  and  uniform.  The 
in-seaming  machine,  instead  of  the  "pull"  of  the  tension  being  outward  from  the  central 
line  of  the  inner  sole,  as  was  formerly  the  case,  the  stitch  is  now  set  with  an  inward  pull 
toward  the  central  line  of  the  inner  sole,  practically  the  reverse  of  the  old  method,  and  the 
tension  is  drawn  exactly  as  in  hand-work.  In  this  work,  as  the  awl  feeds  the  shoe,  the  looper 
passes  the  thread  in  front  of  a  thread-finger,  which  finger  retains  it  until  the  looper  conveys 
the  thread  around  the  needle.  The  needle  then  draws  the  thread  through  the  sole  and  welt 
outward,  and,  as  the  machine  feeds  again,  the  needle  starts  forward  to  make  another  stitch, 
and  the  take-up  then  begins  to  draw  in  the  slack  thread  as  the  needle  completes  the  stitch. 
In  sewing  turned  shoes,  the  new  machine  draws  the  thread  up  and  around  the  needle  while 
the  latter  is  in  the  stock,  thus  setting  the  stitch  without  stretching  the  sole.  By  the  same 


FIG.  1. — McKay  lasting-machine. 

device  the  pull  of  the  tension  is  directed  inward  toward  the  last,  avoiding  thereby  the  strain 
in  the  between-substance,  which  occurs  whenever  the  stitch  is  set  by  the  needlej  as  was  the 


476 


LEATHER-WORKING  MACHINERY. 


case  in  the  old  machines.     This  machine  may  be  used  on  both  welt  and  turned  work  by  ad- 
justing the  welt-guide. 

The  McKay  &  Copeland  Lasting- Machine  and  Accessories,  for  Lasting  Boots  and  Shoes 
generally. — The  important  mechanical  principles  employed  in  this  lasting-machine  (see  Fig. 
1)  are  a  universal  adaptability  of  girth,  heel  and  toe  devices  for  drawing  the  upper,  whether 
of  light  or  heavy  leather,  snugly  and  evenly,  and  laying  the  same  over  and  upon  the  inner 
sole  without  regard  to  rights  or  lefts,  length  or  width,  or  as  to  spring,  twist,  or  roll  of  the  last. 
The  novel  mechanism  includes :  1.  A  girth,  apron  or  straps,  yielding  from  its  center  and 
fastened  at  one  end  to  fingers,  which  act  as  wipers,  and  at  the  other  end  to  springs,  for  fold- 
ing the  upper  around  the  last  and  laying  the  same  over  and  on  to  the  inner  soles,  ready  to  be 
attached.  2.  An  oscillating  head,  carrying  toe  and  heel  lasting  mechanisms  for  lasting  the 


power-pegger,  for  attaching  the  upper  to  the  inner  sole  with  pegs,  when  the  out-sole  is  to  be 
pegged  on.  5.  A  hand-tacker,  supplied  with  a  tack-strip  (which  is  composed  of  a  foundation 
strip,  in  which  common  shoe-tacks  are  stuck,  and  a  covering-strip,  which  is  stuck  over  the 
same  to  hold  the  tacks  in  place)  from  which  tacks  are  driven  to  attach  upper  to  inner  sole, 
when  the  out-sole  is  to  be  attached  otherwise  than  by  pegs — that  is,  when  to  be  soled,  nailed, 
or  screwed.  This  machine  will  last  French  or  American  calf,  wax,  kip,  split,  buff,  grain,  or 
glove  upper  leathers,  with  either  a  straight  sole-leather  or  molded  stiffener  (heel-counter)  for 
either  pegged,  nailed,  standard  screwed,  McKay  or  Goodyear  sewed  boots  or  shoes.  Sizes  : 
men's,  5  to  13 ;  women's,  3  to  9 ;  boys',  1  to  6  ;  and  misses',  12  to  2. 

The  Chase  Lasting- Machine  (Fig.  2)  is  employed  principally  on  men's  medium  or  fine 
shoes,  and  uses  the  same  tacker  and  tack-strip  as  the  McKay '&  Copeland  machine.    It  is 


FIG.  2. -Chase  lasting-machine. 

a  hand-power  machine,  which  adapts  itself  to  any  style  of  last,  no  change  being  necessary 
whether  a  right  or  left  hand  shoe  is  to  be  lasted.  The  toe  and  heel  plates  are  fitted  for  each 
style  of  shoe.  The  vamp  has  all  the  stretch  taken  out  of  it  when  going  through  the  lasting 
process  by  a  pressure  on  the  foot-lever,  which  operates  four  nippers  on  each  side  of  the  last, 
each  nipper  working  independently  of  the  other,  and  taking  out  the  stretch  under  its  control. 
The  toe  of  the  last  is  pressed  into  the  vamp,  while  the  toe  portion  of  the  vamp  is  held  between 
a  wiper  and  a  foot  that  is  controlled  by  a  hand-lever,  which  releases  the  pressure  when  the 
wiper  is  brought  over  the  toe  of  the  last. 

An  Electrical  Sole-Sorter. — Wilder  &  Co.,  of  Chicago,  make  a  very  ingenious  electrical 


LEATHER-WORKING   MACHINERY. 


47? 


sole-sorter,  shown  in  Fig.  3.  This  machine  determines  the  exact  thickness  of  cut  soles,  taps, 
and  bottom  stock  by  electrical  and  mechanical  devices,  and  distributes  them  automatically. 
This  machine  measures  the  thickness  of  the  tap  at  the  center,  and  not  at  the  side,  and,  auto- 
matically determining  the  thickness,  drops  them  into  the  proper  box.  The  difference  in 
quality,  such  as  fine  and  hard,  and  coarse  and  soft,  must  always  be  left  to  the  judgment  of 
the  sorter,  but  to  determine  by  the  eye  the  exact  difference  in'the  thickness  of  the  different 
grades  is  not  possible.  To  fully  realize  this,  one  must  know  how  fine  the  difference  is.  Twelve 


FIG.  3.— An  electrical  sole-sorter. 

pairs  of  taps  to  stand  just  6  in.  high  and  be  uniform  in  thickness,  must  each  be  just  f  £  of  an 
in.  thick.  If  each  were  |§  of  an  in.  thick  they  would  stand  then  6^  in.  high.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  ^  of  an  in.  constitutes  a  grade— that  is,  i  of  an  in.  difference  in  the  height  of 
the  dozen  when  tied  up.  This  machine  is  so  finely  adjusted  and  so  accurate  that  it  can  be 
set  to  grade  down  to  nfcv  °f  an  in.,  and  can  "*  depended  on  to  do  it  every  time.  In  selling 
taps  much  has  been  made  of  weight — that  certain  taps  will  weigh  more  to  the  dozen  than  those 
of  another  cut  by  a  die  of  the  same  size,  and  the  dozen  standing  the  same  height.  This  may 
be  true,  but  it  is  of  no  account  in  fixing  values,  if  we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that 
leather  tanned  by  the  sweating  process  will  weigh  10  per  cent  more  to  the  side  than  that 
tanned  by  the  lining  process.  Thus,  it  is  not  weight,  but  substance  or  thickness,  that  is  the 
real  standard  of  value — i.  e.,  that  in  taps  of  the  same  quality,  fine  or  coarse,  it  is  not  weight 
that  tells,  but  thickness.  The  same  parties  make  a  small  bottom-stock  sorting-machine, 
worked  by  hand,  which  automatically  and  mechanically  determines  the  exact  thickness  of 
bottom  stock  at  th£  sorting-table.  It  is  claimed  to  save  a  good  part  of  what  is  usually  wasted 
under  the  splitter. 

The  Hemingway  Smooth-Rolling,  Glassing,  Pebbling,  and  Staking  Machine  wrill  glass,  buff, 
wax,  calf,  or  sheep,  without  nipping  or  plaiting.  There  are  four  glasses  or  slickers,  and  when 
one  leaves  the  bed  there  is  one  going  on.  For  cutting  over  splits  or  staking  morocco  there  is 
a  foot-treadle,  so  that  the  operator  can  gauge  the  pressure  to  any  thickness.  There  is  an 
emery  attachment  to  keep  the  slickers  sharpened.  The  machine  can  be  used  for  pebbling 
with  one  or  two  rolls.  There  is  no  back-stroke  to  catch  the  shanks.  By  changing  the  tools, 
taking  about  20  min.,  it  can  be  made  to  glass,  pebble,  cut  over  splits,  run  off  grease,  stake  or  brush. 

The  Duplex  Hide  and  Side  Worker  is  made  for  whole  hides,  sides,  very  heavy  kip,  and 
calf-skins,  in  widths  of  9  ft.  and  7  ft.  6  in. ;  it  is  built  proportionately  strong,  to  meet  the  extra 


478 


LEATHER-WORKING   MACHINERY. 


strain  in  working  hides  and  side-leather.  The  machine  will  flesh  and  unhair  at  one  and  the 
same  time,  or  either  separately,  doing  the  work  without  packing  or  damaging  the  hide  or 
skin  in  any  way.  The  cylinder  can  be  arranged  to  cut  the  flesh  in  a  clean  manner,  or  to 
work  it  as  in  a  breaker,  thereby  leaving  the  hide  or  side  either  soft  and  pliable,  if  for  upper 
leather,  or  hard  and  firm  if  needed  for  belting,  sole,  or  harness  leather.  This  machine,  it  is 
said,  will  flesh  and  unhair  with  one  operator  up  to  450  sides  in  one  day  of  10  hours. 


FIG.  4.— Leather-measuring  machine. 

The  Sawyer  Leather- Measuring  Machine,  shown  in  Fig.  4,  mechanically  measures  leather 
or  other  superficial  surfaces  with  great  accuracy,  and  in  any  condition  whatever,  whether 
wrinkled  or  smooth.  Its  leading  principle  is  a  reduction  by  mechanical  means  of  linear  to 
square  measure.  The  machine  is  a  rotary  one  and  requires  very  little  power,  and  may  be 

operated  either  at  a  fast  or  slow  rate  of  speed.  The 
article  to  be  measured  is  laid  on  the  inclined  table, 
and  its  end  fed  in  between  a  roller  and  a  series  of 
wheels,  and,  if  it  be  wrinkled,  is  perfectly  smoothed 
out  as  it  passes  beneath,  so  that  the  wheels  may 
measure  the  exact  surface  that  passes  beneath  them, 
transmitting  their  measuring  movements  to  the  dial, 
which,  as  the  article  continues  to  pass  through  the 
wheels,  will  gradually  indicate  its  measurement. 
The  machine  is  comparatively  simple,  and  is  con- 
structed entirely  of  metal  with  interchangeable 
parts,  and  employs  no  springs — the  movements  be- 
ing positive,  and  the  motion  of  the  measuring- wheels 
transmitted  directly  to  the  indicator. 

The  Brennahan  Soh-Shaper  (see  Fig.  5)  shapes 
the  sole,  after  it  is  attached  to  the  upper,  to  the  de- 
sired lines  and  curves  the  trade'may  require.  The 
machine  is  a  twin  machine,  one  side  being  usually 
used  for  rights  and  the  other  for  lefts.  The  opera- 
tion is  effected  by  placing  the  boot  or  shoe  upon  one 
of  the  lasts  attached  to  the  machine.  The  operator 
then  places  his  foot  upon  the  treadle,  and  the  last 
and  shoe  are  carried  automatically  beneath  a  mold, 
the  machine  stopping  when  the  shoe  is  under  a  heavy 
pressure  and  the  toggles  have  reached  their  highest 
FIG.  5.— Sole-shaper.  point.  In  the  mean  time  the  other  last  and  shoe 


Btt 
UIU  VARSITY 


LETTER-MARKING    MACHINE. 


LETTER-MARKING   MACHINE.  479 

which  were  under  pressure  will  have  come  out  from  beneath  its  mold  and  stopped  in  front 
of  the  operator  ;  this  motion  is  continuous  to  the  inward  movement  of  the  other  last  and  shoe, 
and  both  movements  are  effected  by  the  simple  depression  of  the  treadle.  The  operator  then 
removes  the  shoe  that  has  come  from  beneath  the  mold,  and  replaces  it  by  another,  again 
pressing  the  treadle  to  repeat  the  movements,  and  so  on,  thus  giving  all  the  shoes  that  are 
operated  on  uniform  shape  and  style. 

LETTER-MARKING  MACHINE.  On  the  opposite  page  is  illustrated  an  automatic 
letter-marking  machine  recently  adopted  by  the  Post-Office  Department  of  the  United  States 
for  use  in  the  post-offices.  The  machine,  which  is  manufactured  by  the  International  Postal 
Supply  Co.,  of  New  York,  under  the  patents  of  G.  W.  Hey,  Emil  Laass,  M.  J.  Dolphin,  and 
August  Bertram,  combines  the  merits  of  speed,  effective  cancellation,  uniform  and  legible 
post-marking,  and  an  accurate  registry  of  the  number  of  letters  and  postal-cards  operated 
upon.  Recent  tests  in  the  New  York  Post-Office  show  that  upward  of  40,000  pieces  of  mail 
matter  have  been  successfully  operated  upon  within  one  hour.  It  is  therefore  probably  the 
most  rapid  printing  machine  known.  All  of  the  operations  of  the  machine,  after  the  letters 
are  inserted  in  the  receiving-hopper,  are  entirely  automatic.  The  letters  are  placed  in  a 
receiving-hopper,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  and  are  fed  consecutively  to  the  mechanism  for 
applying  the  post-mark  and  cancellation,  and  recording  device  for  indicating  the  number  of 
letters  operated  upon,  and  are  compactly  packed  in  a  stacking  or  delivery  tray,  after  the 
marking  and  counting  operations  are  effected. 

The  mechanism  for  performing  the  different  operations  of  feeding,  separating,  marking, 
recording  the  number  of  letters  operated  upon,  and  the  final  operation  of  stacking  the  letters, 
may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  namely,  feeding  and  separating  mechanism,  the  marking 
and  counting  mechanism,  and  the  stacking  mechanism.  The  feeding  mechanism  consists  of 
a  feed  receptacle  provided  with  a  moving  bottom,  composed  of  an  endless  belt,  which  serves 
to  carry  the  letters  to  a  series  of  feeding  and  separating  rolls  arranged  opposite  to  each  other. 
The  separating  rolls  rotate  in  the  same  direction  relative  to  each  other,  so  that  their  contiguous 
peripheries  rotate  in  contrary  directions ;  one  roller  of  each  series  being  driven  with  greater 
speed  and  rotating  in  the  direction  of  the  feed,  to  carry  the  letters  forward,  while  the  oppositely 
arranged  roller  of  the  series  rotates  with  less  force  and  feeds  backward  the  letter  next  to  its 
face,  if  more  than  one  at  a  time  emerge  from  the  letter  receptacle.  The  reason  why  the 
letters  are  consecutively  presented  by  this  feed  is.  that  the  roller  which  rotates  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  travel  of  the  letters  is  driven  with  greater  speed  and  force  than  the  conjointly 
acting  roller  arranged  opposite  to  it.  Hence  the  letter  next  to  the  roller,  rotating  in  the 
direction  of  the  travel,  is  carried  forward  with  greater  force  than  the  letter  lying  next  to  it, 
which,  if  the  two  pass  out  of  the  feed  receptacle  together,  encounters  the  reversely  acting 
roller,  and  is  therefore  held  back  momentarily  until  the  letter  next  to  the  feed-roller  is  carried 
past  the  reversely  acting  roller.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  but  one  letter  at  a  time  passes  the 
separating  rollers. 

The  marking  mechanism  consists  of  a  curvilinear  stamp  secured  to  a  stamp-roll  loosely 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft  so  as  to  be  normally  at  rest ;  this  shaft  carries  a  constantly 
rotating  drum  arranged  to  be  engaged  with  the  stationary  stamp-roll  by  the  action  of  a 
friction-clutch  secured  on  top  of  the  stamp-roll,  and  actuated  by  springs  to  expand  when  the 
clutch-jaws  are  released,  and  engage  with  the  inner  face  of  the  constantly  rotating  drum 
when  the  clutch  is  operated  by  the  contact  of  the  letters  with  a  trigger  or  pivoted  lever,  which 
lies  in  the  letter-path,  as  the  letters  are  presented  to  the  marker  by  the  action  of  the  feed  and 
separating  mechanism. 

The  advancing  end  of  the  letter  comes  in  contact  with  the  tripping  device  in  the  letter- 
path,  and  the  movement  of  the  tripper  releases  the  spring  friction-clutch  mounted  on  top  of 
the  stamp-roll,  and  the  expansion  of  the  clutch-jaws  causes  them  to  impinge  the  inner  face  of 
the  rotating  drum,  thus  connecting  the  stamp-roll  with  it.  which  is  thereby  caused  to  register 
on  the  moving  letter. 

The  marking  die  or  stamp  is  so  placed  on  the  stamp-roll  as  to  commence  its  registry 
with  the  advent  of  the  end  of  the  advancing  letter  to  the  printing  point,  and  an  impression- 
roll,  yieldingly  journaled  so  as  to  permit  letters  of  different  thicknesses  to  be  operated  upon, 
serves  as  an  impression-bed  for  the  letter  while  the  stamp-roll  is  registering  therewith. 

After  the  die  has  registered,  it  is  stopped  by  the  encounter  of  a  pawl  pivoted  to  the  trip,  with  a 
pin  on  the  clutch,  which  encounter  releases  the  die  from  engagement  with  the  revolving  drum  : 
at  the  same  time  an  eccentric  on  the  lower  face  of  the  stamp-roll  is  made  to  contact  with  a  pro- 
jecting stop,  to  prevent  the  stamp-roll  from  recoiling  after  the  die  has  registered.  The  trip- 
per, lying  in  the  letter-path,  is  provided  with  springs  which  reset  it  immediately  after  the  ad- 
vancing end  of  the  letter  has  passed  the  tripper,  thus  leaving  the  tripper  in  position  for  an- 
other operation  on  a  succeeding  letter,  and  establishing  the  proper  conditions  for  the  release 
of  the  clutch  from  its  engagement  with  the  continuously  rotating  drum  when  the  stamp-roll 
is  stopped  in  proper  position  to  register  on  the  succeeding  letter. 

The  marking-die  is  supplied  with  ink,  through  the  medium  of  a  series  of  felt  distributing 
rollers,  the  ink  being  provided  from  a  rotating  reservoir  constructed  with  suitable  vent-valves 
to  regulate  the  flow  of  ink  from  the  reservoir  on  to  the  felt  distributors.  Movable  types  are 
provided  to  change  the  date  and  hour  of  the  post-marking  die,  and  these  consist  of  steel  types 
set  in  a  detachable  radial-shaped  type-box,  which  fits  closely  into  an  opening  provided  in  the 
stamp-roil  \vithin  the  post-marking  die,  and  the  type-box  is  securely  held  in  place  by  a  spring 
which  permits  its  release  when  it  is  desired  to  remove  tha  same  to  change  the  date  and  hour. 

The  counting  mechanism  consists  of  a  dial  and  indicator,  and  a  series  of  synchronous 


480 


LOCKS. 


toothed  disks  operated  by  a  pinion-wheel,  that,  in  turn,  is  actuated  by  the  cam  on  the  stamp-roll 
disk,  which,  as  it  rotates,  comes  in  contact  with  a  crank-arm  connected  to  the  shaft  operating  the 
pinion-gear  of  the  counter.  As  the  stamp-roll  rotates,  the  eccentric  collides  with  the  crank- 
arm  lying  in  the  path  of  its  movement,  and  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  pinion  so  as  to 
register  one  revolution  of  the  stamp-roll  on  the  indicating  dial,  and  consequently  mark  the 
passage  of  one  letter. 

The  stacking  mechanism  consists  of  a  series  of  push-arms  radiating  from  a  central  hub 
carried  on  a  rotating  shaft  arranged  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  feed  and  printing-roller 
shafts,  so  as  to  feed  the  letters  into  a  receiving-tray  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  feed  to  the 
marking-stamp.  The  letters  enter  the  delivery-tray  through  a  pivoted  chute  arranged  in 
close  proximity  to  the  marking  and  pressure  rolls,  and  are  received  between  a  series  of  rubber- 
faced  rollers  rotating  within  the  chute,  and  are  thereby  fed  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
delivery-tray  against  a  sliding  stop,  and  are  propelled  forward  by  the  rotating  push-arms 
before  described.  The  delivery-tray  is  inclined  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  packing  of 
the  letters  as  they  are  propelled  forward  by  the  push-arms.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
marking-stamp  rotates  intermittently,  invariably  starting  from  a  position  at  rest,  when  the 
tripper  lying  in  the  letter-path  is  moved  by  the  advancing  letter,  and  that  the  stamp-roll 
immediately  stops  after  its  registry  with  the  letter,  so  that,  no  matter  what  the  length  of  a 
letter  may  be,  but  one  impression  of  the  stamp  is  made  on  the  letter  in  its  passage  between 
the  marking  and  impression  rolls ;  and,  since  the  stamp-roll  is  only  brought  into  operation  to 
register  with  a  letter  after  the  letter  has  encountered  the  tripper,  there  is  no  ink  deposited 
upon  the  impression-roll,  and  "offsets  "  on  the  reverse  face  of  the  letter  are  avoided,  so  that 
the  registration  of  the  stamp-roll  is  absolutely  controlled  on  each  and  every  letter  automati- 
cally by  the  encounter  of  the  letter  with  the  stamp-tripper  lying  in  the  letter-path. 

The  principle  or  mode  of  operation  upon  which  the  marking  mechanism  depends  is,  that 
the  letter  itself  controls  its  own  marking  by  bringing  the  marker  into  operation  to  register 
thereon  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  right  place,  and  this  principle  is  carried  out  in  the 
mechanism  by  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  as  described,  whereby  the  intermittent  action  of 
the  marker  permits  the  letter  to  receive  the  impression  while  in  motion.  All  the  devices 
are  made  adjustable,  so  that  letters  of  indiscriminate  sizes  are  readily  operated  upon,  and, 
since  there  is  no  stoppage  of  the  letter  to  make  the  impression,  the  speed  or  rapidity  with 
which  the  machine  performs  its  work  is  governed  solely  by  the  speed  at  which  it  is  driven.  In 
the  post-offices  a  small  electric  motor  from  i  to  £  horse-power  affords  ample  power  to  drive 
the  machine. 

Link- Belts:  see  Belts. 
Loader,  Hay  :  see  Hay-Loader. 
Lock-Cutter :  see  Barrel-Making  Machines. 
Locked  Coil  Rope :  see  Rope-Making  Machines. 

LOCKS.  DOOR-LOCKS. —  Yale  Locks. — A  late  improvement  in  Yale  locks  is  the  longitudi- 
nal corrugation  of  the  key  and  corresponding  alteration  of  the  escutcheon,  the  plug  in  which 
is  provided  with  a  key-way  having  corresponding 
corrugations  throughout  its  entire  length,  so  that 
the  key  and  key-way  engage  with  each  other  at  all 
points.  A  section  of  the  escutcheon  and  corru- 
gated key  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  construction 
prevents  tilting  of  the  key,  and  renders  access  to 
the  tumblers  more  diffi- 
cult. 

The  Yale  front-door 
lock,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  is 
so  made  that  during  the 
day  the  latch-bolt  may 
be  operated  from  with- 
out by  a  Yale  corrugated 
key.  At  night  the  dead- 
bolt  may  be  locked  from 

within  by  another  Yale  key  of  different  bitting,  and  under  the  latter 
circumstances  the  Yale  key  first  mentioned  will  act,  first,  to  unlock 
the  dead  bolt  by  making  a  full  revolution,  and  then  by  a  further 
movement  to  retract  the  latch.  This  arrangement  gives  the  house- 
holder a  single  Yale  key  to  operate  both  latch  and  dead  bolts  at  any 
time,' rendering  it  impossible  for  him  to  be  locked  out  at  night,  and 
at  the  same  time  permits  the  house  to  be  locked  from  within  by  a  key 
which  can  not  be  used  by  any  one  to  effect  an  entrance.  The  ar- 
rangement of  parts  will  be  understood  by  referring  to  Fig.  2.  The 
dead-bolt  A  is  made  with  a  double  tail  and  two  dogging-levers  B  B 
connected  together  by  a  link.  When  either  of  the  escutcheon-plugs 
is  rotated,  the  cam  C  on  the  end  of  the  plug  will  depress  its  dog- 
ging-lever  and  enter  the  corresponding  talon,  thus  moving  the  bolt 
without  regard  to  the  position  of  the  other  dogging-lever.  The 
latch-bolt  G  is  operated  by  the  bell-crank  F,  which  is  mounted  on 
the  bolt,  so  that  when  the  dead-bolt  is  shot* the  tail  of  the  bell-crank  is  out  of  the  way  of  the 
cam  on  the  escutcheon  E  (this  being  the  escutcheon  for  tho  outside  of  the  door),  and  hence 


FIG.  1.— Yale  kej' 


FIG.  2.— Door-lock. 


LOCKS. 


481 


FIG.  3.— Sargent  lock. 


the  latch  can  be  operated  only  by  the  key  after  the  bolt  has  been  retracted.  The  latch-bolt 
may  be  operated  by  the  knobs  at  H,  and  these  being  provided  with  split-hub  and  swivel-spin- 
dle, the  outside  knob  may  be  stopped  by  the  stop- 
lever  L.  The  escutcheon  0  is  used  only  for  locking 
the  dead-bolt  from  the  inside,  and  the  escutcheon  E 
makes  a  whole  revolution  to  unlock  the  dead-bolt, 
and  a  further  partial  revolution  to  retract  the  latch  ; 
or,  if  the  dead-bolt  is  not  shot,  the  latter  motion 
alone  is  made. 

The  Sargent  "  Easy  Spring  "  Lock  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  3,  which  shows  the  interior  mechanism.  The 
construction  is  such  that  the  bolt  can  be  reversed  so 
as  to  make  the  lock  either  "  right  "  or  "  left  hand  " 
before  it  is  applied  to  the  door.  The  spring  at- 
tachment causes  the  door  to  latch  gently  when 
closed.  This  consists  simply  of  a  stiff  spiral  spring 
so  arranged  as  to  operate  under  a  long  leverage  on 
the  latch-bolt,  and  at  a  direct  pull  on  the  knob. 

A  Keyless  Latch- Lock— Pig.  4  shows  a  cross- 
section  of  a  door  exposing  a  keyless  spring  latch- 
lock,  made  by  the  Miller  Lock  Co>,  of  Philadelphia,  in 
place.  The  door  may  be  unlatched  from  the  inside 
by  turning  the  knob  shown  in  above  cut,  and  the 
latch  may  be  "  thrown  off  "  by  the  stayback.  Light 
is  not  required  in  opening  the  latch  from  inside  the 
door.  From  outside  the  door  it  is  unlocked  by  turn- 
ing the  dial,  as  in  opening  an  ordinary  safe,  but  in 
less  time,  being  necessary  to  turn  once  only  to  each 
of  the  three  members  of  the  combination. 

MASTER-KEY  LOCKS.— The  Yale  Duplex  Lock.— 
The  use  of  a  master-key,  by  which  a  number  of  locks 
can  be  opened  by  one  key  in  the  hands  of  a  janitor 

or  other  person  in  charge,  while  none  of  the  individual  or  change  keys  will  interchange,  is  a 
feature  frequently  demanded  for  hotels  and  similar  places.     The  Yale  duplex  system  is  based 

upon  the  principle  of  using  two  independ- 
ent and  complete  Yale  escutcheons  with 
corrugated  keys  in  each  lock,  either  es- 
cutcheon operating  one  and  the  same  bolt. 
By  making  a  series  of  these  locks,  in  which 
all  the  lower  escutcheons  are  set  up  to  the 
same  combination,  it  is  evident  that  a  key 
bitted  to  operate  the  lower  escutcheon  will 
be  a  master-key  for  the  whole  series,  while, 
since  the  upper  escutcheons  are  all  set  to 
different  combinations,  a  key  for  any  one 
of  them  will  not  operate  any  other  c'f  the 
series.  The  great  number  of  permuta- 
tions of  which  the  Yale  lock  is  capable 
permits  an  indefinite  extension  of  the  sys- 
tem, so  that  upward  of  50,000  locks  can 
be  master-keyed  in  one  series,  by  this  sys- 
tem, to  one  master-key,  while  the  security 
of  the  lock 
against  picking 
or  interchange 
of  keys  is  not 
at  all  impaired. 

The  external  appearance  of  a  Yale  duplex  master-key  mortise-latch 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

The  Corlin  Master-Key  Lock,  represented  in  Figs.  6  and  7,  may 
be  operated  by  either  of  two  keys  different  in  outline.  The  opera- 
tion of  the  cylinders  in  connection  with  the  drivers  and  pins  will  be 
rendered  apparent  from  the  illustrations.  The  pin-chambers  in  the 
cylinders  being  in  line,  the  springs,  operating  through  the  drivers, 
maintain  a  downward  pressure  on  the  pins,  in  order  that  when  the 
key  is  inserted  through  the  slot  the  lower  ends  of  the  pins  will 
enter  the  clefts  of  the  key,  and  the  upper  ends  of  the  pins  and 
lower  ends  of  the  drivers  will  have  a  regular  line  of  union  at  the 
meeting  edges  of  the  cylinders,  thereby  permitting  of  their  rota- 
tion by  means  of  the  key.  Thus  the  walls  of  the  inner  end  of  the 
slot  will  engage  the  sides  of  the  other  ward,  and  cause  the  rod  to 
rotate,  thereby  bringing  the  arm  of  the  revoluble  plate  upward  into  contact  with  the  tumbler 
and  bolt,  and  actuating  said  bolt  either  to  lock  or  unlock  the  door.  The  pins,  upon  the  with- 

31 


FIG.  4. — Keyless  latch-lock. 


FIG.  5.— Yale  duplex  lock. 


482 


LOCKS. 


drawal  of  the  key,  will  assume  their  normal  positions  with  respect  to  each  other.    The  minor 
key  will  In-  supplied  to  the  tenants  of  an  apartment-building,  for  example,  and,  while  it  will 


SSXL^JiL^JL:  1 

Fias.  6,  7.— Corbin  master-key  lock. 


Fio.  8.— Post-office  lock. 


unlock  the  door  prepared  for  it,  it  will  be  ineffective  on  any  of  the  other  doors  of  the  build- 
ing, the  said  other  doors  having  locks  in  which  the  pins  will  vary  in  length,  but  all  of  which 
locks  may  lie  opened  by  a  major  key. 

The  (Jorbin  Pout-Office  Lock-Box  was  adopted  by  the  United  States  Government  in  1888, 
upon  recommendation  of  a  special  committee  of  experts,  one  each  from  the  Treasury  hepart- 
ment,  Post-Office  Department,  and  Patent-Office.  A  portion  of  their  report  is  as"  follows: 
"The  locking  mechanism  of  the  box  possesses  a  capability  of  automatic  adjustment  on  the 

part  of  the  postmaster  whereby,  in  the 
event  of  the  loss  or  duplication  o'f  the  key 
furnished  the  box-holder,  an  Instantane 
ous  change  of  said  locking  mechanism 
may  be  effected  by  the  postmaster  with- 
out the  necessity  of  the  removal  of  the 
lock-ease,  ami  a  Key  i.f  different  form  fur- 
nished tin-  holder.  The  box  itself  has  a 
metallic  front,  but  instead  of  being  made 
of  wood  is  constructed  of  sheet-steel  of 
smooth  surface,  plated  and  lacquered. 
l!v  I  lie  use  of  t  his  box  more  space  is  gained 
for  mail-mallei-.  The  lurk  (Fig.  ,sj  ad- 
justs itself  to  whatever  key  may  be  in- 
serted. Any  change  of  key  will  lock  it, 
but  only  the  key  by  which 'it  was  locked 
will  unlock  it.  Should  a  postmaster  wish 
to  give  a  box-renter  a  different  change 
of  key,  the  lock  may  be  unlocked  by  I  In- 
key  then  in  use,  and  the  bolt  pressed  to 
the  end  of  the  lock.  This  leaves  the  key 
ill  a  directly  opposite  position  from  that, 
when  it,  is  locked.  By  removing  the  old 
key  and  inserting  a  new  one,  the  bolt, 
may  be  thrown.  When  the  keys  are  lost 

and  the  box  is  locked,  in  order  to  open  the  box  a  master-key  is  inserted  inside  the'  box  from 
the  rear,  and  the  bolt  is  thrown  from  position,  when  the  new  key  may  be  inserted  as  de- 
scribed. This  arrangement  insures  to  an  office  protection  against  duplicate  keys." 

Time  and  Bank  Locks. — Recent,  improvements  in  Yale  time- 
locks  include  an  entire  rearrangement  of  parts  and  introduction 
of  the  triple  movement,  or,  by  duplication  of  parts,  the  sextuple 
movement,  thus  avoiding  the  risk  of  "locking  out."  One  form 
of  triple  movement  is  shown  in  Fig.  9,  and  it  is  arranged  so  as  to 
be  used  in  connection  with  the  Yale  automatic  bolt-operating  de- 
vice, or  a  similar  time-lock  is  adapted  to  be  used  for  dogging  or 
releasing  the  bolt-work  of  a  combination-lock,  These  t  i'mc-locks 
contain  high-class  watch-movements,  and  are  now  in  extensive 
use.  The  Yale  automatic  bolt-operat  ing  device  throws  the  boll- 
work  automatically  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  time-locks,  with- 
out requiring  any'  external  communication.  This  has  been  de-  ., 
vised  in  order  to  avoid  the  use  of  spindles,  or  any  working  parts 

extending  through  the  door,  it  having  been  found  that  the  introduction  of  liquid  explosives 
through  the  joint  around  the  spindle  const  it  tiled  a  vital  point  of  attack.  On  the  automatic 
bolt-operating  device  there  is  no  external  communication  whatever,  the  boll-work  being 
thrown  by  springs  upon  the  closing  of  the  safe  or  vault  door,  and  remaining  locked  until  a 
second  set  of  springs  is  released  at  any  predetermined  time  by  means  of  a  time-lock  such  as 
shown  above,  thus  unlocking  the  door.  (See  SAFES.) 


Fia.  9.— Yal«  time  lock. 


LOCOMOTIVES.  483 


r,nlhfks. — A  solid  bronze  spring  padlock  is  manufactured  by  the  Union  Lock  Co.,  in 
which  the  shackle  does  not  draw  out  like  a  Scandinavian  lock,  but  is  hinged  and  fast  un  one 
end.  while  the  opposite  or  free  end  is  sivurvly  locked  by  a  double  bolt,  making  it  impossible  to 
be  sprung  open,  or  opened  with  anything  but  a  key  expressly  made  for  each  lock. 

A  padlock  made  oy  the  Ames  Sword  Co.,  of  Chit-once.  Mass..  and  adopted  bv  the  Tinted 
States  Treasury  for  bonded  cars  and  warehouses,  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  It  is  claimed  to  be 
non-pickable,  and  is  made  wholly  of  cast  bronze.  The  key  is  double-bitted,  turning  indefi- 
nitely both  ways. 

toeomotive  Condensation:  see  Engines,  Steam  Stationary  Reciprocating. 

Locomotive  Crane:  see  Cranes. 

LOCOMOTIVES.  There  are  now  used  for  passenger  and  freight  truffle  in  the  United 
States  four  principal  types  of  locomotives  :  t,  t  he  passenger  or  light-freight  locomotive,  which 
is  designated  the  "American"  type,  having  four  coupled  drivers  and  a  four-wheel  truck  or 
in  front  (see  Vol.  I,  p.  3Q4eiseq.);  2,  engines  for  heavy  passenger  or  fast-freight  service, 
having  six-coupled  wheels  with  a  leading  four-wheeled  truck,  known  as  the  "'fen-wheel" 
type;  :?.  those  with  six-coupled  wheels  and  a  pony-truck  or  single  radiating  pair  of 
wheels  in  front,  called  the  "Mogul"  type;  4,  heavy  freight-engines.  "Consolidation"  type, 
having  eight-coupled  wheels  and  a  pony-truck  in  front.  Besides  these,  a  great  variety  of 
types  has  been  worked  out  to  meet  special  conditions  of  service;  as  four-wheel  and  six-wheel 
suit  eh  ing-engines,  without  trucks,  ami  with  tank  and  fuel  carried  on  the  engine  or  on  a  sepa- 
rate tender.  For  elevated  rail  mad  MT\  ice,  light  locomotives  of  the  Forney  type  aroused, 
with  four-coupled  wheels  under  the  engine,  and  a  four-wheel  rear  tnu-k  carrying  the  water- 
tank  and  fuel.  For  local  or  suburban  passenger-trains,  four-coupled  engines  are  emplovod, 
having  a  two-wheel  truck  front  and  rear,  or  a  two-wheel  truck  front  and  a  four-wheel  truck  at 
the  rear.  Decapod  or  ten-coupled  engines  have  been  constructed  to  some  extent  forhea\\ 
freight  service  on  steep  gradients.  The  accompanying  table  give*  dimensions,  weights,  ami 
weights  of  trains,  for  some  of  the  types  of  American  locomotives  constructed  by  the  Baldwin 
Locomotive  Works. 

Fach  of  the  types  named  in  the  table  is  construct ed  of  several  sixes.  Of  the  principal 
types  two  examples  are  given :( 1),  the  average  used  mi  the  greater  mileage  of  lightly  built 
roads,  and  (9)  the  heaviest  which  has  come  into  use  on  railways  of  maximum  traffic.  The 
form  of  boiler  in  general  use  for  bituminous  coal-burning  engines  of  the  American'"  Ten- 
wheel"  and  "Mogul"  types,  is  one  with  a  deep  ftre-box  placed  between  the  rear  driving- 
axle  and  the  one  preceding  it.  For  burning  anthracite  a  larger  tin-box  i-  re.|iiiivd,  which  is 
made  shallower,  and  extended  over  the  rear  driving-axle.  The  larger  grade  area  necessary  in 
the  larger  bituminous  engines,  now  coming  into  general  u-e.  ha*  led  to  the  adoption  of  t  he 
same  arrangement.  Locomotives  of  the  "American"  type,  and  frequently  the  ".Mogul" 
and  "  Ten-wheel"  types,  are  usually  constructed  with  boilers  of  the  wagon-tup  pattern  that 
is,  with  the  outer  shell  elevated  and"  enlarged  over  the  frames  to  give  increased  steam-space, 
and  to  increase  the  weight  on  the  driving-wheels.  The  crown-sheet*  of  the  furnace-  are  sup- 
ported either  bv  crown-bars  placed  transversely  and  supported  at  their  ends  on  the  side 
sheets, or  by  radial  stay-bolts  tapped  through  the  crown-sheet  and  roof  of  the  1  toiler  ami  riveted 
over.  The  latter  construction  is  coming  largely  into  use  in  connection  with  the  wagon-top 
form,  the  dome  being  located  on  the  wagon-tup  port  ion,  which  is  extended  in  fmnt  of  the  fur- 
nace to  receive  it.  Crown-bars  placed  longitudinally  are  unusual. 

In  the  United  States  all  locomotives  for  road  service,  as  distinguished  from  switching  and 
pushing  engines,  have  leading  trucks.  Not  only  do  American  engineers  depend  upon  the 
truck  to  guide  the  engine  safely,  at  fast  speed,  around  curves  of  short  radius,  hut  the  ability 
of  the  locomotives  to  traverse  "such  curves  has  had  its  natural  etTed  upon  the  construct  ion 
of  the  roadway.  Curves  are  employed  which  would  be  impracticable  but  for  the  flexibility 
of  the  locomotives,  and  the  cost  of  construction  is  correspondingly  reduced.  The  trucks  are 
either  two-wheeled  or  four-wheeled.  The  two-wheeled  trucks  invariably  have  a  swinging 
bolster  and  radius-bar.  Radial  axle-boxes  are  rarely  used.  Four-wheeled  truck-  are  alwa\* 
center-bearing  and  swiveling,  and  are  either  with  or  without  a  swinging  l>olster  to  give  lateral 
motion.  To  facilitate  traversing  curve*,  it  i*  u*ual  to  omit  the  Manges  from  either  the  inter- 
mediate or  leading  coupled  wheels,  hi  the  "Mogul"  and  "Consolidation"  types  the  front 
and  back  pairs  of  coupled  wheels  have  Manges,  while  the  intermediate  wheels  are  without 
Manges.  In  the  "'fen-wheel"  type  the  leading  ami  trailing  coupled  wheels  can  be  Manged. 
the  intermediate1  wheels  plain,  and  the  t  ruck  or  bogie  made  wit  h  a  s\\  inging  bolster  ;  or  the 
middle  and  back  pairs  Hanged,  the  front  pair  plain,  and  the  truck  without  swing  motion. 
rfhe  first  method  is  considered  bet ter  for  mads  having  sharp  curvatures,  but  the  second  is 
preferred  by  many,  and  answers  vat  jsfactorily  on  straight  roads  or  those  having  on!;. 
curvature. 

Referring  to  the  table.  No*.  1.  :J,  and  :>  are  the  classes  most  widely  u-ed  for   pa— eii-'-r  and 
freight  service  on    liirht    lines,  laid  with   rails  weighing  from  .~>(l  to  <!(>  Ibx  per  vd.      N'.-. 
press  passenger  engine,  is  the  type  at  present    in  QB6  OD  the  fastest    trains  hetweeti  New   Y..rk 
and  Washington,  and  represents  the  most  approved  practice  in  high-speed  locomotives.      No. 
4.  heavy  "Ten-wheel"  locomot  ive*.  are  used  for  passenger  service  on  the  long  severe  grades 
of  the    Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  for  heavy  fast-freight   service   on   the   New  York.  Lake 
Krie  and  Western  Railroad,  and   for  both   passenger  and  freight  service  on  ot  her  lines.     The 
full-page  illustration  shows  a  compound  engine  OI   this  class  on  the  New  York,  Lake  Frie  and 
Western    Railroad.      No.   (i,    "Consolidation"    type,   has    Keen  generally   adopted  for  li 
freight  service,  and  especially  for   tin-   haulage  (if  coal,  iron-ore,  and  other   heavy   materials. 


484 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


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Having  four  pairs  of  driving-wheels 
not  only  is  the  greater  part  of  the  to- 
tal weight  utilized  for  adhesion,  but 
the  weight  is  so  distributed  as  to 
bring  a  less  load  per  axle  than  in 
either  the  "  Mogul"  or  "American" 
types.  With  driving-wheels  not  ex- 
ceeding 50  in.  diameter,  the  length 
of  driving-wheel  base  is  such  as"  to 
permit  passing  any  ordinary  curves, 
say  up  to  15°,  or  882  ft.  radius,  with 
ease.  No.  7,  heavy  Consolidation 
type,  is  the  development  of  the  ordi- 
nary Consolidation  engine  to  meet 
the  necessity  for  a  powerful  locomo- 
tive for  freight  and  pushing  service 
on  mountain  lines,  inclines,  etc.  It 
is  the  resultant  of  the  adoption  of 
the  same  loads  per  axle  for  Consoli- 
dation engines  as  have  been  found 
practicable  with  American,  Mogul, 
and  Ten-wheel  engines,  the  diameter 
and  spread  of  driving-wheels  remain- 
ing unchanged.  In  many  locations, 
where  pushing-engines  are  employed, 
it  is  practicable  to  lay  heavier  rails, 
and,  if  necessary,  to  specially  strength- 
en the  bridges  for  such  distance  as 
may  be  required.  If,  however,  the 
distributed  weight  of  such  an  engine 
is  greater  than  the  rails  or  bridges 
can  safely  carry,  the  same  aggregate 
weight  can  be  divided  among  five 
pairs  of  driving-wheels,  making  an 
engine  of  the  Decapod  type,  the  di- 
mensions of  which  are  given  by  No. 
8.  Although  a  wheel-base  of  17  ft. 
is  necessary  for  the  five  pairs  of  driv- 
ing-wheels, the  passage  of  curves  is 
facilitated  by  allowing  extra  play  be- 
tween the  track  and  the  flanges  of 
the  rear  pair  of  coupled  wheels.  The 
rigid  wheel-base  is  thus  virtually  re- 
duced to  12  ft,  8  in.,  and  curves  of  330 
ft.  radius  may  be  safely  traversed.  No. 
9  is  a  light  switching  locomotive.  It 
is  of  the  simplest  type  possible,  the 
fuel  and  water  being  carried  on  the 
machine  itself,  and  all  the  weight, 
being  on  the  driving-wheels,  is  util- 
ized for  adhesion.  It  is  therefore  ex- 
tremely powerful  for  its  aggregate 
weight.  Its  short  wheel-base  permits 
it  to  enter  with  ease  the  sharpest 
curves  in  switches  and  side-tracks. 
Such  engines  are  built  of  all  sizes, 
from  7  X  12  cylinders  and  7  tons 
weight  to  17X24  cylinders  and  35 
tons  weight,  and  are' extensively  em- 
ployed for  handling  cars  at  railway 
termini,  on  docks,  and  around  fur- 
naces, mills,  mines,  and  other  indus- 
trial establishments.  For  service 
where  greater  tank  and  fuel  space  is 
necessary  than  can  be  provided  on 
the  engine  itself,  a  separate  tender 
carried  on  four  or  eight  wheels  can 
be  used  instead  of  the  saddle-tank. 
Engines  for  similar  service  are  con- 
structed with  three  pairs  of  driving- 
wheels,  when  the  weight  of  the  en- 
gine or  of  the  rails  renders  it  inexpe- 
dient to  concentrate  it  on  two  pairs. 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


485 


Such  engines  are  referred  to  by  Nos.  10  and  11  in  the  table.  The  heavy  switching-engines 
used  by  the  principal  railway  lines  are  usually  of  this  pattern,  with  eight-wheel  tender  and 
wedge-shape  or  sloping-top  tank.  This  peculiar  form  of  tank  is  adopted  for  two  reasons, 
viz.,  to  enable  the  engine-men  to  have  a  better  view  of  the  track  and  cars  when  backing  and 
coupling,  and  to  enable  the  trainmen  more  conveniently  to  climb  over  the  tender.  Switch- 
ing-engines are  now  generally  .made  of  sufficient  power  to  handle  as  great  a  weight  of  train 
as  the  freight  locomotives  can  bring  in.  They  must  therefore  have  as  much  weight  on  the 
driving-wheels  as  the  heaviest  road-engines.  No.  12  is  the  pattern  generally  adopted  for 
elevated  railroad  service  in  New  York,  Brooklyn,  and  other  cities;  also  for  light  passenger- 
service  on  short  suburban  surface-roads.  In  many  of  the  larger  cities,  notably  Chicago, 
where  heavy  suburban  service  on  the  surface  railways  requires  special  engines  of  great  power,, 
locomotives  are  employed  of  the  type  referred  to  by  No.  13.  They  are  built  with  four  and 
six  wheels  coupled,  and  frequently  with  cylinders  as  large  as  18  X  24. 

Locomotive- Boiler  Construction. — The  general  features  of  the  boiler  do  not  differ  from 
those  shown  in  Vol.  I  of  this  work.  That  part  of  the  boiler  over  the  furnace  is  enlarged 
by  what  is  termed  the  wagon-top,  for  two  purposes,  viz.,  to  give  greater  steam-space,  and  to 
increase  the  weight  on  the  driving-wheels.  The  furnace  and  outer  shell  are  made  of  mild 
steel,  the  usual  requirements  being  a  tensile  strength  of  as  nearly  as  possible  55,000  to  65,000 
Ibs.,  elongation  30  per  cent  in  section  2  in.  long,  and  phosphorus  not  exceeding  -03  for  fire- 
box plates,  and  '05  for  the  plates  of  the  outer  shell.  The  tubes  are  of  lap-welded  iron,  usually 
No.  13  Birmingham  wire-gauge, 'but  frequently  No.  12  or  11,  rolled  in  the  tube-plates  and 
beaded  over.  The  ends  in  the  fire-box  tube-plate  are  swaged  down  to  allow  for  a  copper  ring 
or  liner,  which  acts  as  a  gasket  or  cushion  between  the  tube  and  the  plate,  rendering  the  tubes 
less  liable  to  leak  under  variations  of  temperature.  The  fire-door  opening  is  formed  by  flang- 
ing and  riveting  together  the  inner  and  outer  sheets.  A  conspicuous  difference  between 
English  and  American  boiler  construction  is  the  absence  in  the  latter  of  angle-irons  for  join- 
ing the  parts :  thus,  the  smoke-box  tube-plate  is  made  circular  in  form,  flanged  and  riveted 
into  the  cylindrical  waist  of  the  boiler.  The  usual  working  steam-pressure  is  from  135  to  150 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  but  recently  a  number  of  railways  have  sought  greater  efficiency  and  economy 
by  adopting  pressures  of  from  160  to  180  Ibs. 

The  development  of  higher  pressures,  and  the  difficulty  of  overcoming  trouble  by  the 
breaking  of  the  side  stay-bolts  near  the  top  of  the  furnace,  have  led  to  the  adoption  by  many 
of  a  construction  in  which  the  fire-box  crown  is  arched,  and  sup- 
ported by  radial  stay-bolts  tapped  through  the  crown-sheet  and  roof 
of  boiler  and  riveted  over.  The  arched  form  of  crown-sheet  allows 
the  sediment  to  drain  off  without  obstruction.  By  entering  the 
boiler  through  the  dome  the  entire  crown  is  easily  accessible  for  re- 
moving scale.  It  is  therefore  especially  suitable  for  locations  where 
impure  water  must  be  used.  The  removal  of  the  weight  of  the 
crown-bars  permits  the  heating-surfaces  to  be  increased  without  ex- 
ceeding a  fixed  limit.  The  gradual  lengthening  of  the  stays  from 
the  short  ones  supporting  the  side-sheets  to  the  long  ones  sup- 
porting the  crown,  prevents  distortion  by  concentration  of  strain 
at  a  particular  point,  and  therefore  overcomes  the  breakage  of 
bolts,  which  is  frequent  in  boilers  of  the  crown-bar  or  Belpaire 
patterns,  designed  to  carry  high  pressures,  unless  constant  vigilance 
is  exercised.  (For  the  above  description  of  American  types  of  loco- 
motives we  are  indebted  to  D.  K.  Clark's  work  on  the  Steam-Engine 
edition  of  1892.) 

The   Wootten  Locomotive  Boiler  (shown  in  Fig.  1)  is  the  inven- 
End  view. 


FIG.  1.— Wootten  locomotive  boiler — elevation. 


tion  of  Mr  John  E.  Wootten,  and  is  the  subject  of  six  United  States  letters-patent,  granted 
from  1877  to  1887.  It  has  been  largely  adopted  in  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  and  other 
railroads  using  anthracite  coal.  The  distinguishing  features  of  the  Wootten  locomotive  as 


486 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


compared  with  others,  is  a  much  greater  breadth  of  furnace  and  larger  area  of  grate  with 
less  depth  of  fuel  thereon,  a  change  in  the  location  of  the  cab  from  the  rear  of  the  engine  and 
at  the  sides  of  the  fire-box  to  a  position  above  the  furnace  in  some  instances,  and  in  others 
on  each  side  of  the  waist  of  the  boiler  immediately  in  front  of  the  fire-box,  the  steam-dome 
being  located  in  the  cab.  The  construction  of  frames,  driving-wheels,  cylinders,  and  steam- 
chests  is  not  strikingly  different  from  other  well-known  and  usual  types  of  engines.  The 
constantly  increasing  weight  of  train-loads  has  necessitated  more  powerful  engines;  and 
while  it  was  not  difficult  to  increase  the  cylinder  capacity  or  piston  displacement  of  the  en- 
gines, the  limit  of  the  boiler  to  supply  adequate  steam  to  such  engines  was  soon  reached. 
The  gauge  of  the  railroad  appeared  to  limit  the  width  of  the  boilers  admissible,  the  frames 
could  not  be  spread  any  farther  apart,  and,  under  the  practice  of  placing  the  furnace  of  the 
boiler  between  the  frames,  the  only  increase  of  grate-surface  practicable  was  in  the  direction 
of  length.  This  rendered  firing  more  difficult,  and  a  deep  bed  of  fuel  was  required  to  main- 
tain steam-pressure ;  the  draft  of  air  to  maintain  combustion  demanded  greater  pressure  on 
the  exhaust,  which  could  only  be  enforced  by  contracting  the  nozzle  of  the  exhaust-pipe, 
and  imposing  a  pressure  upon  the  steam-pistons  during  the  return  strokes.  This,  in  view 
of  the  large  piston-surface  recently  coming  into  vogue,  especially  in  compound  locomotives, 
means  a  serious  waste  of  force.  The  solution  of  this  difficulty  was  found  in  an  increased 
breadth  of  furnace-grate  and  fire-box  to  accommodate  it.  Space  to  contain  such  boilers 
without  interfering  with  the  driving-wheels  was  procured  by  placing  the  boiler  above  the 
driving-wheels  and  frames,  which  were  protected  from  ashes  by  a  hopper-shaped  ash-pit.  A 
report  of  series  of  tests  made  by  Dr.  Charles  M.  Cresson  of  the  Standard  locomotive  boiler  of 
the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  and  of  a  Wootten  boiler  burning  several  kinds  of  fuel, 
which  shows  the  claims  for  the  capacity  of  the  Wootten  boiler  as  an  efficient  steam  generator 
with  different  varieties  of  fuel,  including  some  incapable  of  use  in  ordinary  locomotives,  to  be 
fully  sustained,  is  quoted  as  follows  by  a  committee  of  the  Franklin  Institute  (see  Jour. 
Frank.  Inst.,  September,  1891) : 


Total  heat 
units  in 
fuel  used. 

Heat  units 
utilized  in 
generating 
steam. 

Equivalent 
Ibs.  of  water 
evaporated 
from  212°  F. 

Fir  cent  of 
total  heat 
utilized. 

Anthracite  waste  ;  
marketable  .... 

Bituminous  waste  
marketable  .  .  . 

Lignite,  20  per  cent  water. 

11,275 
11,913 
11,275 
12.764 
13.402 
13,402 
13.363 
13.731 
7,871 

7,823 
7,813 
5,647 
8,209 
9,302 
7,397 
9,138 
7,416 
3,316 

8'09 
8'08 
5-84 
8'49 
9  62 
7  65 
9'45 
7-67 
3  43 

69  4 
65'5 
50    \ 
64  3 
69-4 
55-2 
68'3 
54 
42'1 

Freight  consolidation.  Wootten. 
Passenger,  Wootten  boiler, 
ordinary  boiler. 
Freight  consolidation,  Wootten  boiler. 

ordinary  boiler. 
Passenger,  Wootten  boiler, 
ordinary  boiler. 
Freight  consolidation,  Wootten  boiler. 

For  18  X  24  to  20  X  24  road  locomotives  with  the  Wootten  boiler,  a  grate-surface  of  76  sq. 
ft.  is  obtained,  the  length  of  the  grate  being  9£  ft.  and  its  width  8  ft.  Between  the  grates  and 
the  tube-plate,  and  separated  from  the  first  by  a  fire-brick  bridge  wall,  is  a  combustion-chamber 
about  3  ft.  long,  which  is  set  into  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  boiler,  and  correspondingly 
shortens  the  tubes.  By  adopting  so  large  a  grate-area  is  obtained  a  low  velocity  of  air  pass- 
ing through  the  fuel,  and  a  slowness  of  combustion,  which  are  of  the  utmost  value  in  burning 
fuel  too  light  to  remain  on  the  grates  of  ordinary  locomotives,  or  impure  fuel  requiring  the 
combustion  of  a  large  volume  to  produce  sufficient  heat.  This  type  of  boiler  has  been  adopted 
by  many  of  the  railways  in  the  anthracite  coal  regions,  which  are  not  only  carriers  but  pro- 
ducers of  anthracite  coal,  and  must  therefore  utilize  the  cheap  grades  in  order  to  market  the 
more  valuable  grades,  a  fixed  proportion  of  both  attending  the  production.  Separate  cabs  are 
provided  for  the  engineer  and  fireman,  as  the  former  is  preferably  located  in  front  of  the  fire- 
box, while  the  latter  must  stand  on  the  tender. 

COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. — During  the  past  three  years  much  attention  hns  been  given  to 
developing  and  perfecting  compound  locomotives.  They  have  been  the  subject  of  numerous 
patents,  which  may  be  divided  into  four  classes,  viz. : 

1.  Those  with  concentric  cylinders,  the  high-pressure  cylinder  inclosed  in  the  low-pressure 
cylinder,  of  which  the  most  important  example  is  the  design  of  Mr.  F.  W.  Johnstone,  Super- 
intendent of  Motive-Power  of  the  Mexican  Central  Railway,  of  which  a  number  of  engines 
have  been  constructed  by  the  Rhode  Island  Locomotive  Works,  of  Providence,  R.  I. 

2.  Those  with  cylinders  placed  tandem,  the  high-pressure  cylinder  being  usually  in  front 
of  the  low-pressure  cylinder.     Engines  of  this  type  at  this  time  (December,  1891)  appear  not 
to  have  passed  the  experimental  stage.     An  important  objection  is  the  necessary  length  of  the 
steam-ports  connecting  the  two  cylinders. 

3.  Those  having  two  unequal*  cylinders,  located  one  on  each  side  of  the  engine,  and  ex- 
hausting from  the  smaller  or  low-pressure  cylinder  into  a  receiver  exposed  to  the  heated 
products  of  combustion  in  the  smoke-box.     The  original  patent  covering  this  system  was 
granted  in  1873  to  Mr.  W.  S.  Hudson,  late  Superintendent  of  the  Rogers  Locomotive  Works, 
of  Paterson,  N.  J.      This  system  has  been  further  developed  by  Worsdell,  Von  Borries, 
Lapage,  Lindner,  and  Mallet,  in  Europe,  and  by  Pitkin,  Dean,  Lythgoe,  and  others  in  the 
United  States. 

4.  Those  having  four  cylinders,  of  which  one  high-pressure  and  one  low-pressure  cylinder 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


487 


are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  engine,  the  steam  passing  from  one  to  the  other  by  continuous 
expansion,  without  passing  through  a  receiver.  This  system,  which  is  the  invention  of  Samuel 
M.  Vauclain,  Superintendent  of  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  has  thus  far  been  more  exten- 
sively adopted  than  any  other  in  the  United  States,  about  150  locomotives  having  been  con- 
structed in  the  two  and  a  half  years  following  the  date  of  the  patent,  June  25,  1889. 

The  general  appearance  of  a  recent  Ten-wheel  freight  compound  locomotive  is  shown  in 
the  full-page  illustration. 

The  valve  is  of  the  type 
known  as  piston-valve,  con- 
sisting of  a  hollow  plug 
with  cylindric  rings  at 
proper  intervals,  fitting 
into  a  cast-iron  bushing, 
with  apertures  registering 
with  the  rim  of  the  plugs, 
and  leading  to  and  from 
the  ends  of  the  cylinders, 
from  the  steam-pip'e  and  to 
the  exhaust  -  pipe.  The 
movement  of  the  steam 
from  the  steam  -  pipes 
through  the  steam -chest, 
high-pressure  cylinder,  pis- 
ton-valve, low-pressure  cyl- 
inder, and  out  at  the  final 
exhaust-port,  is  shown  by 
the  diagram  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3 
shows  an  external  view  of 
the  cylinders  and  steam- 
chest.  The  arrangement 
of  the  cylinders  is  imma- 
terial ;  in  locomotives  with 
small  driving-wheels,  the 
large  or  low-pressure  cyl- 
inder may  be  placed  over 
the  small  or  high-pressure 
cylinder,  in  ordei  to  obtain 
more  clearance  from  the 
track.  The  following  ad- 
vantages were  discovered  in 
this  type  of  compound  lo- 


FIG.  2.— Section  through  cylinder. 


comotives  by  the  Committee  of  Sciences  and  Arts  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  which  caused  it 
to  be  awarded  a  gold  medal  : 

"  It  can  be  applied  to  locomotives  having  outside  cylinders,  without  increasing  the  entire 


FIG.  3.— Compound  locomotive. 

breadth  of  the  engines  at  the  cylinders  beyond  the  restrictions  made  necessary  by  bridges, 
tunnels,  and  trains  upon  parallel  tracks.     The  transfer  of  steam  from  the  low"  to  the  high 


488 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


pressure  cylinder  is  effected  by  the  shortest  possible  conduit.  The  valve  construction  is 
simple,  and,  being  balanced,  requires  a  minimum  of  force  to  work  it,  irrespective  of  the  steam- 
pressure  upon  it.  The  distribution  of  force  upon  each  side  of  the  engine  is  equal.  Each  side 
of  the  engine  is  capable  of  working  when  the  other  is  disconnected,  and  when  so  operated 
can  produce  a  draft  sufficient  to  maintain  effective  steam  generation  for  running  purposes — a 
feature  of  decided  importance  in  cases  of  accident  disabling  the  engine  on  one  side.  The 
engine  always  starts  promptly  and  steams  readily  with  the  diminished  exhaust-pressure,  the 
volumes  of  the  exhaust  being  greater  than  with  the  Standard  or  non-compound  engine,  and 
occurring  twice  as  often  in  the  revolution  of  the  shaft  as  in  either  the  Webb  or  Hudson  type 
of  engine.  It  is  not  pretended  that  this  compound  engine  imparts  any  new  properties  to  the 
steam  that  is  used  in  it,  so  as  to  surpass  other  well-proportioned  compound  engines  in  degree 
of  expansion,  and  consequent  economy  of  steam,  but  that  it  does  diminish  the  clearance  space 
between  the  high  and  low  pressure  pistons,  and  promptly  proceeds  with  the  expansion  in  the 
low-pressure  cylinder,  while  in  other  types  of  engines  the  exhaust  from  the  high-pressure 
cylinder  must  be  retained  in  a  receiver  to  await  the  opening  of  the  valve  admitting  it  to  the 
low-pressure  cylinder." 

A  number  of  tests  have  been  made,  with  much  care  and  accuracy.  The  results  justify  the 
conclusions  reached  by  the  committee,  and  show  a  gratifying  economy  of  fuel. 

Dimensions  of  a  Compound  Locomotive. — An  express  engine  built  by  the  Baldwin  Loco- 
motive Works  for  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad  combines  the*  Wootten  boiler  and 
the  Vauclain  four-cylinder  compound  system.  It  has  a  two-wheel  or  Bissell  leading-truck,  four 
driving-wheels  6  ft.  6  in.  diameter,  ami  a  pair  of  small  trailing- wheels  under  the  Wootten 
fire-box.  The  leading  dimensions  and  particulars  of  the  engine  are  as  follows :  Cylinders, 
high-pressure,  13  X  24  in. ;  low-pressure,  22  X  24  in.  Diameter  of  driving-wheels.  6  ft.  6  in. ; 
of  truck-wheels,  4  ft. ;  of  boiler,  4  ft.  9|  in.  Form  of  boiler,  straight ;  fire-box,  Wootten  patent. 
Size  of  fire-box,  114  X  96|  in.  Number  of  tubes,  324;  diameter,  1^  in. ;  length,  10ft.  Heat- 
ing-surface, fire-box  and  combustion-chamber.  173-46  sq.  ft. ;  tubes,  l,267'75sq.  ft. ;  total  heat- 
ing-surface, 1,435-21  sq.  ft.  Grate  area,  76-00  sq.  ft.  Boiler-pressure,  175  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
Driving-wheel-base,  6  ft.  10  in. ;  rigid  wheel-base,  13  ft.  10  in. ;  total  wheel-base,  23  ft.  1  in. 
Weight  on  driving-wheels,  (about)  76,000  Ibs. ;  on  leading  truck,  (about)  19,000  Ibs. ;  on  trail- 
ing, (about)  25,000  Ibs. ;  total  weight,  (about)  120,000  Ibs.  Weight  of  tender,  loaded,  (about) 
92,000  Ibs.  Diameter  of  tender  truck-wheels,  2  ft.  9  in.  Coal  capacity  of  tender,  5|  tons. 
Water  capacity  of  tender,  4,000  gal.  Brake-fitting,  Westinghouse  automatic. 

Comparative  Tests  of  a  Standard  Consolidation  and  a  Compound  Consolidation  Loco- 
motive.— Tests  were  made  in  August  and  September,  1891,  by  A.  Vail,  General  Master  Mechanic 
of  the  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  of  two  engines  built  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive 
Works,  of  the  Consolidation  pattern,  duplicates  of  each  other  as  far  as  possible,  except  that 
one  was  a  standard  engine  and  the  other  was  a  compound.  The  following  is  a  summary  of 
the  results  of  all  the  tests,  viz.,  two  round  trips  of  the  standard  engine  and  three  round  trips 
of  the  compound  : 


ENGINE. 

Weight  of 
train  in  Ibs. 

Average 
weigh   on 
train. 

Time 
on 
road. 

Actual 
running 
time. 

Time 
throttle 
was 
open. 

Lbs.  coal 
used. 

Lbs. 
water 
•Md. 

Lbs.  train 
hauled  per 
Ib.  of  coal. 

Lbs.  water 
evaporated  per 
Ib.  of  coal. 

Average 

steam- 
pressure. 

( 

Two 

South. 

1,781,410 

i 

H.  M. 

H.  M. 

H.  M. 

Standard...^ 

round 
trips. 

North. 

4,279,933 

j-  8,580,671 

21  51 

16  38 

14  29 

28,800 

181,790 

122-6 

6-31 

147-7 

I 

Three 

South. 

3,177,125 

| 

Compound  .  < 

round 

V  5,769,628 

34  57 

24  25 

30,010 

230,850 

192-2 

7'69 

1G6 

I 

trips. 

North. 

8,362,131 

1 

Percentage  of  train  hauled  per  Ib.  of  coal,  favor  of  compound,  36'2  per  cent.    Percentage  of  water 
evaporated  per  Ib.  of  coal,  favor  of  compound,  17'9  per  cent. 

The  Webb  Compound  Locomotive. — Before  deciding  definitely  on  the  use  of  compound  loco- 
motives, the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co.,  in  1889,  imported  from  England  a  locomotive  made 
by  Beyer,  Peacock  &  Co.,  of  Manchester,  from  designs  and  specifications  of  F.  W.  Webb,  Chief 
Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  the  London  and  Northwestern  Railway.  This  locomotive  was 
thoroughly  experimented  with  for  over  a  year,  during  which  time  changes  were  made  in  its  run- 
ning-gear, to  adapt  it  to  the  requirements  of  an  American  track.  The  results  of  the  experi- 
ments showed  a  saving  of  fuel  over  the  ordinary  engine  of  from  20  to  25  per  cent.  Fig.  4  rep- 
resents the  engine  as  altered.  The  boiler  is  50  in.  in  diameter,  straight,  with  copper  fire-box 
66  in.  long,  which  is  built  with  water-space  below  the  grates  and  across  the  bottom,  thereby 
forming  an  ash-pan  surrounded  by  water  A  brick  arch  is  used  in  the  fire-box.  There  are  four 
driving-wheels  6  ft.  3  in.  diameter,  and  a  pair  of  leading-wheels,  which  take  the  place  of  the 
American  four-wheel  truck.  These  wheels  are  fitted  with  radial  boxes,  which  allow  the  engine 
to  curve  easily,  which  is  proved  by  the  flanges  not  showing  any  perceptible  wear.  The  driving- 
wheels  are  not  connected  by  side-rods,  and  are  equivalent  to  two  single  driver  engines  in  one 
frame.  The  back  pair  is  operated  by  two  high-pressure  cylinders,  14  X  24  in.,  which  are  coupled 
to  crank-pins  at  an  angle  of  90°.  The  front  drivers  haVe  a  shaft  with  a  crank  in  the  center, 
for  one  cylinder.  The  low-pressure  cylinder,  30  X24  in.,  is  located  underneath  the  smoke-box, 
and  is  operated  by  exhaust  steam  from  the  two  high-pressure  cvlinders  when  the  engine  is 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


489 


doing  its  regular  work.  This  arrangement  allows  either  pair  of  drivers  to  slip  without  inter- 
fering with  the  other,  and  by  this  means  the  pressure  in  the  receiver  is  always  automatically 
adjusted.  The  valve  motion  is  of  the  radial  typo.  The  maximum  travel  of  the  valve  is  3£  in. 
on  the  high  -  pressure  cylinders,  with 
steam  and  exhaust  -  ports  10  in.  long. 
The  low-pressure  valve  travels  4||  in.  at 
maximum  amount,  with  ports  18  in.  long. 
Steam  is  taken  to  the  high-pressure  cyl- 
inders through  a  3-in.  pipe  to  each  steam- 
chest,  and  after  doing  its  work  there  it 
is  exhausted  through  two  5-in.  pipes 
around  the  smoke-box  to  the  low-press- 
ure steam-chest.  This  receiver-pipe  has 
a  safety-valve  which  is  set  at  60  Ibs., 
which  'prevents  any  excess  of  pressure 
accumulating  in  the  low-pressure  cylin- 
der or  steam-chest.  There  is  a  valve  ar- 
ranged in  this  receiver  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  exhaust-pipe  of  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder,  which  is  under  control 
of  the  engineer,  whereby  he  allows  the 
exhaust  from  the  high-pressure  cylin- 
der to  pass  out  of  the  receiver  to  the 
low-pressure  exhaust-pipe  to  the  atmos- 
phere, without  going  into  the  low-press- 
ure cylinder.  There  is  also  another  valve 
operated  from  the  cab,  that  lets  steam 
from  the  boiler  direct  into  the  low-press- 
ure steam-chest.  By  these  arrangements 
the  high-pressure  and  the  low-pressure 
engines  are  made  independent  of  one  an- 
other. The  engine  can  also  be  run  to  a 
terminal  with  either  two  of  the  cylinders 
disabled — i.  e.,  if  both  high-pressure  cyl- 
inders are  out  of  service,  or  one  high- 
pressure  and  the  low-pressure,  or  with 
either  one  of  them. 

This  engine  is  also  equipped  with  two 
separate  valve  -  gears,  which  allow  the 
working  of  steam  at  any  point  of  cut-off 
desired  in  the  high-pressure  cylinders 
without  interfering  with  the  point  of 
cut-off  in  the  low-pressure,  and  vice  versa. 
The  exhaust-pipe  is  attached  to  each  side 
of  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  and  passes 
up  above  the  steam-chest,  where  the  two 
parts  come  together,  forming  one  open- 
ing for  the  outlet. 

Fuel  Consumption  of  Locomotives. — 
Experiments  by  M.  Georges  Marie,  of 
the  Paris  and  Lyons  Railway  (see  Proc. 
List.  Meek.  Engr8.i  May,  1884),  give  the 
following  results:  Consumption  of  fuel 
per  effective  horse-power  per  hour,  3'27 
Ibs. ;  consumption  of  fuel  per  indicated 
horse-power  per  hour,  2*88  Ibs. ;  ratio  of 
consumption  of  water  to  consumption  of 
fuel,  8-88  to  1 :  ratio  of  dry  steam  pro- 
duced to  fuel  consumed,  8-08  to  1.  M. 
Regray,  of  the  Eastern  Railway  of  France,  has  obtained  an  average  result  of  3*01  Ibs.  of  coal 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour.  Prof.  Bauschinger's  experiments  on  the  Bavarian  state 
railways  sho.ved  an  average  water  consumption  of  27  Ibs.  per  horse-power  per  hour. 

Effect  of  Steam-Jackets  on  Steam  Consumption  in  Locomotives. — A  paper  by  Alexander 
Borodin,  Engineer-in-Chief  of  the  Russian  Southwestern  Railway  (Proc.  List.  Mech.  Engrs.y 
August,  1886)  re  ports  a  series  of  tests  on  an  ordinary  locomotive,  with  cylinder  16'54in.  diameter, 
23'62-in.  stroke, from  which  he  concludes  that — 1.  When  the  jackets  are  not  in  use,  the  compound 
engine  gives,  in  comparison  with  the  ordinary  engine,  an  economy  of  13  per  cent  in  consump- 
tion of  steam,  and  of  24  per  cent  in  consumption  of  wood.  2.  Admission  of  steam  into  the 
jackets  does  not  sensibly  affect  the  consumption  of  steam  in  the  ordinary  engine  ;  while  in 
the  compound  engine  it  produces  an  injurious  effect,  increasing  the  consumption  of  water  and 
wood  per  indicated  horse-power. 

Petroleum- Fuel  in  Locomotives. — Experiments  by  Thomas  Urquhart,  of  Russia  (Proc.  List. 
Jlech.  Engrs.,  August,  1884),  show  that  an  evaporation  of  12-25  Ibs.  of  water,  at  a  pressure  of  120 


490  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  is  obtained  in  practice  from  1  Ib.  of  petroleum  refuse,  while  anthracite  gives 
an  evaporation  of  only  7  to  7£  Ibs..  showing  that  the  practical  evaporative  power  of  petroleum 
is  from  63  to  75  pe.r  cent  higher  than  that  of  anthracite.  Theoretically  the  petroleum  refuse 
has  only  33  per  cent  greater  value  than  anthracite,  but  in  burning  the  latter  40  per  cent  of  its 
heating  power  is  unavoidably  lost,  giving  only  60  per  cent  efficiency,  while  in  burning  petro- 
leum only  25  per  cent  is  lost,  giving  75  per  cent  efficiency.  The  petroleum  refuse  is  the  residue 
known  as  naphtha  refuse,  left  after  distilling  from  crude  petroleum  the  kerosene,  benzine,  and 
other  light  products,  and  in  Russia  it  amounts  to  from  70  to  75  per  cent  of  the  original  weight 
of  crude  oil  used.  In  Pennsylvania,  the  amount  of  illuminating  oil  obtained  is  from  70  to  75 
per  cent  of  the  crude  oil^used.  The  composition  of  the  Russian  and  the  Pennsylvania  oils  is, 
however,  nearly  the  same. 

Mr.  Urquhart  used  a  steam  spray-injector  for  forcing  the  liquid  fuel  into  the  furnace. 
His  combustion-chamber  was  constructed  with  brick-work  inside  it,  which  when  heated  acted 
as  a  regenerator.  Through  the  brick-work  were  made  numerous  channels  or  gas-passages. 
The  brick-work  thus  offered  a  slight  resistance  to  the  free  exit  of  the  ignited  gases,  and  so 
retained  them  longer  in  the  combustion-chamber  and  fire-box,  thus  securing  better  admixture 
with  the  air,  as  well  as  a  long  circuit  before  they  entered  the  tubes.  The  air  carried  in  with 
the  injector  was  pre-heated  as  hot  as  possible  by  being  introduced  through  the  forward  ash- 
pan  damper,  and  passing  upward  through  a  channel  in  the  heated  brick-work.  Considerable 
advantage  was  thus  obtained,  and  also  by  pre-heating  the  petroleum.  A  comparison  of  the 
consumption  and  cost  of  coal  and  of  petroleum  refuse  per  engine-mile  in  8- wheel  coupled  48- 
ton  locomotives  on  the  Grazi  and  Tsaritsin  Railway  gives  the  following  average  results : 

Coal,  79*08  Ibs.  per  engine-mile;  cost,  11*02  pence  per  engine-mile. 

Petroleum  refuse,  40*47  Ibs.  per  engine-mile  ;  cost,  5  84  pence  per  engine-mile. 

Numerous  experiments  with  petroleum-fuel  for  locomotives  have  been  made  in  the  United 
States,  with  successful  results,  as  far  as  the  evaporative  power  of  the  fuel  is  concerned ;  but 
on  account  of  the  greater  relative  cheapness  of  coal  as  compared  with  petroleum  in  most 
locations  in  the  United  States,  no  commercial  advantage  has  yet  been  found  with  oil  fuel  suf- 
ficient to  justify  its  introduction  in  practice. 

Locomotive  'Speed. — Mr.  M.  N.  Forney,  in  a'paper  on  this  subject  in  Scribner's  Magazine, 
March,  1892,  discussing  the  prospect  of  a  speed  of  100  miles  per  hour  being  reached,  concludes 
that  there  "  is  not  much  probability  of  attaining  regular  and  continuous  speeds  of  100  miles 
per  hour  with  our  present  locomotives.  Their  fire-boxes — which  perform  the  same  functions 
for  the  machines  that  their  stomachs  do  for  animals — are,  with  the  present  system  of  con- 
struction, necessarily  contracted  in  size.  The  weight  of  the  whole  locomotive  being  fixed,  the 
dimensions  of  the  different  parts  are  also  limited.  Fast  running,"  in  Mr.  Forney's  opinion, 
"  is  largely  a  question  of  steam  production.  Given  a  boiler  which  will  generate  enough  steam, 
and  the  other  problems  are  of  comparatively  easy  solution.  The  difficulty  is  to  get  the  boiler 
sufficiently  large  within  the  limits  of  size  and  weight  to  which  it  must  be  confined.  It  will 
be  safe  to  say  that  to  be  able  to  travel  continuously  at  100  miles  per  hour  we  must  have  either 
boilers  or  fuel  which  will  generate  more  steam  in  a  given  time  than  those  we  are  using  now 
do,  or  our  engines  must  use  less  steam  to  do  the  same  work ;  or,  what  is  more  probable  still,  we 
must  have  all  three  of  these  features  combined.  In  the  locomotive  of  the  future,  the  action 
of  the  reciprocating  parts  will  probably  be  more  perfectly  balanced  than  it  is  now;  coupling- 
rods  will  either  be  dispensed  with  altogether,  or  their  risk  of  breakage  will  be  lessened 
by  placing  the  driving-wheels  near  together ;  and  both  this  danger  and  the  disturbing 
effect  of  the  reciprocating  parts  will  be  lessened  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  wheels. 
To  enable  the  engine — or,  rather,  its  journals — to  'run  cool,'  the  journals  and  their 
bearings  will  be  increased  in  size  so  as  to  have  ample  surface  to  resist  wear.  In  Mr. 
Webb's  new  engine,  Greater  Britain,  recently  built  for  the  London  and  Northwestern 
Railway,  the  boiler  has  been  materially  increased  in  size,  and  he  reports  the  remarkable  per- 
formance of  evaporating  nearly  11  Ibs.  of  water  per  Ib.  of  coal  while  pulling  a  heavy  train  at 
the  rate  of  over  44£  miles  per  hour.  This  engine  is  compounded  so  as  to  use  steam  with  the 
greatest  economy,  and  is  without  coupling-rods.  These  are  dispensed  with  by  using  three 
cylinders — two  high-pressure  and  one  low-pressure.  The  two  former  are  connected  to  the 
back  pair  of  driving-wheels,  and  the  latter  to  the  front  pair.  By  this  means  both  pairs  of 
wheels  are  driven  by  separate  cylinders.  A  new  express  locomotive  is  now  in  process  of  con- 
struction in  this  country  with  a  fire-box  about  twice  as  wide  as  those  ordinarily  used.  The 
problem  of  improving  the  balancing  of  engines  is  attracting  much  attention,  and  the  bearing 
surfaces  of  many  recent  locomotives  have  been  materially  increased.  Driving-wheels  have 
also  been  enlarged  in  size  with  the  increase  in  speed." 

Mr.  Theodore  N.  Ely,  in  the  same  magazine,  gives  the  following  instances  of  notable  train 
movements :  The  Pennsylvania  locomotive  which  drew  the  special  train  of  the  delegates  to 
the  International  American  Conference  on  their  tour  to  the  principal  cities  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  traversed  the  rails  of  20  distinct  lines  of  railroad,  and  covered  10.000 
miles  in  its  course,  without  accident  of  any  kind  or  unreasonable  delay.  Another  example  of 
eudurance  may  be  mentioned — the  126,000  miles  made  by  one  locomotive  between  Phil- 
adelphia and  Washington  in  the  year  1891 — equal  to  five  complete  journeys  around  the 
world.  Concerning  the  factor  which  will  control  the  limit  of  speed  in  the  passenger-trains 
of  the  future,  Mr.  Ely  concludes  as  follows : 

'•  In  the  road-bed  "we  shall  have  to  demand  that  the  alignment  be  almost  free  from  curva- 
ture, and  the  width  between  the  tracks  be  increased ;  that  the  foundation  shall  be  stable,  and 
well  protected  from  rain  and  frost;  that  land-slides  and  other  accidental  obstructions  shall 


LOCOMOTIVES.  491 


he  provided  for ;  that  the  ties  shall  be  firmly  imbedded  :  that  the  rails  shall  be  heavy — 100 
Ibs.,  or  more,  if  necessary — and  securely  fastened  ;  that  all  frogs  and  switches  shall  be  proof 
against  accidental  misplacement  or  rupture  ;  that  all  draw-bridges  shall  be  made  secure  beyond 
question  ;  and,  finally,  that  all  crossings  at  grade  be  abolished.  We  must  further  insist  that  a 
thorough  system  of  supervision  and  inspection  shall  be  carried  out.  With  a  fulfillment  of 
these  conditions,  which,  professionally  speaking,  are  perfectly  practicable,  trains,  so  far  as  the 
road-bed  is  concerned,  may  be  run  in  safety  as  fast  as  any  locomotive  can  be  made  to  haul 
them.  Of  the  locomotive  it  may  be  said,  that  only  with  the  improvements  in  road-bed  re- 
ferred to  can  its  highest  attainable  speed  be  utilized." 

Mr.  H.  Walter  Webb,  of  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad,  also  in 
Scribner's  Magazine,  above  noted,  gives  the  following  remarkable  account  of  a  fast  ran  made 
by  a  locomotive  and  three  large  parlor-cars  over  the  above-named  railroad  in  September, 
1891.  The  engine,  hereafter  described,  weighed  100  tons.  The  aggregate  weight  of  the  cars, 
empty,  over  130  tons.  The  journey  from  New  York  to  East  Buffalo,  a  distance  of  436*32 
miles,  was  made  in  439*45  min.  Allowing  for  time  lost  in  changing  engines  at  Albany  and 
Syracuse,  and  for  cooling  a  hot  journal,  the  run  of  436*32  miles  was  made  in  426  min.,  or  at 
the  rate  of  61*44  miles  per  hour.  The  most  remarkable  runs  made  before  this  were  accom- 
plished on  the  London  and  Northwestern  and  the  Great  Northern  Railways  of  England.  The 
distance  over  the  former  is  400  miles,  and  the  run  was  made  daily  on  a  schedule  calling  for  a 
speed  of  53£  miles  per  hour.  On  the  Great  Northern  the  distance  is  393  miles,  and  the  sched- 
ule in  this  case  called  for  s  speed  of  54  miles  per  hour.  These  trains  were  run  daily  for  many 
weeks,  and  were  generally  punctual  and  within  their  schedule  time.  On  several  occasions,  how- 
ever, they  exceeded  the  schedule,  and  made  what  at  that  time  were  regarded  as  phenomenal 
runs. 

On  August  13, 1888,  the  Northwestern  train  covered  the  distance  of  400  miles  in  427  rain.,  or 
at>  rate  of  56£  miles  per  hour,  and  on  August  31st  the  Great  Northern  train  made  the  run  of 
393  miles  in  412  min.,  or  at  the  rate  of  57£  miles  per  hour.  These  individual  runs  were  both 
remarkable,  but  the  daily  running  of  the  trains  on  their  published  schedules  were  regarded 
by  railroad  men  as  still  more  extraordinary,  and  at  that  time  there  were  no  schedule  trains  in 
this  country  that  approached  them  in  point  of  speed.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
these  English  roads  are  possessed  of  many  advantages  not  enjoyed  by  railroads  in  the  United 
States,  as,  for  instance,  the  long  and  numerous  tangents,  the  entire  absence  of  grade  crossings, 
and,  more  especially,  the  light  weight  of  the  cars,  80  tons  being  the  maximum  weight  of  the 
trains  used  in  the  "  race  to  Edinburgh."  With  equipment  of  the  character  required  and 
used  in  this  country,  provided  as  it  is  with  all  luxuries,  conveniences,  and  comforts,  and  a  rate 
of  two  cents  per  mile,  a  train  limited  to  the  above  weight  could  not  carry  a  sufficient  number 
of  passengers  to  enable  it  to  earn  its  running  expenses. 

Three  years  previous  to  these  English  records,  a  special  train  weighing  64  tons  made  a  run 
on  the  West  Shore  Road  from  Buffalo  to  Weehawken  in  9  hours  and  23  min.  In  the  published 
accounts  different  allowances  for  stops  were  made,  making  the  average  rate  per  mile  vary 
from  51  to  54  miles  per  hour ;  either  rate,  however,  making  it  the  best  long-distance  run  on 
record  in  the  United  States,  until  the  run  from  New  York  to  Buffalo  over  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad,  before  noted.  In  this  famous  run  a  careful  schedule  of 
the  running-time  of  each  mile  was  kept,  an  analysis  of  which  shows  the  following :  436  miles 
were  run  in  426  min. ;  130  miles  were  run  at  a  rate  of  less  than  60  miles  per  hour ;  118  miles 
were  run  at  a  rate  varying  from  60  to  65  miles  per  hour ;  151  miles  were  run  at  a  rate  varying 
from  65  to  70  miles  per  hour ;  37  miles  were  run  at  a  rate  varying  from  70  to  78  miles  per 
hour. 

The  problem  presented  to  Mr.  Buchanan,  in  designing  the  new  type  of  passenger-engine 
now  in  use  on  the  New  York  Central  road  for  high-speed  trains,  was  to  obtain  greater  boiler 
capacity,  greater  adhesion,  and  greater  tractive  power.  To  obtain  the  desired  increased  boiler 
capacity  and  heating-surface,  Mr.  Buchanan  located  the  fire-box,  which  formerly  was  between 
the  sides  or  frames  of  the  engine  and  between  the  axles  of  the  driving-wheels  on  top  of  these 
frames  and  axles,  and  by  so  doing  obtained  an  increase  in  the  width  of  the  fire-box  of  5|  in., 
and  an  increase  in  its  length  of  25  in.,  being  an  equivalent  of  9f  sq.  ft.  of  additional  grate- 
area.  The  boiler-flues,  which  in  the  former  engine  numbered  238,  he  increased  to  268,  and  by 
the  change  in  the  fire-box  he  was  enabled  to  lengthen  them  44  in.,  thus  obtaining  an  increased 
heating  surface  of  22H  sq.  ft.,  the  diameter  of  the  boiler  being  increased  from  51  to  58  in. 
With  this  increase  in  the  grate-area  and  heating-surface  the  desired  increase  in  boiler  capacity 
was  obtained.  To  secure  the  adhesion,  the  weight  on  the  four  drivers,  which  formerly  was 
limited  to  30  tons,  was  increased  to  over  40,  or  over  10  tons'  weight  on  each  driving-wheel. 
The  old  and  lighter  form  of  rail  had  already  been  removed,  and  replaced  with  the  standard 
80  pound  section.  To  increase  the  tractive  power  of  the  engine  the  cylinders  were  enlarged  1 
in.  in  diameter:  being  formerly  18  X  24,  they  were  now  made  19  X  24.  All  these  changes 
had  vastly  increased  the  height  and  weight  of  the  engine,  and  the  criticism  was  freely  made 
that  its  use  would  be  destructive  of  roadway  tracks  and  bridges.  These  objections,  however, 
were  more  than  met  by  original  methods  of  suspending  the  engine  on  its  springs.  Formerly 
he  springs  were  placed  on  top  of  the  driving-boxes ;  in  this  case  they  were  located  beneath 
them,  and  connected  with  equalizing  bars,  thus  allowing  the  use  of  a  longer  and  more  elastic 
spring  than  was  formerly  used ;  and  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  these  engines  are  less  de- 
structive to  road-bed  and  rail,  are  freer  from  the  swaying  motion  usually  found  in  engines 
hung  from  above  the  driving-boxes,  and  ride  smoother  and  more  comfortably  than  any  in  the 
service. 


493  LOGGER,   STEAM. 


Of  course,  to  obtain  the  speed  that  was  sought,  it  was  desirable  to  increase  the  diameter  of 
the  driving-wheels  ;  but  this  was  not  done  at  first,  nor  until  it  was  ascertained  how  successful 
had  been  the  efforts  to  increase  the  boiler  capacity  of  the  engine.  When  it  was  found  that 
this  increase  was  ample,  and  even  more  successful  than  had  been  hoped  for,  the  driving- 
wheels  were  changed,  and  the  new  ones  of  6  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter,  or  8  in.  larger  than  the  old 
ones,  were  attached.  The  gain  in  speed  is  most  apparent,  and  can  well  be  appreciated  when 
it  is  remembered  that  the  large  driver  makes  29*51  Jess  revolutions  in  a  mile  than  the  small 
ones.  On  a  trip  from  New  York  to  Albany  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  revolutions  by  the 
large  6  ft.  6  in.  wheel  would  be  4,219-93,  an  equivalent  of  86,154-09  ft.,  or  a  saving  of  nearly 
16^  miles.  From  New  York  to  Buffalo  the  saving  would  be  nearly  50^  miles. 

With  a  locomotive  such  as  this  for  motive  power,  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  run  profit- 
paying  passenger-trains  over  long  distances  at  a  running  rate  of  over  a  mile  a  minute  ;  this, 
of  course,  assuming  we  have  proper  character  of  road-bed  and  rails,  and  approved  appliances 
to  insure  safety  and  rapid  speed. 

LOGGER>  STEAM.  This  name  is  given  to  a  traction-machine  devised  by  Mr.  George  T. 
Glover,  which  can  be  driven  by  steam  over  a  snow  road,  and  which,  it  is  claimed,  will  draw 
after  it  from  30,000  to  40,000  ft.  of  logs.  The  machine  is  mounted  on  two  sleds,  midway  between 
which  the  boiler  is  located.  The  boiler  is  of  steel,  5£  ft.  in  diameter,  7-£  ft.  high,  with  320  2-in. 
submerged  flues,  and  gauged  to  a  pressure  of  150  Ibs.  The  engine  is  10  X  12  ft.,  and  of  double 
upright  pattern.  There  are  four  wheels  on  the  driving-axle,  4  ft.  in  diameter,  weighing  3  tons. 
Each  wheel  is  1  ft.  wide,  and  on  its  face  there  are  17  teeth,  9  in.  apart.  The  angle  of  these 
teeth  is  3  in. ;  they  are  held  in  place  by  bolts  and  nuts ;  therefore,  if  less  traction-power  is 
required,  teeth  of  a  shorter  angle  can  be  affixed.  The  axle  of  the  drivers  is  of  steel,  6  in.  in 
diameter,  7  ft.  long,  and  weighs  half  a  ton.  If  desired,  two  of  the  wheels  may  be  removed, 
and  the  remaining  two  placed  on  the  axle  in  any  position  required.  The  steering-gear  is 
simply  a  wheel  in  front,  which  places  the  tongue  of  the  forward  sled  in  any  desired  position 
by  means  of  a  link-belt  chain  running  over  the  wheel,  over  pulleys  attached  to  either  side  of 

the  frame,  and  made  fast  to  the 
sled-tongue.  The  drive-chain, 
between  the  engine  and  the 
drivers,  is  made  of  1£  in.  Ulster 
iron,  and  weighs  18  Ibs.  to  the 
ft.  The  logger  is  28  ft.  long, 
and,  of  course,  a  rigid  machine 
of  that  size  could  not  be  driven 
over  other  than  a  level  road. 
To  overcome  this  difficulty,  the 
FIG.  1.— Steam  logger.  drivers  and  the  engine  are  sup- 

ported by  separate  frames,  the 

pivot-point  of  their  connection  being  about  the  middle  of  the  front  sled.  By  unfastening  the 
drive-chain  and  removing  the  connecting-bolts  the  two  frames  are  disconnected,  and  the  horse 
(the  engine),  as  it  were,  may  be  taken  from  between  what  one  might  imagine  to  be  the  thills 
—the  long  timbers  extending  forward  from  the  drivers.  The  bolts  fastening  the  two  frames 
together  slide  in  slots;  in  the  ends  of  the  thills  there  are  imbedded  powerful  springs, and  to 
compress  these  springs  to  a  proper  tension  are  jack-screws,  which  are  made  fast  to  the  engine- 
frame.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  springs  act  as  a  cushion,  and  that  the  logger  will  adapt 
itself  to  the  unevenness  of  a  road.  To  further  assist  in  this  purpose  there  is  a  steam-piston, 
the  upright  box  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  engraving  over  and  immediately  in  front  of  the 
wheels.  The  piston-box  is  fastened  to  the  frame  of  the  wheels,  and  when  necessary  the  rear 
sled,  bearing  the  weight  of  the  engine  and  part  of  the  boiler,  can  be  lifted  clean  from  the 
ground  by  the  use  of  the  piston,  thereby  having  but  two  points  of  contact,  the  front  sled 
and  the  drivers,  and  at  the  same  time  throwing  additional  weight  upon  the  latter.  Increased 
traction  of  the  driving-wheels  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  exhaust-steam.  The  wheels  are 
decked,  and  around  the  edges,  under  the  frame,  are  heavy  .rubber  curtains,  which  nearly  reach 
to  the  road  surface.  The  wheels  thus  work  in  a  steam-box,  are  heated  by  steam,  and  when 
they  pass  over  snow  it  is  damped  and  compressed,  and  in  cold  weather  immediately  converted 
into  solid  ice.  The  machine  weighs  about  12  tons,  and  attains  a  speed  of  5  miles  per  hour. 

Loop,  Steam  :  see  Steam-Loop. 

Low  Grinding :  see  Milling-Machines,  Grain. 

Machine-Gnn  :  see  Ordnance. 

Magazine  Rifle  :  see  Fire-Arms. 

Magnetic  Separator :  see  Ore-Dressing  Machinery. 

Manganese  Bronze:  see  Alloys. 

Mankey,  Woodwork  :  see  Molding  Wood-Machines. 

Marine  Engines:  see  Engines,  Marine. 

MEASURING  INSTRUMENTS,  ELECTRICAL.  It  needs  no  demonstration  to  show 
that  accurate  gauges  for  the  measurement  of  electricity,  especially  when  the  same  is  used  as  a 
source  of  power  or  of  light,  are  of  as  much  importance  as  accurate  steam-gauges  for  the 
measurement  of  steam.  A  gauge  which  will  not  measure  the  energy  expended  within  5  or  10 
per  cent,  is  simply  blind  to  losses  of  equal  magnitude  in  the  cost  of  power.  Up  to  within  a 
comparatively  few  years,  accurate  electrical  gauges  did  not  exist  outside  of  physical  labora- 
tories ;  and  such  instruments  as  were  there  employed  were,  from  the  very  nature  of  their  con- 
struction and  the  delicacy  required  in  their  handling,  unfit  for  the  comparatively  rough  usage 


MEASURING   INSTRUMENTS,   ELECTRICAL. 


493 


of  the  electric-lighting  station.  The  need  has  been  urgent  for  electrical  gauges  which  are 
both  simple  and  accurate— simple,  in  the  sense  that  their  mechanical  parts  should  be  few  and 
easily  adjusted  ;  accurate,  in  the  sense  that  their  operation  should  be  certain,  and  the  error  so 
small  as  practically  to  be  neglected. 

A  most  important  series  of  electrical  measuring  instruments,  designed  to  meet  these  con- 
ditions, has  been  invented  within  the  last  four  years  by  Mr.  Edward  Weston.  It  is  impos- 
sible, within  any  space  that  can  here  be  afforded, 
to  describe  all  the  many  forms  of  entirely  novel 
instruments  which  Mr.  Weston  has  produced, 
and  of  which  it  may  safely  be  stated  that  they 
are  rapidly  revolutionizing  modern  methods  of 
practically  measuring  the  electric  current.  Two 
of  the  principal  forms  are,  however,  illustrated 
in  Figs.  1  to  4. 

The  Weston  Direct  Current  Volt  and  Amme- 
ter.— A  perspective  view  of  the  exterior  of  this 
instrument  is  given  in  Fig.  1.  The  details  of 
the  mechanism  will  be  clearly  understood  from 
Figs.  2  and  3.  To  the  inner  sides  of  the  poles 
of  a  permanent  magnet  (Fig.  2)  are  secured 
cored-out  pole-pieces.  In  the  cylindrical  space 
formed  between  these  pole-pieces  is  supported 

a  solid  cylinder  of  magnetic  material,  by  means  ^IG.  1.— Volt  and  ammeter, 

of  a  brass  bar  bolted  to  the  end  of  the  mag- 
net, and  shown  broken  away  in  Fig.  2.  This  solid  cylinder  of  magnetic  material  draws  into 
itself  the  lines  of  force  from  the  magnet-poles,  so  "that  in  the  annular  space  between  the 
cylinder  and  pole-pieces  an  exceedingly  intense  field  of  force  is  produced.  Surrounding  the 
fixed  cylinder  is  a  coil  of  fine  insulated  wire,  shown  separ^ely  in  Fig.  3.  This  coil  is  pivoted 
in  caps,  which  are  supported  on  the  pole-piece.  VolutF  springs  similar  to  those  used  in 
watches  are  fastened  to  the  core-pivots  and  to  fixed  abutments,  and  operate  to  oppose  any 
movement  of  the  coil  upon  its  pivots.  The  index-needle  is  also  supported  on  the  coil-pivot, 
so  that  it  moves,  as  shown  in  Fig,  1,  over  the  scale. 

The  foregoing  is  practically  all  there  is  in  the  mechanism  of  one  of  the  most  accurate  in- 
struments ever  contrived— so  accurate,  indeed,  that  in  Mr.  Weston's  own  laboratory  it  has 

displaced  standard  tangent  gal- 
vanometers of  the  most  costly 
construction.  The  current  to 
be  measured  is  by  suitable  elec- 
trical connections  caused  to  trav- 
erse the  spiral  springs  and  the 
coil  entering  one  spring,  going 
through  the  coil  and  coining  out 
at  the  other  spring.  When  the 
coil  is  thus  traversed  by  the  cur- 
rent, there  is  produced  about  it 
a  field  of  force  which  reacts  upon 
the  permanent  magnet  field. 
The  coil  is  therefore,  in  accord- 
ance with  well-known  electrical 
laws,  caused  by  the  reaction  of 
these  two  fields  to  turn  on  its 
pivots,  and  the  extent  of  its  an- 
gular motion  is  always  depend- 
ent upon  the  difference  of  poten- 
tial between  the  terminals  of  the 
instrument.  If,  then,  the  cur- 
rent be  directed  through  a  com- 
paratively high  resistance  ar- 
ranged in  series  with  the  coil, 
the  apparatus  becomes  adapted 
for  use  as  a  voltmeter,  or  for 
measuring  electrical  pressure, 
and  the  scale  is  therefore  grad- 
uated in  volts.  By  varying  the  resistance  the  conditions  in  the  instrument  may  be  modified, 
so  that  it  will  mea'sure  from  minute  fractions  of  volts  up  to  hundredths  and  thousandths. 

To  the  mechanic  this  instrument  will  be  particularly  interesting,  because  of  the  exceed- 
ingly ingenious  joint,  so  to  speak,  which  exists  at  the  pivot  of  the  coil.  The  problem  here 
was  to  introduce  the  current  into  the  coil  without  causing  it  to  pass  between  moving  surfaces, 
the  relations  of  which  might  constantly  change  in  conditions  of  wear,  in  which  case  the 
resistance  to  the  coil  at  this  point  might  be  of  unknown  and  variable  quantity.  Leading  the 
current  in  through  the  springs,  entirely  overcomes  any  difficulty  of  this  kind. 

The  Weston  Alternating  Current  Voltmeter  and  Ammeter. — The  difficulty  of  measuring  a 
current  which  is  rapidly  alternating  or  reversing  has  always  been  recognized  by  electricians ; 


FIG.  2.— Weston  electric  gauge. 


494 


MEASURING   INSTRUMENTS,   ELECTRICAL. 


especially  when  the  need  was  understood  of  an  index  which  should,  despite  these  quick 
changes  in  the  current,  move  steadily  to  its  reading  and  there  stand.  Alternating  cur- 
rents have  hitherto  usually  been  measured  indirectly,  as  by  gauging  the  expansion  of  a 
fine  wire  heated  by  the  current.  The  Weston  instrument  consists  of  a  fixed  coil  held  in 
suitable  supports,  within  which  is  arranged  a  movable  coil,  the  axis  of  the  second  coil  being 
at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  first.  The  movable  coil  and  the  support  for  the  fixed  coS 


FIG.  3. 


FIGS.  3.  4. — Weston  electric  gauge — details. 


FIG.  4. 


(removed)  are  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  movable  coil  has  combined  with  it  spiral  springs  arranged 
in  substantially  the  same  way  as  has  already  been  described  in  connection  with  the  direct- 
current  instrument,  and  its  pivot  carries  the  index- 
needle,  which  moves  over  a  scale  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  electrical  connection  of  the 
two  coils  is  such  that  the  current  to  be  measured 
passes  through  both  of  them,  and  therefore  the 
field  generated  around  the  moving  coil  reacts  upon 
the  field  generated  around  the  fixed  coil ;  and  as  a 
consequence  the  moving  coil  is  caused  to  move  over 
a  distance  bearing  a  relation  to  the  difference  of 
potential  between  the  terminals  of  the  instrument. 
Of  course,  changes  in  the  polarity  of  the  current 
equally  affect  both  coils.  If  the  current  reverses 
in  one,  it  also  reverses  in  the  other ;  so  that,  despite 
these  reversals,  the  relation  of  one  field  to  the  other 
remains  the  same.  Therefore,  the  movable  coil 
simply  traverses  over  the  proper  angular  distance, 
depending  upon  variation  in  current  pressure  or* 
current  strength,  and  thus  moves  steadily  up  to  its 
scale-marking,  and  stays  there.  The  great  sensi- 
tiveness as  well  as  the  simplicity  of  this  instrument 
is  remarkable.  By  suitable  changes  in  the  electri- 
cal connections,  and  the  introduction  of  resistan- 
ces, the  instrument  may  be  adapted  either  as  a  volt- 
meter or  as  an  ammeter. 

Among  the  other  remarkable  electrical  measur- 
ing instruments  devised  by  Mr.  Weston,  is  an  am- 
meter capable  of  measuring  the  strength  of  the 
whole  current  to  be  used  by  an  electric-lighting 
plant.  Instruments  of  this  'kind  have  been  con- 
structed capable  of  measuring  over  15,000  amperes. 
He  has  also  devised  an  entirely  novel  series  of  re- 
sistance coils. 

THE  FISKE  ELECTRICAL  RANGE-FINDER. — This 
apparatus  involves  an  entirely  novel  application  of 
electricity  to  the  measurement  of  distances  at  sea. 
It  is  the  invention  of  Lieutenant  Bradley  A.  Fiske, 
of  the  United  States  Navy,  and  its  principle  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  accompany- 
ing diagram  (Fig.  5). 


FIG.  5.— Fiske  range-finder. 


MEASURING-INSTRUMENTS,   MECHANICAL.  495 

The  apparatus  proper  consists  simply  of  two  arcs  of  conducting  material,  marked  E  and  F 
on  the  diagram,  which  in  reality  are  merely  two  lengths  of  wire  supported  on  the  circumfer- 
ence of  two  circular  platforms  resting  on  tripods.  Centrally  pivoted  on  each  platform  is  an 
ordinary  spy-glass  or  telescope,  marked  C  and  D  in  the  diagram.  Each  telescope  is  provided 
with  an  arm  or  wiper,  which  sweeps  over  the  wire  or  arc  E  or  F,  always  making  contact  with 
it.  The  extremities  of  the  arcs  E  and  F  are  connected  by  wires  abed,  which  are  properly 
insulated  and  disposed  between-decks,  or  in  any  way  so  that  they  will  be  protected  from 
injury,  just  as  aie  ordinary  electric  lighting  or  other  wires.  Connected  to  these  wires  is  the 
indicating  instrument,  on  the  face  of  which  there  is  a  dial  marked  to  indicate  yards  of  range 
and  a  pivoted  needle  or  pointer.  With  the  pivots  of  the  telescopes  is  connected  a  galvanic 
battery  of  any  convenient  form.  This  battery,  with  its  conducting  wires,  may  be  placed  be- 
low in  the  vessel  in  some  protected  position.  The  electrician  will  readily  see  from  this  diagram 
that  the  parts  are  connected  in  what  is  known  as  a  Wheatstone  bridge,  or  electrical  balance 
circuit ;  and  to  him  no  further  description  will  be  necessary  to  explain  the  fact  that  when  a 
balance  occurs  in  the  bridge  the  indicating  instrument  will  show  no  deflection,  and  that  when 
the  balance  is  disturbed  the  deflection  of  the  index  will  bear  a  relation  to  and  practically 
measure  the  extent  of  the  disturbance.  Thus,  for  example,  supposing  the  two  telescopes  to 
be  placed  in  the  positions  C  and  D,  the  wiper  on  each  then  making  contact  with  the  central 
portion  of  each  arc,  then  the  resistance  which  the  current  will  encounter  in  so  much  of  its 
path  as  extends  from  the  center  of  arc  E  to  the  ends  thereof,  and  then  through  the  wires  a 
and  c  to  the  indicating  instrument,  will  be  equal  to  the  resistance  which  it  will  encounter  in 
the  remainder  of  its  path,  measured  from  the  central  portion  of  arc  ^through  wires  b  and  d 
to  the  indicating  instrument ;  and  therefore  the  index  will  not  be  deflected.  But  if  one  of 
the  telescopes — C,  for  example — be  moved  to  the  position  C',  then  the  travel  of  the  current 
through  the  greater  part  of  the  arc  E  and  over  the  wire  c  will  be  over  a  longer  path  than 
when  it  travels  over  the  less  part  of  the  arc  E  and  the  wire  a;  and,  consequently,  there  will 
be  a  disturbance  in  the  balance,  which  will  be  indicated  by  the  movement  of  the  needle  of  the 
index  to  a  new  position. 

Now  the  telescopes  are  directed  upon  the  object  the  distance  of  which  is  to  be  measured, 
and  this  object  is  marked  at  T  in  the  diagram.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  telescopes  are,  in 
fact,  located  at  the  extremities  of  a  base-line  A  B,  which  may  include  the  whole  length  of 
the  vessel,  or  her  entire  breadth  of  beam.  In  the  one  case  the  two  instruments  would  be 
located  at  the  stern  and  on  the  forecastle,  and  in  the  other  at  opposite  extremities  of  her 
bridge.  Of  course,  the  length  of  this  base-line  is  known,  and  the  distance  A  T  is  the  range 
which  is  to  be  found  out.  Without  going  into  the  trigonometrical  discussion  involved,  it  will 
suffice  to  say  that  the  distance  A  T7  depends  upon  the  extent  of  the  angle  (A  TB\  which  is 
included  between  the  lines  of  sight  of  the  two  telescopes  which  are  directed  upon  the  object. 
If,  then,  one  of  these  telescopes  be  moved  from  the  position  C  to  the  position  C",  for  example, 
it  will  be  evident  that  the  angle  included  between  the  two  positions  of  the  telescope  (C  C') 
will  be  equal  to  the  angle  A  T  B,  and  also  will  be  measured  by  so  much  of  the  arc  E  as  is 
included  between  these  two  positions  of  the  telescope.  But  the  change  in  position  of  the 
telescope,  as  has  already  been  described,  causes  a  disturbance  of  balance  in  the  electrical  cir- 
cuit ;  and  if  the  change  in  position  of  the  telescope  bears  a  relation  to  the  range,  as  it  does, 
then  whatever  measures  the  disturbance  in  the  electrical  circuit  due  to  that  change  will 
equally  measure  the  range ;  so  that  finally  the  range  is  shown  by  the  extent  of  movement  of 
the  index-needle  of  the  indicating  instrument  over  its  dial. 

All  that  is  done  in  practice  is  to  station  two  observers  at  the  two  telescopes  and  cause  them 
to  direct  their  instruments  upon  the  object.  Then  a  third  observer  notes  at  once  the  range 
shown  on  the  dial  of  the  indicator.  If  the  object  moves,  the  two  observers  at  the  telescopes 
simply  follow  it  with  their  instruments,  and  the  needle  of  the  indicator  then  moves  as  the 
range  changes.  Where  the  observers  are  separated  by  a  considerable  distance — as.  for  example, 
the  entire  length  of  a  vessel — thev  may  communicate  with  one  another  by  an  ingenious  tele- 
phonic arrangement  which  is  provided.  The  telephone  transmitter  and  receiver  are  connected 
directly  to  the  telescopes,  so  as  to  partake  of  their  motion,  and  are  so  supported  that  the 
instrument  talked  into  comes  directly  in  front  of  the  mouth  of  the  observer,  while  the  instru- 
ment at  which  he  listens  is  held  close  to  his  ear.  In  this  way  one  observer  can  tell  to  the 
other  not  only  what  object  to  look  at,  but  upon  what  part  of  an  object  to  direct  his  sight — 
often  a  very  important  matter  when  the  presence  of  several  objects  may  create  confusion,  or 
when  the  target  or  some  portion  of  it  is  more  or  less  obscured  by  smoke,  or  when  the  observers 
are  screened  from  one  another  by  deck  structures. 

The  indicating  instrument  may  be  placed  in  any  convenient  position,  and  at  any  distance 
from  the  telescopes.  There  may  be  but  one  indicating  instrument  located,  for  example,  at  a 
given  gun  which  is  to  be  controlled,  or  any  number  of  such  instruments  may  be  placed  in 
the  same  circuit,  when  all  of  them  will  operate  simultaneously  to  show  the  range. 

_ MEASURING- INSTRUMENTS,  MECHANICAL.  The  Bellows  Beam  Micrometer 
(Fig.  1)  is  a,  convenient  instrument  for  mechanics  desiring  close  measurements.  The  beam  is 
provided  with  two  heads — one  fast,  the  other  loose.  The  loose  head  is  dovetailed  to  the  beam, 
open  on  one  side  and  flush  with  the  face  of  the  beam,  and  is  provided  with  a  micrometer- 
screw,  having  -Mn.  adjustment  Set  in  the  face  of  the  loose  head  on  an  angle  of  10°,  and 
held  in  place  by  a  thumb-nut  on  the  reverse  side,  is  a  hardened  stop,  which,  being  angular  on 
its  sides  and  having  no  bearing  on  its  bottom,  will  adjust  itself  in  position.  The  beam  is 
divided  in  half-inches  by  the  insertion  of  steel  pins,  and  the  loose  head  is  quickly  and  ac- 
curately set  by  bringing'the  stop  in  its  face  to  bear  against  them,  and  when  set  is  held  in 


496 


MEASUKING-INSTRUMENTS,   MECHANICAL. 


position  by  a  locking-screw  and  nut,  which  acts  like  a  gib.     Fig.  2  is  a  section  of  the  micro- 
meter screw,  nut,  and  fastening  device. 


FIG.  1. — The  Bellows  micrometer. 


FIG.  2. — The  Bellows  micrometer — section. 


efforts 


Limit  Gauges  for  Round  Iron.— These  gauges  (Figs.  3  and  4)  are  the  outgrowth  of  the 
>rts  of  the  Master  Car-Builders'  Association  to  insure  uniformity  in  the  sizes  of  round 


FIG.  3.— Round-iron  gauge. 


FIG.  4.— Round-iron  gauge. 


bar-iron  for  United  States  standard  bolts.     The  following  table  of  dimensions  for  limit  gauges 
is  recommended : 


Size  of 
iron. 

Size  of  large 
end  of  gauge. 

Size  of  small 
end  of  gauge. 

Difference  in  size  of 
large  and  of  small 
diameter  of  iron. 

Size  of 
iron. 

Size  of  large 
end  of  gauge. 

Size  of  small 
end  of  gauge. 

Difference  In  size  of 
large  and  of  small 
diameter  of  iron. 

jf 

0-2550 
0-3180 
0-3810 
0-4440 
0-5070 
0-5700 

0-2450 
0-3070 
0-3690 
0-4310 
0  4930 
0-5550 

o-oio 
o;on 

0-012 
0-013 
0-014 
0-015 

I  in. 

\\ 

0-6330 
0-7585 

o-swo 

1-0095 
1-1350 
1-2605 

0-6170 
0-7415 
0  8660 
0-9905 
1-1150 
1-2395 

0-016 
0-017 
0-018 
0-019 
0-020 
0021 

The  caliper  gauges  are  drop-forged  from  tool-steel,  and  are  hardened  and  ground  exact  to 
size.  Accompanying  each  set  is  a  standard  cylindrical  reference  gauge,  hardened  and  ground, 
for  each  separate  end 

Measuring-Machines. — The  Pratt  &  Whitney  12-in.  standard  measuring-machine  is  shown 
in  Fig.  5.  The  screw  is  50  threads  per  in.,  and  has  adjustments  for  compensation  for  wear  in 

nut  and  shoulders.  The  index-circle 
is  graduated  to  400  divisions,  giving 
subdivisions  of  7^577  of  an  in. ;  while, 
by  estimation,  this  may  be  further 
subdivided  to  indicate  one  half  or  even 
one  fourth  this  amount.  Delicacy  of 
contact  between  the  measuring-faces  is 
obtained  by  the  use  of  auxiliary  jaws 
holding  a  small  cylindrical  gauge  by 
the  pressure  of  a  light  helical  spring, 
which  operates  the  sliding  spindle,  to 
which  one  of  these  auxiliary  jaws  are 
attached.  The  behavior  of  this  "  sen- 
sitive piece ''  readily  determines  the 
uniformity  of  contact  of  the  measur- 
ing-faces at  zero,  and  upon  the  gauge  which  is  measured  between  them.  An  adjusting  device 
for  the  index-line  is  provided,  to  allow  for  slight  variations  of  position  of  the  measuring-faces 
at  zero,  or  for  any  convenient  reading  on  the  index-circle. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  measuring-machine  made  by  the  Gilkerson  Machine  Works,  of  Homer,  N.  Y. 
The  screw  has  16  threads  to  the  in.,  and  the  wheel  is  graduated  to  read  to  Tirow  m-  by  deci- 
mals, and  also  -a^,  ^,  etc.  The  error  of  the  screw  is  corrected  by  means  of  an  adjustable 
piece  fastened  to  the  bed  of  the  machine.  The  arm  shown  travels  with  the  wheel,  the  lower 
end  bearing  against  the  correcting  piece  being  held  in  contact  by  gravity.  The  upper  end. 
projecting  forward,  has  a  face  on  which  may  be  graduated  a  vernier. 

rl  he  Rogers-Bond  Comparator. — From  a  lecture  delivered  at  the  Franklin  Institute  in  1884 
by  Mr.  George  M.  Bond,  the  head  of  the  gauge  department  of  the  Pratt  &  Whitney  Co.,  who 
was  associated  with  Prof.  Rogers  in  the  design  and  construction  of  the  comparator,  we  abstract 
the  following  description  :  "  The  special  features  of  the  universal  comparator  are,  as  its  name 


FIG.  5.— Measuring-machine. 


MEASURING-INSTRUMENTS,   MECHANICAL. 


497 


implies,  the  variety  of  the  methods  employed  and  the  range  of  work  that  can  be  done  in  com- 
paring standards ;  each  independent  method,  when  carefully  carried  out,  producing  similar 
results,  which  serve  to 
check  or  prove  the  com- 
parisons. It  includes  a 
method  for  investigating 
the  subdivisions  of  the 
standard  by  comparing 
each  part  of  the  total 
length  with  a  constant  or 
invariable  quantity  or  dis- 
tance." 

Referring  to  the  illus- 
trations (Figs.  7,  8,  9),  the 
main  features  of  its  con- 
struction are  the  follow- 
ing :  "A  heavy  cast-iron 
base,  A,  is  mounted  upon 
stone, -capped  brick  piers, 
giving  a  permanent  foun- 
dation to  the  apparatus. 
Upon  this  base,  and  reach- 
ing from  end  to  end,  are  FJO.  6. -Measuring-machine, 
two  heavy  steel  tubes,  B 
and  C,  3  in.  in  diameter,  ground  perfectly  straight,  and  being  '  true '  when  placed  in  the  cen- 
ters of  a  lathe,  the  object  being  to  get  a  straight-line  motion  of  the  microscope-plate  D, 
which  slides  freely  on  these  true  cylinders.  Flexure  of  these  cylindrical  guides  is  overcome 
by  lever-supports  at  the  neutral  points  n  and  n1.  Fitted  closely  to  these  guides  and  outside 
of  the  range  of  motion  of  the  microscope-plate  D  are  two  stops,  ~E  and  F,  one  at  each  end,  as 


FIG.  7.— The  Rogers-Bond  comparator. 

shown  in  the  figure.  These  stops  are  arranged  to  be  adjusted  at  any  desired  position  along 
the  guides,  and  are  securely  held  by  clamping  on  the  under  side  by  the  handles  G  and  H. 
These  stops  are  each  provided  with  a  pair  of  electro-magnets,  1  and  J,  the  poles  of  which  do 
not  quite  come  in  contact  with  the  armature  seen  at  either  end  of  the  microscope-plate. 
Contact  is  made  at  K  and  L,  which  are  hardened  steel  surfaces,  tempered  and  polished,  and 
32 


498 


MEASURING-INSTRUMENTS,   MECHANICAL. 


placed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  center  of  mass  of  the  plate  and  of  the  stops.  The  magnets 
are  intended  to  overcome  the  unequal  pressure  due  to  ordinary  contact,  a  rack  and  pinion  be- 
ing used  to  move  the  plate.  The  magnets  are  used  to  lock  the  microscope-plate  at  each  end 
of  the  traverse  between  the  stops.  The  use  made  of  this  sliding  microscope-plate  and  the 


stops  we  shall  see  presently.  Beyond  the  main  base  just  described,  and  supported  also  on 
brick  piers,  is  an  auxiliary  heavy  cast-iron  frame  N,  which  is  provided  with  lateral  and  ver- 
tical motion  within  the  limits  of  zero,  and  of  8  and  10  in.  respectively,  for  rough  or  ap- 
proximate adjustment,  and  upon  the  top  of  this  frame  are  two  carriages,  0  and  Ol,  which 
slide  from  end  to  end,  a  distance  of  about  40  in.  Upon  these  sliding  carriages  are  placed  ta- 
bles T  and  T1,  provided  with  means  for  minute  adjustment,  for  motion  lengthwise,  sidewise, 
and  for  leveling,  thus  permitting  the  adjustment  of  a  standard  yard-bar  quickly,  and  with- 
out the  necessity  of  its  being  touched  with  the  hands  after  being  placed  upon  the  table  until 
the  work  of  comparison  is  completed. 

"  The  first  operation  in  the  use  of  this  form  of  comparator  is  to  level  the  main  base  A 
(Fig.  9),  then  sliding  the  microscope-plate  D  from  end  to  end  of  the  steel  tubular  guides, 


MILLING-MACHINERY,   GRAIN.  499. 

having  the  microscope  adjusted  so  as  to  be  in  focus  upon  the  surface  of  mercury  contained  in 
a  shallow  trough,  over  which  the  microscope  passes,  the  curvature  due  to  flexure  of  the  guides 
is  determined,  and  may  be  compensated  for  by  counter-weights  at  the  neutral  points  of  sup- 
port, «  and  n1.  In  order  to  test  this  right-line  path  of  the  microscope-plate  horizontally,  the 
method  of  the  '  stops '  is  employed,  or,  another  method,  which  is  that  of  tracing  a  fine  line 
the  entire  length  of  a  standard  bar  upon  its  upper  surface,  and,  reversing  the  bar,  tracing 
another  line  very  near  the  first,  and  at  an  equal  distance  apart  at  each  end  ;  then,  if  this  distance 
is  uniform  between  the  two  lines  the  entire  length,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  path  of  the 
plate  is  a  straight  line  horizontally,  and  at  the  middle  the  amount  of  curvature,  if  any,  and  if 
uniform,  is  readily  determined.  This  method  is  used  by  Prof.  Rogers  with  complete  success. 
The  '  stop  method '  is  to  compare  a  line-measure  or  an  end-measure  bar.  on  each  side  of  the 
center  line  of  motion  of  the  microscope-plate,  using  one  microscope,  and  comparing  this  fixed 
length  with  the  constant  quantity  before  referred  to,  which  is  the  distance  between  the  stops. 
Should  the  path  be  a  curved  one,  the  distance  between  the  defining  lines  upon  the  bar  will 
appear  greater  on  one  side  than  on  the  other,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  curvature  exist- 
ing. The  length  of  the  standard,  being  the  length  of  chords  of  circles  of  different  radii, 
seems,  by  comparison  with  the  stops,  to  be  different  in  length  at  each  position,  caused  by  the 
different  distances  from  the  center  of  curvature — about  18  in.  in  this  instance— over  which 
the  microscope  passes  when  placed  in  these  two  positions.  By  means  of  the  proportion  of 
similar  triangles  thus  formed,  the  length  of  the  radii  may  be  very  accurately  determined.  By 
placing  different  standards  on  one  side  of  the  line  of  the  stops,  they  may  be,  by  being  com- 
pared with  a  constant  quantity,  compared  also  with  each  other. 

"Another  method  for  comparing  two  or  more  standards  is  to  place  two  microscopes,  one 
on  each  of  two  microscope-plates,  upon  the  guides,  at  a  distance  determined  by  the  length  of 
one  of  the  standards,  and  by  replacing  this  one  by  a  second,  the  coincidence  *of  the  lines  in 
the  eye-piece  micrometer,  or  their  variation,  showing  at  once  their  relation.  The  microscopes 
may  'be  placed  horizontally  in  this  same  fixed  relation,  using  the  method  invented  by  J. 
Homer  Lane,  and  which  has  been  successfully  used  in  the  office  of  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey  at  Washington. 

44  The  subdivision  of  these  standards  of  length,  which  is  effected  by  the  use  of  this  same 
process — the  microscope-plate  sliding  between  fixed  stops.  This  is  accomplished  in  the  fol- 
lowing way :  A  yard,  for  instance,  is  to  be  subdivided  into  three  equal  parts,  or  into  three 
separate  fe'et.  We  divide  the  whole  length  by  trial  into  three  parts,  then,  by  setting  the  stops 
so  that  the  microscope-plate  may  move  very  nearly  the  distance  represented  by  the  first  one 
of  the  three  parts,  by  readings  of  the  eye-piece  micrometer  carefully  taken  at  each  end  of  the 
path  of  motion  of  the  microscope,  and  using  the  finely  ruled  lines  by  which  these  three  parts 
are  defined,  we  obtain  the  length  of  this  subdivision  as  compared  with  our  constant  quantity ; 
then,  by  sliding  or  moving  the  bar  along  under  the  microscope  until  the  second  part  is  in 
place,  the  same  operation  is  again  performed,  and  so  for  the  third,  thus  determining  the  relation 
of  each  with  respect  to  this  temporary  or  arbitrary  standard;  then,  by  adding  the  differences 
between  these  separate  parts  and  the  constant  length,  and  taking  the  mean  or  average  of 
these  differences,  from  which  we  subtract  each  difference,  gives  us  the  correction  to  be  applied 
to  each  part  in  order  that  it  shall  be  exactly  one  third  the  total  length,  or.  as  in  case  of  a  yard- 
bar,  giving  us  exactly  12  in.,  or  the  standard  foot.  The  foot  may  then  be  subdivided  in  the 
same  manner  into  12' equal  parts,  establishing  the  standard  inch,  and,  further,  to  £,  ^  -^,  ^, 
or  even  to  T^  of  an  in."  (See  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mech.  Enyrs.,  vol.  iv.,  1882.) 

Measuring- Machine:  see  Leather -Working  Machines  and  Measuring  Instruments, 
Mechanical. 

Micrometer:  see  Measuring  Instruments,  Mechanical. 

Middlerg's  Pumper:  see  Milling  Machines,  Grain. 

Mill,  Grain  :  see  Milling-Machines,  Grain. 

MILLING-MACHINERY,  GRAIN.  A  very  advanced  step  has  been  taken  in  the  last 
twelve  years  by  the  introduction  of  rolls  for  grinding  grain.  This  has  led  to  a  radical  change 
of  systems  of  milling.  The  old  process  of  low-grinding  in  which  the  wheat  was  reduced  to 
flour  by  buhr-stones  at  one  operation,  and  the  more  advanced  "  new-process  "  system,  have 
both  given  way  to  the  Hungarian  or  high-grinding  system,  in  which  the  production  and 
treatment  of  middlings  are  the  essential  features,  as  also  the  production  of  as  little  flour  at  the 
early  operations  in  the  wheat  as  possible.  The  present  systems  of  milling  have  for  their 
object  the  separation  of  the  bran  from  the  flour-producing  portions  of  the  wheat-berry  by 
gradual  reduction,  using  chilled  iron  and  porcelain  rolls  in  place  of  buhr-stones. 

The  rolls  have  proved  a  powerful  factor  in  the  radical  change  of  systems,  though  the 
purifier  must  receive  proper  recognition  of  its  importance  as  a  milling  appliance,  while  the 
various  improved  sifting  and  cleaning  devices  growing  out  of  the  employment  of  the  high- 
grinding  system  all  contribute  to  make  the  latter  pre-eminent  as  a  method  of  producing  a 
quality  of  flour  fitted  to  meet  the  exacting  demands  of  the  day,  and  to  do  this  profitably 
commercially. 

It  is  well  to  note  that  the  so-called  "new-process"  system,  used  in  America  prior  to  the 
introduction  of  rolls,  may  be  considered  a  process  intermediate  between  low-milling  and  the 
Hungarian  system  of  high-milling.  It  no  doubt  had  great  influence  in  preparing  the  way 
for  the  introduction  of  rolls,  and  hastened  the  development  of  the  purifier,  especially  in 
America. 

It  is  stated  that  rolls  were  used  as  early  as  1820,  but  it  was  twenty  years  later  before  they 
attracted  much  attention.  The  noted  Pesth  mill  was  the  first  to  use  rolls  alone  for  the 


500  MILLING-MACHINERY,   GRAIN. 

reduction  of  wheat.  For  over  forty  years,  previous  to  the  general  change  from  stones  to  rolls, 
this  famous  mill  had  been  in  prosperous  condition  ;  and,  while  it  stood  as  a  prominent  illustra- 
tion of  what  rolls  could  do,  millers  generally  were  not  inclined  to  the  idea  that  the  system 
there  used  could  be  advantageously  employed  on  any  other  than  the  hard  wheats  used  in  that 
locality.  Experiment  and  enterprise  have,  however,  brought  about  the  almost  universal  use 
of  rolls  for  the  various  reductions,  and  the  corresponding  abandonment  of  the  time-honored 
millstone.  The  introduction  of  rolls  gave  rise  to  the  more  scientific  phase  of  milling.  With 
a  more  general  knowledge  of  the  physical  structure  of  the  wheat-berry  came  a  better  under- 
standing of  what  was  necessary  to  be  done  to  properly  separate  the  bran  and  germ  from  the 
flour-producing  portions.  The  system  of  low-grinding  made  the  elimination  of  these  portions 
impossible,  since  the  fine,  branny  particles  became  inseparably  mixed  with  the  flour,  as  did 
also  the  crease-dirt  held  in  the  wheat-berry.  The  Austro-Hungarian  or  high-grinding  system 
provides  for  their  separation  at  early  stages  of  reduction,  thus  making  it  possible  to  produce 
a  clear,  sharp  flour.  Gradual  reduction,  where  buhr-stones  are  used,  is  attended  with  the  same 
trouble  as  low-grinding,  though  in  a  far  less  degree.  The  fine  branny  particles  and  some 
crease-dirt  become  mixed  with  the  flour,  due  to  the  more  or  less  tearing  action  of  the  surface 
of  the  stone  on  the  bran,  especially  with  hard  wheats,  and  subsequent  treatment  by  reel  and 
purifier  fails  to  remove  them.  With  proper  treatment  of  the  wheat  by  rolls  the  fine,  branny 
particles  and  crease-dirt,  so  objectionable  when  obtained  in  the  early  stages  of  reduction,  are 
almost  if  not  wholly  avoided,  the  middlings  obtained  are  clean  and  sharp,  the  bran  large  and 
flaky,  and  the  flour  preserving  the  natural  sweetness  of  the  grain.  A  great  impetus  was  given 
to  roller-milling  by  the  introduction,  in  1874,  of  the  Wegmann  roller-mill,  in  which  rolls  of 
porcelain  were  used.  These  mills  were  introduced  into  England  in  the  fall  of  1876,  and  into 
the  United  States  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  by  Mr.  Oscar  Oexle,  of  Augsburg, 
Bavaria. 

The  essential  features  of  this  roller-mill  that  found  ready  acceptance  with  millers  were : 
the  squeezing  action  of  the  rolls,  the  character  of  the  roll-surface,  the  differential  speed  of  the 
rolls,  and  the  use  of  springs  to  keep  the  rolls  up  to  their  work.  Soft  iron,  stone,  chilled  iron, 
and  steel  rolls  had  previously  been  used,  and,  it  was  claimed,  did  not  possess  a  uniform 
porous  surface. 

Close  upon  the  introduction  of  the  porcelain  roll  came  the  more  extended  use  of  corru- 
gated chilled-iron  rolls,  especially  for  the  earlier  operations  upon  the  wheat-berry,  technically 
known  as  break-rolls.  Smooth  rolls  had  for  some  time  been  used  for  flattening  the  germ, 
and,  indeed,  for  crushing  wheat,  while  the  middlings  were  usually  treated  on  stones.  In  the 
early  part  of  1878  great  interest  was  aroused  in  roller-milling,  especially  in  America.  The 
work  done  by  rolls  began  to  be  appreciated.  Since  1878  there  has  been  a  gradual  conversion 
from  stones  to  rolls.  This  period  has  been  marked  not  alone  by  the  introduction  of  rolls,  but 
by  the  practical  application  of  principles  and  appliances  suggested  by  the  processes  employed 
in  the  treatment  of  the  products  coming  from  the  rolls.  The  period  is  also  marked  by  the 
refined  mechanical  construction  of  the  various  appliances  now  used. 

Rolls. — Rolls  are  now  made  almost  exclusively  of  chilled  iron,  with  either  smooth  or  cor- 
rugated surface,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  they  have  to  do.  The  peculiar  gritty 
surface  of  porcelain  rolls  renders  them  well  suited  for  the  reduction  of  purified  middlings, 
but  their  lack  of  durability  as  compared  with  the  chilled  iron  has  led  to  a  preference  for  the 
latter.  Smooth  rolls  are  generally  delivered  to  the  buyer  with  polished  surface,  but  attain  a 
dulled  surface  after  being  in  use  a  short  time.  They  then  give  the  best  results.  This  is  due 
to  the  increased  friction  between  the  particles  of  material  operated  upon  and  the  surface  of 
the  rolls.  It  should  be  understood  that,  as  this  friction  is  increased,  the  pressure  required  for 
reduction  is  decreased.  Prof.  Kick  gives  the  coefficients  of  friction  for  polished  chilled  rolls 
on  hard  semolina  dressed  over  No.  7  silk  as  0-213 ;  that  for  fine  dull  surface,  O287  ;  and  for 
rolls  that  have  been  in  use,  0'325.  On  No.  2  middlings  the  coefficients  are  given  as  0-194, 
0-268,  and  0.306  respectively.  Porcelain  rolls  give  a  coefficient  of  0-404  for  fine  semolina,  and 
0*364  for  No.  2  middlings.  Prof.  Kick  also  states  that  the  whiteness  of  flour  obtained  with 
porcelain  rolls  is  due  to  the  greater  fineness  of  the  product  and  not  the  small  proportion  ot 
bran  impurity. 

The  two  rolls  of  a  pair  may  have  the  same  peripheral  speed,  or  what  is  termed  a  "differ- 
ential "  speed.  When  run  equally  speeded,  smooth  rolls  act  to  granulate,  by  crushing  or 
squeezing.  When  hard  wheat  is  passed  between  smooth  rolls  equally  speeded,'  and  adjusted 
with  proper  distance  between,  the  berry  is  split  lengthwise,  opening  out  the  crease  and  setting 
free  crease-dirt,  and  more  or  less  loo'sening  and  releasing  the  germ.  With  soft  wheat  there  is 
more  of  a  crushing  effect.  Smooth  rclls  are  mostly  used  for  all  reductions  of  purified  mid- 
dlings, reducing  the  large  middlings,  and  when  run  equally  speeded,  flatten  the  germ  without 
the  rubbing  action,  which  tends  to  tear  it.  When  speeded  differentially,  they  effect  a  com- 
bined crushing  and  rubbing  action,  and  require  less  pressure  to  do  their  work  than  when 
equally  speeded.  This  has  led  to  the  general  use  of  differential  speeds,  and  thereby  power  is 
saved  A  differential  speed  of  1|  to  1  is  commonly  used  on  smooth  rolls.  Prof.  Kick  states 
that,  theoretically  considered,  smooth  rolls  in  crushing  use  about  double  the  force  that  is 
required  for  the  shearing  action  of  grooved  rolls  in  the  actual  work  of  reduction,  or  the 
work  of  crushing  is  twice  as  great  as  that  for  shearing.  A  further  advantage  of  differential 
speed  is  the  avoidance  of  "  caking  "  of  the  materials  on  the  rolls. 

Corrugated  rolls  are  generally  used  for  all  reductions  other  than  the  sizing  and  reduction 
of  middlings  and  treatment  of  the  germ,  the  number  of  grooves  corresponding  to  the  size  of 
the  particles  of  material  operated  upon.  Many  forms  of  groove  have  been  employed,  though 


MILLING-MACHINERY,   GRAIN. 


501 


t 


FIG  1.        FIG.  2. 

FIGS.  1,  2.— Corrugated 

rolls. 


but  two  have  attained  extended  use.     They  are  the  sharp  and  dull  corrugations  as  represented 

in  Figs.  1  and  2.     The  first  sharp  form  of  corrugation  used  had  the  sides  of  the  flute  equally 

inclined,  but  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  1,  as  introduced  by  Ganz  &  Co.,  of  Buda-Pesth,  Hungary, 

is  the  type  of  groove  now  employed  for  what  are  termed  cutting-rolls,  as 

opposed  to  the  round  rib  or  non-cutting  rolls  (Fig.  2).     The  action  of  the 

sharp  groove  is  essentially  that  of  shearing ;  relative  speed  of  the  grooves, 

however,  being  necessary  in  producing  this  effect.     Rolls  equally  speeded 

would  act  to  crush  and  bruise  the  grain,  while  to  produce  a  shearing 

action  a  differential  speed  of  2  to  1  is  necessary,  that  one  groove  may 

overtake  the  engaging  grooves  on  the  mate-roll.     Consequently,  these 

rolls  are  generally  speeded  2  or  3  to  1.     The  relative  position  of  the  acting 

surfaces  of  the  grooves  is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  where  a  is  the  fast  roll, 

the  edge  of  flute  pointing  downward,  while  those  of  6,  the  slow  roll, 

point  upward.     If  b  were  made  the  fast  roll,  the  action  would  be  that  of 

crushing  and  rubbing. 

With  the  sharp  flute  four  dispositions  of  the  acting  edges  are  per- 
missible, as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  thus  providing  for  different  qualities  and 
condition  of  the  grain — as,  sharp  to  sharp  for  tough  wheat,  and  dull  to  dull  for  hard  wheat ; 
with  the  other  arrangements  for  intermediate  qualities. 

In  December,  1881,  Mr.  William  D.  Gray,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis.5  took  out  letters-patent  for 
a  form  of  corrugation  in  which  the  ribs  were  abrupt  on  one  side  and  rounded  on  the  other, 
thus  obtaining  the  cutting  and  non-cutting  effect  according  to  the  dispositions  of  the  acting 
sides  of  the  flutes.  With  sharp-cut  rolls  the  edges  left  by  the  corrugating  tool  are  soon  lost,  a 
day  or  two,  it  is  stated,  being  sufficient  to  make  them  feel  smooth.  They  can  be  used  from 
one  and  a  half  to  two  years  before  requiring  to  be  recut.  A  twist  or  spiral  direction  along 
the  roll  is  given  the  grooves  to  prevent  those  of  one  roll  catching  in  the  grooves  of  its  mate. 
This  also  tends  toward  a  more  severe  shearing  action. 

The  direction  of  the  twist  may  be  the  same  on  each  roll  of  a  pair,  or  disposed  in  opposite 
directions.  In  the  former  case  the  grooves  cross  at  line  of  contact  of  rolls,  while  in  the  latter 
they  are  parallel  at  that  line.  On  May  25,  1880,  Mr.  John  Stevens,  of  Neenah,  Wis.,  received 
letters-patent  for  a  roll  having  a  dress  formed  of  grooves  with  rounded  divided  ridges,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2. 

For  this  form  of  corrugation  is  claimed  less  cutting  of  the  bran  and  breaking  of  the  germ. 
The  number  of  grooves  employed  for  the  several  stages  of  reduction  increase  as  the  products 
become  finer.  For  the  five  successive  break  rolls  usually  employed  they  may  be  10.  12, 14,  16, 
and  20  grooves  per  in.  of  circumference  of  roll.  The  bran-rolls  may  have"  24,  and  the  mid- 
dlings reduction-rolls  32  grooves  per  in.  With  sharp  corrugations  there  are  more  grooves  than 
with  the  round,  and  practice  varies  in  regard  to  the  numbers  given  above,  some  preferring  finer- 
grooved  rolls.  The  differential 

SHARP  TO  SHARP.  SHARP  TO  DULL,     usually  employed  for  breaks  is 

2|  to  1,  while  the  same,  or  3  to 

Wl,  is  used  with  scratch-rolls — 
rolls  with  dress  formed  of  shal- 
|Sg  SLOW-  low- waved  grooves,  32  per  in. 
The  diameters  of  rolls  generally 


DULL  TO  DULL. 


FAST. 


>LO\V. 


nsed  are  9  and  6  in. ;  the  lengths. 
12  to  30  in.  Xine-in.  rolls  are 
usually  run  at  300  to  400  revo- 
lutions per  inin.,  and  the  6-in. 
rolls  GOO  revolutions,  the  periph- 
eral speed  being  706  to  942  ft. 
per  min.  First-break  rolls  run 
at  these  speeds  will  pass  from 
90  to  112  Ibs.  of  wheat  per  in. 
of  length  of  roll  per  hour. 
W^here  six  breaks  are  employed, 
an  increase  of  about  If  to  1£ 
times  the  grinding  length  of 
first -break  roll  is  made,  this 
taking  place  at  the  third  or 
fourth  and  following  breaks. 
Variation  in  practice  makes  it  difficult  to  state  proportions  of  grinding  surface  for  middling- 
rolls.  A  given  size  of  roll  grinding  middlings  will  handle  about  three  fourths  the  weight  of 
material  that  the  first-break  roll  of  same  size  will  pass.  The  pressure  on  roll-bearings  is  the 
controlling  factor  in  the  calculation  for  power  required,  the  actual  work  of  granulation  being 
comparatively  insignificant.  Pressures  up  to  3,500  Ibs.  per  bearing  are  used,  the  work  of  fric- 
tion thus  being  for  a  2-pair  mill  15  horse-power.  About  1.000  or  1.500  Ibs.  per  bearing  are 
perhaps  average  pressures  for  9-in.  rolls,  having  spindles  2|  in.  diameter.  Six-in.  rolls  are 
used  with  GOOlo  1.000  Ibs.  per  bearing. 

Roller-Mills. — In  Fig.  4  is  shown  the  well-known  Stevens  roller-mill.  The  frame  is  of  the 
"  skeleton  "  construction,  composed  of  the  two  side-frames  or  legs,  which  are  bolted  to  a 
rectangular  bed  or  top.  The  rolls  are  mounted  in  boxes  as  shown,  the  two  inside  boxes  being 
rigidly  fastened  to  the  bed,  the  two  outer  ones  sliding  on  finished  surfaces.  A  V-shaped  gib, 


DULL  TO  SHARP. 

VAST.  JBraB  SLOW. 


FIG.  3.—  Cosrugated  rolls. 


502 


MILLING-MACHINERY,   GRAIN. 


bolted  to  the  bed,  preserves  the  linear  motion  of  the  sliding-box.  Relative  position  of  the 
rolls  is  attained  by  the  adjustments,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  At  each  corner  of  the  bed  of  the 
machine  are  cast  lugs  which  sustain  the  backward  thrust  of  the  movable  rolls.  Into  these 


FIG.  4. — Stevens  roller-mill. 

lugs  are  fitted  threaded  sleeves,  through  which  the  hand-wheel  stem  is  passed.  A  hexagon 
head  on  the  outer  end  of  this  sleeve  provides  for  turning  it,  and  it  is  screwed  firmly  into  the 
lug,  so  as  to  act  as  a  stud  for  the  spring-nut  shown  to  work  upon.  The  hand-wheel  stem  is 
threaded  at  its  inner  end,  and  passing  through  a  hexagon  nut  seated  in  the  sliding-box,  abuts 
against  the  fixed  box  as  shown.  Turning  the  hand-wheel  moves  the  sliding-box  away  from  or 
toward  the  fixed  box,  and  the  proper  grinding  tension  or  pressure  is  secured  by  setting  up 
the  spring-nut.  Vertical  adjustment  of  the  fixed  roll  is  secured  by  the  parts  as  shown  in 
Fig.  6.  The  adjusting  screw  and  dowel  in  which  the  box  rests  raise  or  lower  it,  while  the 
binding  screws  secure  the  box  firmly  to  the  brackets  after  the  necessary  adjustment  has  been 
made.  The  dowel  aids  to  preserve  the  fixed  lateral  position  of  the  roll-bearing.  The  boxes 
project  beyond  the  end  of  the  short  roll-necks  and  have  enlarged  recesses  to  retain  the  oil 
and  prevent  its  running  down  into  the  frame.  The  tightened  pulley,  mounted  in  its  spindle, 
runs  in  a  frame  vertically  adjustable  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pinion  operated  by  the  cross- 
shaft  shown,  which  latter  is  held  from  rotating  by  pawl  and  ratchet-wheel,  and  is  readily 
turned  when  desired  from  either  end  of  the  machine.  The  pulleys  shown  drive  the  first  rolls  of 
each  pair,  their  mates  being  driven  either  by  belts  or  gears,  arranged  to  provide  the  differential 
of  roll-speed,  the  latter  varying  generally  between  3  to  1  and  1  to  1.  The  spreading  device  shown 
at  the  front  of  the  machine  provides  for  the  simultaneous  movement  of  the  ends  of  the  movable 
roll  without  disturbing  the  working  adjustment  as  made  by  the  hand-wheels  at  each  end  of  the 
roll.  Projecting  from  the  bed  is  a  threaded  stud,  on  which  turns  the  curved  arm  shown,  the 
hub  of  this  arm  being  threaded  to  fit  the  thread  on  the  stud.  In-  front  of  this  arm  is  a  dog 
with  hub  threaded  the  same  as  the  arm,  and  having  its  outer  end  bent  so  as  to  form  a  stop 
for  the  curved  arm  to  rest  against.  At  the  outer  end  of  the  stud  is  a  small  hand-wheel  hav- 


MILLING-MACHINERY,   GRAIN. 


503 


ing  a  left-hand  thread.  Extending  from  the  stud  to  each  band-wheel  are  levers,  one  end  of 
each  pressing  against  the  hub  of  the  curved  arm,  the  other  ends  bearing  against  the  inner 
end  of  the  hand-wheel  hubs. 
Near  the  hand-wheel  stem  and 
attached  to  the  threaded  sleeve 
through  which  it  passes,  is 
placed  a  fulcrum,  the  latter  be- 
ing thus  between  extremities  of 
the  levers — the  operation  of  the 
whole  being  such  that  by  rota- 
ting the  curved  arm,  say  from 
left  to  right,  it  advances  along 
the  stud,  pushing  the  inner  lev- 
er-ends toward  the  frame,  and 
forcing  the  hand-wheels  in  the 
opposite  direction,  and  there- 
fore the  roll  away  from  its  mate. 
By  advancing  the  dog  along 
the  stud  and  setting  up  the  small 
hand-wheel  tight  against  it,  any 
desired  position  of  the  curved 
arm  can  be  maintained.  Rota- 
ting the  curved  arm,  the  dog 
remaining  fixed,  alters  the  ad- 
justment of  the  rolls,  but  they 
can  be  restored  to  their  previous 


Fia.  5. — Roller  adjustment. 


adjustment  by  bringing  the  curved  arm  back  to  the  dog.  Generally  about  i-in.  is  the  maxi- 
mum spread  of  rolls  required.  The  wooden  housing  is  parted  horizontally  at  the  roll  cen- 
ters, the  top  being  lifted  bodily  so  that  the  rolls  can  be  easily  removed  when  necessary. 
In  the  top  is  placed  the  feed-device.  This  consists  essentially  of  two  gates,  extending  across 
the  top  part  of  the  housing,  and  swung  on  axes  at  their  upper  edge,  and  connected  by  levers 
and  links,  so  that  motion  of  one  implies  that  of  the  other.  The  upper  gate  forms  one  side 
of  a  V-shaped  hopper,  into  which  the  material  falls.  The  lower  edge  of  the  other  gate  ap- 
proaches a  feed-roll  located  as  shown  by  the  extended  bearings  near  the  bottom  of  feed- 
hoppering.  Fastened  to  the  shaft  on  which  this  gate  swings  is  the  arm  carrying  the  counter- 
weight. 

When  no  material  is  in  the  hopper,  this  lower  gate  is  swung  against  the  feed-roll,  but  as 
material  enters  in  the  upper  gate  it  accumulates  in  the  hopper  formed  by  this  gate  and  the 

stationary  cant-board  at  center  of  the 
housing,  until  the  weight  is  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  effect  of  the  counter-weight, 
when  this  upper  gate  swings  down,  allow- 
ing the  material  to  pass  to  the  space  below 
it,  where  it  meets  the  lower  swinging  gate, 
and  passes  between  its  lower  edge  and  the 
feed-roll  to  the  grinding-rolls  beneath. 
The  secondary  hopper  is  provided  so  that 
material  coming  into  it  from  the  first  hop- 
per will  have  a  chance  to  distribute  itself 
over  the  entire  length  of  the  feed-roll. 
The  greater  the  quantity  of  material  press- 
ing against  the  upper  gate,  the  greater  the 


FIG.  6. — Roller  bearings. 


opening  at  the  feed-roll,  and  consequently  the  greater  the  quantity  passing  to  the  grinding- 
rolls.  The  desired  quantity  of  feed  can  be  obtained  by  adjusting  the  counter-weight  on  its 
arm.  The  lower  part  of  the  housing  contains  the  brushes  for  cleaning  the  rolls,  and  the  door 
in  front  permits  access  to  materials  passing  from  the  rolls.  The  feed-rolls  are  driven  by  a 
single  belt  passing  from  the  neck  of  one  slow  roll  over  each  pulley  on  the  feed-rolls,  and  the 
tightener-pulley  shown  at  top  of  the  housing. 

The  following  table  gives  the  dimensions,  capacity,  etc.,  of  mills  using  a  belt-drive  on  the 
slow  roil : 


9*30. 

9x24. 

9x18. 

9x15. 

6x20. 

6x15. 

6x12. 

Length  )  ( 
Width  y  Space  over  all.  .  . 

5'-2" 
5'-7i" 
5'-6" 
4'-5" 
3'-5*" 
18"  >  7" 
18"  x  6" 
3'-2" 
400 
500  to  600 
4  to  6 

5'-2" 

5'-or; 

5'-6" 
4'-5" 
2'-m" 
18"x6i" 
I8"x5i" 
3'-3"  " 
400 
400  to  500 
3  to  5 

5'-2" 
4'-5J" 
5'  -6" 
4'-5v 

2'-2*" 

16"  x  6" 
16"  x  5" 
3'-2" 
400 
250  to  300 
2  to  4 

5'-2" 
4'-Oi" 
5'-6" 
4'-5" 
2'-OJ" 
15"  x  6" 
15"  x  5" 
3'-2" 
400 
200  to  250 
2  to  3 

4MJi" 

4'-3j" 
5'-0" 
3'-8" 

r-7" 

10"  x  5£" 
10"  x  4*" 
2'-lH" 
600" 
200  to  300 
U  to  2* 

4'-6*" 
8'-7f" 

5'-0" 
3'-8" 
2'-2|" 
10"  x  5" 
10"  x  4" 
2'-lU" 
600 
150  to  200 
1  to  2 

4'-<H" 
3'-4J" 
5'-0" 
3'-8" 
I'-IO" 
10"  x  5" 
10"  x  4" 
2'-lli" 
600 
120  to  150 
1  toH 

Height  (  | 
wS!5?  !•  Space  on  floor 

w  idth    f    *                                           | 
Pulleys,  fast  rolls  
1  '        slow  rolls  

Floor  to  center  of  pulleys  
Speed. 

Capacity,  bbls.  per  24  hours  

Power  required  (h.-p.  ),  approximate 

504 


MILLING-MACHINERY,   GRAIN. 


Several  makes  of  roller-mills  are  made  with  box-frame  construction,  and  with  rolls  mounted 
in  swinging  arms.  The  Gray  mill  is  the  pioneer  in  this  form  of  construction.  In  this  mill 
the  vertical  adjustment  of  the  rolls  is  obtained  by  an  eccentric  bush  fitting  over  the  stud,  on 

which  the  swinging  arms  are  suspended. 
Motion  to  the  rolls  is  obtained  by  the 
use  of  one  belt,  a  counter-shaft  and  pul- 
leys running  in  boxes  hung  to  the  frame 
acting  to  transmit  motion  from  the 
main  belt  to  the  slow  rolls,  a  pulley  on 
one  end  of  the  counter  being  the  tight- 
ener pulley  for  the  main  belt,  while  the 
pulley  on  the  other  end  of  the  counter 
serves  to  carry  the  slow-roll  belt 

Fig.  7  shows  a  method  for  driving 
both  fast  and  slow  rolls  in  a  Stevens 
double  mill  which  has  proved  satisfac- 
tory. The  large  pulley  on  the  line-shaft 
beneath  the  floor  drives  the  fast  rolls, 
the  small  pulley  the  slow  ones.  The 
means  for  tightening  the  belts  are  read- 
ily seen.  In  some  short  systems  of  mill- 
ing only  two  or  three  breaks  are  made, 
and  in  such  cases  the  machines  shown 
in  Fig.  8  can  be  used  especially  where 
economy  of  room  is  necessary.  The  ma- 
chine shown  has  two  pairs  of  corru- 
gated rolls  and  two  reciprocating  sieves. 
The  grain  passes  through  the  first  or 
upper  pair  of  rolls  and  on  to  the  first  or 
upper  sieve.  A  separation  of  the  prod- 
uct is  here  made,  flour  and  middlings 
passing  through  the  sieve  and  away  from 
the  machine ;  the  large  unreduced  por- 
tion passes  over  the  tail  of  the  sieve  on 
to  the  second  pair  of  rolls,  and  from 
there  on  to  the  second  sieve,  when  a 
second  separation  is  made.  The  sieves 
have  traveling  brushes  beneath  them, 
thereby  enabling  the  meshes  to  be  kept 
clean.  The  machine  is  driven  by  a  sin- 
gle belt,  and  adapted  to  mills  of  75  to  150  bbls.  capacity,  the  power  required  being  from  3£ 
horse-power  with  9  X  14  in.  rolls  to  6  horse-power  with  9  X  30  in.  rolls. 

In  Fig.  9  is  shown  a  type  of  roller- 
mill  used  in  grinding  corn,  as  made  by 
the  Nordyke  &  Marmon  Co.,  of  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.  Three  pairs  of  rolls  are 
used,  disposed  so  as  to  break  the  grain 
successively.  The  first  pair  are  ad- 
justed solely  by  the  hand-wheels  shown, 
while  the  middle  and  lower  pairs  are 
spread  or  thrown  together  by  a  single 
lever.  The  fast  roll  of  each  pair  is 
driven  by  one  belt  from  the  main  shaft. 
The  slow  rolls  are  driven  by  gears.  The 
machine  is  built  very  rigid  in  order  to 
meet  the  hard  usage  found  in  this  clas? 
of  work.  In  a  mill  using  rolls  9  X  34 
in.  the  capacity  is  stated  to  be  65  to  100 
bush,  per  hour,  and  the  power  required 
12  to  20  horse-power.  The  upper  pul- 
ley runs  400,  the  middle  445,  and  the 
lower  500  revolutions  per  min.  The 
pulleys  are  20,  18,  and  16  in.  diameter 
and  8£  in.  face  for  upper,  middle,  and 
lower  drives  respectively. 

Scalping- Reels. — The  seal  ping-reels 
handle  the  break-roll  products,  succes- 
sively separating  the  break  flour  and 

middlings    from   the   coarser   material  FIG.  8.— Graj-  roller-mill, 

after  each  break.      The    reel-frame    is 

made  either  hexagon  or  round  in  form.  In  the  former  the  tail  end  is  larger  than  the  head ; 
in  the  latter  the  shaft  is  depressed  at  the  tail  end  to  carry  the  material  through.  The  reel- 
shaft  is  of  iron,  and  the  wooden  ribs  are  attached  to  iron  spiders  on  the  shaft.  The  wooden 


FIG.  ?.— Driving  gear. 


MILLING-MACHINERY,    GRAIN. 


505 


head  is  provided  with  the  usual  opening,  through  which  is  introduced  a  feed-spout  with  the 
customary  conveyor-spiral  to  feed  the  material  into  the  reel.  The  round  reels,  in  scalping 
as  in  flour-dressing,  are  receiving  much 
attention  as  to  detail,  and  are  gaining  in 
popular  favor.  Seal  ping- reels  are  clothed 
with  wire  cloth,  silk  cloth,  or  perforated 
steel,  and  are  from  18  to  36  in.  diameter 
and  from  4  to  9  ft.  long.  They  are  now 
commonly  driven  by  belt  or  chain  direct 
f rom  the  line  or  counter  shaft,  and  are  run 
about  28  revolutions  per  min.  for  a  32-in. 
reel.  The  slant  is  from  £  to  f  in.  per  foot. 
The  reel-chests  are  usually  made  to  con- 
form to  the  style  and  sizes  of  those  of  the 
centrifugal  and  round  reels  for  flour-dress- 
ing described  later.  The  speed  should  be 
about  50  revolutions  per  min.  for  18-in. 
reels  to  28  revolutions  for  a  32-in.  reel. 

Centrifugal  Reels. — In  recently  erected 
flour-mills  the  old  hexagon  bolting-reel  has 
been  supplanted  by  the  centrifugal  and 
round  reels,  and  especially  has  the  latter 
been  favorably  received.  The  hexagon  reel 
and  its  chest,"the  former  32  in.  in  diameter 
and  from  12  to  16  ft.  long,  the  latter  ex- 
ceeding these  dimensions,  have  been  found 
too  cumbersome  for  modern  purposes,  es- 
pecially in  America,  and  reels  considerably 
smaller  and  of  far  greater  capacity  are  now 
found  taking  their  places.  Fig.  10  is  a 
perspective  view,  and  Fig.  11  a  cross-sec- 
tion of  a  centrifugal  reel,  as  made  by  the 
E.  P.  Allis  Co.,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis.  Re- 
ferring to  the  cross-section,  it  will  be  seen 
that  on  the  beater-shaft  are  placed  the  spiders  to  which  are  attached  the  beaters,  the  lat- 
ter running  lengthwise  of  the  reel  and  inclined  to  a  radius  from  the  center  of  shaft,  act- 
ing thus  to  throw  the  material  against  the  bolting  cloth,  which,  mounted  on  a  reel-frame, 
surrounds  the  beaters,  etc.  The  latter  are  set  close  to  the  cloth  to  keep  the  stock  thor- 
oughly in  motion,  preventing  accumulation  and  thereby  giving  full  action  to  the  reel.  They 
run  spirally  lengthwise  of  the  reel,  thus  carrying  the  material  gradually  toward  the  tail  end, 


FIG.  9.— Roller-mill  for  corn. 


FIG.  10.— Centrifugal  reel — elevation. 

retaining  it  long  enough  on  the  cloth  to  do  the  work  properly.  The  silk  reel  is  mounted  on 
trunnions  which  surround  the  beater-shaft  at  the  head  and  tail  of  the  reel,  and  rotates  at  a  less 
speed  and  in  the  same  direction  as  the  beater-shaft.  A  revolving  brush,  as  shown,  is  used  to 
keep  the  cloth  clean.  The  silk  reels  are  made  21,  27,  and  32  in.  diameter  and  from  4  to  8  ft. 
long.  The  outside  dimensions  for  a  32-in.  reel-chest  are:  11  ft.  7  in.  long,  3  ft.  6  in.  wide, 
and  5  ft.  3  in.  high.  The  conveyers  are  placed  side  by  side  with  partition  between,  as  shown, 
to  which  the  cut-off  tongues  are  hinged,  the  latter  extending  up  to  the  hoppering.  Material 
is  directed  into  either  conveyer  by  placing  the  tongues  against  either  side  of  the  hopper. 
With  the  centrifugal  it  is  necessary  to  provide  some  safeguard  to  prevent  foreign  substances 
from  entering  the  reel.  This  should  be  a  basket  of  wire-cloth  or  other  suitable  material  which 


506 


MILLING-MACHINERY,   GRAIN. 


can  be  readily  cleaned.     In  this  class  of  machines  the  speed  of  silk  reel  should  not  be  so  great 
that  the  material  is  held  against  the  cloth  by  the  centrifugal  force  due  the  speed.     The  speed 

of  beater-shaft  is  usually  10  or  12  times  that  of  the  silk  reel,  a 
usual  speed  for  the  latter  being  18  to  20  revolutions  per  min. 
It  is  the  aim  of  makers  of  centrifugals  at  the  present  time  to 
direct  the  material  against  the  silk  at  a  very  acute  angle,  so 
that  sliding  of  the  material  over  the  surface  of  the  cloth  shall 
take  place,  fully  recognizing  the  value  of  this  action  as  ob- 
tained with  the  now  old  style  hexagon  reel- 

Round  Reels. — A  later  machine,  and  one,  it  is  claimed,  that 
overcomes  the  alleged  defects  of  the  centrifugal,  is  shown  in 
cross-section  at  -Fig,  12.  This  class  of  machine  has  rapidly 
gained  in  favor  since  its  introduction,  about  four  years  ago, 
and  is  said  to  have  fully  demonstrated  the  superiority  of  the 
round-reel  bolting  system.  The  cut  shows  a  flour-dresser 
made  by  the  Allis  Co.,  the  perspective  view  of  which  is  almost 
identical  with  that  of  the  centrifugal  already  noticed.  The 
reel,  mounted  on  the  main  shaft,  consists  of  a  substantial 
casting  at  each  end,  upon  which  wooden  rings  are  placed,  to 
which  the  cloth  is  attached.  Round  rods  connect  the  head 
and  tail  end  castings,  and  to  these  are  attached  rib-rings  for 
the  cloth  and  carriers,  preventing  contact  of  cloth  with  the 
rods.  Within  these  rods  is  placed  a  light  sheet-iron  drum, 
fastened  firmly  to  the  shaft.  The  carriers  are  pitched  spi- 
rally toward  the  tail,  leading  the  stock  continually  in  that  di- 
rection. Sufficient  space  is  left  between  the  outer  edge  of 
the  carriers  and  the  cloth,  also  between  the  inner  edge  of  the 


Centrifugal  reel— cross  section 


carriers  and  the  drum,  to  enable  the  stock  to  bolt  properly  without  heating  or  rough  hand- 
ling, thus  avoiding  flouring  of  the  stock.  The  flouring  of  the  material,  as  alleged  to  take 
place  with  the  centrifugal  reel,  as  also  the  increased  quantity  of  bolting-cloth  necessary,  are 
factors  against  the  centrifugal ;  while  the  great  capacity  and  effectiveness  of  the  round  reel 
has  led  to  its  extended  adoption.  The  room  occupied  and  power  required  are  greatly  de- 
creased as  compared  with  the  hexagon  reel — the  round  reel,  it 
is  claimed,  doing  the  same  work  as  the  hexagon,  with  from 
one  half  to  one  third  the  length  of  reel.  Inventors  have 
striven  to  produce  a  reel  in  which  the  full  circumference  could 
be  utilized  for  sifting,  in  place  of  only  the  lower  portion,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  hexagon  reel.  The  centrifugal  and  round 
reels  are  intended  to  do  this,  the  latter  appearing  to  have  ac- 
complished the  object  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner.  The 
difference  in  the  action  of  these  two  machines  is  readily  un- 
derstood by  an  inspection  of  Figs.  11  and  12.  In  erecting  new 
mills  a  great  saving  in  millwright  work  is  effected  by  the 
use  of  this  class  of  reel.  They  come  from  the  manufacturer 
complete  and  ready  to  be  set  "in  position,  one  being  readily 
placed  on  top  of  another.  In  mills  using  the  complete  sys- 
tem of  centrifugal  or  round  reels  the  saving  in  room  is 
stated  to  be  about  one  half,  and  the  saving  in  first  cost  of 
machines  nearly  one  third.  The  reels  are  driven  by  belts,  and 
are  usually  made  from  21  to  32  in.  diameter,  and  the  cloth  is 
from  6  to  8  ft.  long,  the  approximate  power,  as  given  by  the 
makers,  being  0*2  horse-power  and  0'6  horse-power  respect- 
ively. 

Purifiers. — The  George  T.  Smith  purifier,  so  well  and  fa- 
vorably known,  is  regarded  as  the  standard  machine  of  its 
class.  The  main  features  of  this  machine  have  never  been 
departed  from,  and  are :  An  upward  current  of  air  through 
the  covering  of  a  reciprocating  sieve,  clothed  with  silk  of 
increasingly  coarser  mesh  from  head  to  tail ;  an  inclosed  air- 
space above  the  sieve,  divided  by  transverse  partitions  into  separate  compartments  having 
practically  no  communication  with  each  other,  and  each  opening  into  the  chamber  of  an  ex- 
haust-fan through  an  adjustable  valve,  arranged  to  regulate  the  strength  of  the  air-current 
through  each  compartment  separately ;  a  series  of  dust-settling  chambers  or  testing  pockets, 
corresponding  in  number  to  the  compartments  above  mentioned,  and  a  brushing  device  oper- 
ated automatically  and  working  against  the  under  side  of  the  sieve  clothing.  This  com- 
bination has  proved  a  very  efficient  one.  There  are  numerous  other  makes  of  purifiers,  but 
the  Smith  purifier  may  be  regarded  as  a  standard  machine.  The  use  of  dust-collectors  in 
connection  with  these  machines  has  led  to  economy  of  space  and  increase  in  convenience  in 
providing  for  the  dust-laden  air  coming  from  the  purifier-sieve. 

The  Prinz  dust-collector  is  favorably  known,  and  has  long  since  settled  the  knotty  dust- 
room  question. 

A  new  principle,  that  of  the  "  cyclone  "  dust-collector,  has  recently  been  put  into  practical 
operation,  the  essential  features  of  which  are  embodied  in  the  machine  noted  below. 


F.G.  12. 
Round  reel — cross  section. 


MILLING-MACHINERY,   GRAIN. 


507 


This  machine,  which  bids  fair  to  be  a  formidable  rival  to  the  sieve  purifier  and  attached 
dust-collector,  was  lately  devised  by  Mr.  N.  W.  Holt,  of  Manchester,  Mich.,  and  made  by  the 
Knickerbocker  Co.,  of  Jackson,  Mich.  Fig.  13  shows  the  exterior,  and  Figs.  14  and  15  the  in- 
terior. The  stock  is  fed  into  the  feed-spout  A  upon  each  side  of  the  machine.  Two  grades 


FIG.  is. 


FIG.  14. 
FIGS.  13-15.— Holt  dust-collector. 


FIG.  15. 


of  stock  may  be  handled  at  the  same  time.  From  the  feed-spout  it  passes  to  the  feed-box  B, 
which  vibrates  with  the  sieve  or  shaker,  causing  the  stock  to  flow  over  the  lower  overlapping 
shelves  in  a  thin,  even  sheet,  where  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  air-current,  as  shown.  The  purified 
middlings  then  pass  out  at  spouts  C  C,  the  cut-off  at  U,  and  the  dust  at  spout  E.  The  fan 
placed  at  the  top  provides  the  air-circulation.  The  upper  series  of  shelves  shown  are  air-gates 
adjustable  to  suit  the  intensity  of  the  air-current  required  at  the  several  points  of  the  sieve, 
while  gates  at  the  eye  of  the  fan  control  the  air-circulation  as  a  whole.  The  dust-laden  air  is 
discharged  from  the  fan  through  the  pipe  leading  downward  from  the  top  part  of  the  purifier 
into  what  is  called  the  cyclone  part  of  the  machine,  where  the  dust  and  air  separate,  the  dust 
eventually  settling  at  the  bottom  of  the  cone-shaped  part  and  passing  away  from  the  machine, 
the  air  returning  through  the  sieve,  to  be  again  used.  The  same  air  is  used  over  and  over, 
and,  not  being  renewed  from  without  the  machine,  excludes  the  possibility  of  smoke  or  dust 
from  the  external  atmosphere  affecting  the  products.  No  cloth  is)  used,  and  the  air  being 
confined  inside  the  machine  renders  it  dustless.  The  power  required  is  very  small,  a  driving- 
pulley  7  in.  diameter  and  3£  in.  face,  running  600  revolutions  per  min.,  being  all  that  is  re- 
quired to  drive  it.  The  capacity  of  the  machine  as  now  made  is  equivalent  to  one  medium 
sieve  purifier. 


FIG.  16.— Bran-duster. 


Bran-Dusters. — Economy  in  the  production  of  high-grade  flours  calls  for  proper  cleaning 
of  the  bran.  The  effect  of  the  bran  rolls  is  to  flatten  the  bran,  leaving  it  broad  and  flaky  and 
loosening  the  adhering  particles,  so  that  by  subsequent  treatment  by  the  bran-duster  these 
particles  are  regained  and  further  treated.  The  latter  operation  is  performed  in  the  machine 


508 


MILLING-MACHINES. 


shown  in  Fig.  16,  which  consists  of  a  rapidly  revolving  shaft  on  which  are  mounted  brushes 
running  lengthwise  of  the  shaft  and  made  adjustable  toward  or  from  the  slowly  revolving 
dusting-case  which  surrounds  them.  This  dusting-case,  clothed  with  fine  wire-cloth,  is,  in 
this  machine,  cone-shaped,  the  material  being  fed  and  discharged  as  indicated  in  the  engrav- 
ing. A  brush  outside  the  wire-cloth  keeps  it  clear,  and  the  conveyer  beneath  serves  to  handle 
the  products  ccming  through  the  cloth.  The  shaft  makes  from  400  to  450  revolutions  per 
min.,  according  to  size  of  machine,  the  pulleys  14  X  7  in.  and  8x5  in.  respectively.  The 
sizes  of  machines  given  handle  the  offal  from  mills  of  600  to  60  bbls.  capacity  in  24  hours. 

Books  for  reference :  Gradual  Reduction  Milling,  by  L.  U.  Gibson  ;  Flour  Manufacture, 
by  P.  Kick,  Powles'  translation,  1888 ;  Die  Osterreichische  Hochmullerei,  by  Franz  Kreuter, 
1884. 

Milling-Machine  :  see  Key-Seat  Cutters  and  Nut-Facing  Machine. 

MILLING-MACHINES.  HORIZONTAL  SPINDLE  MILLING-MACHINES. —  Universal  Milling 
and  Boring  Machine. — Fig.  1  shows  a  combined  boring  and  milling  machine  made  by  the 


L 


122 


Fict.  1. — Boring  and  imlling-rna< 


States  Machine  Co.,  of  Newark,  N.  J.  The  inner  or  boring  spindle,  reamed  for  a  Morse  socket, 
has  a  power-feed  13  in.  in  both  directions,  and  its  thrust,  directly  from  the  back,  is  operated 
by  a  screw  attached  to  it  by  an  interlocking  device.  Feed  is  taken  from  a  worm  on  the  main 
spindle  and  is  geared  to  a  feed-shaft  for  hand  or  power  feed.  This  feed-shaft,  on  its  front 
end,  has  a  hand-wheel,  giving  a  quick  return.  From  there  it  extends  to  the  end  of  the  main 
spindles,  where  it  is  geared  to  the  feed-screw  by  a  sensitive  friction-gear,  so  that  the  power- 
feed  can  be  set,  in  case  a  drill  be  dull  or  feed  too  fast,  to  regulate  the  thrust  automatically,  as 

a  workman  would  by  hand.  The  overhead  arm  sup- 
ports a  detachable  drill-jig  pendant.  The  platen 
has  an  adjustment  graduated  to  '001  in.,  and  has 
deep-grooved  T-slots  open  at  either  end,  with  a  cir- 
cular T-slot  and  attachment-seat  in  the  center.  The 
platen  can  be  turned  at  any  angle  or  all  the  way 
around,  and  fastened  where  desired.  The  knee  has 
an  adjustment  up  and  down,  graduated  to  -001  in., 
and  the  saddle  upon  the  knee  has  an  adjustment  to 
and  from  the  column  graduated  to  -001  in.  When 
used  as  a  milling-machine  the  main  spindle,  3  in.  in 
diameter,  does  all  the  milling  independent  of  the 


telescoping  spindle,  which  does  all  the  boring  and 
drilling.     Millii 


FIG.  2.— Circular  attachment. 


lling  arbors  and  chucks  screw  on  to  the 
main  spindle  as  face-plates  do  on  lathes.  The  mill- 
ing-feed is  driven  from  the  overhead  gears,  which  are 
mounted  on  the  milling-feed  shaft,  and  slide  into 
position  endwise  upon  feathered  keys  ;  therefore 
either  of  them  may  be  engaged  with  the  spindle-gears.  The  feed-shaft  pulley  is  belted  to 
feed-cones,  and  these  are  connected  to  the  platen  by  a  pair  of  universal  joints.  There  are  16 
changes  of  milling- feed.  The  platen  is  fed  by  power  24  in.,  and  operates  at  angle  adjust- 
ments as  well  as  the  usual  cross-position.  The  "elevating,  cross,  and  traverse  adjustments  are 


MILLING-MACHINES. 


509 


A  circular  milling  attachment  for  this  machine,  shown 
balance-wheels  (which  are  milled  between  the 
)ieces  as  need  the  whole  or 

part  of  their  surfaces  concentric  to  a  given  point,     it  is  especially  useful  in  duplicate  work, 
when  many  parts  of  the  same  character  are  required. 


respectively  18  in.,  24  in.,  and  12  in. 
in  Fig.  2,  is  used  in  machining  gear-blanks,  balance-wheels  (which 
spokes  as  well  as  the  periphery),  pistons,  and  such  other  circular  pi 
part  of  their  surfaces  concentric  to  a  given  point.  It  is  especially 


FIG.  3.— Horizontal  milling-machine. 

Seaman  &  Smith's  Horizontal  Spindle  Mining-Machine  (Fig.  3)  is  intended  for  long  and 
heavy  cuts,  such  as  guide-bars,  connecting-rods,  key-seating  shafting,  axles  to  10  in.  diameter, 
etc.  The  table  is  14  in.  wide,  has  three  T-slots,  moves  by  a  cut  rack,  and  is  so  geared  as  to  be 
easily  operated  by  hand.  The  cross-head  is  gibbed  to  the  housings,  and  is  adjusted  by  a 


FIG.  4. — Milling-machine. 

screw  with  graduated  dial.  The  spindle  runs  in  bronze  bearings,  is  driven  by  a  3i-in.  belt 
over  a  16-in.  pulley,  through  gearing  in  the  ratio  of  5  to  1,  arranged  for  4  speeds.  Provision 
is  made  for  horizontal  adjustment  of  cutters.  The  feed  is  actuated  by  means  of  a  worm  and 
gear.  It  can  be  thrown  out  by  hand  or  stopped  automatically,  and  is  the  full  length  of  the 
table. 


510 


MILLING-MACHINES. 


Grant's  Double-Column  Milling- Machine.— Fig.  4  shows  Grant's  double-column  milling- 
machine  as  built  by  the  Pratt  &  Whitney  Co.  More  rigidity  than  is  possible  in  a  single- 
column  machine  is  obtained  in  this  by  placing  the  head-stock  and  foot-stock  on  a  double 
column  and  fitting  the  elevating  slide  between  the  uprights  with  provision  for  clamping  it 
firmly  to  each  when  in  use.  Both  vertical  and  longitudinal  adjustments  of  the  table  may  be 
varied  minutely  by  aid  of  graduations  in  thousandths  of  an  inch  conveniently  placed. 

Reed's  Double-Head  Milling- Machine.— Fig.  5  shows  a.  machine  built  by  F.  E.  Reed,  of 
Worcester  Mass.  It  is  designed  for  milling  the  ends  of  girts,  beams,  and  a  large  variety  of 

other  long  work.  The  illustration  shows  the  ma- 
chine milling  loom-girts,  the  ends  of  which  are 
4  by  7i  in.  It  is  said  to  finish  88  of  them  in  10 
hours.  It  is  provided  with  one  sliding-head,  to 


admit  of  milling  any  length  desired  on  both  ends 
at  the  same  time.     The  she 


ices  in  which  the  tables 

slide  can  be  moved  together  or  separately  by 
means  of  rack-and-pinion  gear.  The  tables  have 
automatic  feed,  or  can  be  run  by  hand,  together 
or  separately. 

VERTICAL  SPINDLE  MILLING-MACHINES. — Mill- 
ing-machines with  vertical  spindles  and  travers- 
ing or  rotating  tables  for  holding  the  work  have 
come  largely  into  use  within  the  past  few  years. 
They  offer  many  advantages  in  the  range  of 
work  of  which  they  are  capable,  and  in  the  con- 
venience and  solidity  with  which  the  work  is 
held.  They  are  made  in  quite  a  variety  of 
forms  by  different  makers,  much  originality  be- 
ing shown  in  their  design.  We  illustrate  below 
several  forms. 

Fig.  6  represents  the  Brown  &  Sharpe  Verti- 
cal Spindle  Miller.  This  is  a  convenient  ma- 
chine for  the  various  operations  of  milling  which 
can  be  done  with  an  end  or  face  mill ;  the  work 
being  held  upon  the  platen,  and  the  spindle 
standing  vertically  over  the  same,  enables  the 
operator  to  plainly  see  or  to  guide  the  work,  to 
follow  any  irregularity  of  outline  of  any  raised 
surfaces  to  be  milled.  The  platen  has  longi- 
tudinal and  transverse  movement.  The  spindle 
has  a  hole  throughout  its  length,  through  which 
a  bolt  is  passed  for  holding  the  arbors.  The  ad- 
justment of  the  spindle  is  made  by  raising  the 
column,  a  fine  adjustment  being  obtained  by  a 
graduated  collar-nut  reading  to  thousandths  of 
an  inch.  The  feed  is  automatic  at  will,  in  either 
direction,  stopping  automatically  at  any  required 
point. 

The  Hilles  &  Jones  Milling- Machine.— ¥\g.  7 
shows  a  new  design  of  vertical  milling-machine 
built  by  Hilles  &  Jones,  of  Wilmington,  Del.  It 
is  adapted  for  locomotive,  engine,  and  other 
heavy  work.  A  radial  crane  is  attached  for  lift- 
ing heavy  pieces.  The  table  is  furnished  with 
both  rotary  and  traverse  motions. 

The  Seaman  &  Smith  Mill  ing- Machine. — 
Fig.  8  represents  a  vertical  milling-machine  built 
by  Beaman  &  Smith,  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  for 
surface  milling,  using  face  or  end  cutters  from 
4  to  12  in.  in  diameter. 
E.  W.  Bliss  Co.'s  Vertical  Milling- Machine,  shown  in  Fig  9,  is  designed  for  die-work,  as 
well  as  for  much  work  of  a  general  character  hitherto  done  on  planing  and  shaping  ma- 
chines. Circular,  longitudinal,  and  cross  feeds  are  provided,  the  latter  being  automatic,  and 
having  four  changes  of  speed.  The  head  which  carries  the  spindle  is  adjustable  as  to 
height,  and  is  counterbalanced.  The  spindle  is  suited  for  operating  side,  bottom,  and  facing 
cutters. 

Vertical  or  Angular  Attachment  for  Milling- Machines. — This  attachment  (Fig.  10)  is  built 
for  use  on  the  milling-machine  manufactured  by  Pedrick  &  Ayer.  It  is  adapted  to  the  cutting 
of  racks,  spur  and  bevel  gears,  profiling,  or  angular  milling,  etc.  It  is  secured  to  the  head  of 
the  milling-machine,  and  is  driven  by  a  socket  fixed  in  the  spindle,  which  is  key-seated  to  fit 
the  keyed  stud  in  the  attachment.  ^Through  the  medium  of  a  pair  of  mitre-wheels  this  stud 
drives  a  spindle  at  right  angles  to  the  vertical  attachment.  This  spindle  is  geared  with  a 
shaft  in  line  with  it,  which  is  utilized  as  a  cutter  or  saw  arbor  for  cutting  racks,  sawing  up 
stock,  etc. 


MILLING-MACHINES. 


51  i 


Locomotive  Cylinder-Port  Hilling- Machine. — This  machine  (Fig.  11),  built  by  Beaman  & 
ith,  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  is  designed  especially  to  mill  the  ports  of  locomotive  cylinders. 


Smith 


FIG.  6.— Vertical  spindle  miller. 

It  can  be  readily  attached  to  any  standard  locomotive  cylinder.     The  frame  or  bed  is  fastened 
to  the  steam-chest  seat,  and  the  uprights  are  moved  on  the  frame  by  means  of  racks  and 


Fio.  7.— Vertical  milling-machine. 


512 


MILLING-MACHINES. 


FIG.  8.— Vertical  milling-machine. 


pinions  until  the  milling-cutter  is  over  the  ports  as  desired,  and  are  then  fastened.    The  cross- 
head  carrying  the  spindle-saddle  is  lowered  similar  to  that  of  a  planer,  until  the  milling-cutter 


FIG.  9.— Vertical  milling-machine. 

is  at  the  required  depth,  and  then  securely  fastened  to  the  uprights.  The  spindle  is  of  steel, 
and  runs  in  conical  bronze  bearings  with  adjustment  to  compensate  for  wear,  and  is  driven 
by  a  cone.  The  feed  is  automatic  in  either  direction. 


MILLING-MACHINES. 


513 


Portable  Steam-Chest  Seal  Milling-Machine. — Fig.  12  shows  a  machine  built  by  Pedrick 
&  Ayer,  of  Philadelphia,  adapted  to  supersede  the  slow  and  expensive  operation  of  cutting  a 


FIG.  10.— Angular  attachment. 


FIG.  11. — Cylinder-port  milling-machine. 


groove  in  the  surfaces  adjoining  the  steam-chest  seat  with  hammer,  chisel,  and  file.     This 
machine  is  also  adapted  to  the  drilling  either  of  new  holes  for  studs  or  the  drilling  out  of  old 


FIG.  12.— Steam-chest  seat  milling-machine. 

studs  when  broken  off*  It  is  supported  and  adjusted  to  the  surface  to  be  grooved  or  milled 
by  four  studs,  running  through  two  hollow  arms,  which  in  turn  support  the  Vs  or  slide. 
This  slide  carries  a  head  containing  a  spin- 
dle, similar  to  a  drill-press,  and  this  head  re- 
ceives a  transverse  movement  by  means  of 
the  screw,  as  shown,  the  milling  spindle  be- 
ing driven  by  beveled  gears  and  a  transverse 
shaft.  The  cutting  or  grooving  is  performed 
by  a  face-milling  cutter  inverted  in  the  end 
of  the  spindle,  and  is  fed  up  and  down  by 
means  of  a  screw  and  small  wheel,  and  when 
the  proper  depth  for  a  cut  is  reached  the 
horizontal  movement  of  the  spindle  is  pre- 
vented by  means  of  a  check-nut  on  the  small 
screw.  The  sliding  or  tool  head  is  fed  in 
either  direction  by  means  of  change  feed- 
gears  at  the  end  of  the  screw.  FlG  ]3  _Link  miller  and  slotter. 

Leeds'  Link   Miller  and   Slotter. — This 

machine  (Fig.  13),  built  by  Pedrick  &  Ayer,  of  Philadelphia,  is  used  as  an  attachment  either 
to  a  heavy  milling-machine  or  a  strong  drill-press.     It  will  mill  out  links  to  any  desired  ra- 
33 


514 


MILLS,   GOLD. 


dius.  It  is  designed  on  the  principle  that  the  apex  of  any  angle  will  touch  or  describe  all 
parts  of  a  circle  whose  versed  sine  is  equal  to  the  perpendicular  where  the  base  is  formed  by 
the  chord  of  the  arc.  It  consists  of  a  jointed  frame  having  dovetailed  slots  running  length- 
wise to  carry  a  second  frame  that  has  the  link-blank  secured  in  it.  The  second  frame  is  ac- 
tuated by  the  screw  and  hand-wheel  and  describes  a  circle,  according  to  the  angular  position 
of  the  lower  or  jointed  frame ;  flanges  are  cast  on  the  bottom  of  the  frame  for  the  purpose  of 
bolting  down  on  the  table  or  platen.  In  the  center  of  the  lower  frame,  at  the  center  of  the 
joint,  is  a  bronze  bushing  that  is  set  exactly  under  the  center  of  the  drill-press  spindle ;  this 
serves  as  a  lower  support  for  a  boring-bar  and  the  shank  of  the  milling-tool  arbor.  In  prac- 
tice it  is  found  more  convenient  to  drill  a  hole  in  one  end  of  the  link  to  be  slotted,  large 
enough  for  a  boring-bar  to  pass  through ;  then,  by  using  a  double-end  cutter,  the  slot  is  cut 
out  to  nearly  the  finished  size.  The  link  is  then  moved  along  f  or  -£  in.,  and  is  cut  through 
again  until  the  stock  is  removed.  A  milling-cutter  similar  to  a  reamer  is  then  used,  and  the 
slot  is  finished  to  the  radius  for  which  the  link  is  set.  With  this  attachment  it  is  claimed  that 
a  link  20  in.  long  can  be  finished  in  about  4  hours. 

Speed  and  Feed  of  Milling-Cutters. — The  following  table  gives  the  speeds  of  milling- 
cutters  adopted  in  American  practice  (see  Engineering,  December  12,  1890)  • 


Diameter  of  mill. 

Depth  of  cut. 

i 

CUT  i  IN.   WIDE. 

CUT  i  IN.   WIDE. 

CUT  2  IN.   WIDE. 

CUT  i  IN.  WIDE. 

Steel. 

Cast  iron. 

Steel. 

Cast  iron. 

Steel. 

Cast  iron. 

Steel. 

Cart  irou. 

Revolutions 
per  min. 

1< 

|| 

P 

Id 

J  1 

I1 

}< 

ii 

o   *• 

i; 
P 

Revolutions 
per  min. 

I1 

Revolutioni 
per  min. 

fc 

1  Revolutioni 
per  min. 

J< 

Revolutioni 
per  min. 

{' 

tin.-! 

1  in.  -! 
Uin.j 
2  in.  -j 
3  in.  -j 
4  in.  -j 
6  in.  -j 

A 
i 

A 
i 

A 

i 
A 
i 

A 

l 
A 

i 

A 

l 

i 

•009 
•009 
•010 
•010 
•014 
:014 
•016 
•016 
•021 
•021 
•031 
•031 
•031 
•031 
•031 
•031 

490 

430 
320 
270 
245 
175 
160 
115 
120 
85 
80 
50 
65 
40 
40 
30 

4* 

3S 

2*1 

2* 
2 

II 

600 
460 
400 
300 
300 
230 
200 
160 
150 
120 
100 
80 
80 
60 
50 
40 

4 

SA 

3J 
2* 

u 

400 

33 

460 

ft 

4 

300 

2tt 

400 
Sea 
270 

260 

Sea 
180 

200 
Sea 
135 

130 
Sea 
90 

100 
Sea 
70 

70 
Sea 
45 

50 
Sea 
35 

35 
Sea 
22 

Je. 
3 

le. 
4 

6 

le. 
5 

5 
le. 
4 

5 
le. 
4 

5 
le. 
3* 

4* 
le. 
2} 

3J 
2 

260 

2| 

300 

3ft 

200 

» 

200 

11 

230 
150 
160 
100 
120 
75 
80 
50 
60 
40 
40 
25 

8* 

5 

5 
1A 

H 

3* 
1 

150 

* 

130 
50 
100 
40 
70 
25 
50 
20 
35 
12 

u 

2J 
if 

i 

1* 

i 
II 
i 

100 

,1 

75 
50 
40 

1A 

U 

70 

H 

80 

Sea 
60 

55 

Sea 
40 

40 

Sea 
30 

30 

sr 

4t 

le. 

4t 

le. 
3 

1 

45 

if 

35 

H 

25 

i 

20 

* 

Surface     speed  I 
per  min  J 

45  ft.  and 
65ft. 

60  ft.  and 

80ft. 

20  ft.  and 
50ft. 

40  ft.  and 
60ft 

40ft. 

35  ft.  and 
50ft. 

36ft. 

SOft.and 
45ft. 

NOTE.— When  the  work  will  not  permit  the  above  speeds,  reduce  the  speed  of  cutter  in  preference  to 
the  feed. 

Mill-Iron:  see  Rolls,  Metal- Working. 

Mill-Ore :  see  Ore-Crushing  Machines. 

Mill-Pug  :.  see  Clay- Working  Machines. 

Mill-Saw :  see  Saws,  Wood. 

MILLS,  GOLD.  Gold-Milling  Machinery. — Auriferous  ores  are  commonly  worked  by  the 
amalgamation  process.  Very  rich  gold-ores  are  sometimes  sold  to  the  lead-smelters  and  their 
gold  contents  collected  in  the  lead  bullion ;  but  the  ores  from  which  nearly  all  of  the  gold  of 
the  world,  excluding  that  from  placer-mines,  is  produced  are  of  altogether  too  low  grade  to 
be  treated  in  that  manner.  In  the  typical  gold-mill  the  ore  coming  from  the  mine  is  dumped 
over  a  grizzly,  and  the  coarse  lumps  crushed ,by  means  of  a  Blake,  Dodge,  or  Gates  crusher  to  con- 
venient size,  say,  so  as  to  pass  a  1-in.  ring.  The  crushed  ore  is  fed  by  automatic  feeders  into  wet- 
crushing  stamp-batteries,  where  it  is  crushed  to  that  degree  of  fineness  necessary  to  free  the 
particles  of  gold  from  the  gangue.  The  stamp-batteries  are  lined  with  copper  plates  covered 
with  mercury ;  and  as  the  pulp  inside  the  battery  is  splashed  against  these  plates  before 
being  crushed  fine  enough  to  be  thrown  out  through  the  slotted  steel  screen,  which  forms  one 
side  of  the  mortar,  a  part  of  the  gold  is  amalgamated.  When  the  ore  is  crushed  fine  enough 
to  pass  through  the  screen,  it  flows  down  over  a  table  of  the  same  width  as  the  mortar,  and  8 
ft.,  10  ft.,  or  12  ft.  long,  covered  with  copper  plates  coated  with  silver  amalgam,  by  which 


MILLS,   GOLD. 


515 


the  particles  of  gold  not  already  amalgamated  within  the  mortar  are  caught.  The  pulp 
which  has  passed  over  the  plates,  always  carrying  a  small  amount  of  gold  not  practicable  or 
economical  to  save,  is  called  tailings,  and  is  allowed  to  run  away.  The  gold  in  ores,  however,  is 
not  always  free — that  is,  occurring  in  separate  particles — but  is  sometimes  contained  in  a 
mineral,  occasionally  in  galena,  but  generally  in  pyrites.  The  gold  thus  contained  can  not  be 
amalgamated,  and  other  means  are  necessary  for  its  recovery.  For  this  purpose  the  first  step 
is  to  save  the  auriferous  mineral,  and  this  is  accomplished  by  concentrating  the  tailings  from  the 
amalgamating  plates.  As  the  tailings  are  generally  very  fine,  in  most  cases  exceeding  40  mesh, 
slime- washing  machines  are  used  exclusively  for  concentration  in  gold-mills.  As  it  is  only 
necessary  to  make  one  separation — that  is,  headings  and  tailings — Prue  vanner's  or  another  of 
the  belt  machines  are  admirably  adapted  for  the  purpose  and  are  almost  invariably  used, 
although  end  bump-machines  are  employed  in  some  mills.  The  pyritic  concentrates  thus 
made  are  usually  rich  enough 
to  be  shipped  "to  the  lead- 
smelters,  and  in  many  dis- 
tricts whence  freight  rates  to 
a  smelting  center  are  low  are 
disposed  of  in  that  manner. 
Another  method  of  treating 
auriferous  pyrites,  and  one 
in  which  great  progress  has 
been  made  during  the  past 
ten  years,  is  by  chlorination. 
In  this  process  the  ore  is 
roasted  oxidizingly  for  the 
elimination  of  the  sulphur, 
after  which  it  is  subjected  to 
the  action  of  chlorine  gas,  in 
covered  vats  or  barrels,  where- 
by the  gold  is  converted  into 
chloride  of  gold,  which  is  sol- 
uble in  water.  The  chloride 
of  gold  having  been  dis- 
solved, the  filtrate  is  run  to 
suitable  tubs,  where  the  gold 
is  precipitated  by  hydrogen 
sulphide  or  ferrous  sulphate. 
The  fine  precipitate  is  dried, 
and  finally  melted  into  bull- 


FIG.  1.— Jordan's  centrifugal  amalgamator. 


ion.  Ores  containing  both  gold  and  silver,  such  as  those  of  the  Comstock  lode,  are  usually 
treated  by  the  process  of  pan  amalgamation  (see  SILVER-MILLS),  but  this  process  is  seldom 
used  for  ores  carrying  gold  alone. 

The  cost  of  gold-milling  varies  with  the  character  of  the  ore,  the  equipment  of  the  mill, 
the  method  of  milling,  etc.  The  lowest  figure  ever  reached  was  at  the  mill  of  the  Spanish 
Gold-Mining  Co.,  Washington,  Nevada  County,  Col. :  there,  in  1886,  ore  was  milled  at  a  cost  of 
but  24-9  cents  per  ton.  The  ore  consisted  o'f  about  one  third  hard  quartz,  one  third  tough 
slate,  and  one  third  decomposed  quartz  and  slate.  The  crushing  machinery  consisted  of  three 
5-ft.  Huntington  mills  and  one  4-ft.  mill,  running  at  60  revolutions  per  min.,  consuming 
22  horse-power,  and  discharging  through  a  No.  6  slot  screen.  In  a  4-months'  run,  19,402 
tons  of  ore  were  crushed  ;  the  averaging  cost  of  milling  being,  as  before  stated,  24-9  cents  per 
ton,  divided  as  follows:  Labor,  9  cents;  water,  3'6  cents;  shoes,  2'9  cents;  screens,  1-3 
cents ;  dies,  1-7  cents;  caps,  scrapers,  and  bolts,  -2  cent ;  renewal  of  working  parts,  2  cents ; 
quicksilver  (at  $40  per  flask),  *5  cent;  oil  for  illumination  and  lubrication,  *2  cent;  labor  at 
rock-breaker,  2  cents ;  wear  and  tear  of  rock -breaker,  '5  cent ;  depreciation,  1  cent.  Later 
the  cost  was  further  reduced  to  20'8  cents  per  ton,  of  which  11'8  cents  was  for  labor  and  9 
cents  for  supplies.  The  ore  which  was  worked  at  this  mill  averaged  only  65  cents'  per  ton,  and 
was  actually  mined  and  milled  for  52  cents  per  ton.  the  mine  being  opened  as  a  quarry  and 
worked  under  extremely  favorable  circumstances.  The  foregoing  figures  are  from  statements 
by  Mr.  F.  \V.  Bradley,  the  superintendent  of  the  company.  The  Plymouth  Consolidated 
Gold-Mining  Co.  milled  ore  in  1886  at  an  expense  of  39  cents  per  ton,  and  saved  and  reduced 
the  sulphurets  at  an  additional  expense  of  17  cents  per  ton  of  ore.  The  Plumas-Eureka 
Mining  Co.  milled  ore  in  1888  at  an  expense  of  58f  cents  per  ton,  and  in  the  same  year  the 
cost  at  the  Yuba  and  Hanks  mills  of  the  Sierra  Butte  Gold-Mining  Co.  was  but  26J  cents  and 
35  cents  per  ton,  respectively.  In  Montana,  in  1888,  at  the  60-stamp  mill  of  the  Montana  Co., 
Limited,  low  grade  gold-ore  was  crushed  and  amalgamated  on  plates,  and  the  sulphurets  con- 
centrated on  Frue  vanner's  at  a  cost  of  $1.13  per  ton.  At  the  large  mill  of  the  Alaska- 
Treadwell  Gold-Mining  Co..  Douglas  Island,  Alaska,  the  cost  of  milling  ore  and  concentrating 
sulphurets,  for  the  year  ending  May  31,  1891,  was  42'06  cents  per  ton,  of  which  19'4  cents  was 
for  labor  and  22'66* cents  for  supplies.  At  the  Golden  Star  mill  (120  stamps)  of  the  Home- 
stake  Mining  Co.,  at  Lead  City,  South  Dakota,  the  cost  of  milling  in  1887-'88  was,  according 
to  Mr.  H.  0.  Hofman,  82'92  cents  per  ton.  The  best  practice  in  gold-milling  in  this  country 
at  the  present  time  is  undoubtedly  that  of  California.  McDermott  and  Duffield  state  that, 
on  a  considerable  variety  of  gold-ores  in  that  State,  the  percentage  of  gold  saved  averages 


516 


MILLS,   GOLD. 


from  80  to  85  per  cent,  and  careful  daily  tests  in  some  of  the  best  gold-mills  using  concen- 
trators show  from  85  to  90  per  cent. 

The  largest  chlorination  works  in  the  world  are  at  the  famous  Mount  Morgan  mine  in 
New  Zealand,  where  a  modification  of  the  Newberry-Vantin  process  of  barrel  chlorination  is 
used.  The  ore  averaged,  as  worked,  5  oz.  gold  per  ton,  and  1,800  tons  were  treated  per  week, 
while  the  tailings  are  said  to  contain  only  3  dwt.  gold  per  ton,  which,  if  correct,  represents  a 
saving  of  97  per  cent.  The  cost  of  the  process  on  this  large  scale  is  given  as  $7.50  per  ton. 
Mr.  A.  Thies  states  that  the  cost  of  chlorinating  at  the  Haile  Mine,  Lancaster  County,  North 
Carolina,  is  $4.62|  per  ton  of  roasted  ore,  divided  as  follows :  Roasting,  $2.62-| ;  chlorinating 
(power,  12|  cents ;  labor,  95  cents ;  chemicals,  60  cents),  $1.67^ ;  ferrous  sulphate  for  precipitat- 
ing, 12|  cents ;  repairs  and  wear,  20  cents ;  total,  $4.62£.  This  is  equivalent  to  $3.47  per  ton  of 
raw  pyrites.  No  figures  have  been  published  concerning  the  cost  of  chlorination  in  the 
Black  Hills,  but  the  Haile  figures  have  probably  been  exceeded,  owing  to  the  larger  tonnage 
worked,  notwithstanding  the  higher  cost  of  labor,  fuel,  and  supplies. 

AMALGAMATORS. — A  large  variety  of  mechanical  amalgamators,  to  take  the  place  of  cop- 
per plates,  have  been  invented,  but  none  have  come  into  very  general  use.  These  ma- 
chines are  generally  pans  or  cylinders  in  which  the  pulp  is  rotated  with  mercury,  the  object 
being  to  bring  the  particles  of  gold  in  more  intimate  contact  with  the  mercury' than  on  the 
plates.  % 

Jordan's  Centrifugal  Amalgamator  (Figs.  1, 2)  consists  of  a  series  of  shallow  dishes,  attached 
one  below  another  to  a  central  revolving  shaft,  and  inclosed  in  a  fixed  circular  casing.  Secured 

to  the  inner  side  of  the  cas- 
ing, and  alternating  with  the 
dishes,  are  slightly  inclined 
shelves,  also  amalgamated. 
The  pulp  fed  into  the  amal- 
gamator enters  the  first  dish, 
in  which  it  is  revolved  until 
impelled  by  the  centrifugal 
motion  over  the  edge  of  a 
dish.  It  then  falls  on  one  of 
the  shelves  and  is  thus  con- 
veyed to  the  center  of  the 
second  dish,  there  to  under- 
go similar  treatment.  This 
is  repeated  to  the  end  of  the 
series,  where  the  tailings  es- 
cape. The  free  gold  and  sil- 
ver contained  in  the  pulp  are 
arrested  by  the  amalgamated 
dishes  and  shelves,  which  are 
scraped  at  suitable  intervals 
and  the  amalgam  retorted. 

The  Cook  Amalgamator 
(Fig.  3)  consists  of  a  horizon- 
tal iron  cylinder  A,  with  an 


FIG.  2. — Jordan  1s  centrifugal  amalgamator. 


interior  spiral  rib,  rotated  about  30  times  per  min.  The  spirals  e  form  a  channel  40  ft.  long, 
which  divide  the  material  and  keep  it  divided  all  the  way  through  the  cylinder.  The  ro- 
tating action  spreads  the  pulp  and  subjects  it  to  a  rolling  motion  in  the  water,  the  gangue 
going  ahead  of  mineral  $  of  the  distance  over  amalgamating  surface  E,  and  £  over  non-araaljra- 
matmg  surface  e,  which  al- 
ways holds  enough  mercury  to 
coat  or  amalgamate  free  min- 
eral, making  the  whole  dis- 
tance amalgamating  with  only 
i  amalgamating  surface.  The 
mineral  is  separated  from  the 
gangue,  amalgamated  and  col- 
lected into  little  bunches  of 
amalgam  in  cylinder,  and  as 
amalgam  passes  to  the  tables 
and  wells.  The  tables  have 
a  continuous  amalgamating 
surface  to  the  mercury-wells 
where  the  amalgam  'is  col- 
lected. Gate  h  spreads  the 
water,  etc.,  which  passes  under 
it  and  flows  up  from  gate-well 
and  is  thrown  down  by  splash- 


plate  hl  on  table  H,  thence  on 


FIG.  3.— The  Cook  amalgamator. 


to  tailings  indicator  /and  discharge-spout  o.  The  tailing-indicator  consists  of  two  amalga- 
mating plates  on  which  the  tailings  drop;  these  plates  indicate,  collect,  and  deposit,  it  is  said, 
in  the  well  any  possible  loss  of  amalgam  or  mercury  from  the  machine.  According  to  the 


MILLS,   GOLD. 


517 


manufacturers,  a  cylinder  7  ft.  long  and  2  ft.  in  diameter  will  treat  the  pulp  of  from  5  to  10 
stamps.     It  requires  18  gals,  of  water  per  min.,  and  £  horse- power. 

CHLORIXATIOX  MACHINERY. — The  chlorination  barrel  used  at  the  Golden  Reward  Chlorina- 
tion  Works,  Deadwood,  S.  D.,  the  methods  employed  at  which  represent  the  best  American 
practice  in  barrel  chlorination,  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  John  E.  Rothwell  in  the  Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal,  vol.  li.  165,  160 :  The  chlorination  barrel  used  in  these  works  is  made  to 
serve  at  the  same  time  as  the  washing  and  leaching  vessel,  by  placing  a  supporting  diaphragm 
to  form  the  chord  of  an  arc  of  the  circle  of  the  barrel.  The  diaphragm,  or  filter  as  it  is  called, 
is  made  up  of  corrugated  plates,  and  perforated  with  holes  every  4  or  6  in.  square.  These 
plates  are  supported  on  segments  which  are  bolted  to  the  shell  of  the  barrel ;  on  top  of  the 
corrugated  plates  is  placed  the  filtering  medium,  an  open-woven  asbestos  cloth.  Over  this  is 
placed  an  open  grating,  and  the  whole  is  held  in  place  by  cross-pieces,  the  ends  of  which  rest 
under  straps  bolted  to  the  inside  shell ;  in  this  way,  while  the  whole  is  rigidly  held  in  place, 
it  is  very  easily  and  quickly  removed  when  the  changing  of  the  asbestos  cloth  becomes 
necessary.  Two  valves  on  each  end  of  the  barrel  above  and  below  the  filter  are  for  the  inlet 
and  outlet  of  the  wash-water  and  solution,  respectively.  The  barrel  is  charged  by  first  filling 
the  space  under  the  filter  with  water,  which  at  the  same  time  is  allowed  to  pass  through  the 
filtering  medium  and  wash  it ;  then  the  required  quantity  of  water  is  put  in  above  the  filter. 
There  are  now  two  methods  of  charging  the  pulp  and  the  chemicals  (lime  chloride  and  sulphuric 
acid).  In  one,  the  lime  is  so  placed  in  the  ore  charge  in  the  hopper  over  the  barrel  that  it 
goes  in  with  the  ore  and  is  completely  buried  with  it ;  the  acid  can  then  be  added  with  very 
little  danger  of  generating  any  gas  before  the  plate  on  the  charging  hole  can  be  put  on  and 
securely  fastened.  The  other  way,  which  seems  to  be  still  better,  is  to  pour  the  acid  first  into 
the  water,  through  which  it  sinks  in  a  mass  to  the  bottom  and  does  not  mix ;  the  ore  is  then 
let  in,  and  the  lime  added  the  last.  The  chances  of  wasting  any  gas  are  much  less  than  in 
the  first  method.  On  the  first  revolution  of  the  barrel  the  gas  is  immediately  liberated,  and 
creates  considerable  pressure.  After  the  chlorination  is  complete  the  barrel  is  stopped,  so 
that  the  filter  assumes  a  horizontal  position ;  the  hose  is  attached  to  one  of  the  outlet  pipes 
and  conducts  the  solution  to  the  reservoir  tank.  A  hose  is  also  attached  to  the  inlet  pipe 
and  water  is  pumped  in  under  pressure,  and  the  leaching  commences.  The  air  in  the  top 
part  of  the  barrel  is  compressed  and  forms  an  elastic  cushion,  which  gives  the  wash-water 
perfect  freedom  to  circulate  evenly  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  charge,  and  wash  every  portion 
of  it  thoroughly  and  with  the  smallest  quantity  of  water  possible.  The  length  of  time  required 
to  do  the  leaching  varies  with  the  leaching  quality  of  the  ore  treated — charges  having  been 
leached  in  40  min.  with  a  pressure  of  from  30  Ibs.  to  40  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  With  higher  pressures 
the  time  can  be  materially  shortened.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  leaching  of  charges  carrying 
an  excess  of  slimes,  a  valve  placed  in  the  head  of  the  barrel,  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
pulp,  is  opened  just  after  the  barrel  is  stopped,  and  the  dust  and  slime  which  remain  in 
suspension  are  run  off  into  an  outside  washing  filter-press,  where  it  can  be  treated  separately. 


FJG.  4.— The  Thies  chlorinating  barrel. 

The  tailings  are  discharged  into  a  car  which  will  hold  the  whole  charge  of  ore  and  water,  and 
then  run  out ;  or,  if  water  is  abundant,  they  are  discharged  into  a  sluice  and  washed  away. 


518 


MILLS,   GOLD. 


The  amount  of  water  required  for  leaching  is  about  120  gals,  per  ton  more  than  the  quantity 
used  in  the  barrel  for  chlorination,  which  is  about  100  gals,  per  ton.  In  order  to  get  a 
concentrated  solution  for  after-treatment,  to  reduce  the  amount  of  solution  to  be  treated, 
and  to  save  water,  a  tank  is  placed  above  the  barrel,  and  when  the  richest  of  the  solution 
and  wash-water  has  run  into  the  reservoir  tank  the  discharge  hose  is  connected  with  the 
pipe  leading  to  the  upper  tank,  and  the  washing  is  finished  into  it.  The  solution  collected  in 
this  way  is  used  in  the  next  following  charge  in  the  barrel ;  the  quantity  of  solution  to  be 
precipitated  is  thus  reduced  to  about  120  gals,  per  ton  of  ore  treated.  One  man  and  a  helper 
are  able  to  take  care  of  three  barrels — that  is,  to  look  after  the  charging,  leaching,  and  dis- 
charging. If  the  tailings  are  sluiced  out,  they  can  also  attend  to  it ;  but  where  they  have  to 
be  trammed  out,  one  more  man  is  necessary. 

'The  Thies  Chlorinating  Barrel  (Fig.  4)  is  a  lead-lined  iron  cylinder,  40  in.  in  diameter  by 
60  in.  long,  provided  with  suitable  journals  and  driving-pulleys,  and  with  a  charging  door 
and  test-valve.  The  capacity  of  a  cylinder  of  this  size  is  from  1  to  1£  tons  of  roasted  ore.  It 
is  designed  to  make  about  15  revolutions  per  min.  Before  charging  with  roasted  ore,  suffi- 
cient water  is  put  in  the  barrel  to  make  an  easy-flowing  pulp ;  from  100  to  125  gals,  are  used 
in  the  1-ton  barrel.  If  the  ore  is  pure  pyrite  from  10  to  15  Ibs.  of  chloride  of  lime  and  from 
15  to  25  Ibs.  of  sulphuric  acid  are  sufficient  to  convert  all  the  base  metals  as  well  as  the  gold 
into  chlorides.  If  the  ore  contains  copper,  double  the  amount  of  chemicals  will  be  required, 
and  it  is  considered  preferable  to  divide  the  chemicals  into  two  portions  and  add  the  second  after 
the  barrel  has  been  rotated  for  three  or  four  hours.  The  time  required  for  the  chlorination  of 
a  charge  of  ore  is  from  four  to  six  hours.  If  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  existence  of  free 
chlorine  in  the  barrel  is  shown  by  means  of  the  test-valve,  the  ore  is  thrown  direct  on  the 
filter  and  leached  until  there  is  no  reaction  with  ferrous  sulphate.  The  Thies  filters  are  lead- 
lined  vats  6X8  ft.  and  18  in.  deep,  with  a  fall  of  1  in.  toward  the  outflow.  Their  bottoms 
are  covered  with  perforated  glazed  tile,  on  which  rests  a  graded  filter-bed  of  gravel,  topped 
off  with  clean  river  sand,  making  a  total  depth  of  about  5  in.  The  thickness  of  pulp  spread 
on  a  filter  from  one  ton  of  roasted  ore  averages  about  4  in.,  and  the  time  required  to  leach 
this  ore  averages  from  two  to  three  hours.  The  precipitating  tanks  are  8  ft.  in  diameter  and 
3  ft.  deep.  Vats  of  this  size  hold  solutions  from  3  tons  of  roasted  ore. 

The  Pollok  Chlorinating  barrel  (Pig.  5)  consists  of  a  light  steel  cylinder  supported  on 
trunnions  and  lined  with  a  coating  of  gutta-percha  about  -|  in.  thick,  on  which  chlorine  has 

no  action.  At  one  end  of  the  cylinder  is  a 
valve  for  charging  and  discharging.  The 
cylinders  are  charged  as  follows:  first,  80 
Ibs.  of  nitre  is  dropped  in,  then  2  tons  of 
ore,  and  lastly.  60  Ibs.  of  bleaching  powder. 
The  charging  door  is  then  closed  and  sealed, 
and  water  is  forced  into  the  barrel  until  the 
pressure  rises  from  70  to  100  Ibs.  The  cylin- 
der is  then  revolved,  mixing  the  ore  with 
the  bleaching  powder  and  nitre  cake,  and 
the  chlorine  thus  evolved  goes  into  solution 
in  the  water,  and,  acting  on  the  gold,  con- 
verts it  into  chloride.  The  cylinder  is  re- 
volved from  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half, 
when  its  contents  are  discharged  on  a  filter- 
bed  placed  below.  The  waste  chlorine  is 
blown  off  and  largely  recovered  by  being 
passed  through  slaked  lime  and  thus  ab- 
sorbed. The  filter  is  made  of  steel  wire  lined 
with  India-rubber.  The  charge,  after  being 
decanted  on  the  filter-bed,  is  filtered,  and 
the  chlorine  liquor  containing  the  gold  is 
drawn  off  by  a  specially  designed  vacuum- 
pump,  by  which  it  is  pumped  into  the  pre- 
cipitating tank,  where  the  gold  is  precipi- 


FIG.  5.— The  Pollok  chlorinating  barrel. 


tated  by  adding  ferrous  sulphate.  The  precipitating  tank  has  a  conical-shaped  bottom,  on 
which  the  gold  precipitate  settles.  As  soon  as  the  liquor  has  become  clear  it  is  run  off,  and 
the  gold  is  removed  and  melted  with  borax  into  bars. 

Works  for  reference:  The  Metallurgy  of  Gold,  by  Manuel  Eissler,  1891 ;  The  Metallurgy 
of  Silver,  Gold,  and  Mercury  in  the  United  States,  by  T.  Egleston,  vol.  ii,  1890 ;  Losses  in 
Gold  Amalgamation,  with  Notes  on  the  Concentration  of  Gold  and  Silver  Ores,  by  Walter 
McDermott  and  P.  W.  Duffield,  1890 ;  G&d,  its  Occurrence  and  Extraction,  by  A.  G.  Lock, 
1882 ;  Practical  Gold-Mining,  by  C.  G."VvTLock,  1889;  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores, 
by  F.  O'Driscoli,  1889 ;  Leaching  of  Gold  and  Silver  Ores,  by  C.  H.  Aaron,  1881 ;  Notes  on 
the  Hydro-metallurgy  of  Gold  and  Silver,  by  C.  PI.  Aaron,  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Min- 
eralogist o/  California,  1888 ;  Gold-Milling  *in  the  Black  Hills,  by  H.  O.  Hof man,  Transac- 
tions American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  vol.  xvii :  The  Thies  Process  of  treating  Low- 
Grade  Auriferous  Sulphides  at  the  Haile  Mine,  South  Carolina,  by  A.  Thies  and  William  B. 
Phillips,  ibid.,  xix,  601 ;  The  Practical  Chlorination  of  Gold  Ores  and  the  Precipitation  of 
Gold  from  Solution,  by  John  E.  Rothwell,  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  vol.  li,  165 ; 
Notes  on  Gold-Milling,  by  C.  H.  Aaron,  vol.  xlviii,  August  10  and  17,  1889. 


MILLS,   SILVER.  519 


MILLS,  SILVER.  Silver-ores  are  worked  by  one  of  three  ways — amalgamation,  lixivia- 
tion,  and  smelting.  The  selection  of  the  process  for  treating  any  particular  ore  is  a  question 
of  dollars  and  cents,  and  no  general  rules  can  be  laid  down.  In  Colorado,  silver-ores  are 
treated  almost  exclusively  by  smelting.  There  are  three  great  smelting  centers  in  that  State 
and  an  abundance  of  silver-lead  ore,  and,  freight  rates  being  comparatively  low.  siliceous 
silver-ores  even  of  ordinary  grade  can  be  smelted  cheaper  than  they  can  be  milled.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  gold-silver  ores  of  the  Comstock  and  the  silver  ores  of  Butte,  Phillipsburg, 
and  Tuscarora  are  milled  by  the  amalgamation  process,  while  the  lixiviation  process  is  used  at 
Park  City,  Utah,  as  well  as  amalgamation,  and  at  several  places  in  Mexico.  In  the  amalga- 
mation process  the  silver  contents  of  an  ore  are  recovered  by  amalgamating  them  with  mer- 
cury. In  the  lixiviation  process  they  are  leached  out  with  certain  chemicals  and  the  silver 
precipitated  from  the  solution  by  other  chemicals.  In  amalgamation,  silver-ores  are  classed 
as  free-milling,  or  those  in  which  the  silver  exists  in  the  form  of  a  mineral  which  can  be  amal- 
gamated directly,  and  non-free-milling,  which  require  a  preliminary  roasting  to  convert  the 
silver  minerals  into  such  form  that  they  can  be  amalgamated.  Siliceous  ores  containing 
native  silver,  or  silver  chloride,  bromide,"  or  iodide,  are  typical  free-milling  ores,  while  ores 
in  which  the  silver  is  carried  by  sulphides  of  the  base  metals  constitute  the  class  for  which 
a  preliminary  roasting  is  necessary. 

Free-milling  ores  are  worked  in  wet-crushing  mills,  the  customary  arrangement  of  which 
is  as  follows:  The  ore  brought  in  by  cars  at  the  top  of  the  mill  is  dumped  over  an  inclined 
grizzly  or  screen  and  rolls  on  to  the  crusher  floor.  All  the  small  pieces  pass  through  the 
screen  or  grizzly  into  the  ore  bins  underneath.  The  coarse  rock  is  shoveled  into  the  crusher 
from  the  floor,  which  is  on  a  level  with  its  receiving  jaws,  and  is  crushed  to  the  size  of  wal- 
nuts, falling  into  the  ore-bins,  whence  it  passes  into  the  automatic  stamp-feeders  through 
inclined  chutes  controlled  by  ore-gates.  The  automatic  feeders,  being  kept  full,  supply  the 
stamps  uniformly  and  as  fast  as  required. 

The  finely  stamped  ore  suspended  in  water,  and  known  technically  as  pulp,  flows  into 
large  settling-tanks,  where  excess  of  water  is  drawn  off.  The  thick  pulp  remaining  is  shov- 
eled in  regular  charges  into  a  row  of  amalgamating  pans,  in  which  it  is  worked  several  hours, 
first  with  salt,  blue-stone,  and  other  chemicals,  then  with  additions  of  quicksilver.  The  con- 
tents of  the  pans  are  run  into  large  settlers  placed  below  and  in  front  of  the  pans,  in  which 
the  pulp  is  thinned  by  additions  of  water  and  gentle  agitation,  and  all  the  quicksilver  with 
precious  metals  in  the  form  of  amalgam  settles  to  the  bottom.  The  pulp  is  gradually  run  off 
from  the  settlers  and  flows  to  waste.  The  amalgam  is  strained  from  the  excess  of  quick- 
silver, retorted  to  drive  off  the  remaining  quicksilver,  and  the  resulting  mass  of  silver  and 
gold  melted  into  bars. 

Sometimes  values  carried  in  base  minerals  which  will  not  yield  to  the  above  process  are 
caught  by  concentrators  (usually  Frue  vanners  or  one  of  the  similar  belt  machines),  which  re- 
ceive the  waste  pulp  from  the  settlers.  Generally  three  pans  are  supplied  with  five  stamps  in 
this  process,  so  that  a  10-stamp  mill  would  require  six  pans  and  three  settlers.  On  some  ores 
two  pans  are  sufficient.  The  quicksilver  is  usually  elevated  and  distributed  throughout  the 
mill  by  a  special  elevator.  This  process  was  devised  for  treating  the  ores  of  the  Comstock 
lode,  on  which  account  it  is  frequently  known  as  the  Washoe  process,  and  after  many  years  of 
study  and  experiment  it  was  perfected  there  during  the  ten  years  between  1870  and  1880. 
Mr.  A.  D.  Hodges,  Jr.,  in  his  paper,  Amalgamation  at  the  Comstock  Lode  (Trans.  A.  I.M.E., 
vol.  xix,  p.  195),  gives  an  interesting  account  of  its  development,  and  a  description  of  the 
methods  and  apparatus  finally  adopted.  Since  that  time  the  process  has  remained  practically 
unchanged. 

The  old  process  of  barrel  amalgamation  is  no  longer  used  in  this  country,  having 
been  entirely  replaced  by  pan  amalgamation.  Where  the  ore  is  base  and  needs  a  desul- 
phurizing and  chloridizing  roasting  before  the  amalgamation  can  be  successfully  carried 
on,  a  dry-crushing  mill  (Fig.  1)  is  used,  of  which  the  general  arrangement  is  as  follows : 
After  passing  the  rock-breaker  the  ore  is  dried  either  in  a  revolving  drier  or  by  means 
of  a  kiln,  and  the  dried  ore  is  fed  by  automatic  feeders  to  the  stamps.  The  pulverized 
ore  from  the  stamps  is  raised  to  a  bin  in  the  upper  part  of  the  mill  by  a  belt  elevator  (see 
ORE-DRESSING  MACHINERY),  whence  it  is  fed  into  a  suitable  roasting-furnace.  In  the  fur- 
nace the  ore,  with  the  addition  of  common  salt,  is  desulphurized  and  chloridized,  the  silver 
minerals  of  the  ore  being  converted  into  silver  chloride  and  thus  prepared  for  the  pans 
and  settlers.  After  roasting,  the  ore  is  spread  out  on  a  cooling  floor  and  is  taken  as 
required  to  the  pans.  Amalgamation  follows  on  the  same  plan  as  in  the  wet-crushing 
mill.  In  some  cases  it  is  found  desirable  to  concentrate  the  ore  before  amalgamating  in 
wet-crushing  mills,  this  combination  never  being  made  in  a  dry-crushing  mill  for  obvious 
reasons.  Ores  subjected  to  this  double  treatment  might  be  classed  as  semi-free  milling, 
containing  a  portion  of  their  silver  value  in  base  sulphides  and  a  portion  in  such  form 
that  it  can  be  recovered  by  raw  amalgamation.  In  such  combination-mills,  slime-washing 
machines,  buddies,  bumping-tables,  or  vanners.  are  interposed  between  the  stamp-batteries 
and  the  settling-tanks.  The  silver-bearing  base  metals  are  thus  concentrated  and  smelted, 
while  the  tailings  run  to  the  settling-tanks  and  are  then  treated  in  the  usual  manner.  This 
process  was  introduced  quite  successfully  at  the  mill  of  the  Combination  Mining  and  Milling 
Co..  Black  Pine.  Deer  Lodge  County,  Montana,  according  to  C.  W.  Goodale  and  W.  Akers 
(Trans.  A.  I.  31.  E.,  vol.  xviii,  p.  242).  The  ore  was  quartzose  with  galena,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and 
a  little  sulphur,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  silver  being  carried  by  the  base  minerals.  The 
mill  had  10  stamps,  the  pulp  from  which  was  passed  over  four  Frue  vanners.  The  tailings 


520 


MILLS,   SILVER. 


from  the  latter  were  settled  and  amalgamated.  During  the  year  ending  May  31,  1889,  9,061 
tons  of  ore,  of  an  average  assay  of  22'67  oz.  silver  per  ton,  were  crushed.  There  were  pro- 
duced 541  tons  of  concentrates,  averaging  136  oz.  silver  per  ton,  which  were  sold  to  the  lead- 


Fio.  1.— Dry-crushing  silver  mill. 

smelters.  The  total  saving  by  concentration  and  amalgamation  was  83*45  per  cent,  and  the 
cost  of  the  combined  process  $4.35  per  ton. 

The  Boss  continuous  process  is  a  comparatively  recent  improvement  upon  the  system  of 
pan  amalgamation.  In  this  the  pulp  flows  directly  from  the  stamp-batteries  to  the  pans,  and 
the  use  of  settling-tanks  is  done  away  with.  The  ore  coming  to  the  mill,  it  is  dumped  over 
grizzlies  and  passes  through  rock-breaker  and  ore-feeders  into  the  batteries  in  the  usual 
manner.  The  pulp  from  the  batteries  is  then  conveyed  in  pipes  to  the  special  grinding-pans 
placed  immediately  below  and  in  front  of  batteries.  In  these  pans,  all  grinding  of  the  pulp 
is  done,  the  product  of  ten  stamps  passing  through  two  in  succession.  By  their  use  the 
capacity  of  the  stamps  is  increased,  as  coarser  screens  can  be  used  in  the  batteries,  and  finer 
grinding  is  done  in  the  pans.  If  the  pulp  needs  chemical  treatment  before  amalgamation  it 
is  run  from  the  grinding-pans  into  a  chemical  mixer,  where  the  proper  chemicals  are  added, 
and  thence  runs  to  the  first  amalgamating  pan  of  a  series  placed  in  line.  From  the  first  pan 
the  pulp  flows  continuously  through  the  pans  and  settlers,  they  all  being  connected  together 
by  pipes  near  the  tops  of  their  sides,  and  one  overflowing  into  the  other  through  the  line. 
The  amalgamating  pans  are  charged  with  quicksilver  by  means  of  pipes  leading  from  the 
distributing  tank,  and  the  amalgam  is  drawn  off  through  pipes  to  the  strainers  in  front  of 
pans.  Here  a  quicksilver  elevator  lifts  the  strained  quicksilver  back  to  the  distributing  tank, 
and  all  handling  of  that  metal  is  thus  avoided. 

The  pans  and  settlers  are  all  placed  upon  the  same  frame  and  upon  the  same  level,  and 
each  is  driven  by  means  of  gears  brought  into  action  by  a  friction-clutch  fitted  to  the  gear  on 
the  main-line  shaft.  This  arrangement,  peculiar  to  the  Boss  process  mill,  is  one  of  the  leading 
features  in  the  mechanical  construction  of  this  system.  By  it  the  pans  and  settlers  are 
brought  down  close  to  their  main  driving-shaft,  and  receive  their  motion  directly  from  it 
without  the  intervention  of  belts,  tighteners,  counter-shafts,  and  high-pan  frames,  as  in  the 
old-style  mill.  Each  pan  and  settler  being  thus  provided  with  a  separate  clutch,  any  pan  or 
settler,  or  any  number  of  either,  can  be  stopped  independently  of  the  others,  in  case  of  acci- 
dent or  for  cleaning-out  purposes.  In  order  to  secure  the  continuous  flow  of  the  pulp  through 
the  line  when  one  or  more  pans  or  settlers  are  stopped,  steam  siphons  are  provided  for  carry- 
ing the  pulp  past  them  and  cutting  out  for  repairs  or  cleaning. 

In  amalgamation  by  this  method,  the  pulp  comes  to  the  pans  in  even  and  regular  propor- 
tions of  sand  and  slimes.  It  all  necessarily  passes  through  the  series  .of  pans  and  settlers,  and 
receives  a  uniform  treatment.  This  uniformity  and  regularity,  it  is  claimed,  can  not  be 
attained  when  the  pulp  is  settled  in  tanks  and  worked  by  charges.  The  amount  of  treatment 
the  pulp  receives  in  its  passage  is  proportionate  to  the  size  of  stream  that  flows  into  the  pans  ; 
and  the  amount  of  treatment  may  be  increased  by  decreasing  the  inflow,  or  vice  versa.  It  is 
also  claimed  that  the  loss  of  quicksilver  is  less  in  this  than  in  the  ordinary  process  of  pan- 
amalgamation. 

The  process  of  lixiviation  for  the  treatment  of  silver-ores  was  first  introduced  in  this 
country,  or  rather  in  Mexico,  by  Mr.  Ottokar  Hofmann  in  1868,  the  Patera  process  being 
used.  During  the  past  ten  years  great  progress  has  been  made  in  this  direction,  the  decade 
having  been  marked  by  the  invention  of  the  Russell  process.  The  general  process  of  silver 
lixiviation  consists  in  roasting  the  ore  to  convert  its  silver  contents  into  the  form  of  chloride, 


MILLS,   SILVER.  521 


then  dissolving  the  chloride  of  silver  in  hyposulphite  of  sodium,  precipitating  the  silver  as 
sulphide  with  sodium  or  calcium  polysulphide,  and  refining  the  silver  sulphide  to  bullion.  The 
ore  is  first  crushed  by  a  rock-breaker,  and  then  pulverized  by  stamps  or  rolls,  the  former  being 
more  generally  employed  than  the  latter;  although  rolls  have  advocates.  The  crushed  ore  is 
subjected  to  a  chloridizing  roasting,  as  in  amalgamation,  the  amount  of  salt  used  varying  with 
the  character  of  the  ore,  ranging  from  4  to  10  per  cent,  or  thereabouts.  The  roasted  ore,  after 
leaving  the  furnace,  is  spread  on  the  cooling-floor,  moistened  with  water,  and  charged  into  vats 
in  lots  of  from  8  to  15  tons.  These  vats,  which  constitute  the  leaching-tubs,  are  provided 
with  a  central  discharge,  around  which  a  filter  bottom  is  arranged  in  the  shape  of  a  very  flat 
funnel.  The  filter-cloth  is  kept  in  place  by  ropes  driven  into  grooves  around  the  discharge- 
hole  and  the  inner  periphery  of  the  vat  near  the  filter  bottom.  The  vat  is  furthermore  pro- 
vided with  an  outlet  under  the  filter  bottom,  and  has  a  slight  inclination  toward  this  outlet. 

The  charge  of  roasted  ore  is  leached  with  water,  to  remove  the  soluble  base-metal  salts. 
Water  does  not  dissolve  silver  chloride,  but  a  concentrated  solution  of  base-metal  chlorides 
does,  and  therefore  it  is  advisable  not  to  make  the  leaching-vats  too  deep,  as  otherwise  a  too 
concentrated  base-metal  solution  is  produced  by  the  water  in  descending  through  a  thick 
layer  of  ore.  The  base-metal  leaching  is  completed  when  a  few  drops  of  calcium  polysulphide 
poured  into  some  of  the  outflowing  solution  does  not  produce  a  precipitate.  This  part  of  the 
process  takes,  according  to  the  character  of  the  ore,  from  4  to  8  and  10  hours.  The  base- 
metal  salts  being  removed,  a  stream  of  diluted  solution  of  sodium  hyposulphite  is  allowed  to 
enter  on  the  top  of  the  ore.  Sodium  hyposulphite  readily  dissolves  silver  chloride.  When 
the  outflowing  solution  shows  indications  of  silver,  which  also  can  be  determined  by  an 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  calcium  polysulphide,  the  stream  is  conveyed  to  special  tanks  (the 
precipitating  tanks),  in  which  the  silver  is  precipitated  as  silver  sulphide  by  an  addition  of 
calcium  polysulphide.  To  facilitate  and  hasten  the  settling  of  the  silver  precipitates,  the 
precipitation-tanks  are  provided  with  stirrers,  by  which  the  solution  can  be  vigorously  agi- 
tated. After  precipitation,  the  sodium  hyposulphite  solution  is  again  in  its  original  condi- 
tion, and  is  therefore,  after  the  precipitate  has  settled,  decanted  from  the  latter  into  tanks 
placed  on  a  lower  level.  From  these  tanks  the  clear  solution  is  pumped  up  to  storage-tanks, 
and  is  ready  to  be  used  again.  When  all  the  soluble  silver  is  extracted,  the  tailings  are 
sluiced  out  through  the  central  discharge,  and  the  tank  is  ready  for  another  charge  of  ore. 
The  time  required  for  silver  leaching  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  ore  from  8 
hours  to  2  and  3  days.  When  enough  silver  precipitates  have  accumulated  on  the  bottom  of 
the  precipitating  tanks,  they  are  drawn  off  and  strained  through  a  filter-press,  or  through 
properly  arranged  filters  made  of  cotton  cloth.  The  precipitate  is  then  charged  into  a  small 
reverberatory  furnace  and  the  sulphur  burned  off.  The  roasted  precipitate  is  melted  with 
lead  in  a  cupelling  furnace  and  refined.  The  wear  and  tear  of  a  lixiviation  plant  is  insignifi- 
cant. The  base-metal  salts  penetrating  the  wood  of  the  vats  prevent  them  from  decay  and 
preserve  them  for  many  years. 

Hofmann's  system  of  trough  lixiviation  is  a  continuous  one.  The  roasted  ore  is  fed 
mechanically  first  into  a  stream  of  water,  which  rapidly  moves  in  a  triangular  trough,  for  the 
removal  of  the  base-metal  salts.  The  pulp  drops  into  settling-vats  in  which  the  washed  ore 
accumulates.  The  washed  ore  is  then  sluiced  out  with  a  stream  of  sodium  hyposulphite 
solution  and  the  pulp  conveyed  through  a  triangular  trough  to  another  set  of  settling-tanks. 
In  these  tanks  the  mineral  drops  desilverized  as  tailings,  while  the  silver  is  in  solution.  Base- 
metal  salts  and  silver  chloride  dissolve  almost  instantly  if  the  ore  is  charged  into  a  rapid- 
moving  stream  of  the  respective  solvent.  The  chemical  process  of  this  method  is  the  same 
as  in  tank  lixiviation.  but  the  time  of  leaching  is  said  to  be  shortened,  and  the  manipulations 
are  much  simpler  and  more  labor-saving.  This  method  is  especially  adapted  for  larger  works, 
and  for  ore  which  on  account  of  lead  requires  a  long  leaching.  A  50-ton  lixiviation-mill 
designed  for  this  process  is  shown,  in  elevation,  in  Fig.  2. 

The  Russell  process  is  a  modification  of  the  ordinary  system  of  tank-lixiviation  or  Patera 
process,  in  which  a  certain  proportion  of  cuprous  sulphate  is  added  to  the  solution  of  sodium 
hyposulphite,  constituting  the  lixiviant.  This  process  has  been  carried  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  at  the  Marsac  mill  of  the  Daly  Mining  Co.,  at  Park  City,  Utah.  With  very 
many  classes  of  ore  an  additional  amount  of  silver  it  is  claimed  can  be  extracted  by  means  o'f 
this  extra  solution. 

The  cost  of  milling  silver-ores  varies  greatly  with  the  locality  and  the  character  of  the 
ore.  In  1876  the  expense  at  the  best-designed  mills  on  the  Comstock  lode  had  been  reduced 
to  $2.47^  per  ton,  and  at  the  present  time  figures  are  probably  lower ;  this  ore  is,  however, 
perfectly  free-milling.  The  cost  per  ton  at  the  mills  (amalgamation)  of  the  Granite  Mount- 
ain Mining  Co..  Phillipsburg,  Mont.,  in  1890  was  $10.182,  divided  as  follows :  Labor — super- 
intendence, -284 ;  engineers,  -159:  firemen, -099;  crusher-men.  -122;  roaster-men,  -319;  drier- 
men,  '160;  battery-men  and  helpers,  '463;  cooling-room,  '250;  pan-men  and  helpers,  '418; 
retort-men,  '046:  assaying,  '093:  watchmen,  '055:  millwrights,  '113;  repairing.  '043;  sundry 
labor,  -715;  total.  $3-339.  Supplies — fuel,  1-639:  castings,  -579;  salt,  2-550;  quicksilver, 
•970:  blue-stone,  144:  lye,  -029;  other  chemicals.  -038;  belting,  -022;  lubricating.  -066;  illu- 
minants,  .031  :  sundry  supplies.  '430;  total.  $6*498.  Miscellaneous — tramming,  -120;  water, 
•096:  blacksmithing/'129;  total,  $0-345.  The  amount  of  ore  crushed  was  63.529  tons  wet,  or 
60.212  tons  dry ;  amount  of  salt  used,  9.379  tons ;  average  assay  of  ore,  70-94  ounces  silver 
per  ton  :  average  percentage  of  saving,  92-17.  The  salt  and  ore  were  mixed  before  crushing. 

The  cost  in  one  of  the  three  mills  belonging  to  the  company  was  but  $9.14,  the  average 
being  raised  by  the  other  two. 


522 


MILLS,   SILVER. 


The  cost  of  milling  at  the  works  of  the  (amalgamation)  Elkhorn  Mining  Co.,  Elkhorn,  Jef- 
ferson County,  Montana,  in  1890,  was  $8.73  per  ton,  divided  as  follows:  Superintendence,  47.80 
cents  ;  engineer,  26-41 ;  crusher-man,  19-74 ;  drier-men,  19-95 ;  battery-men,  25-85 ;  roaster- 
men,  23-24;  cooling-floor  men,  19-25;  car-men,  37-52;  amalgamators,  25-99;  pan-helper, 
laborer,  02-49 ;  melter,  01-90 ;  assayer  (proportion),  09-78 ;  storekeeper,  05-59 ;  repairs,  05-32 ; 
mechanics  (proportion),  27'54;  millwright,  06.64;  teams  and  laborers,  32-18;  watchman, 
09-99 ;  tailings,  storage,  01-71 ;  office  (proportion),  08-25 ;  chemicals.  10-64 ;  lubricants,  05-79  ; 
illuminants,  01-24 ;  quicksilver,  29-56 ;  salt,  173-22;  fuel,  165-70;  freights,  11-80;  castings, 
48-33;  other  supplies,  15-14;  general  expense,  37-17;  total,  873-01.  The  amount  of  ore 


Fio.  2.— Hofmann's  50-ton  lixiviation-mill. 

crushed  was 9,163  tons  ;  amount  of  salt  used,  990  tons;  average  assay  of  ore,  45-5  oz.  silver; 
average  assay  of  tailing,  6  oz. ;  percentage  of  silver  saved,  86*83. 

The  Ontario  and  Daly  mills,  at  Park  City,  Utah,  furnish  an  interesting  comparison,  as  at 
the  former  the  ore  is  worked  by  amalgamation  and  at  the  latter  by  the  Russell  process  of  lix- 
iviation,  the  ores  being  very  similar  in  character.  The  cost  per  ton  at  the  Ontario  in  1890 
was  $9.08,  24,450  tons  of  ore  being  reduced.  The  average  assay  of  the  ore  was  44-96  oz.  silver 
per  ton ;  average  assay  of  tailings,  4-45  oz.  per  ton ;  percentage  of  silver  saved,  90-03.  In 
the  same  year  20,795  tons  of  ore  were  milled  by  the  Daly  Mining  Co.,  at  an  expense  of  $6.38 
per  ton,  88-77  per  cent  of  the  silver  being  saved. 

Mr.  W.  A.  Wilson,  superintendent  of  the  Daly  (Marsac)  mill,  in  the  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal,  vol.  1,  p.  444,  gives  the  following  items  of  comparison  at  these  two  mills : 


Ontario. 

Marsac. 

Water  used  per  ton  of  ore,  cub.  ft  

400 

SI    10 

5'5 

108 
531 
26 
35-9 

38-8 

160°  F. 
gO  -445 
$14,600 
440 
•26 
560 

56 
SO  64 
•05 
1 
503 
20 
68'3 
9 
72 
81°  F. 
SO  335 
$385 
305 
•23 
116 

Quicksilver  or  chemicals,  per  ton  

Wrought  and  cast  iron  consumed  per  ton                                                     Ibs 

Power  for  driving  pans  and  handling  solutions,  h.  p  

Weight  of  ore  treated  per  week  tons 

Fineness  of  crushing,  mesh  of  screen 

Rate  of  roasting  per  furnace  per  day  tons 

Per  cent  of  salt  used  in  roasting  

Weight  of  each  charge  to  pans  and  vats                                                      tons 

Temperature  in  pans  and  vats 

Labor  on  pans,  vats,  and  product  shipment  

Chemicals  and  quicksilver  in  use 

Fineness  of  product,  silver,  thousandths  

Fineness  of  product,  gold,  thousandths  

Baseness  of  product,  copper,  thousandths 

The  percentage  of  silver  recovered  in  the  Daly  mill  has  reached  as  high  as  92-2  per  cent. 

ORE-DRIERS. —  The  revolving  ore-drier,  which  is  generally  used  for  drying  ores  in  dry- 
crushing  silver- mills,  is  a  long  cast-iron  cylinder  with  a  stationary  fire-box"  at  one  end  and'a 
stationary  flue  at  the  other,  the  flames  drawing  through  the  cylinder  as  in  the  Bruckner, 


MILLS,   SILVER.  523 


Hofmann,  and  Howell- White  roasting-furnaces,  although,  of  course,  only  a  moderate  heat  is 
used.  This  drier,  together  with  the  shelf-drier,  has  entirely  replaced  the  old  boiler-iron  floor- 
drier.  The  revolving  cylinder  is  usually  made  in  several  sections  for  convenience  of  hand- 
ling, having  two  tracks  or  tires  on  which  it  rotates,  supported  by  rollers  underneath.  The 
motion  is  transmitted  through  gearing  and  pulleys.  The  cylinder  is  of  larger  diameter  at 
the  fire  end  than  at  the  flue  end,  and  ore  from  the  rock-breaker  is  fed  in  at  the  smaller  end. 
The  cylinder's  axis  is  placed  horizontally,  but  owing  to  its  conical  form  the  ore  must  travel 
gradually  toward  the  fire  at  the  larger  end.  Shelves  or  wings  arranged  spirally  inside  raise 
the  ore  and  shower  it  through  the  flames,  assisting  to  quickly  and  thoroughly  dry  it.  The 
size  of  the  drier,  as  commonly  used,  is  44  in.  diameter  at  the  large  end,  36  in.  diameter  at  the 
small  end,  and  18  ft.  long.  Its  capacity  is  30  to  40  tons  per  24  hours.  It  requires  about  1,100 
fire-bricks  for  lining  this  drier,  and  about  12,000  common  bricks  for  a  stack  about  40  ft.  high. 

The  Shelf-Drying  Kiln  consists  of  a  number  of  inclined  shelves,  which  are  arranged  zigzag 
above  each  other  in  a  vertical  shaft,  having  openings  or  slits  where  they  meet,  on  which  the  ore 
rests  in  a  stratum,  the  thickness  of  which  is  governed  by  the  width  of  the  slits  and  the  in- 
clination of  the  shelves.  If  a  portion  of  the  charge  is  removed  at  the  end  of  the  bottom 
shelf  a  sliding  motion  of  the  ore  takes  place  on  all  shelves  above,  and  the  top  shelf  is  replen- 
ished from  a  hopper  set  over  it.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  shaft  is  divided  by  the  shelves  into 
a  number  of  triangular  prismatic  spaces.  Through  these  the  hot  gases  from  a  fireplace  are 
made  to  circulate,  each  space  communicating  with  the  next  one  by  a  flue  arranged  in  the 
side- wall  of  the  shaft  These  flues  being  located  on  alternate  sides  of  the  shaft,  a  continuous 
passage  is  formed  through  the  whole  structure.  The  kiln  is  21  ft.  high  from  the  discharge 
floor  to  the  top  of  the  feed-hopper;  the  shelves  are  2  ft,  4  in.  wide  and  5  ft.  long,  inclined  at 
an  angle  of  38°.  The  stack  should  not  rise  more  than  30  ft.  above  the  top  of  the  kiln.  A 
double  kiln  requires  a  draft  area  of  3  sq.  ft,,  and  has  a  capacity  of  from  30  to  50  tons  per  24 
hours.  The  quantity  of  brick  required  for  a  double  kiln  is  30,000,  and  of  iron  25,000  Ibs. 

HOT-ORE  COOLERS.— Hofmann' s  Ore-Cooling  Apparatus  (Fig.  3)  consists  of  a  square  cast- 
iron  tube  M,  20  in.  long,  with  lateral  flanges,  by  means  of  which  it  is  supported  on  a  wooden 
frame  over  a  trough.  Inside  the  tube  and  opposite 

each  other  water-spouts  are  so  arranged  that  the  en-  ^  ~-y 

tering  water  forms  sheets,  not  sprays,  which  perfectly  \        *         / 

close  the  tube.  At  the  line  where  the  opposite  sheets 
of  water  meet,  the  water  drops  straight  down.  The 
hot  ore  in  striking  the  water  is  immediately  carried 
below  the  sheets  of  water,  and  is  so  quickly  enwrapped 
in  it  that  but  little  dust  is  formed.  The  ore  and 
water  passing  downward  from  the  tub  drops  into  the 
trough,  which  has  an  inclination  of  1£  in.  to  1  ft,,  and 
flows  to  the  lump-mash  machine  or  the  leaching- 

trough.      By  this  apparatus  cooling-floor  manipula-  FIG.  3.-Hot-ore  cooler, 

tion  is  avoided,  and  the  temperature  of  the  water  used 
for  base-metal  leaching  is  increased  by  the  waste  heat  of  the  ore.  The  mashing-machine 
consists  of  a  set  of  Cornish  rolls  for  breaking  the  lumps  of  ore  which  may  have  formed  during 
the  roasting.  Before  the  pulp  enters  between  the  rolls  it  passes  a  No.  8  or  No.  10  copper- 
wire  screen.  The  screen  has  an  inclination  of  45°.  The  water  and  finer  material  pass 
through,  while  the  coarser  slides  between  the  rolls,  aided  by  an  extra  spray  of  water.  The 
screen  and  the  rolls  discharge  into  the  same  trough,  which  leads  to  the  base-metal  department. 

ELEVATORS. — Ore-Elevators  (see  ORE-DRESSING  MACHINERY). 

The  Quicksilver  Elevator  is  much  the  same  in  form  as  the  ordinary  belt  elevators,  but  the 
elevator-cups  are  made  of  Russia  iron,  and  of  a  peculiar  flask-shape,  especially  adapted  to 
carrying  quicksilver.  The  lower  pulley  and  bearings  are  carried  by  a  cast-iron  boot,  to  which, 
and  extending  up  to  and  around  the  upper  pulley,  is  attached  a  "wooden  casing,  which  is  to 
be  made  perfectly  tight  on  the  lower  side  and  joints,  to  avoid  a  possible  loss  of  quicksilver. 
This  casing  is  preferably  made  of  iron.  The  upper  tank  receives  all  the  quicksilver  and  is 
made  of  cast  iron.  At  the  bottom  a  pipe  leads  off,  and  from  this  other  pipes  distribute  the 
quicksilver  to  stamps,  pans,  and  settlers,  as  may  be  desired. 

AMALGAMATING  MACHINERY. — M.  P.  Boss's  Special  Grind  ing- Pan,  used  for  grinding  the 
pulp  as  it  comes  from  the  battery  in  the  Boss  continuous  process,  is  a  solid,  shallow  cast-iron 
pan,  4  ft.  in  diameter,  having  solid  ring  shoes  and  dies  slotted  for  a  short  distance  from  their 
inner  edges  to  better  admit  the  pulp  between  them.  The  pulp  is  introduced  at  the  center  of 
the  pan ;  and,  as  a  joint  is  made  with  a  rubber  gasket  between  the  shoe-ring  and  muller- 
plate,  it  is  all  obliged  to  pass  between  the  shoe  and  die  before  being  discharged. 

M.  P.  Boss's  Standard  Amalgamating  Pan  (Figs.  4  and  5)  is  similar  to  the  pans  used  in 
the  Washoe  process,  but  is  made  rather  heavier,  and  is  provided  with  a  wearing  ring  inside  of 
staves,  and  also  with  a  sleeve  for  the  protecting  cone.  The  steam  bottom  extends  up  into  and 
around  the  cone,  and  at  its  top  carries  the  bearing  for  the  pan-spindle.  By  this  arrangement 
a  greatly  increased  heating  surface  is  obtained.  A  rust  joint  is  made  between  the  cone  on 
the  steam  bottom  and  the  main-pan  cone,  while  the  steam  bottom  proper  is  bolted  to  the  pan- 
bottom  in  the  usual  manner.  Exhaust  steam  is  used  for  heating,  the  steam  being  admitted 
on  one  side  of  the  bottom  and  exhausted  at  the  other,  a  valve  being  provided  for  regulating 
or  shutting  off.  The  pan-spindle  step  is  carried  on  a  bracket  cast  on  the  main  driving  shaft- 
box,  and  permits  the  removal  of  the  shaft  without  disturbing  spindle.  The  friction-ring 
through  which  the  pan  is  driven  is  bolted  to  the  gear,  so  that  it  can  at  any  time  be  replaced 


524 


MILLS,  SILVER. 


independently  of  the  other  parts  when  worn  or  broken.  In  front  of  the  pan  is  a  quicksilver 
bowl  with  a  pan  siphon  for  draining  the  pan  of  quicksilver  and  pulp  when  in  need  of  repairs. 
These  pans  are  5  ft.  2  in.  in  diameter  (inside),  and  weigh  8,500  Ibs. 

M.  P.  Boss's  Standard  Settler  is  a  cast-iron  pan,  8  ft.  in  diameter,  with  muller  arms  and 
driver  cast  in  one  piece,  to  which  the  muller-plate  is  bolted.  The  friction-gear  and  arrange- 
ment of  spindle-step  are  the  same  as  in  the  pans.  The  shoes  are  worked  close  to  the  bottom 
but  do  not  touch  it,  and,  on  account  of  the  angle  at  which  they  are  placed,  form  a  strong 
under-current  which  sweeps  the  bottom,  thus  saving  wear  and  tear.  Quicksilver  bowls  are 
provided  the  same  as  for  pans,  and  to  which  siphon  can  be  applied  for  draining.  The  settlers 
are  fitted  with  heavy  wrought-iron  sides,  and  are  connected  together  near  their  tops  in  a  simi- 
lar manner  to  the  pans.  The  cone  is  cast  with  the  settler-bottom,  and  is  made  very  wide  at  its 
base  with  the  shoes  working  close  up  to  it,  thus  preventing  the  accumulation  of  settled  pulp 


FIG.  4. 


Fio.  5. 


FIGS.  4,  5. — Boss's  amalgamating  pan. 


on  the  bottom  with  the  clogging  and  breakage  that  is  liable  to  ensue.  The  entire  surface  of 
the  bottom  between  the  base  of  the  cone  and  outer  groove  is  swept  by  the  shoes. 

M.  P.  Boss's  Bullion-Melting  Furnace,  for  melting  the  silver  bullion  from  the  retorts,  is 
similar  to  an  ordinary  forge,  consisting  of  a  cylindrical  pan  with  a  hemispherical  bottom, 
lined  with  2  in.  of  fire-clay  and  bone-ash  mixed.  The  back  of  the  furnace  has  a  water-jacket 
through  which  pass  two  tuyeres  At  the  bottom  of  the  pan  is  a  discharge-spout,  stopped  with 
a  bone-ash  plug,  through  which  the  bullion  is  drawn  off  into  molds.  The  furnace  is  filled  with 
charcoal,  air  is  blown  through  the  tuyeres  by  means  of  a  bellows,  bullion  fed  in,  melted,  and 
drawn  off  into  molds.  It  is  claimed  that  this  furnace  has  an  advantage  over  the  reverbera- 
tory  style  in  melting  by  a  reducing  flame  instead  of  an  oxidizing,  thus  avoiding  the  loss  of 
silver  by  oxidation. 

LEACHING- VATS,  ETC. — The  leaching-vats  used  in  lixiviation-mills  is  shown,  in  vertical  sec- 
tion, in  Fig.  6.  In  the  center  of  the  bottom  is  the  discharge  opening,  6  in.  in  diameter.  The 
cast-iron  discharge-tube  k  of  the  same  inside  diameter,  tightly  fastened  to  the  outside  of  the 
tank-bottom,  corresponds  with  the  discharge-hole.  The  lower  end  of  the  tube  is  at  right 
angles  with  the  upper  end,  and  provided  with  flange  o.  The  valve  m,  which  is  provided  with 
a  rubber  gasket,  can  be  pressed  tightly  against  flange  o  by  turning  the  wheel  F.  The  flange 
o  and  valve  m  are  made  of  brass.  Around  the  discharge  opening  and  fastened  to  the  bottom 
of  the  tank  is  the  wooden  polygon  v  in  which  is  cut  the  groove  p.  Around  the  inner  periphery 
of  the  tank,  and  high  enough  to  give  the  filter  bottom  an  inclination  of  at  least  f  in.  to  the 
foot,  is  the  groove  p.  The  filter  bottom  consists  of  a  wooden  grating  made  in  sections,  to 
which  the  filter-cloth  is  well  fastened,  and  kept  in  position  by  driving  tightly  a  rope  into  the 
grooves  p  and  p.  The  air-escape  pipe  d,  which  reaches  to  the  rim  of  the  tank,  enters  the  latter 
close  under  the  filter  bottom.  A  piece  of  the  hose  is  fastened  to  the  upper  end,  and  can  be 
closed  by  a  hose-clamp.  N  is  the  central  hose,  which  reaches  down  into  the  discharge-tube 
k,  where  it  has  to  remain  during  the  process  of  charging.  This  hose  ought  to  be  very  stiff. 
Before  charging  the  tank  the  discharge-pipe  is  filled  with  water  through  the  central  hose,  in 
order  to  keep  the  latter  filled  with  water,  which  will  prevent  the  inside  of  the  hose  from  being 
obstructed  by  ore.  When  a  tank  is  ready  to  be  discharged  the  wheel  F  is  turned,  and  thus 
the  valve  m  pulled  back.  The  water  is  injected  through  the  central  hose,  while  the  latter  is 
gently  moved  up  and  down.  The  stream  undermines  the  tightly  packed  sand  and  causes  a 
continual  caving-in  until  a  funnel-shaped  opening  is  made  through  its  depth  to  the  surface. 
Then  several  streams  are  made  to  play  on  the  top,  while  the  general  hose,  with  checked  streams, 
is  left  in  position  to  avoid  obstruction  of  the  discharge-pipe  by  a  too  sudden  rush  of  sand. 

Mr.  C.  A.  Stetefeldt,  in  a  paper  entitled  The  Details  of  Construction  for  a  Modern  Lixivia- 
tion  Plant,  read  before  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  June,  1.891,  gives  the 
following  specifications  for  the  construction  of  leaching-vats :  "  Tanks  should  be  made  of 


MILLS,   SILVER. 


525 


clear,  well-seasoned  lumber.  In  the  United  States  Oregon  pine  is  the  best  material  for  this 
purpose.  The  staves,  from  3  to  4  in.  thick,  according  to  size  of  tank,  should  be  ordered  cut 
to  sweep  of  radius,  and 
from  9  to  10  in.  longer 
than  the  inside  depth, 
but  not '  gained '  for  the 
bottom.  The  gaining 
of  the  staves,  1  in.  deep, 
is  done  by  hand,  leav- 
ing a  chine  of  6  in.  be- 
low the  bottom.  In  all 
tanks  the  staves  stand 
perpendicular  to  the 
bottoms.  The  bottom 
pieces,  3  to  4  in.  thick, 
are  cut  to  a  diameter  of 
2  in.  greater  than  that 
of  the  finished  tank ; 
they  are  grooved  and 
joined  by  a  tongue.  All 
joints  must  be  fitted 
with  precision.  White 
lead  should  never  be 

Eut  between  the  staves, 
ut  may  be  used  in  in- 
serting the  tongues  be- 
tween bottom  pieces. 
The  understructures,  of 
substantial  timbers, 


FIG.  6  — Leaching-vat— vertical  section. 


placed  on  a  solid  foundation,  should  be  sufficiently  high  to  allow  access  to  the  bottom  in  case 
of  leakage.  The  bottoms  rest  on  joists  3  to  4  in.  wide  and  10  to  12  in.  deep,  placed  about  2  ft. 
6  in.  apart,  so  that  the  staves  are  left  entirely  free.  Hoops  are  made  of  round  iron,  -$•  to  1£  in- 
diameter,  the  threaded  ends,  with  hexagonal  nuts,  passing  through  forged  or  cast  iron  lugs, 
giving  preference  to  the  former.  In  order  to  get  the  full  strength  of  the  rods,  the  threaded 
ends  are  taken  £  in.  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  rod.  For  tanks  of  large  diameter,  each 
hoop  is  made  in  two  or  three  sections ;  this  is  necessary  to  effect  a  more  uniform  closing  of  the 
stave-joints  by  tightening  the  nuts  in  two  or  three  places.  After  finishing,  the  tanks  are 
painted  on  the  outside,  staves  and  bottoms,  with  three  coats  of  white  lead. 

"  Formerly  the  dimensions  of  lixiviation-tanks  were  taken  quite  small :  ore-tanks  not  larger 
than  12  ft.  diameter  and  3  to  4  ft.  deep;  precipitating-tanks,  solution-sumps,  and  storage- 
tanks  of  corresponding  dimensions.  In  recent  works,  however,  ore-tanks  of  16  to  20  ft.  diam- 
eter and  8  to  9  ft.  depth ;  precipitating-tanks,  solution-sumps,  and  storage-tanks  of  12  ft. 
diameter  and  8  to  9  ft.  depth  are  put  up.  As  can  readily  be  seen,  the  care  and  attention  re- 
quired to  finish  a  charge  in  an  ore-tank,  or  to  precipitate  a  solution  in  a  precipitating-tank, 
are  independent  of  the  size  of  the  vessel ;  hence,  the  great  advantages  of  large  sizes. 

"  The  capacity  of  an  ore-tank  for  24  hours  depends  upon  the  specific  gravity  of  the  ore, 
the  quantity  of  first  and  second  wash-water,  and  of  stock-solutions  required  for  treatment, 
but  principally  upon  the  rate  of  lixiviation.  Capacity  increases  in  proportion  to  diameter, 
but  remains  nearly  stationary  so  far  as  depth  is  concerned;  that  is,  the  same  number  of 
ore-tanks  will  be  required  whether  their  depth  is  9  ft.  or  only  4  or  5  ft,  in  order  to  treat  a 
stipulated  quantity  of  ore  per  day.  In  fact,  should  the  rate  of  lixiviation  increase  with  reduced 
depth,  the  same  number  of  shallow  tanks  would  put  through  in  24  hours  more  ore  than  deep 
ones.  The  principal  advantage  of  increased  depth  consists,  therefore,  only  in  reducing  the 
number  of  charges  treated. 

"  Where  water  is  abundant,  tailings  are  removed  by  sluicing,  and  great  depth  of  the  charge 
is  no  disadvantage.  Even  where  water  is  scarce,  and  tailings  have  to  be  removed  by  hand, 
deep  tanks  should  be  used.  It  is  only  necessary  to  provide  mechanical  means  for  moving 
above  the  tanks  large  buckets  into  which  the  tailings  are  shoveled. 

"  The  false  bottoms  for  the  filter,  and  the  latter  itself,  are  prepared  as  follows :  Wooden 
slats,  If  in.  high  and  1  in.  wide,  and  separated  1  in.  from  each  other,  are  fastened  to  the  bot- 
tom. This  has  so  far  been  done  with  iron  screws  bedded  in  white  lead ;  I  would  suggest 
pins  of  hard  wood.  The  inside  of  the  slats,  next  to  the  bottom,  is  cut  out  in  many  places  f 
in.  deep  and  3  in.  wide,  so  that  a  free  passage  of  the  solution  below  the  filter  is  established. 
Between  the  ends  of  the  slats  and  the  staves  a  clear  space  1^  in.  wide  is  left.  A  strip  of 
wood  If  in.  high  and  1  in.  wide,  previously  cut  with  a  saw  in  many  places,  and  well  soaked 
in  water  so  that  it  will  bend  easily,  is  now  fastened  round  the  slats,  leaving  an  annular  space 
•£  in.  wide  between  the  strip  and  the  staves.  One  thickness  of  stiff  matting,  covering  the  slats 
and  the  circular  strip,  but  not  the  annular  space,  forms  the  foundation  of  the  filter-cloth 
proper.  The  latter,  No.  10  canvas-duck,  is  cut  to  a  diameter  6  in.  greater  than  the  inside  of 
the  tank,  so  that  the  ends  can  be  pressed  into  the  annular  space  described  above,  and  kept  in 
position  by  forcing  down  a  £-in.  rope." 

The  precipitating-vats  are  provided  with  a  machine-stirrer  of  the  construction  indicated 
in  Fig.  7,  or  else  with  a  stirrer  similar  to  a  screw-propeller.  The  stirrer  has  to  make  about  30 


526 


MILLS,   SILVER. 


revolutions  per  min.  if  the  diameter  of  the  tank  is  not  more  than  8  or  9  ft.  It  is  set  in  motion 
or  stopped  by  working  the  friction-clutch  /.  Fixed  to  the  inner  side  of  the  vat  are  wings, 

which  reach  near  to  the  bottom, 
are  about  3  in.  wide,  and  are  kept 
in  position  near  triangular  pieces 
of  board.  They  break  the  violent 
current  around  the  periphery 
and  throw  the  solution  toward 
the  center,  thus  causing  a  strong 
whirling  motion.  The  calcium 
sulphide  is  fed  into  the  solution 
in  this  vat,  agitated  by  the  stir- 
rer,  and  the  silver  thus  precipi- 
tated. At  the  bottom  of  the  vat 
are  suitable  valves  for  drawing 
off  the  precipitate,  which  is  al- 
lowed to  settle,  and  the  super- 
natant liquid. 

FILTER  -  PRESSES,  ETC.  —  The 
pressure-tank  used  in  connection 
with  the  filter-press  for  filtering 
the  precipitated  sulphides  in  the 
lixiviation  process  consists  of  a 
cylindrical  tank  of  boiler-iron 
with  a  funnel-shaped  bottom. 
Through  the  top  of  the  tank  a 
vertical  pipe  extends  almost  to 
the  bottom.  In  the  cylindrical 
portion  of  the  tank  is  a  wooden 
diaphragm  (the  vertical  pipe 
passing  through  its  center)  which 
floats  on  the  liquid  within  the 
tank.  The  solution  containing 
sulphides  is  introduced  through 

Flo  7  the  vertical  pipe,  and  rises  under 

the  floating  diaphragm.     A  pipe 

at  the  bottom  of  the  funnel  leads  to  the  filter-press.  When  the  solution  no  longer  runs  free- 
ly through  the  latter,  steam  or  compressed  air  at  a  pressure  of  150  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  is  forced 
into  the  upper  part  of  the  pressure-tank,  above  the  floating  diaphragm,  and  the  solution  is 
thus  forced  through  the  filter-press. 

Johnson's  Hydraulic  Filter-Press  (Fig.  8)  consists  of  a  series  of  round  or  square  plates, 
either  cast  iron,  bronze,  or  other 
suitable  metal,  having  project- 
ing lugs  cast  on  each  side  for 
the  purpose  of  supporting  them 
in  a  press-frame  in  juxtaposi- 
tion face  to  face,  and  are  capa- 
ble of  being  screwed  up  tightly 
between  the  head  and  follower 
of  the  press.  The  plates  are 
concave  on  each  side ;  the  pro- 
jecting outer  edge  or  rim,  being 
truly  surfaced,  maintains  the 
plate-surfaces  at  distances  cor- 
responding to  the  depth  of  such 
rims.  These  rims  are  some- 
times made  separate  from  the 
plates,  and  varying  in  depth, 
to  suit  the  requirements  of  the 
purchaser.  The  plates  are  cov- 
ered with  suitable  filtering- 
cloth,  and  are  also  provided 
with  ribs  or  channels  on  the 
plate-surface  under  the  cloth, 
to  allow  the  filtrate  to  flow 
away  to  the  outlet  formed  in 
the  'bottom  of  the  filter-plate 
at  the  back  of  the  cloth.  The 
spaces  between  the  cloth-lined  plates  form  chambers  or  cells,  into  which  the  liquid  or  semi- 
liquid  material  to  be  filtered  is  forced  under  pressure.  A  passage  or  opening,  also  lined 
with  cloth,  is  formed  through  each  plate,  so  that  there  is  a  free  communication  between  the 
several  filtering-cells.  When  the  liquid  or  semi-liquid  material  to  be  filtered  is  forced  into 
this  battery  of  cloth-lined  chambers  or  cells,  the  liquid  is  forced  through  the  filtering-cloths 


MILLS,   SILVER,  527 


which  cover  the  plates,  and  flows  away  to  the  outlet  of  the  plate  by  following  the  channels  or 
grooves  in  the  plates,  which  have  free  communication  with  the  outside  of  the  filter.  The 
solid  matter  is  stopped  back  on  the  surface  of  the  cloth,  and  by  a  continuance  of  the  operation 
ultimately  fills  the  cells.  It  is  then  removed  from  between  the  two  cloth-covered  concave 
plates,  forming  any  one  of  the  chambers,  in  a  state  of  almost  perfect  dryness,  by  unscrewing 
the  press  and  separating  the  plates,  without  removing  the  cloths. 

The  Roessler  Converter  is  an  apparatus  for  the  condensation  of  sulphurous  acid  and  its 
conversion  into  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  used  in  silver-refineries  where  dore  bullion  is  parted 
by  sulphuric  acid,  and  in  lixiviation-mills  where  the  precipitated  sulphides  are  refined  by 
roasting.  It  consists  of  a  cylindrical  leaden  tank,  8  or  9  ft.  high  and  5  ft.  in  diameter, 
through  the  top  of  which  is  introduced  a  6-in.  leaden  pipe,  extending  nearly  to  the  bottom  of 
the  tank,  where  it  branches  into  two  arms.  These  arms  connect  with  a  hollow,  leaden  ring, 
supported  horizontally  a  few  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  with  numerous  holes  drilled 
in  its  lower  side.  The  bottom  of  the  tank  is  provided  with  a  valve  for  discharging  precipi- 
tates. The  tank  is  filled  rather  more  than  half  full  with  a  not  too  acid  solution  of  cupric 
sulphate.  The  operation  of  the  converter  is  as  follows :  Sulphurous  acid  from  the  muffle- 
furnaces  in  which  the  sulphides  are  roasted  is  forced  into  the  tank  by  a  KSrting  injector 
through  the  pipe  in  the  top,  escaping  through  the  holes  in  the  leaden  ring  at  the  bottom. 
The  sulphurous  acid  reduces  the  cupric  sulphate  in  solution  to  cuprous  sulphate,  as  is  shown  by 
the  change  in  color  of  the  solution  from  blue  to  dirty  green.  If,  now,  air  is  blown  into  the  solu- 
tion, the  cuprous  sulphate  is  oxidized,  forming  cupric  sulphate  again,  and  setting  free  sulphuric 
acid.  In  practice  the  sulphurous  acid  and  air  are  forced  into  the  tank  together  by  the  in- 
jector and  the  reactions  go  on  simultaneously  and  indefinitely.  If  the  liquor  reaches  a  certain 
concentration  in  free  sulphuric  acid,  however,  the  reaction  is  weakened  ;  hence,  either  cement 
copper,  scrap  copper,  or  copper  oxide,  are  put  into  the  tank  to  neutralize  the  free  acid.  If 
the  sulphuric  acid  from  the  muffles  is  not  too  much  diluted  with  other  gases,  from  80  to  90  per 
cent  of  it,  it  is  claimed,  will  be  converted  into  sulphuric  acid ;  but  late  investigations  at  the 
Marsac  mill,  Park  City,  Utah,  have  shown  the  worthlessness  of  this  apparatus  for  acid-mak- 
ing, although  it  saves  quite  an  amount  of  silver  volatilized  and  carried  over  mechanically 
from  the  roasting  of  argentiferous  precipitates. 

REFINING  OF  THE  SULPHIDES. — Until  recently  these  have  been  sold  directly  to  the  smelters, 
save  in  some  mills  where  they  have  been  reduced  on  a  vaso  or  lead-bath  after  an  oxidizing 
roast.  Latterly,  however,  aided  by  improvements,  some  of  the  details  of  which  have  been 
patented  by  C.'  A.  Stetefeldt,  a  refinery  now  in  successful  operation  has  been  built  at  the 
Moosac  mill,  belonging  to  the  Daly  Mining  Co.,  at  Park  City,  Utah. 

The  operation  consists  in :  1.  Matting  the  sulphides  in  an  iron  pot ;  2.  Roasting  the  pul- 
verized matter  in  a  muffle-furnace;  3.  Dissolving  the  roasted  matter  in  dilute  H,SO4 ;  4. 
Crystallizing,  CuS04  +  5HaO,  from  the  solution ;  5.  Washing  the  silver  residue,  pressing  it 
into  cakes,  and  melting  the  cakes  into  bars.  The  matting-furnace  contains  a  cast-iron  pot  3  ft. 
2  in.  from  the  top  and  11  in.  deep,  with  a  bottom  2  in.  thick.  This  is  set  in  a  fireplace  and  is 
covered  by  a  hood  of  sheet-iron.  A  stove-pipe  then  connects  with  the  Roessler  converter  men- 
tioned above.  The  matte  is  pulverized  in  a  Brueckner  base  pulverizer,  such  as  is  used  in  similar 
work  at  Mansfeld,  Germany.  The  muffle-furnace  in  which  the  roasting  is  done  is  oval  in  shape, 
7  ft.  long  and  4  ft.  6  in.  wide,  with  a  cast-iron  plate  serving  as  a  bottom.  The  end  of  the  muffle 
is  connected  by  4-in.  gas-pipe  with  the  Roessler  converter.  The  dissolving  tanks  are  lead- 
lined,  and  are  3"  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter  and  5  ft.  8  in.  high.  The  bottoms  are  conical,  with  a  dis- 
charge-hole at  the  end  of  the  cone.  A  lead  pipe  allows  the  heating  of  the  solution  by  the 
introduction  of  steam.  The  filter-tank  below  this  last  is  also  lead-lined,  and  is  provided  with 
an  asbestos  filtering-cloth  covered  by  a  perforated  lead  plate.  The  crystallizing  tanks  for 
CuSO4  +  5H2O  are  of  normal  design.  The  cement  copper  precipitating  tanks  have  a  V- 
shaped  bottom,  and  have  grates  on  which  the  scrap-iron  rests.  The  tanks  are  divided  into 
four  compartments  each,  through  which  the  solution  is  circulated  by  a  Korting  ejector.  At 
the  ends  of  the  tanks  are  gates  through  which  the  cement  copper  is  discharged.  A  Watson 
&  Stillraan  hydraulic  press,  with  a  mold  6  in.  in  diameter  and  4  in.  high,  is  used  to  compress 
the  cement  silver  precipitate.  Pure  glycerine  is  used  in  place  of  water  in  the  pump-tank. 
The  cakes,  after  pressing,  are  dried  in  a  small  annular  chamber  about  the  chimney  of  the 
matting-furnace. 

Expenses  of  the  process,  when  a  monthly  total  of  5}  tons  is  treated,  containing  61,950  ozs. 
of  silver  and  2,625  Ibs.  of  copper :  Labor,  $299 ;  coal,  15  tons  at.  $4,  $60 ;  acid,  4,725  Ibs.  at  2-4 
cents,  $113.40;  coke,  $15;  wear  and  tear,  $30;  express  and  refining  charges  of  65,210  ozs. 
bullion  -950  fine.  $912-95 ;  total  expenses,  $1,430.25.  From  this  must  be  deducted  the  value  of 
the  bluestone,  $555.95  ;  making  a  net  total  expense  of  $874.40,  or  1-4  cent  per  fine  oz.  of  silver. 


Ottokar  Hofmann.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  February  9, 1888,  et  seg. ;  Cupric  Chloride 
and  the  Russell  E.rtra  Solution  in  Silver  Leaching,  by  C.  H.  Aaron,  ibid.,  May  11, 1889  ;  Trough 
Lixiviation,  by  Ottokar  Hofmann,  ibid.,  September  10,  1887,  et  seq. ;  Trough  Lixiviation,  by 
Ottokar  Hofmann,  Trans.  A.  1.  M.  E.,  vol.  xvi,  662. 

Mine-Pump  :  see  Pumps,  Reciprocating. 

Mine-Submarine :  see  Torpedo. 

Mining-Machine  :  see  Coal-Mining  Machines  and  Drills,  Rock. 


528  MOLDING   MACHINES. 

MITERING  MACHINES.     Mitering  seems  a  very  simple  operation,  but  where  there  is  a 

great  deal  of  it  to  do,  as  in  picture- 
frame  making  and  in  cutting  molding 
for  trimming  panels,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  an  appliance  that  shall  operate 
with  speed  and  give  angles  that  are 
mathematically  correct,  and  have  sur- 
faces which  will  make  good  glue 
joints. 

For  cutting  narrow  moldings,  a 
hand  mitering  machine,  Fig.  1,  con- 
sists of  a  frame  in  which  there 
travels  a  cross  piece,  to  which  there 
are  attached  two  knives  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  and  each  at  45°  to  the 
plane  of  the  cross  head.  The  ends  of 
the  knives  which  are  attached  to  the 
cross  head  are  lower  than  either  joint, 
so  that  there  is  a  draw  cut  from  the  out- 
FIG.  1.— Hand  mitering  machine.  side  of  the  molding  to  the  center.  The 

apparatus  is  worked  by  a  hand  lever. 

A  development  of  this  machine,  for  working  heavier  moldings,  has  a  treadle  which 
forces  down  the  knives  with  greater  power  than  could  be  got  by  hand. 

By  the  use  of  these  machines,  by  one  motion  of  the  crosshead  the  molding  is  cut  in  two 
and  both  angles  of  the  miter  are  made. 

MOLDING  MACHINES.  Under  this  head  there  are  many  classes,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  outside  machines,  which  have  the  bed,  with  two  or  three  of  the  heads,  outside 
the  frame  of  the  machine  ;  inside  machines,  which  have  all  the  heads  and  tables  inside  of 
the  frame  ;  edge-molding  machines,  which  have  the  heads  placed  vertically  in  a  table,  and 
are  designed  for  molding  the  edges  of  carved  work  ;  carving  and  recess  molding  machines, 
which  are  for  face  molding  or  working  forms  of  panels  in  the  surface  of  work  ;  and  universal 
wood-workers,  which  are  combinations  of  the  outside  molding  machines  with  a  machine  for 
planing  out  of  wind,  grooving,  etc.,  producing  straight  work  only. 

Outside  machines,  which  are  the  most  common,  are  made  with  from  one  to  four  heads. 
Inside  machines  properly  have  four  cutter  heads  ;  edge-molding  machines  have  either  one  or 
two  spindles,  the  single-spindle  machines  being  arranged  to  run  and  cut  in  either  direction, 
and  the  double-spindle  machines  running  in  one  direction. 

The  Egan  Four-sided  Molder. — In  the  9-in.  four-sided  molder  shown  in  Fig.  1,  and 
brought  out  by  the  Egan  Co.,  the  table,  together  with  the  side  heads  and  the  lower  head,  is 
raised  and  lowered  by  a  large  hand  wheel  in  front ;  the  lower  head  has  both  independent 
vertical  and  lateral  adjustment,  as  have  the  side  heads,  which  can  also  be  set  beveling  if 
desired.  By  this  plan  of  having  the  side  heads  raised  and  lowered,  raising  and  lowering  the 
table  does  not  interfere  with  the  cut  of  the  heads.  The  feed  consists  of  four  driven  rolls,  two 
above  and  two  in  the  table,  and  all  geared.  The  table  can  be  dropped  16  in.  The  upper 
feed  rolls  are  hung  on  trunnions,  and  raised  and  lowered  parallel.  The  pressure  on  the  front 
or  back  roll  can  be  increased  or  diminished  at  the  will  of  the  operator. 

The  Rowley  &  Hermance  Molder. — A  10-in.  four-sided  molder,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  and  made 
by  Rowley  &  Hermance,  is  one  of  a  series  cf  different  sizes  of  the  same  class  of  machine,  by 
the  same  makers.  Its  frame  is  heavy  and  cast  in  one  piece,  which  makes  it  more  rigid  and 
steady  as  an  inside  molder.  It  has  an  outside  bearing  for  the  outer  end  of  the  top  cutter- 
head  shaft.  There  are  two  5-in.  feed  rolls  above,  and  two  below.  The  gearing  which  drives 
the  lower  rolls  is  not  affected  by  lowering  the  table  to  the  full  capacity  of  the  machine.  The 
feed  works  are  started  and  stopped  with  a  binder.  The  boxes  supporting  the  main  arbor 
are  so  arranged  that  the  wear  caused  by  the  belt  forcing  the  arbor  toward  the  countershaft 
is  confined  to  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  can  be  taken  out  by  tightening  the  caps.  The 
belts  which  run  the  side  heads  do  not  pull  on  the  caps  which  support  them.  The  bottom  and 
side  heads  are  adjustable  both  horizontally  and  vertically. 

The  Frank  Universal  Wood-worker. — In  this  machine,  the  front  and  back  tables  are 
each  borne  upon  two  screw  columns,  and  may  be  raised  and  lowered  together  or  inde- 
pendently by  hand  wheels  operating  chains  gearing  with  sprocket  wheels  on  the  screws.  The 
fence  in  this  machine  is  divided  at  the  line  of  the  cutter,  the  front  part  resting  on  the  front 
table,  and  the  back  part  resting  on  the  back  table,  no  matter  what  the  height  of  these  with 
respect  to  each  other  or  the  rest  of  the  machine. 

The  Smith  Blind-finishing  Machine.— This  is  a  machine  for  finishing  blinds,  cutting  the 
rebate,  and  beading  and  joining  them,  manufactured  by  the  H.  B.  Smith  Machine  Co.  It 
has  two  horizontal  cutter  shafts,  lying  parallel  in  the  same  vertical  plane,  and  the  upper  one 
borne  by  a  carriage  having  a  vertical  adjustment  on  a  vertical  column,  to  suit  the  varying 
widths  of  sashes.  The  stock  slides  between  parallel  ways,  one  above  and  the  other  below, 
the  upper  one  having  the  same  vertical  adjustment  for  sash  width  that  the  upper  cutter  has. 
Both  the  top  and  the  under  cutter-heads  are  so  constructed  and  placed  as  to  give  an  even 
draw  cut  on  the  work,  and  are  furnished  with  chip  breakers  and  shavings  bonnets. 

It  may  be  said  in  connection  with  outside  bearings  for  horizontal  mandrels,  such  as  are 
used  on  molding  machines,  that  if  the  machine  is  properly  designed  and  constructed  they 


MOLDING   MACHINES. 


529 


will  be  entirely  unnecessary,  and  tney  are  certainly  very  inconvenient,  being  in  the  way  in 
changing  cutter-heads,  while  those  that  are  furnished  are  seldom  strong  enough  or  rigidly 
enough  attached  to  be  of  real  service,  as  they  should  be. 


SHAPERS  AND  FRIEZERS,  more  than  most  other  wood-working  machines,  should  be  so 
well  designed  and  constructed  that  they  will  do  accurate  and  perfect  work,  all  pieces  that 
they  produce  being  curved  and  molded,  and  their  sharpness  and  accuracy  would  be  lessened 

34 


530 


MOLDING   MACHINES. 


by  the  use  of  sandpapering  machinery,  however  carefully  handled.  If,  then,  it  is  desired  to 
make  work  that  has  no  roughness  of  surface,  freedom  from  undue  jar  and  vibration  must 
be  obtained  by  giving  the  machine  strength  and  solidity  throughout,  as  well  as  careful  work- 
manship and  fitting.  As  the  higher  the  speed  the  cleaner  the  work,  it  is  essential  that  the 
bearings  be  long  enough  and  good  enough  to  stand  high  speed  for  a  long  time,  under 
heavy  pressure,  without  heating  or  wear.  It  is  best  that  the  mandrels  of  shapers  should  be 
arranged  to  run  right  or  left  to  best  suit  the  grain  of  the  material,  and  that  the  change  from 
one  direction  of  rotation  to  the  other  should  be  made  promptly  and  by  the  foot,  in  order  to 


FIG.  2. — Rowley  Hermance  molder. 


leave  the  operator  the  use  of  both  hands.  The  friction  devices  which  have  come  into  use  in 
so  many  different  types  of  wood-working  machinery  come  into  play  with  great  efficiency 
and  satisfaction. 

The  Bentel  &  Margedant  Shaper. — In  this  machine  the  lower  part  of  the  mandrel  is 
shaped  into  a  wide-faced  step,  resting  on  a  gun-metal  bearing  plate,  with  special  provision 
for  adjusting  itself  to  a  full  bearing,  and  an  adjusting  screw  to  take  up  wear  and  play.  The 
step  of  the  mandrel,  its  side  and  end  bearing  of  gun  metal,  are  at  ail  times  covered  with 

and  turning  in  oil,  and  the 
lower  end  of  the  journal 
or  step  is  arranged  with, 
an  additional  large  jour- 
nal-bearing, with  a  cup 
held  by  four  bolts  ;  and  the 
mandrel  housing  raises  and 
lowers  by  a  worm  gearing, 
which  makes  impossible 
any  accidental  jarring 
down  of  the  mandrel. 

The  Rogers  Pedestal 
Shaper,  Fig.  8,  made  by 
C.  B.  Rogers  &  Co.,  has 
some  very  desirable  feat- 
ures as  a  variety  molder. 
There  is  a  solid  pedestal 
frame,  having  each  side  of 
it  a  column  or  post  ex- 
tending from  the  base  to 
the  table  of  the  machine. 
The  yoke  boxes  are  sup- 
ported by  six  posts  and  by 
the  pedestal,  so  that  the 
spindles  are  perfectly 
aligned.  The  yokes  and 
their  spindles  are  raised  and  lowered  by  hand  wheels  in  front,  and  may  be  dropped  below 
the  line  of  the  table. 

VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  MOLDING  MACHINE. — The  Pryibil  Serpentine  Molder,  thown  in  Fig. 


FIG.  3.— Rogers  pedestal  shaper. 


MOLDING   MACHINES. 


531 


4.  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  work,  but  is  especially  fitted  for  making  such  moldings  as 

extend  around  the  backs 

and  ends  of  sofas.     There 

is  a   horizontal  spindle. 

bearing  fly-cutters  at 

each    end,  those   on  one 

end   extending  partly 

through    a  horizontal 

upper    table    bearing    a 

proper    guide   or   fence. 

The   work   is   laid   upon 

the  top  of  this  cutter,  and  «^~- 

ffm 


mine  the  position  and 
depth  of  the  molding. 
Flat  work  is  done  upon 
adjustable  tables  borne 
on  knees  at  the  side  of 
the  machine,  the  cutters 
on  the  other  end  of  the 
spindle  from  that  for 
doing  the  serpentine 
work,  working  over  those 
tables. 

The  Variety  Wood- 
worker.— For  American 
use  what  is  known  as  the 
variety  wood-worker  has 
proved  a  great  boon, 
having  for  small  estab- 
lishments producing  a 
variety  of  work  a  great 
range  of  size  and  variety 
of  character  of  work. 
Such  a  machine  is  in- 
tended for  planing  out 
of  wind,  straight  or  taper 
surfacing,  rabbeting  door  frames,  rabbeting  and  facing  inside  blinds,  jointing,  beveling, 
gaining,  ploughing,  making  glue  joints,  squaring-up  bed-posts,  table-legs,  etc.,  raising 
square,  bevel,  or  ogee  panels,  working  beads  and  circular  moldings,  ripping,  cross-cutting, 
tenoning,  etc.  The  aruor  is  horizontal,  and  bears  at  one  end  a  cutter  head,  and  at  the  other 
is  arranged  for  a  saw  or  an  auger  ;  this  latter  being  attached  to  the  free  or  overhung  end. 
The  cutters  on  the  rotating  head  work  through  a  divided  horizontal  table  provided  with  a 
vertical  fence  ;  the  boring  end  has  a  separate  table,  borne  by  a  bracket  and  having  its  own 
fence.  While  this  machine  has  not  the  range  or  dimension  nor  variety  of  work  that  is 
characteristic  of  the  universal  wood-worker,  it  is  a  very  handy  class  of  machine  for  small 
shops,  and  a  good  time-saver  and  money-earner. 

Shaft  and  Pole-cutting  Machines. — The  shaft  and  pole-rounding  machine  shown  in  Fig.  5 


FIQ.  4.— Pryibil  serpentine  molder. 


FIG.  5.- 


pole  rounding  machine. 


FIG.  6.— Pole  heel-taperin? 


has  four  cutter  heads,  each  having  three  flat  shear-cut  knives.  These  heads  are  used  for 
rounding,  containing  various  widths  of  knives  from  1£  to  3  in.,  their  edges  ground  different 
shapes  to  suit  the  work.  Two  adjustable  rings  or  guides  surround  each  head,  and  are 
adjusted  to  or  from  each  other  for  regulating  the  depth  of  cut.  The  fourth  head,  which 
forms  a  buzz-planer  attachment,  is  furnished  with  straight-faced  knives  o  in.  wide,  with 


532 


MOLDING   MACHINES. 


adjustable  tables,  and  a  stationary  fence,  on  each  side.  The  machine  will  work  round,  oval, 
sharp,  or  chamfered  work,  dress  up  fellies,  fit  carriage-body  parts,  and  answer  various  other 
purposes. 

The  shaft  and  pole  heel-tapering  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  6,  is  for  tapering  and  finishing 

the  heeis  or  bent  ends  of  shafts.  There  are 
two  disks,  each  24  in.  in  diameter,  and  each 
bearing  in  its  face  three  flat  knives  set  at  the 

E roper  angle  to  give  a  shear  cut,  the  maximum 
;ngth  of  cut  being  18  in.  The  end  of  the 
pole  or  shaft  to  be  tapered  is  placed  on  the 
table,  between  the  disks,  between  the  paral- 
lel guide  and  cutter  head,  and  moved  toward 
the  spindle  until  a  stop  or  end  gauge  is  reached. 
By  repeating  this  operation  with  the  opposite 
head,  both  sides  of  the  shaft  pole  are  fin- 
ished without  turning  over  or  reversing  the 
work. 

Panel  raising  is  an  important  operation 
in  sash  and  door  manufacture.  There  is  often 
used  a  machine  having  two  cutter-heads,  one 
above  and  the  other  below  the  table,  with  a 
wide  table  to  support  the  stuff,  and  a  supple- 

FIG.  7.  — Mankey  wood-worker.  mental  table  or  frame   in  front   to   suit  the 

width  of  the   panel.      The   cutters   on  these 

heads,  both  of  which  are  vertical,  are  set  at  an  angle  to  produce  a  drawing  cut,  and  finish 
the  surface  smooth  ;  and  as  they  have  no  corners  to  wear  away,  the  beds  are  not  easily 
destroyed  and  last  a  long  time.  The  under  head  rises  and  lowers  with  the  table,  and 
has  also  a  vertical  adjustment  on  the  bed  for  accurate  setting  ;  it  is  belted  direct  from  the 
countershaft.  There  are  two  geared  sectional  feed  rollers  and  a  friction  roller  in  the  table, 
with  a  spring  and  pressure  bar  to  retain  the 
stuff  in  place.  Such  a  machine  as  this  may. 
by  removing  the  long  hold-down  spring,  and 
putting  in  other  heads  and  cutters,  be 
turned  into  a  machine  for  sticking  sash, 
molding,  etc. 

MANKKY  WOOD-WORK. — This  name  is 
applied  to  a  new  variety  of  ornamental  wood- 
work, which  is  manufactured  by  the  Mankey 
Decorative  Co.,  of  Williamsport,  Pa.  It  de- 
pends upon  a  novel  invention  in  wood- 
working which  possesses  a  peculiar  inter- 
est. It  is  based  upon  the  principle  that 
wood  can  be  cut  crosswise  the  grain  by  means 
of  rotary  cutters,  provided  the  cutters  be 
driven  at  a  high  speed,  and  the  work  be 
brought  up  to  them  under  a  very  slow  feed. 
By  giving  the  cutters  different  configura- 
tions, channels  or  grooves  of  almost  any  de- 
sired cross  section  can  be  produced  ;  and 
when  these  are  combined,  the  most  intricate 
geometrical  patterns  can  be  made  in  solid 
relief  upon  the  surface  of  the  wood.  The 
machine  on  which  this  is  done  is  very  simple, 
and  is  represented  in  Fig.  7.  It  consists  of 
a  table,  1,  having  an  opening,  2,  and 
mounted  on  a  suitable  standard.  In  the 
standard  is  journaled  a  shaft,  5,  which  carries 
a  rotary  cutter,  4,  which  extends  up  through 
the  slot,  6.  On  the  table,  and  against  a 
ledge,  7,  thereon,  rests  the  vertical  bar  of 
an  arm,  12.  This  arm  and  its  bar  are  loose, 
and  may  be  slid  along  on  the  table  in  con- 
tact with  the  ledge,  7.  The  work  is  fast- 
ened on  the  under  side  of  a  guide  (not 
shown),  which  receives  the  vertical  pin, 
shown  on  the  end  of  the  bar  12,  and  by 
means  of  which  guide  the  plank  to  be  oper- 
ated upon  by  the  cutter,  4,  can  be  set  at  any 
desired  angle  to  the  cutter.  The  work- 


FIG.  8. — Mankey  wood-work. 


man  grasps  the  bar,  12,  in  his  hand,  and  pushes  it  along,  thus  feeding  the  work  to  the  cutter, 
4,  which  is  usually  driven  at  a  speed  from  five  to  six  thousand  revolutions  per  minute.  In 
Fig.  8  we  give  a  number  of  examples  of  the  kind  of  work  which  is  thus  done.  At  1,  2,  and 
3  are  shown  specimens  of  simple  cross  cutting,  the  channels  being  made  directly  transverse 


MOKTISING   MACHINES. 


533 


the  grain  of  a  board  or  plank.  One  result  of  this  cutting  is  the  bringing  out  with  great 
clearness  of  the  grain  of  the  wood,  which,  of  course,  is  totally  obscured  when  the  timber  is 
cut  with  the  grain.  Nos.  4.  7,  13,  13,  and  16  are  examples  of  paneling  made  by  inter- 
secting groovss,  producing  figures  in  solid  relief.  Nos.  5  and  IG  illustrate  effects  produced 
by  curved  grooves  intersecting  and  combined.  Nos.  6,  14,  and  15  are  patterns  produced  by 
radial  grooves.  No.  17  is  an  ornamental  trim  produced  by  cross  cutting  a  board  on  two 
sides,  as  shown  in  No.  1,  for  example,  and  then  slitting  the  board  longitudinally,  the  orna- 
mental figure  being  afterwards  produced  by  stamping,  or  any  other  convenient  way,  on  the 
faces.  18  is  simply  a  piece  of  ordinary  molding,  with  a  strip  made  exactly  the  same  way 
as  17,  but  ornamented  differently  on  its  face,  glued  thereto.  No.  8  is  an  open-work  pattern 
produced  from  a  board  cut  as  in  No.  1,  then  slit  longitudinally,  and  then  the  several  strips 
combined  with  the  straight  intermediate  pieces,  the  whole  glued  together. 

The  ingenious  basket-work  shown  in  No.  11  is  simply  a  board  cut  as  in  No.  2,  then 
divided  into  strips,  and  the  strips  glued  together  sidewise,  so  that  the  narrow  elevation  in 
one  comes  opposite  the  broad  elevation  in  the  other. 

The  number  of  patterns  which  it  is  possible  to  make  in  this  way  is  almost  indefinite  ; 
and  the  cheapness  of  the  work  is  one  of  its  principal  advantages.  A  complete  panel,  such 
as  17,  is  easily  produced  from  the  plain  plank  in  the  space  of  less  than  two  minutes,  and  at 
a  cost  of  a  few  cents. 

MORTISING  MACHINES.  The  Fay  Car  Mortizing,  Recessing,  and  Boring  Machine, 
shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  for  mortising  by  a  rotating  cutter,  as  in  heavy  timbers.  Both 'the  cutting 
and  the  boring  tools  work  in  a  heavy  spindle,  which  has  an  adjustable  frame  gibbed  to  a  column 


PIG.  1.— Fay  car  mortising,  recessing,  and  boring  machine. 

for  vertical  movement.  There  is  also  a  horizontal  adjustment  for  governing  the  depth  of 
the  recesses,  which  are  gauged  by  a  suitable  stop  on  the  front  of  tlie  frame.  The  weight 
of  the  frame  is  counterbalanced.  The  table  bearing  the  timber  to  be  mortised  runs  on  large 
rollers,  and  has  either  hand  or  power  feed,  as  desired  ;  the  power  feed  being  used  to  feed 
from  one  mortise  to  the  other,  and  the  hand  feed  to  work  from  one  end  of  the  mortise  to 
the  other.  The  table  is  made  in  sections,  and  may  be  of  any  length  desired  ;  the  roller 
stands,  being  independent,  may  be  set  at  any  distance  apart  wished.  The  machine  may 
have  an  auxiliary  boring  machine  at  one  side  towards  one  end.  This  machine  works  with  a 
cutter  which  first  bores  its  way  into  the  side  of  the  piece  being  mortised,  and  then,  by  cut- 
ting on  its  side,  extends  the  hole  to  any  desired  length  ;  making  mortises  having  semi- 
circular ends.  They  will,  of  course,  work  to  any  desired  depth,  making  either  a  blind  or 
a  through  mortise,  as  desired. 

The  Egan  Automatic  Square-chisel  Car-  Mortiser  and  Tenoner,  Fig.  2,  will  not  only 

cut  heavy  mortises,  but  make  end  ten- 
ons, gain,  or  mortise  clear  through  a 
timber  9  in.  thick,  and  countersink  for 
bolt  heads.  The  frame  consists  of 
a  casting  cored  out  at  the  center,  and 
bearing  at  one  end  a  knee  in  which  the 
square  chisel  bar  plays,  and  on  its 
top,  at  the  opposite  end  from  the  knee 
just  mentioned,  a  table  having  an  up- 
right bracket,  against  which  the  side  of 
the  timber  to  be  mortised  "bears.  A 
clamp  piece  on  this  bracket  holds  the 
timber  down.  There  is  a  dead  roll  in 
the  table,  for  facilitating  feeding  the 
timber  endwise  across  the  machine.  By 
a  hand  wheel  the  mortising  bar  is  raised 
or  lowered  to  suit  any  point  on  the 
FIG.  2. -Car  mortiser  and  tenoner.  width  of  the  timber:  by  a  screw  and 

hand  wheel,  the  mortising  bar  is  brought 
up  to  the  timber  and  the  square  chisel  forced  through  ;  a  hand  lever  performing  for  the  auger 


534 


MOTOBS,    ELECTEIC. 


FIG.  3.— Hub  mortiser  and  borer. 


the  same  function.  The  cross  movement  of  the  bed  is  controlled  by  a  friction  clutch  having 
steps  to  gauge  the  length  of  the  mortise.  The  chisel  mandrel  is  driven  by  a  friction  gearing 
with  a  quick  return  ;  and  there  are  suitable  stops  for  gauging  the  travel  of  the  slide  ;  also  a 
regulating  screw  for  changing  the  position  of  the  chisel  to  suit  the  work.  An  extra 
boring  attachment  is  fitted  to  the  machine  for  boring  joint  bolt  holes,  side  and  general  work. 
The  Egan  Hub  Mortiser  and  Sorer,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  has  a  single  chisel  bar  with 
vertical  stroke,  the  amount  of  which  may  be  varied  by 
altering  the  angle  at  which  the  short  connecting  rod  from 
the  crank  disk  meets  that  from  the  upper  end  of  the  boring 
bar.  The  change  in  the  stroke  is  accomplished  by  a  treadle, 
and  it  is  claimed  for  it  that  it  prevents  the  slightest  jar 
upon  the  foot  even  when  mortising  without  first  boring  the 
hole  to  admit  the  chisel.  The  mortising  chisel  is  reversible 
on  the  Jack-in-the-box  plan,  so  as  to  cut  either  end  of  the 
mortise  square.  The  boring  mandrel  has  vertical  traverse 
and  is  counterweighted  ;  it  is  driven  by  beveled  gearing  from 
a  horizontal  axis  belted  at  the  back.  The  reverse  may  be 
controlled  by  the  operator  at  will,  or  it  will  work  auto- 
matically if  set  to  do  so.  The  boring  bit  is  in  line  with  the 
chisel,  and  there  is  a  stop  for  gauging  the  depth  of  boring. 
The  chuck  for  holding  the  hub  is  spaced  to  mortise  for  10,  12, 
14,  16,  or  18  spokes,  whether  in  line  or  staggering.  One  end  of 
the  hub  is  held  by  two  jaws,  parted  by  a  right  and  left-hand 
screw.  The  other  end  of  the  hub  rests  in  a  cup  of  suitable 
size.  The  table  has  a  lateral  movement  across  the  machine, 
parallel  with  the  hub  axis,  the  cross  feed  being  given  by  a 
hand  wheel. 

An  automatic  double-chisel  hub-mortising  machine,  con- 
structed for  mortising  or  re-mortising  hubs  from  6  to 
16£  in.  in  diameter,  and  cutting  mortises  in  hard  wood 
up  to  2^  in.  wide  and  5$  in.  long,  either  straight  or 
staggered.  In  operation,  the  table  carrying  the  hub  is 
lifted  to  the  chisels  until  the  full  depth  of  cut  is  reached,  and 
remains  stationary  until  the  mortise  is  complete,  when  it 
descends,  the  hub  turning  one  notch  of  an  index  plate,  ready  for  the  next  mortise.  The 

figging,   spacing,  feeding,  etc.,  are  automatic.     The  capacity  is  75  to  80  hubs  per  hour, 
he  operator  starts  either  the  boring  or  the  mortising  bar,  as  desired,  by  a  friction  gear 
and  treadle.     In  relieving 
the  friction  an  automatic 
brake  is  applied,  stopping 
the  machine  at  once. 

Mortising  Tools. — 
Some  mortising  machines 
for  sash  work  have  the 
disadvantage  of  not  cut- 
ting for  the  ends  of  the 
pulley  flanges,  and  of  not 
cutting  and  rebating  long 
enough  for  them  to  allow 
the  screw  to  enter  the 
wood  without  splitting. 

A  mortising  chisel, 
Fig.  4,  which  is  especially 
adapted  for  drawing  from 
the  work  the  chips  that  it 
produces,  has  extending 
down  its  back,  upon  the 
side  which  bears  the  bevel, 

a  thin  rib  at  right  angles  to  the  blade  of  the  chisel  ;  and  from  this  rib 
there  project  a  number  of  small  barbed  lips  which  serve  to  draw  the 
chips  from  the  hole. 

A  chisel  for  mortising  in  sash  pulleys,  shown  in  Fig.  5,  consists  of  two 
chisels,  each  of  which  has  a  cutting  edge  of  L  section,  and  both  of 
which  operate  at  once,  one  of  them  cutting  in  advance  of  the  other  about 
half  the  stroke  of  the  chisel  bar  ;  their  cutting  edges  being  placed 
so  as  to  face  in  the  same  direction.  The  longer  of  the  two  chisels 
of  course  cuts  first,  mortising  clear  through  the  pulley  stile,  and 
the  short  one,  which  is  wider  than  the  other,  mortises  for  the  flange 
of  the  pulley  at  the  same  time,  thus  finishing  the  pulley  in  one 
handling. 

MOTORS,  ELECTRIC.  The  term  "electric  motor"  includes  all  apparatus  by  which 
electric  energy  is  converted  into  mechanical  energy.  This  can  be  accomplished  (1)  by  the 
attraction  that  an  electro-magnet  exerts  upon  an  iron  or  steel  armature  ;  (2)  the  mutud. 


FIG.  4.— Mortising  chisel. 


FIG.  5.— Mortising 
chisel. 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC.  535 


attraction  between  two  electro- magnets  :  (3)  by  analogous  principles  based  upon  the  attract- 
ive force  exhibited  between  masses  of  magnetic  metal,  and  (4)  the  action  of  a  magnet  upon 
a  field  of  force  created  by  the  passage  of  currents  in  neighboring  conductors.  To  these  must 
be  added  that  small  experimental  class  which  depend  for  their  action  on  the  attraction  and 
repulsion  of  statically  charged  surfaces. 

HISTORICAL.  — The  discovery  by  Oersted,  that  the  magnetic  needle  could  be  deflected  by 
the  passage  of  a  current  in  proximity  to  it,  was  closely  followed  by  that  of  Arago  and  Davy, 
who  showed,  independently  of  each  other,  that  iron  and  steel  could  be  magnetized  by  the 
passage  of  a  current  through  a  wire  wound  around  them.  Sturgeon  utilized  this  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  first  powerful  horseshoe  magnets.  These  principles  were  soon  applied  to 
the  construction  of  elementary  electric  motors,  among  them  that  of  Barlow,  known  as  Bar- 
low's wheel.  1826.  This  consisted  of  a  disk  of  copper  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet.  The 
current  was  sent  perpendicularly  through  the  disk  from  axis  to  circumference,  where  it 
passed  into  a  cup  of  mercury. 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry  may  be  said  to  have  constructed  the  first  electric  motor  acting  upon 
the  attraction  and  repulsion  of  electro-magnets  (1831).  It  consisted  of  an  oscillating  electro- 
magnet provided  with  a  simple  attachment  for  breaking  and  reversing  the  battery  current, 
and  thus  reversing  the  polarity  of  the  electro-magnet,  which  was  alternately  attracted  and 
repelled  by  the  poles  of  a  permanent  magnet. 

A  large  number  of  inventors  had  also  constructed  experimental  motors,  among  them, 
Abbe  Salvatore  dal  Negro,  Dr.  Shulthess,  Davenport,  Elias,  Froment,  Du  Moncel,  Wheat- 
stone,  Gaiffe,  Hjorth,  Roux,  Larmenjeat,  Bourbouze,  Moses  G.  Farmer,  and  Thomas  Hall. 

Probably  the  most  interesting  of  the  early  motors  was  that  of  Jacobi,  which  drove  a 
boat  on  the  Neva,  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1838.  This  motor  consisted  of  two  sets  of  electro- 
magnets. One  set  was  fastened  to  a  square  frame,  disposed  in  a  circle,  and  with  the  poles 
projecting  parallel  with  the  axis.  The  other  set  was  similarly  fastened  to  a  disk  attached  to 
the  shaft,  and  revolving  with  it.  Each,  set  comprised  four  magnets,  and  there  were  conse- 
quently eight  magnetic  poles.  The  current  from  a  powerful  battery  passed  through  the 
commutator  to  the  coils  of  the  electro-magnets,  and  as  the  magnets  attracted  each  other,  the 
disk  rotated.  By  means  of  the  commutator  on  the  shaft,  the  current  was  reversed  eight 
times  during  each  revolution,  just  as  the  poles  of  two  sets  of  magnets  arrived  opposite  each 
other.  Attraction  ceasing,  repulsion  took  place,  and  the  motion  was  thus  accelerated.  As 
the  poles  were  alternately  of  different  polarity,  the  reversals  had  the  effect  of  causing  at- 
traction between  each  pole  of  one  set,  and  the  next  pole  of  the  other.  In  his  historic  experi- 
ments of  1838,  Jacobi  used  a  modified  form  of  this  motor,  so  as  to  obtain  greater  power. 

The  most  celebrated  early  motor,  next  to  that  of  Jacobi,  was  undoubtedly  that  of  Prof. 
C.  G.  Page,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This  depended  upon  a  different  principle 
from  that  of  the  others.  When  the  end  of  a  bar  of  iron  was  held  near  a  hollow  electro- 
magnetic coil  or  solenoid,  the  iron  bar  was  attracted  into  the  coil  by  a  kind  of  a  sucking 
action,  until  the  bar  had  passed  half  way  through  the  coil,  after  which  no  further  motion 
took  place.  Professor  Page  constructed  an  electric  engine  on  this  principle  about  1850.  The 
solenoid  was  placed  vertically,  like  the  cylinder  of  an  upright  engine.  A  rod  of  iron,  by 
way  of  armature,  was  fastened  to  a  pis  km  rod  connected  to  the  crank  of  a  shaft  carrying  a 
fly  wheel.  The  core  moved  downward  by  its  weight,  until  its  upper  end  was  just  leaving 
the  solenoid,  and  thus  one  movement  of 'the  piston  was  accomplished.  On  passing  the  cur- 
rent, the  core  or  piston  was  attracted  upward,  and  thus  the  second  movement  was  completed. 
A  commutating  device  was  attached  to  the  shaft  which  automatically  admitted  the  current 
into  the  coil  and  cut  it  off  at  the  right  moment.  Professor  Page  soon  improved  on  this 
single-acting  electric  engine  by  adding  another  solenoid,  which  could  pull  the  piston  in  the 
other  direction  without  the  assistance  of  gravity. 

A  large  motor  of  this  description  was  constructed  by  Professor  Page,  in  1850,  which 
developed  over  10  horse-power.  Professor  Page  sought  to  apply  his  motor  to  locomotion, 
and  he  actually  constructed  an  electric  locomotive  to  demonstrate  the  practicability  of  his 
scheme. 

The  most  important  of  the  early  motors  from  a  scientific  standpoint,  however,  was  the 
motor  built,  in  1861,  by  Professor 'Pacinotti,  of  the  University  of  Pisa,  and  exhibited  at 
Vienna  in  1873.  and  in'Paris  in  1881.  This  motor,  described  in  the  Nuovo  Cimento  for  1864, 
had  an  armature  consisting  of  a  toothed  iron  ring,  and  was  wound  and  connected  practically 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Gramme  armature.  As  to  reversibility,  he  remarked  with  keen 
foresight  :  "  This  model  further  shows  how  the  electro-magnetic  machine  is  the  complement 
of  the  magneto-electric  machine,  for  in  the  first,  the  current  obtained  from  any  source  of 
electricity,  circulating  in  the  bobbins,  produces  movement  of  the  wheel  with  its  consequent 
mechanical  work;  whilst  in  the  second,  mechanical  work  is  employed  to  turn  the  wheel,  and 
obtain,  by  the  action  of  the  permanent  magnet,  a  current  which  may  be  transmitted  by  con- 
ductors to  any  required  point." 

Although  the  reversibility  of  the  electric  motor  and  the  .magneto-electric  generator  had 
already  been  noticed,  it  was  not  until  1873,  after  the  substitution  of  electromagnets  for  per- 
manent ones  in  electric  generators,  that  the  reversibility  of  the  dynamo  was  fully  realized, 
and  pointed  out  by  M.  Fontaine,  in  the  action  of  the 'Gramme  machines  exhibited  at  the 
Vienna  exhibition  of  that  year.  Modem  practice  dates  from  this  period. 

GENERAL  THEORY. — Dynamo  machine  and  electric  motor  are  convertible  terms.  Any 
dynamo  can  be  used  practically  as  a  motor,  and  in  most  cases  any  motor  can  be  used  to 
generate  a  current.  On  purely  theoretical  grounds  this  should  be  possible  in  all  cases,  but  in 


536  MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


practice  it  is  found  that  the  speed  which  is  required  to  make  some  small  motors  act  as  self- 
exciting  dynamos  is  so  high  as  to  render  that  application  mechanically  impossible.  The 
reason  for  this  is,  according  to  Kapp,  that  in  small  motors  the  polar  surfaces  are  of  very 
limited  extent,  and  consequently  the  magnetic  resistance  of  the  path  traversed  by  the  lines  of 
force  is  excessively  high,  requiring  more  electrical  energy  to  excite  the  field  magnets  than 
th«  armature  is  capable  of  developing  at  a  moderate  and  practical  speed. 

Dynamos  wound  and  connected  for  working  as  generators  of  continuous  currents  may  be 
used  in  all  cases  as  motors,  but  with  some  difference.  A  series  dynamo  set  to  generate  cur- 
rents, when  run  right-handedly  (and  therefore  having  a  forward  right-handed  lead),  will, 
when  supplied  with  a  current  from  an  external  source,  run  as  a  motor,  but  runs  left-handedly, 
against  its  brushes.  To  set  it  right  for  motor  purposes  requires  either  that  the  connections 
of  the  armature  should  be  reversed,  cr  that  those  of  the  field  magnet  should  be  reversed  (in 
either  of  which  cases  it  will  run  right-handedly),  or  else  the  brushes  must  be  reversed  and 
given  a  lead  in  the  other  direction  (in  which  case  it  will  run  left-handedly).  A  shunt  dynamo, 
set  ready  to  work  as  a  generator,  will,  when  supplied  with  current,  run  as  a  motor  in  the 
same  direction  as  it  ran  as  a  generator  ;  for  if  the  current  in  the  armature  part  is  in  the  same 
direction  as  before,  that  in  the  shunt  is  reversed,  and  vice  versa.  A  com  pound- wound 
dynamo,  set  right  to  run  as  a  generator,  will  run  as  a  motor  in  the  reverse  sense,  against  its 
brushes,  if  the  series  part  be  more  powerful  than  the  shunt,  and  with  its  brushes  if  the  shunt 
part  be  the  more  powerful.  If  the  connections  are  such  (as  in  the  compound  dynamos)  that 
the  field  magnet  receives  the  sum  of  the  effects  of  the  shunt  and  series  windings  when  used 
as  a  generator,  then  it  will  receive  the  difference  between  them  when  used  as  a  motor. 

In  several  respects  it  is  even  more  important  that  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  good  design 
of  generators  (see  DYNAMO  ELECTRIC  MACHINES)  should  be  observed  for  motors.  Eddy 
currents  must  be  even  more  carefully  eliminated.  According  to  Mordey,  in  a  generator  the 
self-induction  in  the  sections  of  the  armature  coil,  and  the  eddy  currents  in  the  core,  are 
antagonistic ;  in  the  motor  they  tend  to  increase  one  another.  Also,  the  greatest  attention 
must  be  paid  to  proper  mechanical  arrangements  for  transmitting  to  the  shaft  the  forces 
that  are  thrown  by  the  magnetic  field  upon  the  conducting  wires  around. 

GOVERNING  OF  MOTORS. — One  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  secure  an  automatic  regulation 
of  the  speed  was  that  of  M.  Marcel  Deprez,  who  in  1878  applied  an  ingenious  method  of 
interrupting  the  current  at  a  perfectly  regular  rate  by  introducing  a  vibrating  brake  into  the 
circuit.  It  ran  at  a  perfectly  uniform  speed,  quite  irrespective  of  the  work  it  was  doing. 
Deprez  also  showed  that  the  torque  of  a  motor  depends  only  on  the  strength  of  the  field  and  on 
the  current,  but  does  not  depend  on  the  speed.  In  dealing  with  this  matter,  in  La  Lumiere 
Electrique  of  October  3,  1885,  he  says  :  "  If  a  current  traverses  a  motor  having  an  armature 
of  the  Pacinotti  type,  the  turning  effort  of  the  latter  is  independent  of  its  state  of  move- 
ment or  rest,  and  in  motion  it  is  independent  of  the  speed,  provided  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent is  maintained  constant.  Inversely,  if  the  static  moment  tending  to  resist  the  motion 
of  the  armature  is  maintained  constant,  the  current  will  thereby  automatically  be  kept 
constant,  whatever  means  we  may  employ  to  vary  it.  Since  with  a  constant  load  the 
energy  given  out  is  proportional  to  the  speed,  and  since  the  electrical  energy  supplied  to  the 
motor  is  the  product  of  current  and  electro-motive  force,  it  follows  that  if  the  current  is 
constant  the  speed  must  be  proportional  to  the  electro-motive  force." 

Automatic  Governing.— It  was  pointed  out  (see  DYNAMO  ELECTRIC  MACHINERY)  that  a 
properly  designed  shunt-wound  dynamo,  if  run  at  constant  speed,  would  generate  a  constant 
E.  M.  F.  at  all  loads.  Conversely,  it  can  be  shown  that  a  shunt-wound  machine,  if  supplied 
with  current  from  mains  at  a  constant  potential,  will  maintain  constant  speed  at  all  loads. 
For  this  reason  the  large  majority  of  motors  in  use  at  present  are  of  the  shunt-wound  type, 
connected  to  constant  potential  circuit,  as  they  regulate  automatically. 

In  the  same  way,  motors  can  be  governed  by  compound  winding  of  the  field  magnets  ; 
but  in  such  case  the  series  coil  must  be  wound  differentially  to  the  shunt  winding  to  maintain 
constant  speed.  This  method  is  claimed  by  Sprague  and  Ayrton  and  Perry.  With  this 
method  of  winding,  the  coil  in  series  with  the  armature  tends  to  weaken  the  field  magnet- 
ism, at  any  increase  in  load. 


Centrifugal  Governing. — Professors  Ayrton  and  Perry  have  olso  proposed  several  forms 
of  "periodic"  centrifugal  governor,  a  device  by  which/in  every  revolution,  power  is  sup- 
plied during  a  portion  of  the  revolution  only,  the  proportion  of  the  time  in  every  revolu- 
tion during  which  the  power  is  supplied  being  made  to  vary  according  to  the  speed.  The 
main  difficulty  with  such  governors  is  to  prevent  sparking.  But  there  is  a  still  more 
radical  defect  in  all  centrifugal  governors  ;  they  all  work  too  late.  They  do  not  perform 
their  functions  until  the  spaed  has  changed. 

Dynamometric  Governing.— Prof.  S.  P.  Thompson  has  devised  another  kind  of  gov- 
ernor which  is  not  open  to  this  objection.  He  proposes  to  employ  a  dynamometer  on  the 
shaft  of  the  motor  to  actuate  a  regulating  apparatus,  which  may  consist  either  of  a  periodic 
regulator  to  shunt  or  interrupt  the  current  during  a  portion  of  each  revolution,  or  of  an 
adjustable  resistance  connected  in  part  of  the  circuit.  The  regulator  in  this  case  is 
therefore  worked,  not  according  to  the  speed  of  the  motor,  but  according  to  the  load  it  is 
carrying.  Any  change  in  the  load  will  instantly  act  on  the  dynamometric  governor  before 
the  speed  has  time  to  change. 

Other  Methods  of  Governing. — Sprague  and  Andre  have  designed  motors  in  which 
the  field  magnets  are  wound  in  two  separate  circuits,  one  with  thick  and  the  other  with 
thin  wire,  the  current  dividing  between  them,  and  the  armature  connected  as  a  bridge  aoross 


MOTORS,  ELECTRIC.  537 


these  circuits,  exactly  as  the  galvanometer  is  connected  across  the  circuits  of  a  Wheatstone's 
bridge.  Another  method  of  governing,  employed  by  Brush  and  Hochhausen,  consists  in 
building  up  the  field-magnet  coils  in  sections,  and  by  varying  the  number  of  sections  in 
circuit,  or  the  mode  of  their  connection,  obtaining  regulation  of  speed.  This  method  is 
usually  employed  only  on  constant-current  motors. 

The  method  of  constructing  a  motor  with  coils  in  sections,  so  that  a  movable  internal 
core  may  be  successively  attracted  as  successive  sections  are  switched  in,  has  been  made  use 
of  by  Deprez  in  constructing  an  electric  hammer.  This  principle  of  construction  was 
employed  by  Page  in  his  motors  many  years  previously.  For  a  complete  discussion  of  the 
various  methods  of  motor  regulation,  the  reader  is  referred  to  a  paper  by  Prof.  F.  B.  Crocker, 
Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Elect.  Engrs.,  p.  237,  vol.  vi.,  1889. 

EFFICIENCY  AND  POWER.  —  It  can  be  shown,  mathematically,  that  the  efficiency  with 
which  a  perfect  motor  utilizes  the  electric  energy  of  the  current,  depends  upon  the  ratio 
between  the  counter  electro-motive  force  developed  in  the  armature  of  the  motor,  and  the 
electro-motive  force  of  the  current  which  is  supplied  by  the  battery  or  dynamo.  We  can 
therefore  calculate  the  efficiency  at  which  the  motor  is  working,  by  observing  the  ratio 
between  the  fall  in  the  strength  of  the  current  and  the  original  strength.  Or,  to  put 
it  another  way,  with  two  series  dynamos,  the  electrical  efficiency  of  transmission,  when  there 
is  no  leakage,  is  the  ratio  of  the  electro-motive  forces  developed  in  the  armatures  of  the  two 
machines. 

JACOBI'S  LAW  concerning  the  maximum  power  of  an  electric  motor  supplied  with  currents 
from  a  source  of  given  electro-motive  force,  is  the  following  :  The  mechanical  work  given  out 
by  a  motor  is  a  maximum  when  the  motor  is  geared  to  run  at  such  a  speed  that  the  current  is 
reduced  to  half  the  strength  that  it  would  have  if  the  motor  was  stopped.  This,  of  course, 
implies  that  the  counter  electro-motive  force  of  the  motor  is  equal  to  half  the  electro-motive 
force  furnished  by  the  battery  or  generator.  Now,  under  these  circumstances,  only  half  the 
energy  furnished  by  the  external  source  is  utilized,  the  other  half  being  wasted  in  heating  the 
circuit.  Dr.  Siemens  proved,  in  fact,  that  if  the  motor  be  arranged  so  as  to  do  its  work  at 
less  than  the  maximum  rate,  by  being  Beared  so  as  to  do  much  less  work  per  revolution,  but 
yet  so  as  to  run  at  a  higher  speed,  it  will  be  more  efficient  ;  that  is  to  say,  though  it  does  less 
work,  there  will  also  be  still  less  electric  energy  expended,  and  the  ratio  of  the  useful  work 
done  to  the  energy  expended  will  be  nearer  unity  than  before.  Hence,  to  get  maximum  work 
per  second  out  of  an  electric  motor,  the  motor  must  run  at  such  a  speed  as  to  bring  down 
the  current  to  half  the  value  which  it  would  have  if  the  motor  were  at  rest.  That  is  to  say, 
the  efficiency  is  but  50  per  cent,  when  the  motor  does  its  work  at  the  maximum  rate. 

When  a  dynamo  is  used  as  a  motor,  the  power  is  supplied  to  it  electrically  in  the  form  of 
electric  currents  delivered  at  a  certain  potential  or  pressure.  If  CM  is  the  number  of 
amperes  of  current  which  flow  through  the  motor,  and  EM  be  the  number  of  volts 
of  potential  as  measured  at  the  terminals  of  the  motor,  then  the  electric  power,  in 
watts,  Pw,  given  by  the  mains  to  the  motor,  will  be  found  by  multiplying  together  the 
amperes  and  the  volts,  or  Pw  =.  E^Cu  (watts).  This  may  be  expressed  as  electric  horse- 
power by  dividing  by  746,  since  7-J6  watts  equal  one  electric  horse-power. 

w     TT    n  (ExCsi) 

E.  H.P.  =  -m-. 

All  of  this  power  electrically  supplied  is  not,  however,  turned  into  mechanical  power, 
some  being  inevitably  used  up  in  heating  the  conductors  (because  they  have  electric  resist- 
ance) and  in  magnetic  friction.  That  part  of  the  power  which  is  actually  utilized  in  turn- 
ing the  armature  may  be  expressed  in  two  ways,  either  electrically  or  mechanically. 

If  Ca  is  the  amperes  that  flow  through  the  armature,  and  Ea  the  E.  M.  F.  actually 
generated  by  the  rotation  of  the  armature  as  it  goes  round  in  its  magnetic  field,  then  the 
number  of  watts  utilized  is  — 

PW  =  EaCa- 

p 

The  efficiency  (electrical)  of  the  motor  is  given  by  the  ratio  of  P1C  to  PW,  or  jf-     The 

power  thus  utilized  in  the  armature,  if  expressed  in  electrical  horse-power,  will  be  EaCa  •*- 
746.  To  express  in  mechanical  units  the  power  utilized  by  the  armature,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  power  is  also  the  product  of  two  factors,  the  speed  and  the  turning  moment, 
or  torque. 

If  n  stand  for  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  ;  and  Fpf  stand  for  torque,  or  force 
in  pound-feet—  i.e.,  so  many  pounds'  weight  acting  at  a  radius  of  one  foot  —  then  the  num- 
ber of  foot-pounds  per  minute  is  given  by  2n  times  the  product  of  n  and  Fpf,  or, 

' 


33,000 
Equating  this  to  the  electrical  expression  for  the  power  given  to  the  armature,  we  get  — 

q.j    AAA 

nF"  =  aflrw  x  EaCa  =E*  Ca  x  7'04- 

Now  Ea,  the  E.  J>I.  F.  generated  by  the  rotating  armature,  tends  to  send  a  current  in  the 
opposite  direction  through  the  circuit";  it  is  therefore  sometimes  called  the  counter  E.  M.  F. 
of  the  motor.  The  faster  the  motor  runs,  and  the  stronger  the  magnetic  field  of  the 
machine,  the  greater  does  Ea  become,  and  the  more  does  it  oppose  the  flow  of  current 
through  the  motor. 

The  actual  efficiencies  of  motors  vary  considerably  with  the  power  of  the  machine,  its 


538 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


method  of  governing,  and  the  nature  of  the  circuit  to  which  it  is  connected.  This  is  well 
shown  in  the  accompanying  tables,  due  to  Dr.  S.  S.  Wheeler  and  Prof.  F.  B.  Crocker,  which 
give  respectively  the  efficiencies  of  machines  (shunt  wound)  connected  to  constant-potential 
circuits,  and  machines  (usually  series  wound)  connected  to  constant-current  or  arc-light  cir- 
cuits, and  the  currents  required  at  the  various  potentials. 

Amperes  required  to  give  Different  Powers  on   the   Various  Constant -potential  Circuits, 
allowing  for  the  Ordinary  Efficiency  of  each  Size  of  Motor. 


Horse- 
power of 
motor. 

Effi- 
ciency of 
motor. 

Electrical 
horse- 
power 
required. 

8  volts, 
battery. 

60  volts. 

75  volts. 

100  volts. 

110  volts. 

120  volts 

220  V0lt8. 

240  volts 

440  volts. 

500  VOltS. 

t 

40* 
55 
60 

•16 

•si 

•88 

14 
21 
26 

2'3 
3'4 

4-1 

1-6 
2-2 

2'8 

1-2 
1'7 
2'1 

1-1 

1-5 
1-9 

1- 

1-4 
1-7 

•53 
•76 

'95 

•48 
•69 

•87 

•26 
•38 

•48 

•23 
•34 

•41 

i 

62 

•40 

38 

6-0 

4'0 

3'0 

2'7 

2'5 

1-4 

1-3 

•68 

•60 

i 

66 

•76 

71 

11-3 

7'5 

5-7 

5-1 

4'7 

2'6 

2'4 

1'3 

1-13 

1 

72 

1-4 

130 

20'7 

13-8 

10-4 

9'4 

8'6 

4'7 

4'3 

2'4 

2-07 

2 

75 

2'7 

39-8 

26'6 

19-9 

18-1 

16-5 

9-1 

8'3 

4'5 

3-98 

3 

78 

3'8 

57-3 

33-2 

28-6 

20- 

23'8 

13-0 

11-9 

6'5 

5-73 

4 

79 

5'0 

75'5 

50'3 

37'7 

34-3 

31-4 

17-2 

15'8 

8'6 

7*55 

5 

80 

6'2 

98-3 

62'2 

46-6 

42-4 

38-8 

21-2 

19-4 

10'6 

9-33 

7* 

82 

9-1 

136- 

90-9 

68'2 

62- 

56'8 

31-0 

28'4 

15'5 

13-6 

10 

84 

12- 

178' 

US' 

88'8 

80-7 

74- 

40-4 

37- 

20-2 

17-8 

15 

85 

17'6 

263' 

176- 

13S- 

120- 

no- 

W            55- 

30- 

26-3 

20 

86 

23- 

347" 

ra- 

173- 

158- 

145- 

79- 

\f 

39'9 

34-7 

25 

88 

28' 

424' 

SaS- 

212- 

193- 

177- 

96' 

88- 

48'2 

42'4 

30 

88 

34' 

509- 

339- 

254' 

231- 

212- 

116' 

106'3 

57'8 

50'7 

35 

89 

40' 

587- 

8M' 

293' 

266- 

244- 

133- 

122- 

67'4 

59' 

40 

89 

45' 

671' 

447- 

335- 

305- 

230- 

153- 

140- 

77' 

67' 

50 

90 

55' 

829- 

553- 

414- 

377' 

346- 

188- 

172- 

94' 

83' 

75 

90 

83' 

1,243- 

828- 

621* 

565- 

518- 

283- 

259' 

141' 

124- 

Volts  required  to  give  Different  Powers  on  Various  Arc  Circuits,  allowing  for  the  Ordi- 
nary Efficiency  of  each  Size  of  Motor. 


Horse-power  of 
motor. 

Efficiency  of 
motor. 

Electrical 
horse-power 
require^). 

8  nmperes. 

6j  amperes. 

10  amperes. 

18  amperes. 

A 

35£ 

•18 

44' 

20' 

13- 

i 

50 

•25 

<;2- 

29' 

19' 

10-3 

i 

55 

•45 

112- 

51- 

34' 

18-7 

i 

62 

•81 

201- 

93' 

60- 

33'5 

i 

68 

1-47 

366' 

169' 

no- 

60-9 

2 

72 

2'8 

696' 

819- 

207- 

115' 

3 

76 

4-0 

981" 

453' 

294' 

163- 

4 

77 

5'2 

1.291- 

5%' 

887' 

215- 

5 

78 

6'4 

1,594' 

736- 

478* 

265- 

74 

79 

9-5 

2,360- 

1,080' 

708' 

393- 

10 

80 

12-5 

3,108- 

1,435- 

933' 

518' 

15 

82 

18-3 

4,548' 

2,099' 

1,364' 

758- 

20 

as 

24'1 

5,991' 

2,765' 

1.797- 

999' 

25 

84 

29-8 

•7,400- 

3,416' 

2,220' 

1.8W 

40 

85 

47'1 

11,700' 

5,400- 

3,510' 

1,950' 

An  examination  of  the  tables  shows  that  the  efficiencies  range  from  35  to  90  per  cent. ,  which 
compared  with  the  steam  engine,  shows  considerable  superiority.  The  consumption  of  coal 
in  steam  engines  of  various  sizes  and  types,  varies  from  2  to  10  Ibs.  per  horse-power  hour,  a 
variation  of  1  to  5  against  1  to  2  with  electric  motors.  Further  consideration  shows  that  the 
amount  of  energy  required  to  produce  a  given  amount  of  power  is  not  affected  by  the  size  of 
the  motor,  within  moderate  limits  ;  the  gain  in  efficiency,  if  an  unnecessarily  large  motor  is 
used,  being  about  offset  by  the  losses  due  to  its  not  being  fully  loaded.  For  instance,  if  one 
horse-power  is  obtained  from  a  two-horse-power  motor,  the  motor  itself,  being  larger,  will  bo 
of  slightly  greater  efficiency  ;  but  not  being  run  at  its  best  load,  the  result  will  be  only  about 
the  same  as  if  a  one-horse-power  machine  were  used.  In  other  words,  for  any  given  amount 
of  power  consumed,  the  amount  of  energy  required,  and,  therefore,  the  cost  of  running,  is 
practically  constant  and  independent  of  the  size  of  the  motor  used,  within  the  ordinary  limits 
of  selection.  This,  however,  refers  merely  to  the  cost  of  current,  and  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood as  lessening  the  imperative  importance,  for  mechanical  reasons,  of  choosing  a  motor 
with  a  considerable  margin  of  capacity. 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


539 


FIG.  1.— Reckenzaun  motor. 


Various  Types  of  Electric  Motors.—  The  Philadelphia  Electrical  Exhibition  of  1884  was 
marked  by  a  revival  of  interest  in  electric  motors,  and  many  of  the  new  types  produced 
were  of  great  merit,  though  the  rapid  advances  in  this  field  may  have  relegated  some  to 
obscuritv.  Fig.  1  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  motor  designed  by  Mr.  A.  Reckenzaun,  in  1884, 
and  exhibited  at  that  exhibition.  The  magnets  are,  in  appearance,  somewhat  similar  to 
those  employed  in  the  Siemens  dynamo,  except  that,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  cut,  the  cores 
are  in  an  Inclined 
position,  the  upper 
and  lower  core  ends 
meeting  at  a  rather 
acute  angle.  This 
arrangement  saves 
space,  reduces  the 
weight,  and  renders 
the  frame  rigid. 
The  armature  con- 
sists of  a  ring,  made 
up  of  a  series  of 
rings,  each  of  which 
is  again  composed 
of  »  number  of  links 
provided  with  holes 
at  their  ends  to  re- 
ceive the  bolts  which 
hold  the  links  as 
well  as  the  rings 
together.  The  links, 
overlapping  one 
another,  are  insulat- 
ed from  each  other 
in  order  to  avoid 
Foucault  currents. 

From  12  to  86  bobbins  surround  the  ring  thus  formed,  and  connect  with  a  commutator  made 
up  of  a  corresponding  number  of  sections.  A  pair  of  brush  holders  carry  two  brushes, 
movable  within  a  certain  range  to  adjust  the  speed  of  the  motor.  Inside  the  armature  is  a 
magnet,  resting  loosely  on  the  shaft  by  means  of  rollers.  This  internal  magnet  is,  in  cross- 
section,  H  -shaped,  having  two  pole  pieces,  between  which  a  quantity  of  fine  wire  is  wound 
lengthwise,  the  ends  of  which  are  connected  to  copper  brushes,  which,  in  running,  rub 
against  two  brass  collars  fitted  upon  the  shaft  inside  the  armature.  These  inside  collars  are 
in  metallic  connection  with  a  pair  of  similar  collars  at  the  commutator,  where  another  pair 
of  brushes  rests  on  them,  picking  up  a  small  current  for  the  internal  magnet.  This  internal 
circuit  forms  a  shunt  to  the  main  circuit.  The  internal  magnet,  on  being  excited,  offers  two 
poles,  each  facing  a  like-named  external  field-magnet  pole.  Hence  the  passing  armature 
bobbins  are  exposed  to  strongly  magnetized  pole  pieces  inside  as  well  as  outside,  thereby 
utilizing  also  the  inner  parts  of  "the  wire  bobbins.  The  internal  magnet  is  made  for  larger 
sized  motors,  and  may  be  taken  out  and  the  motor  run  without  it.  On  top  of  the  machine 
are  two  binding  posts,  mounted  on  a  block  of  wood,  to  which  the  mains  are  connected.  All 
the  iron  in  this  motor  is  best  soft  wrought-iron.  no  cast-iron  being  employed.  All  parts  are 
carefully  proportioned  for  light  weight,  high  efficiency,  and  strength.  In  case  the  armature 
should  require  repairing,  the  bobbins  need  not  be  unwound,  as  in  some  other  machines,  but 
any  one  may  be  slipped  off  its  section  after  taking  out  the  nearest  bolt,  thus  saving  time, 
labor,  and  material. 

The  motor  exhibited  in  Philadelphia  was  of  li  actual  horse  power,  and  weighed  106 
Ibs.  Its  bulk  was  likewise  exceedingly  small.  The  motor  measured  in  height  9^  in., 
width  16i  in.,  and  length  of  shaft  20$  in. 

Professors  Ayrton  and  Perry,  of  England,  have  devoted  much  attention  to  the  study  of 
electric  motors,  and  have  promulgated  the  theory  that,  whereas  in  the  dynamo  the  field 
should  be  of  great  magnetic  strength  and  the  armature  a  weak  one  magnetically,  the  reverse 
should  be  observed  in  the  motor  —  i.e.,  the  field  should  be  a  weak  magnet  and  the  armature 
a  powerful  magnet.  This  theory,  however,  has  not  been  sustained  by  practical  experience. 
They  embodied  their  ideas  some  time  ago  in  a  form  of  motor  which'  differs  from  those  of 
ordinary  construction  in  that  the  armature  is  kept  stationary  while  the  field  magnet  revolves 
within  it. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  Ayrton  and  Perry  motor  in  perspective  ;  Fig.  3  shows  the  construction 
of  the  motor  more  in  detail.  The  stationary  armature,  as  will  be  seen,  consists  of  a  lami- 
nated cylinder  built  up  of  toothed  rings  of  sheet-iron,  and  resembles  very  much  the  Pacinotti 
toothed-ring  armature.  The  wires  are  wound  on  in  sections,  joined  in  series,  and  at  each 
joint  are  connected  to  a  segment  of  the  stationary  commutator,  G  C.  The  spindle  of  the 
revolving  field  magnet  carries  the  brushes,  which  revolve  with  it. 

In  explanation  of  the  operation  of  the  motor,  Professor  Ayrton  says  that  wherever 
the  brushes,  B,  happen  to  be  at  any  particular  moment,  there  two  opposite  magnetic  poles, 
at  ^V"  and  S,  are  produced  on  the  armature,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  As  the  brushes  revolve,  so 
do  these  poles,  and  the  brushes,  which  are  carried  by  the  field  magnets,  are  so  set  that  the 


r    > 

UNIVERSITY 


rt 


540 


MOTORS,   ELECTRIC. 


magnetic  poles  in  the  armature  are  always  a  little  in  front  of  those  in  the  field  magnet. 
The  latter,  therefore,  are,  as  it  were,  perpetually  running  after  the  former,  but  never  catch- 
ing them.  From  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  Ayrton  and  Perry  motor,  it  may  be  oper- 
ated without  any  wire  at  all  upon  the  revolving  field  magnets.  This  arises  from  the  fact 
that  the  magnetism  in  the  stationary  armature  induces  opposite  magnetism  in  the  iron  of 


FIG.  2 


Ayrton  and  Perry  motor. 


FK;.  3. 


the  field  magnets,  and,  as  pointed  out  before,  the  brushes  are  so  placed  that  the  magnetic 
poles  in  the  armature  are  always  just  in  front  of  those  in  the  iron,  which  latter  are  always 
running  round  after  those  in  the  former,  but  never  catch  up  with  them. 

The  Griscom  motor  is  remarkable  for  the  small  space  it  occupies,  due  to  its  neat  and 
compact  design,  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  armature  is  entirely  encased  by  the  cylindrical 
electro-magnet  within  which  it  revolves,  and  by  the  metallic  caps  or  disks  fitted  to  this  cylin- 
der at  each 'end.  The  cylindrical  field  magnet  is  composed  of  a  cylinder  of  soft  iron  wired 
in  two  large  coils,  each  of  which  covers  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  cylinder,  the  space  left  between  the  two 
coils  at  opposite  sides  of  the  cylinder  constituting 
the  magnetic  poles  of  this  cylindrical  electro-magnet. 
The  current  which  passes  'through  the  wire  on  this 
magnet  circulates  in  opposite  directions  in  each  coil 
or  section,  so  that  both  coils  combine  to  produce  a 
north  pole  in  one  of  the  open  spaces,  and  a  south  pole 
at  the  other.  The  result  is  practically  the  same  as  if 
two  U  electro-magnets  were  brought  together  with 
like  poles  in  opposition,  these  forming  a  circular 
magnet  with  two  consequent  or  combined  poles,  one 
at  each  junction.  The  iron  of  the  cylindrical  magnet 
projects  laterally  at  each  pole,  and  to  these  pro- 
jections an  ornamental  brass  disk  is  screwed  firmly  at 
one  end,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  binding  post 
shown  at  the  top  is  prolonged  on  the  other  side  of  the 
metallic  cap,  and  carries  one  of  the  brass  springs  or 
brushes  which  serve  to  convey  the  current  to  the  armature  by  pressing  on  the  commutator. 
The  other  brush,  touching  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  commutator,  is  held  in  place 
by  a  special  screw  device  attached  to  the  metallic  cap.  The  armature  and  the  field  magnet 
are  connected  in  series.  The  current,  entering  the  armature  by  the  upper  commutator 
spring,  leaves  it  by  the  lower,  from  which  if  passes  to  the  field  magnet,  whence  it  goes  to  the 
second  binding  post. 

To  this  department  of  electricity,  as  well  as  to  the  use  of  motors  on  railways  and  street- 
car lines,  Mr.  Leo  Daft  has  paid  considerable  attention.  Fig.  5  shows  a  Daft  motor  of  the 
early  form.  The  field  magnets  are  made  after  what  is  called  the  Siemens  plan — that  is,  they 
lie  horizontally,  have  consequent  poles,  one  above,  and  the  other  below,  the  armature.  They 
are  series  wound,  but  the  coils  of  the  field  magnets  are  divided,  so  that  there  are  two  or  more 
circuits  around  the  core.  By  suitable  devices  these  are  so  related  that  they  can  be  thrown 
into  series  or  into  multiple  arc.  or  into  other  combinations  when  there  are  more  than  two 
circuits,  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  strength  of  the  magnetic  field,  to  suit  the  electro- 
motive force  and  strength  of  current  supplied  to  the  motors.  The  armatures  are  modeled  in 
principle  after  the  Gramme,  but  their  construction  is  much  improved,  especially  in  respect 
to  the  manner  of  mounting  them  on  their  shafts. 

The  latest  form  of  Daft  motor  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  field  magnets 
are  of  the  simple  horseshoe  form,  and  that  the  armature  is  of  the  Gramme  type,  as  in  Mr. 
Daft's  previous  models.  The  machine  is  designed  to  deliver  normally  6  horse-power,  but 
upon  test  it  has  been  driven  to  as  high  as  11  horse-power  without  injurious  effect. 

At  the  Singer  Manufacturing  Co.'s  exhibit  in  the  International  Electrical  Exhibition 
at  Philadelphia  in  I88i  were  seen  several  sewing  machines  run  by  various  electric  motors 


FIG.  4.— Griscom  motor. 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


541 


invented  by  Mr.  Philip  Diehl,  the  inventor  engaged  by  the  sewing  machine  company.  A 
later  design  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  in  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  field  magnets  are  placed 
vertically  and  hinged  at  the  top,  being  supported  by  two  side  rods,  cast  solid  with  the  base. 
The  lower  ends  of  "the  field  magnets  encircle  the  armature,  which  is  also  carried  by  journal 
bearings  in  the  side  rods.  The  method  of  regulation  of  the  motor  consists  in  separating  the 
pole  pieces  from  the  armature.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  two  connecting  rods  fixed 


5. — Daft  motor. 


to  the  lower  ends  of  the  magnets,  and  joined  together  by  a  pin  which  slides  in  a  slot  on  the 
upright.  A  rod  connected  to  the  pin  serves  to  raise  and  lower  the  upper  ends  of  the  two  con- 
necting rods,  and  in  doing  so  the  field  magnets  are  separated  or  brought  together,  as  the  case 
may  be.  When  used  in  connection  with  a  sewing  machine,  the  motor  is  secured  to  the  under 
side  of  the  table  in  an  inverted  position,  and  the  regulating  lever  connected  to  the  treadle. 
In  this  position  the  field  magnets  fall  apart  of  their  own  weight  and  the  machine  does  not 
work.  It  is  only  when  the  treadle  is  pressed  and  the  magnets  are  brought  together  that  mo- 
tion is  obtained.  It  is  evident  that  by  varying  the  distance  between  the  armature  and  the 
magnets  any  desired  speed  can  be  obtained  for  fast  or  slow  work.  The  armature  shaft  is 


FIG.  6.— Daft  motor. 


PIG.  7.— Diehl  motor. 


provided  with  a  pulley,  and  its  end  is  bored  so  that  the  power  can  be  transmitted  by  belt  or 
applied  directly,  as  when  driving  a  fan. 

To  avoid  the  necessity  of  belting,  and  at  the  same  time  do  away  with  the  presence  of  an 
auxiliary  machine  on  the  board  for  driving,  Mr.  Diehl  conceived  the  idea  of  combining  the 
motor  and  sewing  machine  into  a  practical  unit,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  motor  is  completely 
housed  within  the  fly-wheel  of  the  machine,  and  connected  directly  with  the  driving  shaft, 
so  that  all  gearing  is  obviated.  The  details  of  the  arrangement  will  be  readily  understood 
from  Figs.  9  and  10,  which  show  respectively  the  field  magnet  and  armature  of  the  motor. 
The  magnet,  which  consists  of  a  single  piece,  is  wound  with  wire  connected  to  the  two  ter- 
minal brushes  shown.  This  magnet  is  permanently  fixed  to  the  hub  through  which  the 
shaft  passes.  The  armature,  shown  in  perspective  in  Fig.  10,  is  of  the  Gramme  type,  and  is 
held  in  position  within  the  rim  of  the  wheel.  The  wires  leading  from  the  periphery  connect 


542 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


to  the  commutator  at  the  hub,  and  the  brushes  on  the  magnets  bear  against  the  segments. 


FIG.  8. 


FIG.  9. 
FIG.  8-10.— Diehl  motor  applied  to  sewing  machines. 


FIG.  10. 


The  wires  leading  to  the  motor  pass  up  through  the  hollow  casting  of  the  frame,  and  are 
connected  to  a  switch,  by  which  the  machine  can  be  started  and  stopped  at  will.  The  fly- 
wheel is  provided  with  a 
clutch  or  stop  motion  in 
connection  with  the  shaft, 
so  that  it  may  be  con- 
nected with  the  latter,  or 
turned  loose,  as  is  com- 
mon in  sewing  machines 
— the  wheel  being  dis- 
connected from  the  shaft 
when  winding  bobbins. 
This  is  accomplished  by  a 
turn  of  a  thumb-nut  at  the 
rear  end  of  the  machine. 
By  unscrewing  this  nut 
entirely,  the  armature 
may  be  slid  out  complete- 
ly, so  that  it  may  be  ex- 
amined, should  necessity 
require.  This  also  ex- 
poses the  field  magnets 
and  brushes,  so  that  they 
can  be  easily  gotten  at  for 
examination  and  atten- 
tion. 

The  chief  distinctive 
feature  of  the  motors  de- 
signed by  Frank  A.  Ferret  is  the  lamination  of  the  field  magnet,  which  is  built  up  out  of 
thin  plates  of  soft  charcoal  iron,  stamped 
directly  into  their  finished  form,  and  clamped 
together  by  bolts  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
secure  great  mechanical  strength.  The  ar- 
mature core  is  also  laminated,  and  the  plates 
have  teeth  which  form  longitudinal  channels 
on  its  periphery,  in  which  the  coils  are  wound. 
Fig.  11  is  a  side  view  of  a  20  horse-power  motor 
complete.  Fig.  12  is  a  cross-section  of  magnets 
and  armature  showing  magnetic  circuit.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  armature  is  a  ring  of  com- 
paratively large  diameter,  with  longitudinal 
channels  on  its  periphery,  in  which  the  conduc- 
tors are  wound  and  thus  embedded  in  the  iron, 
which  is  in  such  close  proximity  to  the  iron  pole 
pieces  that  there  is  practically  no  gap  in  the 
magnetic  circuit.  The  field  consists  of  three 
separate  magnets  arranged  at  equal  distances 
around  the  armature,  each  magnet  having  two 
pole  pieces.  The  winding  is  such  as  to  produce 


FIG.  11. — Tweuty-horse-power  motor. 


FIG.  12. — Ferret  motor.    Cross  section. 


MOTORS,,    ELECTRIC. 


543 


FIG.  13.-  C.  &,  C.  motor. 


alternate  north  and  south  poles.  The  magnets  are  built  up  of  plates  of  soft  charcoal  iron, 
which  are  shaped  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  and  the  magnet  thus  produced  is  of  such  a  form 
that  it  may  be  readily  wound  in  a  lathe.  A  non-magnetic  bolt  passes  through  a  hole  in  each 
pole-piece,  and  the  plates  are  clamped  together  between  washers  and  nuts  on  the  same.  These 
bolts  also  serve  to  attach  the  magnets  to  the  two  iron  end  frames,  which  are  of  a  ring  shape, 
and  are  bolted  to  the  bed  plates  of  the  machine.  The  magnetic  circuit  is  of  unusually  low 
resistance  by  reason  of  its  shape,  its  shortness,  which  is  shown  by  the  diagram,  and  the  supe- 
rior quality  of  iron  used.  There  is  no  magnetism  whatever  in  the  frame,  bed,  or  shaft  of  the 
machine,  as  the  magnets  are  supported  at  some  distance  from  the  frame  by  means  of  the  non- 
magnetic bolts,  and  the  armature  is  mounted  on  the  shaft  by  spiders  of  non-magnetic  metal. 
The  latest  type  of  "  C.  &  C."  motor  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  magnetic  circuit  is  of  the 
consequent  type,  which  gives  the  greatest  possible  compactness  of  design.  It  is  made  in  the 
circular  form,  having  divided  or  parallel  circuits,  meeting  at  top  and  bottom,  and  passing 
together  through  the  armature  core.  It  consists  of  two  cores,  shaped  like  segments  of  a  cir- 
cle, bolted  to  pole  pieces  at  both 
ends,  surrounding  the  arma- 
ture. The  cores  are  of  w  rought- 
iron,  planed  off  at  the  ends 
to  an  angle  of  90%  so  that 
when  the  machine  is  put  to- 
gether each  core  and  pole  piece 
forms  a  quadrant  of  a  circle, 
the  center  of  which  coincides 
with  the  center  of  the  arma- 
ture shaft.  This  construction 
gives  a  very  short  magnetic 
circuit,  free  from  corners  or 
projections  where  leakage  may 
occur,  and  makes  the  motor  ex- 
ceedingly compact  for  a  given 
power.  "The  pole  pieces  are 
of  cast-iron,  of  much  greater 
cross-section  than  the  ceres, 
the  lower  one  being  cast  in  one 
piece  with  the  base.  The  poles 
enclose  about  280 '  of  t  he  arma- 
ture circumference.  The  field-magnet  coils  are  wound  directly  on  the  cores  by  hand.  The 
armature  core  is  a  drum  made  up  of  thin  disks  of  sheet-iron,  insulated  carefully  from  each 
other.  These  are  stamped  with  a  hole  in  the  center  for  the  shaft,  and  after  placing  them  on 
the  shaft  they  are  pressed  together  with  great  force.  Iron  arbor  plates,  keyed  to  the  shaft  at 
the  ends,  hol'd  the  disks  firmly  in  position,  and  are  themselves  held  by  nuts  screwed  on  the 
shaft.  These  disks  are  in  addition  held  together  by  long  bolts,  whose  heads  are  sunk  into 
the  arbor  plates,  thus  ensuring  an  absolutely  rigid  and  solid  core.  A  modification  of  the  Sie- 
mens winding  is  employed,  and  the  wire  is  proportioned  to  carry  an  excess  of  current  above  the 
full  load  of  the  motor,  without  undue  heating.  The  commuta- 
tor is  built  up  of  cast  tempered  or  of  hard-drawn  copper  bars 
of  tapering  cross-section,  beveled  at  each  end.  The  insulation 
between  the  bars  is  of  the  best  mica,  made  up  of  thin  strips  to 
the  proper  gauge.  They  are  held  together  by  steel  collars, 
turned  on  one  side  to  the  same  angle  as  the  ends  of  the  bars, 
and  threaded  to  receive  nuts,  which  are  screwed  up  with  great 
force  against  the  collars,  thus  holding  the  bars  firmly  in  place 
without  allowing  them  to  twist  out  of  line.  The  sleeve  and 
collars  are  carefully  insulated  from  the  bars  by  thick  layers  of 
mica. 

The  C.  &  C.  small  motor,  shown  in  Fig.  14,  is  made  up  of 
interchangeable  parts.  The  ceres  and  pole  pieces  are  drop 
forged,  and  afterward  finished  to  gauge.  The  Gramme  ring 
armature  is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  The  core  is  formed  of  punched 
sheet-iron  semicircles,  upon  one  side  of  which  tissue  paper  is 
pasted.  These  semicircles  are  laid  together,  with  the  ends  of 
alternate  rings  projecting  at  either  edge  of  the  built-up  half 
cylinders,  so  that  the  edges  of  the  two  half  cylinders  so  formed 
will  interlock.  The  half  circles  and  a  rivet  passed  through, 
uniting  them,  lock  the  parts  of  a  hinge.  Upon  this  split  ring 
is  slipped  a  flat  helix  of  wire,  forming  the  entire  winding  of 
the  armature  in  one  layer,  so  that  the  operation  of  slipping  it 
on  is  very  simple.  The  wire  used  is  flat,  as  shown  in  Fig.  16. 
The  small  ±  horse-power  C.  &  C.  motor,  shown  in  Fig.  17,  is  interesting  as  being  made 
with  a  complete  Wheeier  regulator,  by  which  it  can  be  run  at  any  speed. 

The  Thomson-Houston  stationary  motor,  shown  in  Fig.  18,  is  made  in  different  sizes, 
from  1  to  15  horse-power.  The  proportioning  is  such  that,  supplied  with  a  constant  poten- 
tial, they  are  practically  self -regulating  as  regards  speed,  though  the  load  be  varied  from 


FIG.  14.— The  C.  &  C.  small  motor. 


544 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


£At  the  same  time  the  brushes  on  the  commutator  run 
ire  not  shifted  in  position  during  extreme  changes  of  load  on  the  motor. 
In  other  words,  the  non-sparking  points  of  the  commutator  remain  at  one  position  without 


nothing  up  to  full  power,  or  the  reverse, 
without  spark,  and  a 


FIG.  15.— Gramme  armature. 


FIG.  16.— Winding. 


FIG.  17.- C.  &C.  motor. 


change.  As  will  be  noted  in  Fig.  18,  the  poles  of  the  field  magnets — the  bodies  or  cores  of 
which  are  round  in  section — project  upward  and  enclose  the  armature,  the  section  of  the  core 
of  which  is  nearly  square.  The  winding  of  the  armature  is  a  modified  Siemens  arrangement, 
and  the  field  magnet  coils  are  in  shunt  to  the  armature.  The  armature  core  is  so  well  lam- 
inated, and  the  resistance  of  the  armature  conductor  is  so  low,  that  loss  by  Foucault  currents, 


FIG.  18.— Thomson-Houston  motor. 

or  local  currents  in  the  iron,  and  by  internal  resistance,  is  very  light  as  compared  with  the 
output  of  the  machine. 

The  motor  shown  in  Fig.  19  was  designed  by  Mr.  William  Hochhausen  to  regulate  and 
to  keep  a  constant  speed  with  a  variable  load,  with  fixed  brushes  and  without  the  interposi- 
tion of  external  resistance.  It  has  a  single  magnetic  circuit,  in  which  the  armature  is  in- 
cluded. The  regulation  is  effected  by  varying  the  intensity  of  the  magnetic  field  to  corre- 


MOTORS,   ELECTRIC. 


545 


spend  with  the  load.     For  this  purpose  the  field  coils  are  divided  into  ten  sections,  the  ends 


FIG.  19.— Hochhausen  motor. 


.  20.— Hyer  motor. 


FIG.  21.— Hyer  motor. 


of  which  are  brought  to  consecutive  strips,  shown  at  the  side  of  and  below  the  armature. 
The  governor  is  of  the  centrifugal  type,  and  acts  upon  an  arma- 
ture which  extends  downwardly  and  operates  upon  a  contact 
maker  which  touches  the  various  contact  strips  to  which  the  field 
coils  are  connected.  As  the  speed  changes,  these  sections  are  cut 
in  or  out,  varying  the  magnetic  strength  of  the  field  accordingly. 
Figs.  20  and  21  show  a  perspective  and  sectional  view  of  a 
motor  designed  by  W.  E.  Hyer,  in  which  both  field  coils  and 
armature  are  surrounded  by  an  iron  shell,  cast  in  two  parts,  hav- 
ing the  bearings  extending  horizontally  across  the  open  ends. 
This  construction  closes  the  magnetic  circuit  so  completely  that 
no  external  magnetism  can  be  detected. 

The  Stockwell  motor,  once  largely  used  on  arc-lighting  cir- 
cuits, is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  It  is  enclosed  within  a  case,  one  end 
of  which  is  removed  so  as  to  expose  the  interior.  The  mag- 
nets are  of  the  converging,  consequent-pole  type,  and  form  an  integral  part  with  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  casing.  The  two  sides  are  cast  separate  and  held  together  by  screws. 
The  armature,  or,  more  correctly,  the  armatures,  for  there  are  two  of  them,  are  shown  in  Fig. 
23.  As  will  be  seen,  they  are  of  the  Siemens 
shuttle-wound  type,  and  are  placed  at  right  an- 
gles to  each  other.  The  commutator  has  four  seg- 
ments, and  the  terminals  of  the  wire  on  each 
armature  are  connected  to  opposite  segments.  The 
latter  are  not  made  parallel  with  the  spindle,  but 
are  helical  in  shape,  so  that  there  is  no  break  in 
the  circuit  at  that  point,  since  the  brush  passes  the 
current  to  one  armature  before  leaving  the  other. 
By  this  arrangement  only  one  armature  is  in  action 
at  one  time.  Taking  the  one  to  the  right,  for 
example,  it  is  at  its  maximum  effect  during  the 
quarter  revolution  when  the  polar  faces  of  the 
armature  are  approaching  the  pole  pieces,  and 
until  they  come  directly  opposite  each  other.  Dur- 
ing the  next  quarter  revolution  the  armature  is 
cut  out  of  the  circuit  entirely  ;  on  the  third  quar- 
ter it  again  comes  into  the  circuit  until  occupying 
the  same  relative  position  as  in  the  first  quarter  ; 
and,  finally,  in  the  fourth  quarter  it  is  again  cut 
out.  But  'it  is  evident  that  during  each  of  these  idle  periods  of  the  armature  to  the  right, 
that  to  the  left  comes  into  circuit  and  goes  through  relatively  the  same  cycle  of  operations. 

The  action  is  quite  analogous  to  that 
in  two  steam  engines  coupled  with  their 
cranks  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
While  one  is  passing  over  the  center, 
and  practically  doing  no  effective  work, 
the  other  is  in  the  position  of  maximum 

FIG.  23.  -Stockwell  armatures.  power,  with  the  crank  at  right  angles 

35 


22. — Stockwell  motor. 


546 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


at  the  line  of  stroke.      In  both  cases  there  can  be  no  dead  point,  and  the  motion  is  smooth 
and  continuous. 

The  Brush  motor,  which  is  illustrated  in  the  engraving,  Fig.  24,  closely  resembles  the 
Brush  dynamo,  but  the  devices  added  to  the  machine  for  the  purpose  of  securing  steadiness 


v     ;--—--- 


PIG.  24.     Brush  motor. 

of  power  and  constancy  of  speed  under  all  loads  merit  a  detailed  description.  It  will  be  seen 
that,  mounted  on  the  shaft  between  the  commutator  and  the  journal  bearing,  there  is  a 
cylindrical  shell.  This  shell  contains  the  gov- 
ernor by  which  the  speed  of  the  motor  is 
maintained  constant.  The  mode  of  regulation 
adopted  by  Mr.  Brush  consists  in  causing  the 
governor  to  adjust  the  commutator  automati- 
cally with  relation  to  the  brushes.  To  this 
end  the  commutator  segments  are  mounted 
upon  a  sleeve  on  the  shaft,  so  that  they  can  be 
revolved  to  any  desired  extent  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  governor. 

The  illustration,  Fig.  25,  shows  the  gov- 
ernor in  detail.  As  will  be  seen,  the  commu- 
tator brushes,  C  C,  remain  fixed,  and  loosely 
mounted  on  the  shaft,  E,  is  the  commutator 
sleeve,  a,  which  turns  freely.  The  commuta- 
tor sections,  d,  are  insulated  from  the  sleeve,  a, 
and  are  connected  to  the  armature  bobbins  by 
flexible  wires,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
rotary  adjustment  of'  the  commutator.  To 
the  inner  periphery  of  the  cylindrical  shell,  G-, 
which  is  bolted  to  the  shaft,  the  governor  arms, 
H  H,  are  pivoted.  The  inner  free  ends  of  the 
arms  are  connected  to  the  opposite  arms  by 
means  of  spiral  springs,  //.  In  addition,  the  arms  carry  each  an  adjustable  weight,  K.  The 
links,  L  L,  attached  to  the  arms,  H  H,  are  connected  to  a  disk  upon  the  commutator  sleeve. 
Hence,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  as  the  governor  shell  rotates  with  the  pivoted 
weights,  K  K,  the  latter,  by  centrifugal  force,  will  be  removed  toward  the  periphery  of  the 
shell,  and,  through  the  medium  of  the  connecting  links,  L  L,  will  impart  a  rotary  move- 
ment to  the  commutator,  varying  its  position  on  the  armature  shaft. 

The  action  of  the  governor  is  precisely  analogous  to  that  in  a  steam  engine.  When  in  a 
state  of  rest,  the  springs  draw  the  weights  toward  each  other  and  maintain  the  commutator 
segments  at  the  maximum  point  of  effect  with  relation  to  the  brushes.  When  current  is 
switched  on  to  the  motor,  the  governor  weights  in  their  revolution  are  thrown  outward  and 
rotate  the  commutator,  carrying  the  maximum  points  away  from  the  contact  points  of  the 
brushes  and  in  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  armature.  This  action  decreases  the  effect 
of  the  driving  current  until  a  point  is  reached  where  the  effect  of  the  driving  current  is  bal- 
anced by  the  load  on  the  motor,  and  the  speed  of  the  latter  remains  constant.  Now,  should 
the  speed  of  the  motor  be  retarded  by  a  decrease  of  current  strength  with,  no  corresponding 
diminution  of  load,  or  by  an  increase  of  load  with  no  increase  of  current  strength,  the  gov- 
ernor balls  will  be  retracted  and  drawn  toward  each  other  by  the  spiral  springs,  and  thereby 
rotate  the  commutator  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  motion  of  the  armature  shaft,  the  effect 
of  which  is  to  move  the  maximum  points  on  the  commutator  nearer  to  the  brushes,  and 
thereby  increase  the  speed  of  the  motor.  On  the  other  hand,  should  the  speed  of  the  motor 


FIG.  25. — Governor  of  Brush  motor. 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


547 


be  increased  above  the  normal  rate,  owing  to  an  increase  of  current  strength  or  to  a  decrease 
of  load,  the  governor  balls  will  be  caused  to  recede  from  each  other  and  rotate  the  commu- 
tator in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the  armature  shaft,  and  cause  the  maximum  points  on 
the  commutator  sections  to  be  moved  away  from  the  brushes,  and  thereby  decrease  the  speed 
of  the  motor.  In  this  manner  provision  is  made  for  all  'contingencies  affecting  the  working 
of  an  electric  motor. 

At  the  Philadelphia  Electrical  Exhibition  in  1884.  Mr.  Frank  J.  Sprague  made  the  first 
public  exhibition  of  several  of  his  motors,  which  were  run  on  a  constant-potential  circuit. 
The  Sprague  motors  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  with  subdivisions  as  follows  : 
1.    Variable-speed  Machines,  comprising,  (a)  variable  shunt  ;   (6,)  Wheatstone  bridge  ; 
(c)  standard  railroad.     2.  Constant-speed  Machines,   comprising,  (d)   variable  shunt  ;   (e) 
long  shunt  ;  (/)  short  shunt ;  (g)  combined  shunts  ;   (h)  distorted  windings.     The  above 
are  for  operation  on  constant-potential  circuits,  to  which  class  of  work  Mr.  Sprague  has 
mostly  confined  himself.     There  are  a  number  of  other  forms  for  both  constant-potential 
and  constant-current  circuits,  particular  description  of  which  is  unnecessary  here. 

In  the  variable-speed  machines  the  object  sought  is,  without  introducing  resistances  ex- 
ternal to  the  machine,  to  vary  the  potential  differences  existing  at  the  armature  terminals  in 
a  progressive  manner  from  the  maximum  existing  to  zero  ;  to  reverse  the  potential  without 
breaking  the  continuity  of  the  field  or  armature  circuits  ;  to  vary  gradually  the  rotary 
effort  of  the  armature,  and,  if  necessary,  also  the  strength  of  the  field  magnets.  In  a  gen- 
eral way  these  results  are  accomplished  by  winding  the  field  magnets  in  sections  of  variable 
cross-section  and  resistance,  and  arranging  the  armature  circuit  so  that  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  the  field-coil  sections  may  be  shunted  to  or  put  in  series  with  it. 

In  the  simplest  form  (Fig.  26)  one  end  of  the  armature  circuit  is  connected  with  a  con- 
tact arm  arranged  to  travel  over  a  series  of  contact  blocks  connected 
with  different  sections'  of  the  field  coils,  and  the  other  end  of  the 
armature  circuit  is  connected  with  one  end  of  the  series  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  supplying  circuit  ;  as  the  arm  moves  over  the  succes- 
sive contacts,  the  armature  is  shunted  around  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  the  sections  of  feed  coils,  and  the  difference  of  potential 
between  the  terminals  of  the  armature  circuit  is  varied  from  the 
maximum  to  zero.  This  method  has  been  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  introducing  const  ant- speed  machines  into  circuit  without 
the  use  of  a  rheostat  in  the  armature  circuit. 

In  another  form  (Fig.  27)  each  terminal  of  the  armature  circuit  FIG.  26.— Motor, 

is  connected  to  a  movable  arm,  both  arms  being  made  to  travel 

along  the  contact  blocks  in  opposite  directions,  so  that  the  difference  of  potential  at  the 
brush  terminals  can  be  made  to  vary  from  the  maximum  to  nothing,  and  then  reversed,  thus 
going  through  the  full  range  of  maximum  difference  in  potential  in  one  direction  to  the 

maximum  in  the  other.   In  the  third 

form  (Fig.  "28)  there  are  two  series 

of    field-coil     sections,   the    bights 

being  brought  to  two  sets  of  contact 

blocks  ;  the  armature  terminals  are 

here  also  joined  to  two  arms  made 

to  travel  upon  these  contact  blocks, 

so  that  the  difference  of  potential 

at  the   armature    circuit  increases 

from  zero  to  the  maximum  in  either  Fie.  28.— Motor. 

FIG.  27.— Motor.  direction  as  required. 

In  the  standard  street-railroad  machine,  the  field  magnets 

are  wound  with  three  sets  of  field  coils  of  variable  cross-section  and  resistances,  which  are 
in  series  with  the  armature.  These  coils  are  varied  in  relation  from  three  in  series  to  three 
in  parallel,  thus  changing  the  total  resistance  of  the  machine,  and  varying  the  torsional 
effort  and  speed  with  any  given  current.  For  more  detailed  description  of  this  method,  see 
ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS,  Sprague  system. 

With  the  exception  of  this  railway  motor,  the  best  known  of  the  Sprague  motors  is  that 
adapted  to  run  at  a  constant  speed  on  a  constant-potential  circuit  under  varying  load, 
and  for  a  time  this  was  the  only  machine  which  had  this  quality.  This  machine  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  29.  The  method  of  regulating  these  machines  was  based  upon  the  apparently  para- 
doxical statement  first  enunciated  by  Mr.  Sprague,  that  "  to  maintain  the  speed  of  a  constant- 
potential  motor,  constant  under  varying  loads,  when  the  load  increases,  the  field  should  be 
weakened  ;  and  when  the  load  is  decreased,  the  field  should  be  strengthened."  This  state- 
ment was  founded  on  a  differential  investigation  of  the  electrical  expression  for  the  work 
done.  Without  going  into  details  of  this  investigation,  Mr.  Sprague's  method  of  regulation 
consists,  in  brief,  in  strengthening  the  magnetizing  effect  of  the  field  coils  of  a  motor  to  de- 
crease the  mechanical  effects,  such  as  speed  or  power,  or  both  ;  and,  vice  versa,  weakening  this 
magnetizing  effect  to  increase  the  mechanical  effects  :  and  under  varying  loads  the  speed  is 
maintained  constant  by  an  inverse  variation  of  the  strength  of  the  field. 

This  may  be  accomplished  in  two  ways  :  one,  by  varying  the  field  circuit  either  by  hand, 
or  by  a  mechanical  governor,  which  responds  to  any  variation  in  the  speed  of  the  motor,  and 
introduces  or  cuts  out  resistance  in,  or  varies  the  arrangement  of,  the  shunt  field  coils. 
This  method,  however,  is  not  satisfactory,  and  Mr.  Sprague's  ordinary  method  of  work- 


548 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


ing  is  to  make  use  of  certain  coils  in  series  with  the  armature,  and  depending  upon  it,  which 
coils  have  a  magnetic  action  which  is  opposed  to  that  of  the  main  coils  of  the  machine. 
There  are  three  methods  of  arranging  these  coils,  known  as  the,  long,  the  short,  and  the 
combined  shunt  methods.  The  long  shunt  is  shown  in  Figs.  80,  31,  and  32.  By  making  these 
motors  with  large  masses  of  iron  in  the  field,  and  working  with  nearly  a  straight-line  char- 
acteristic, these  machines  are  constructed  on  certain  laws  known  as  Sprague  laws. 
v  Let  /  denote  the  resistance  of  the  main  or  shunt  field  coil ;  m,  the  number  of  turns 
therein  ;  r,  the  resistance  of  the  differential  or  series  field  coils  ;  n,  the  number  of  turns,  and 


PIG.  29.— Sprague  motor. 
R,  the  resistance  of  the  armature.    Then  for  the  long-shunt  machine,  the  law  of  winding  is 

expressed  by  the  equation,    —  =  •=-=- — ;  that  is  to  say.  the  number  of  turns  in  the  shunt 
n      R  +  r 

coil  must  bear  the  same  ratio  to  the  number  in  the  series  coil,  as  the  resistance  of  the  shunt 
coil  bears  to  the  sum  of  the  resistances  of  the  series  coil  and  the  armature.  In  the  short- 
shunt  machine,  the  law  of  windings  is  expressed  as  follows  :  —  =  - —  -  ;  that  is  to  say,  the 

n          Jt 

number  of  turns  in  the  shunt  field  must  bear  the  same  ratio  to  the  number  of  turns  in  the 
series  differential  field,  as  the  sum  of  the  resistances  of  the  shunt  field  and  the  armature 
bears  to  the  resistance  of  the  armature. 

With  these  windings  the  motor  will  regulate  itself  perfectly  at  all  potentials  so  long  as 
the  motor  is  worked  with  a  straight-line  characteristic,  but  it  must  be  with  an  electric  effi- 
ciency of  over  50  per  cent.  A  peculiarity  in  motors  wound  according  to  this  method  is  that 
if  the  motor  is  standing  still,  and  current  is  admitted  to  it  with  the  circuits  normally  ar- 


FIG.  30. 


FIG.  32. 


FIG.  81. 
FIGS.  30-32.— Spragne  shunt  regulator. 

ranged,  the  effect  of  the  two  coils  is  equal  and  opposite,  and  there  will  be  no  field  excita- 
tion. This  difficulty  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  short-circuiting  or  reversing  switch,  which 
either  cut  out  the  series  coil  in  starting  the  machine,  or  reversed  it,  making  it  a  cumulative 
motor.  In  the  four-pole  machine  designed  by  Mr.  Sprague,  more  interesting  from  a  scien- 
tific than  a  practical  standpoint,  now  that  motors  have  been  raised  to  such  high  degrees  of 
efficiency,  a  distorted  winding  was  adopted,  the  series  coil  being  put  on  two  diagonally  situ- 
ated arms  of  the  magnet  ;  this  resulted  in  distorting  or  shifting  the  resultant  consequent 
field  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  distortion  set  up  by  the  armature.  The  object  of  this 
was  to  keep  the  brushes  at  a  fixed  non-sparking  point.  In  one  railroad  machine  built  by 
Mr.  Sprague,  this  action  was  carried  still  further,  the  field  magnets  being  wound  with  field 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


549 


coils,  having  polar  actions  at  right  angles;  the  series  coil  was  made  cumulative  on  two  arms, 
differential  on  the  other  two.  Then  with  any  variation  in  the  strength  of  the  shunt  field, 
or  any  variation  in  either  the  strength  or  direction  of  the  armature 
current,  a  variable  shifting  of  the  field  was  caused,  in  direction 
and  degree  opposite  to  that  set  up  by  the  armature  (Fig.  33). 

In  the  Sprague  standard  constant- speed  motor,  Fig.  29,  the 
construction  is  simple  and  substantial.  The  bed  plate  carrying 
the  armature  bearings  forms  one  pole;  the  crown  of  the  machine 
another  ;  and  these  two  are  united  by  a  pair  of  field  magnet 
cores.  In  this  machine  the  length  of  core,  the  diameter  of  the 
bore,  the  external  diameter  of  the  field-magnet  windings,  and 
the  length  of  the  armature  body,  are  all  equal.  The  length  of 
iron  core  is  1'6  the  diameter.  The  capacity  of  the  machine  varies 
as  the  cube  of  the  lineal  dimensions,  as  it  should  in  all  good  ma- 
chines. These  machines  are  used  to  a  great  extent  in  commer- 
cial operations. 

An  electric  motor  designed  by  Mr.  N.  H.  Edgerton  is  shown  in  Figs.  34  and  35.  The 
pole  pieces,  Fig.  35,  are  arranged 'each  with  three  radial  cores,  on  which  the  exciting  coils 
are  wound,  and  by  which  the  fields  are  supported  on  the  interior  of  a  cylindrical  iron  shell 
which  forms  the  framework  of  the  motor,  as  well  as  the  yoke-piece  of  the  field  magnets. 
The  shell  and  pole  pieces  form  a  concentrically  cylindrical  structure,  in  the  interior  of  which 
the  armature  revolves  on  a  central  shaft  supported  at  either  end  by  bearings  situated  cen- 
trally in  the  end  caps  or  lids.  These  end  caps  may  close  the  cylinder  entirely  or  not,  but 
usually  one  end  is  closed  completely,  while  the  other  is  left  open,  as  shown,  for  easy  access 
to  the  brushes  and  commutator.  The  armature,  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  35,  is  polar,  and 
consists  of  three  helices,  wound  upon  as  many  radial  cores,  set  at  equal  distances  upon  a 


FIG.  33. — Sprague  armature. 


FIG.  34. — Edgerton  motor. 


FIG.  35.— Edgerton  motor.    Section. 


central  prism  of  the  same  number  of  sides.  Through  the  central  axis  of  this  prism,  the 
shaft  is  placed  longitudinally,  and.  as  before  stated,  supported  in  bearings  in  the  end  caps 
of  the  motor.  The  outer  or  peripheral  extremity  of  each  of  these  cores  is  segmental  in 


FIG.  36. — Immisch  motor. 


FIG.  37.— Winding. 


shape,  coinciding  in  curve  with  the  inner  concave  surfaces  of  the  pole  pieces  between  which 
it  revolves,  The  helices  are  wound  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  armature,  as  in  the  Siemens 
shuttle  armature,  and  each  is  complete  in  itself.  Similar  ends  of  each  helical  wire  are  con- 


550 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


nected  with  the  commutator  segments,  of  which  there  is  one  for  each  helix  ;  and  the  other 
similar  ends  are  carried  out  to  a  common  union,  insulated  from  and  carried  upon  the  shaft. 

The  Immisch  Motor  is  of  English  manufacture,  and  embodies  some  novel  features,  espe- 
cially in  the  armature  winding.  Fig.  36  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  machine,  and  Fig.  37  a 
diagram  of  the  winding.  In  the  diagram  only  eight  coils  are  indicated,  although  48,  96,  or 
more  may  be  employed.  The  commutator  is  of  the  bisected  type,  and  the  coils  are  joined  to 


BRANCH 

CUT  /?==»*  GUI 


FIG.  38. — Edison  motor. 

two  adjacent  segments  of  the  commutator  on  the  two  rings,  of  which  one  has  an  angular 
advance  equal  to  one-half  the  width  of  the  commutator  bar.     The  two  brushes,  side  by  side 
upon  the  two  rings,  are  connected  together,  so  that  only  one  pair  is  shown  in  the  figure. 
The   Edison  Motor    is  the  Edison  dynamo    operated  as  a    motor,    with   merely    such 

changes  as  are  necessary  in  reversing 
the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  ar- 
mature. The  diiferences  between  it 
and  the  incandescent  dynamo  of  a 
similar  size  are  scarcely  discernible, 
and  the  windings  are  practically 
identical,  except  in  the  machines 
designed  for  special  purposes.  Fig. 

38  shows    the    complete    machine. 
The  type  and  general    appearance 
remain  the    same    up  to    the    150 
horse-power  motor,  corresponding  to 
the  larger   Edison   dynamos.     Fig. 

39  shows  the   diagram   of   connec- 
tions, both  of  the  motor  itself  and 
of  the  rheostat.     The   speed  of  the 
motors  is  very  nearly  that  of  the 
corresponding   sizes  of    dynamo  of 
the  same  voltage,   and  ranges  from 
2,100  revolutions  per  minute  in  the 
|  and  -J-  horse-power   motors,  to   as 
low  as  360  in  the  150  horse-power 
machine. 

Fig.    40    gives    a   view     of    the 
standard     Crocker-  Wheeler     motor. 

The  machine  is  of  the  inverted  horseshoe  type  ;  each  pole  piece  is  continuous  with  its  mag- 
netic core,  of  soft  iron,  drop  forged  exactly  to  its  finished  shape.  These  forcings  are  fitted 
into  recesses  in  the  main  casting  of  the  motor  that  forms  at  once  the  magnet  yoke  and  the 


AUTOMATIC 
STARTING 
RHEOSTAT 


FIG.  39.— Edison  standard  motor. 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


551 


support  for  the  bearings.  The  armature  is  relatively  of  very  large  diameter,  and,  compared 
to  the  field,  quite  powerful.  The  armature  is  a  Pacinotti  ring  with  a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  wire  wound  upon  it.  The  clearance  of  the  armature  is  so  small  that  the  magnetic 
resistance  of  the  air  gap  is  exceptionally  low,  and  the  coils,  sunk  flush  with  the  surface  of 
the  armature,  are  subjected  to  a  very  powerful  induction.  This  construction,  too,  gives 


FIG.  40.— Crocker-Wheeler  motor. 


Fio.  41.— Fan  motor. 


almost  complete  immunity  from  burning  out  of  the  armature,  as  each  section  is  isolated,  and 
no  two  contiguous  wires  are  subjected  to  any  considerable  difference  of  potential. 

A  little  Crocker-Wheeler  fan  motor  is  shown  in  Fig.  41.  It  carries,  usually,  a  12-in. 
fan,  and  has  come  into  very  extensive  use  in  offices,  restaurants,  and  the  like.  On  its  pole 
piece  will  be  noticed  a  starting  switch,  which  is  supplied  to  all  the  small  motors  for  starting 
and  stopping,  and  in  some  cases  for  regulating.  This  switch,  when  turned,  first  charges  the 

field,  then  starts  the  armature 
through  a  resistance  wound  on  the 
machine,  and  finally  cuts  out  the 
resistance  and  gives  the  full  cur- 
rent to  the  armature. 

The  Eddy  Electric  Motor,  Fig. 
42. — The  magnetic  circuit  of  this 
machine  is  of  a  modified  horseshoe 
form,  somewhat  elliptical  in  shape, 
and  of  large  cross-section.  The 
material  is  soft  cast-iron,  and  the 
motor  is  shunt  wound  with  unusu- 
ally fine  wire.  The  armature  is  of 
the  drum  form,  Siemens  wound,  as 
usual.  It  is  wound  with  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  turns 
of  rather  coarse  wire,  giving  a  low 
armature  resistance.  All  motors  of 
above  7-J-  horse-power  are  wound 
with  several  wires  in  parallel  for 
convenience  and  efficiency. 

The  United  Slates  Motor,  Fig. 
43,  is  a  motor  introduced  by  the 
United  States  Electric  Lighting 
Co.,  and  is  a  departure  from  the  usual  shapes  of  magnetic  circuit,  the  form  presented  requir- 
ing but  a  single  magnetizing  coil,  and  being  virtually  an  inverted  horseshoe  in  shape,  with 
the  coils  wound  around  the  yoke.  The  magnetic  circle  is  cast  in  two  pieces,  the  joint  being 
in  the  center  of  the  magnetizing  coil,  and  the  two  portions  being  held  together  by  the 
bolts  shown  in  the  cut.  The  mechanical  construction  is  exceedingly  simple,  as  the  field 
magnets  form  their  own  base  by  projections  cast  solid  with  them,  and  similar  projections 
form  a  support  for  the  bearings  of  the  armature  shaft.  The  switch  for  controlling  the 
motor  is  placed  directly  on  top  of  the  pole  pieces.  The  armature  presents  some  peculiar- 
ities :  it  is  a  toothed  d'rum  of  rather  large  diameter,  the  teeth  very  numerous  and  small, 
so  that  no  trouble  is  encountered  from  the  heating  that  usually  follows  the  use  of  large 
projections  in  an  armature.  This  construction  accomplishes  two  ends.  In  the  first  place, 
it  reduces  the  air  gao  to  a  very  minute  amount.  In  the  second  place,  it  simplifies  winding 
the  armature,  for  no  special  care  need  be  taken  in  laying  off  the  various  sections  as  the 
armature  is  wound  ;  it  is  simply  necessary  to  take  the  size  of  wire  used  for  that  particular 
motor  and  fill  the  space  between  the  teeth  with  it,  thus  forming  an  independent  segment 


FIG.  43.— Eddy  motor. 


552 


MOTORS,   ELECTRIC. 


of  the  armature.     The  mechanical  advantage  secured  by  this  construction  is  that  all  the 

armature  wires  and  bands  lie  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  armature,  and  are  therefore 
completely  protected  from  injury. 

ALTERNATING  MOTORS. — The  Tesla  Alter- 
nating Motor. — Mr.  Nikola  Tesla  was  the  first 
to  build  a  practical  motor  employing  currents 
of  different  phase,  or  what  are  now  termed 
"  polyphasal  currents.  One  of  the  types  of 
the  Tesla  motor,  as  built  by  the  Westinghouse 
Co.,  is  shown  in  perspective  in  Fig.  44,  and 
with  its  parts  exposed  in  Fig.  45.  It  consists 
of  a  series  of  magnets  built  up  of  laminated 
sheet-iron  and  wound  with  two  sets  of  coils,  the 
ends  of  which  are  connected  to  the  two  bind- 
ing posts  shown.  These  binding  posts  form 
the  only  connection  with  the  regular  lighting 
circuits,  with  the  addition  of  a  single  return 
wire.  By  the  aid  of  this  return  wire,  two 
alternating  currents  are  sent  through  the  field 
of  the  motor  at  the  same  time,  the  pulsations 
of  the  two  currents  being  equal  in  strength, 
but  the  one  lagging  a  quarter  phase  behind 
the  other  in  the  two  sets  of  field  coils,  respect- 
ively. The  effect  of  this  is  that  a  rapidly 
rotating  polarity  is  given  to  the  field,  cor- 


FIG.  43.  —United  States  motor. 


responding  in  period  to  that  of  the  currents  producing  it. 

The  armature  core  of  the  mo- 
tor is  of  the  Siemens  drum  type, 
and  it  is  wound  with  a  compar- 
atively few  turns  of  heavy  wire, 
the  ends  of  which  are  soldered 
together,  forming  a  closed  cir- 
cuit having  no  connection  with 
the  energizing  current.  The 
alternating  currents  in  the  field 
induce  secondary  currents  in  the 
armature,  and  by  the  attraction 
between  these  and  the  revolving 
polarity  of  the  field,  armature 
rotation  is  produced,  the  rate  of 
rotation  corresponding  very  near- 
ly with  that  of  the  field.  When 
no  work  is  being  done  by  the 
motor,  the  synchronism  is  exact, 
or  nearly  so,  and  very  little  cur- 
rent passes  either  through  the 
armature  or  field  ;  but  as  load  is 
put  on  and  the  work  increases, 

the  armature  tends  to  lag  slight-  FIG.  44.—  Tesla  motor, 

ly,  causing  the  passage  of  more 

current  in  proportion  to  the  work  done.      The  reaction   between  the  armature  and  field 

is,  therefore,  similar 
to  that  between  the 
primary  and  secondary 
of  a  converter  when 
changes  of  lamp  loads 
take  place  in  the  second- 
ary circuit.  The  addi- 
tion of  the  return  wire 
for  the  motor  circuit  can 
be  made  easily,  so  as  to 
adapt  existing  lighting 
circuits  to  motor  work. 
The  speed  of  the  motor, 
as  well  as  its  direction 
of  rotation,  may  be  reg- 
ulated by  an  ingenious 
adaptation  of  the  con- 
verter principle,  an  ad- 
justable "  choking  coil  " 

arrangement  being  employed,  which  avoids  the  use  of  resistances  and  switches.     The  sim- 
plicity of  the  winding  and  general  construction  of  the  motor  makes  it  unlikely  to  get  out  of 


45.— Tesla  motor.     Details. 


MOTORS,    ELECTRIC. 


553 


repair.  Thus  the  insulation  of  the  armature  is  of  no  importance,  since  the  current  induced 
in  it,  though  comparatively  large  in  volume,  has  a  potential  of  but  a  few  volts,  and  often 
less  than  a  volt,  regardless"  of  the  voltage  of  the  supplying  circuits. 

The  Alternating  Three-phase  Motor,  constructed  by  C.  E.  L.  Brown,  of  Switzerland,  is 
shown  in  part  section  in  Fig.  46,  and  the  armature  winding  in  Fig.  47.  Three  armature  cir- 
cuits are  connected,  as  in  a  Thomson-Houston  armature,  and  the  winding  is  so  arranged  that 
four  rotating  poles  are  produced.  With  40  cycles  the  motor  makes  about  1,200  revolutions 
per  minute.  The  motor  takes  50  volts 
normally  ;  a  reduction  to  30,  or  an 
increase  to  over  100,  does  not  make 
any  practical  difference  in  the  speed. 
Of  course,  in  the  first  case,  the  heat- 
ing of  the  armature  wire  is  greater, 
and  in  the  second  the  heating  of  the 
iron  is  increased.  The  magnetic  field 
rotates,  and  is  produced  by  the  arma- 
ture reaction,  thus  avoiding  all  slid- 
ing contacts.  The  field  magnet  is 
composed  of  a  laminated  ring  with 
holes,  in  which  are  placed  insulated 
copper  bars.  The  free  ends  on  both 
sides  are  connected  by  copper  rings. 
It  is  not  easy  to  imagine  a  more  sim- 
ple construction.  The  armature  has 
90  conductors  of  about  40  sq.  mm. 
section.  The  weight  of  copper  is  20 
kg.,  the  iron  about  100  kg.  The 


PIG.  46. — Brown  three-phase  motor. 


breadth  of  the  armature  is  20  mm.,  the  outer  diameter  about  500.     The  rotating  magnet 
carries  54  copper  bars,  with  a  section  of  100  sq.  mm.     The  weight  of  the  copper  is  15  kg. ; 


FIG.  4?.— Brown  armature  winding. 


FIG.  48. — Rechniewski  motor. 


that  of  the  iron  is  70.     Recent  trials  in  Oerlikon  with  this  motor  showed  that  it  can  easily 
supply  20  horse-power.     The  total  weight  of  the  motor  is  420  kg. 

Multiphase  motors  have  also  been  constructed  by  v.  Dolivo-Dobrowolski,  but  they  do  not 
differ  in  principle  from  those  of  Tesla,  described  above.     The  motor  employed  in  the  trans- 
commission  of  power  experiments  between  Lauffen  and  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  in  September,  1891,  was  designed  by  Dobro- 
wolski. 

The  Rechniewski  Alternating-current  Motor. — This  motor, 
Fig.  48,  designed  by  M.  W.  C.  Rechniewski  to  work  with  al- 
ternating currents,  does  not  differ  from  the  ordinary  continu- 
ous-current type,  except  that  the  field  is  of  laminated  iron. 
The  armature"  is  of  the  drum  type,  with  Pacinotti  teeth.  For 
the  sake  of  economy  in  the  manufacture,  both  the  armature 
and  field-magnet  cores  are  stamped  out  of  one  sheet.  The 
following  figures  relating  to  a  machine  of  15  horse-power  have 
been  furnished  : 

Volts  at  terminals,  115  ;  current,  100  amperes  ;  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  1,400  ;  diameter  of  armature,  8  in.  ;  peri- 
pheral velocity  in  feet  per  minute.  2,800  ;  weight  of  iron  in  field,  440  Ibs.  ;  weight  of  iron 
in  armature,  i08  Ibs.  ;  section  of  iron  in  field,  42 '5  sq.  in.  ;  section  of  iron  in  armature,  33 '5 
sq.  in.  :  induction  in  armature,  3.700,000  lines. 
This  motor  is  not.  of  course,  self -regulating. 

The  Thomson  Alternating -current  Motor,  invented  by  Prof.  Elihu  Thomson,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  49.     C  C1  are  the  field  coils  or  inducing  coils,  which  alone  are  put  into  the  alter- 


<!AA^ 


FIG.  49. — Thomson  motor. 


554 


MOTORS,   ELECTRIC. 


FIG.  50.— Kennedy's  motor. 


nating-current  circuit.  /  J  is  a  mass  of  laminated  iron,  in  the  interior  of  which  the  arma- 
ture revolves,  with  its  three  coils,  B,  B*,  B3,  wound  on  a  core  of  sheet-iron  disks.  The  com- 
mutator short-circuits  the  armature  coils  in  succession  in  the  proper  positions  to  utilize  the 
repulsive  effect  set  up  by  the  currents  which  are  induced  in  them  by  the  alternations  in 
the  field  coils.  The  motor  has  no  dead  point,  and  will  start  from  a  state  of  rest  and  give 
out  considerable  power.  A  curious  property  of  the  machine  is  that  at  a  certain  speed, 
depending  upon  the  rapidity  of  the  alternations  in  the  coil,  C,  a  continuous  current  passes 
from  one  commutator  brush  to  the  other,  and  it  will  energize  electro-magnets  and  perform 
other  actions  of  direct  currents. 

Rankin  Kennedy's  Alternating-current  Motor  is  shown  in  Fig.  50.  It  consists  of 
tw~o  ordinary  dynamos,  with  ring  or  drum  armatures  and  laminated  field  magnets  ;  both 
armatures  are  on  the  same  shaft,  their  coils  being  connected  together.  One  of  the  machines 

acts  as  the  motor,  the  other  taking  the  place  of  the 
commutator  ;  there  are  no  brushes  and  no  commu- 
tator, and,  therefore,  an  entire  absence  of  sparking. 
The  motor  requires  two  currents,  one  at  a  quarter  of 
a  complete  alternation  in  advance  of  the  other  :  but 
it  does  not  require  any  synchronizing,  and  it  can 
start  with  load  on  from  rest.  The  two  currents  at 
different  phases  are  obtained  from  a  transformer,  or 
two  line  wires  with  a  third  for  a  common  return,  or 
from  a  coil  wound  on  the  field  of  one  of  the  com- 
bined machines.  Larger  machines  are  made  multi- 
polar. 

Tesla  Motor  with  Condenser. — Tn  the  polypha- 
sal  motors  above  described  the  difference  in  phase 
is  obtained  by  a  specially  constructed  generator. 
But  if  the  field  or  energizing  circuits  of  a  motor,  in 
which  the  action  is  dependent  upon  the  inductive 
influence  upon  a  rotating  armature  of  independent 
field  magnets  exerted  successively  and  not  simul- 
taneously, be  both  derived  from  the  same  source  of  alternating  currents,  and  a  condenser 
of  proper  capacity  be  included  in  one  of  the  same,  that  approximately  the  desired  difference 
of  phase  may  be  obtained  between  the  currents  following  directly  from  the  source  and  those 
flowing  through  the  condenser.  The  great  size  and  expense  of  condensers  for  this  purpose 
that  would  meet  the  requirements  of  the  ordinary  systems  of  comparatively  low  potential, 
however,  are  practically  prohibitory  to  their  employment  in  practice.  This  difficulty  has 
been  overcome  by  Mr.  Nikola  Tesla,  in  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  51.  Here  A  B  repre- 
sent the  poles  of  an  alternating-current  motor,  of  which  G  is  the  armature,  wound  with  coils, 
D,  closed  upon  themselves,  as  is  now  the  general  practice  in  motors  of  this  kind.  The  poles, 
A,  which  alternate  with  poles,  B,  are  wound  with  coils  of  coarse  wire,  E,  in  such  direction 
as  to  make  them  of  alternate  north  and  south  polarity,  as  indicated  in  the  diagram  by  N  S. 
Over  these  coils  are  wound  long,  fine  wire  coils,  F  F,  and  in  the  same  direction  throughout 
as  the  coils,  E.  These  coils  are  secondaries  in  which  currents  of  very  high  potential  are 
induced.  Mr.  Tesla,  as  a  rule,  connects  all 
the  coils,  E,  in  one  series,  and  all  the  second- 
aries, F,  in  another.  On  the  intermediate 
poles,  B,  are  wound  fine  wire  energizing  coils, 
G,  which  are  connected  in  series  with  one  an- 
other, and  also  with  the  series  of  secondary 
coils,  F,  the  direction  of  winding  being 
such  that  a  current  impulse  induced  from 
the  primary  coils,  E,  imparts  the  same 
magnetism  to  the  poles  B  as  that  produced 
in  poles  A  by  the  primary  impulse.  This 
condition  is  indicated  by  the  letters  JV'  /S". 
In  the  circuit  formed  by  the  two  sets  of 
coils,  F  and  G.  is  introduced  a  condenser, 
H,  the  circuit  being  otherwise  closed  upon 
itself,  while  the  free  ends  of  the  circuit  of 
coils,  E,  are  connected  to  a  source  of  alter- 
nating currents.  As  the  condenser  capacity 
which  is  needed  in  any  particular  motor  of 
this  kind  is  dependent  upon  the  rate  of 
alternation  or  the  potential,  or  both,  its 
size,  and  hence  its  cost,  as  before  explained, 
may  be  brought  within  economical  limits 
for  use  with  the  ordinary  circuits.  It  is 
evident  that  by  giving  to  the  condenser 
proper  value,  any  desired  difference  of 


FIG.  '51.— Tesla  motor. 


phase    between   the  primary  and    secondary  energizing  circuits   may  be   obtained. 

Motors   embodying  the    above    principles  have  also  been   constructed   by  flutin   and 
Leblauc,  of  France. 


MOWERS   AND   REAPERS. 


555 


[For  more  detailed  descriptions  of  electric  motors,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  following 
works  and  papers  :  The  Electric  Motor  and  its  Applications,  Martin  &  Wetzler ;  Dynamo 
Electric  Machinery,  S.  P.  Thompson  ;  Electric  Transmission  of  Energy ,  Kapp  ;  Electricity 
as  a  Motive  Power,  Du  Moncel  ;  also  various  papers  by  Kapp,  Esson,  Mordey,  and  others  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  London  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  and  papers  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers.  Also  the  following  periodicals  : 
Tin-  Electrical  Engineer,  The  Electrical  World,  Electrician.  Electrical  Review,  La  Lumiere 
Electrique,  VElectricien.  See  also  the  index  to  periodical  electrical  literature,  Fortschritte 
der  Elektrotechnik.  Berlin.] 

MOWERS  AND  REAPERS.  Both  mowers  and  reaprs  of  the  side-cut  type  are  now 
made  preferably  ;  also  "  front-cut,"  the  driver's  seat  being,  in  this  form  of  the  machines, 
attached  at  a  point  which  is  rearward  as  relates  to  the  cutting  line  of  the  machine.  The  rear- 
cut  mowers  and  reapers  formerly  used  necessarily  carried  the  seat,  for  purposes  of  balance, 
considerably  in  front  of  such  a  location,  involving  a  measure  of  danger  in  case  of  a  fall 
from  the  seat,  as  the  natural  tendency  in  the  event  of  a  collision  of  the  finger  bar  with  any 
obstruction  to  its  progress,  if  by  chance  the  driver  is  thereby  unseated,  is  to  throw  him  over 
to  the  cutting  side  rather  than  away  from  it.  The  mutilation  or  killing  of  mower  and  reaper 
drivers  by  the  knives,  once  so  frequent,  is  now,  in  consequence  of  the  change,  virtually 
unknown."  The  weight  and  cost  of  this  important  class  of  machines  is  also  considerably 
reduced,  while  strength,  effectiveness,  and  convenience  are  advanced  by  recent  improvements. 

The  Walter  A.  Wood  Mowing  Machine,  Fig.  1,  drives  the  crank  shaft  from  a  cross 
shaft,  whose  pinion 
receives  the  power 
through  a  large  inter- 
nal gear,  which  re- 
ceives power  from  a 
covered  circular 
ratchet  firmly  attached 
to  it  and  also  to  the 
axle.  Pawls  in  the  left 
driving  wheel  engage 
the  ratchet,  while 
pawls  in  the  right 
driving  wheel  engage  a 
similar  ratchet  at  that 
end  of  the  axle— the 
axle  takes  the  torsional 
strain  of  the  right 
wheel  only.  The 
frame  is  light  steel 
tubing,  jointed  bydeep, 
telescoping  sockets,  re- 
ceiving side  strain  in- 
dependently of  bolts. 


FIG.  1. — Wood  mowing  machine. 


The  steel  wheel,  with  malleable  iron  hub  plates  gripping  the  spokes    between  them,   and 
now  generally  adopted  in  some  form  for  field  agricultural  implements,  is  used.      The  main 

gear  and  cross-shaft  gear  wheels 
rotate  in  the  direction  of  travel, 
to  avoid  winding  up  grass. 
Speeding  is  attained  with  only 
two  pairs  of  gears.  No  part  of 
the  draft  is  by  the  tongue,  as  a 
loose  draft  rod.  under  the  tongue 
imparts  the  draft  of  the  team  to 
the  frame  carrying  the  cutting 
apparatus  on  a  line  with  its  front 
portion,  and  hinging  freely  upon 
the  axle  at  its  rear  line,  where 
projecting  arms  sustain  the  cross- 
shaft  support  as  a  member  of 
this  hinged  frame.  The  tongue 
and  driver's  seat  are  bolted  to  a 
separate  socket.  Figs.  2  and  3, 
which  also  sustains  the  fulcrum 
of  the  lifter  lever,  a.  The  lifter 
chain,  b,  hangs  slack  while  the 
machine  is  mowing.  When  the 
lever  is  slightly  depressed  by  the 
operator,  it  moves  the  lifter  rod, 
FIG.  2.— Mowing  machine.  Details.  c,  upward,  past  the  center  on 

which  the  lever  is  pivoted,  leav- 
ing the  strong  spiral  spring,  d,  free  to  expand  and  swing  upward  the  quadrant  to  which 
the  chain,  b,  is  hooked,  thus  aiding  in  lifting  the  weight  of  hinged  frame  and  cutting  ap- 


556 


MOWERS   AND    REAPERS. 


paratus  by  supplementing  the  muscular  effort  of  the  operator  by  the  action  of  the  spring, 
d.  The  support  for  the  lifter  rod,  c,  is  a  stout  swivel  ring.  The  purpose  of  the  device  is  to 
gain  the  supplemental  spring-lift  effect  without  sacrificing  any  of  the  independent  floating 

action  of  the  cutting  apparatus, 
which  is  thus  permitted  to  rest  and 
ride  along  the  variable  surface  of 
the  ground  while  mowing,  but  is 
instantly  controlled,  suspended, 
and  lifted  by  the  chain,  b,  when  it 
is  desired  to  pass  it  over  an  obstruc- 
tion, or  move  the  machine  forward 
when  not  in  work.  To  prevent 
the  lifter  lever  suddenly  flying  back 
by  any  jolt  moving  it  so  as  to  raise 
the  front  end  of  the  rod,  c,  above 
the  lever  pivot,  a  check  latch  on 
the  quadrant  engages  a  notch  in  the 
bearing  for  the  lever  pivot  as  soon 
as  the  lever  is  pushed  forward. 

FIG.  3.—  Mowing  machine.    Details.  Increasing  magnitude  of  hay  cul- 

ture in  the  United  States,  and  the 
immense  areas  of  level  land  available,  have  changed  mower  construction  as  regards 
the  standard  width  of  swath — which  width  ten  years  ago  was  customarily  from  4  to  4£  ft. — 


PIG.  4. — Mowing  machine.    Wide-cut  adjustment. 

until  a  swath  5  ft.,  6  ft.,  and  even  wider,  is  the  rule.     This  change  has  involved  the  intro- 
duction of  a  long  finger  bar,  and  the  spring  lift  is  a  remedy  for  the  difficulty  found  by  the 


FIG.  5.— Emerson,  Talcott  &  Co.'s  mower. 

operator  in  raising  the  long  bar,  with  its  increased  weight  and  adverse  leverage  against  the 
gag-iron  universally  used  in  some  form  at  the  inner  end  of  the  bar  to  facilitate  high  lift  of 
the  outer  end.  To  make  this  mower  available  with  long  or  short  finger  bars  by  suitable 


MOWERS   AND   REAPERS. 


557 


tread  gauge  in  either  case,  it  may  be  fitted  with  the  axle  extension,  a,  shown  in  Fig.  4, 
which  is  a  cast  ratchet,  like  those  of  the  driving  wheels,  extended  into  a  tube  containing  a 
supplemental  axle  of  suitable  length,  and  which  is  interposed  between  the  axle  proper  and 
the  left  driving  wheel,  steadying  the  machine  by  a  wider  separation  of  points  of  support,  and 
maintaining  the  centrality  of  the  draft  line,  as  relates  to  resistance.  The  connecting  rod,  or 
"pitman,"  which  drives  the  scythe,  has  tong  jaws  at  each  end,  cupped  to  grip  the  ball- 
shaped  scythe  head  ;  also  suitable  bosses  on  the  bearing  for  the  crank  pin  on  the  forward  end 
of  the  crank-shaft,  swiveling  the  pitman  so  that  it  can  not  be  cramped  in  the  various 
positions  assumed  by  the  crank  head  and  cutting  apparatus,  either  while  mowing  rough 
land,  or  from  the  effect  of  rocking  the  finger  bar  with  the  tilting  apparatus  to  raise  or 


FIG.  6. — Mowing  machine. 

depress  the  points  of  the  guard  fingers,  to  suit  the  degree  of  closeness  of  cutting  to  the 
character  of  the  crop  and  the  roughness  or  smoothness  of  the  ground.  The  zig-zag  ribs 
seen  on  the  driving-wheel  face  have  the  threefold  effect  of  increasing  traction  for  driving 
the  cutters,  resisting  a  tendency  to  side  slip  on  inclined  ground,  and  avoiding  the  jolt 
incident  to  separate  transverse  traction  lugs  when  driving  the  mower  over  a  hard  surface. 

Emerson,  Tolcott  &  Co.' 8  Mower. — A  very  wide-cut  mower,  Fig.  5,  made  by  Emerson, 
Talcott  &  Co.,  of  Illinois,  is  a  representative*  of  a  class  of  side-cutting  mowers  in  which 
much  of  the  weight  of  the  cutting  apparatus  and  frame  for  crank  shaft  is  sustained  by  a 
strong  spring,  which  may  be  seen  attached  to  the  side  of  the  tongue  in  front,  and  to  a  bell 
crank  at  its  rear  end,  the  crank  hooked  to  a  supplemental  lift  chain,  so  arranged  that  a 
constant  pull  is  applied  upon  the  upper  end  of  an  upright  arm  of  the  main  shoe.  The 
purpose  is  to  keep  the  tension  of  the  spring  strong  enough,  by  adjustment,  to  greatly  relieve 
the  friction  of  the  finger  bar.  particularly  at  the  outer  end,  when  in  work  ;  and  also  diminish 
the  labor  of  the  operator  in  moving  the  lifter 
lever  to  pass  the  bar  over  obstacles  ;  the  con- 
traction of  the  spring  aiding  him  by  an  upward 
pull  on  the  guide  roller  under  which  its  chain 
passes.  The  arrangement  increases  the  driving 
power  of  the  wheel  nearer  the  cutters  by  im- 
posing part  of  the  weight  of  the  finger  bar 
upon  it.  and  is  adopted  to  make  wide  swathing 
practicable  under  the  convenient  arrangement 
of  mowing  machines  by  which  the  cutting  is 
done  entirely  on  one  side  of  the  path  traveled 
by  the  team  and  driving  wheels.  This  mower 
may  be  used  with  a  finger  bar  of  6,  and  even 
7  ft.  length.  To  overcome  the  tendency,  which 
so  long  a  bar  would  otherwise  have,  to  crown 
in  the  center  when  largely  upheld  at  the  main- 
shoe  end,  the  bar  in  manufacture  is  given  a  de- 
cided upward  curve,  which  is  neutralized  as 
nearly  as  possible,  in  use,  by  the  tendency  of 
the  outer  end  to  sag.  Unless  the  guard  fingers 
maintain  a  straight  line,  the  reciprocating  knife 
can  neither  move  freely  nor  present  to  the  herbage  a  proper  shear  cut  by  contact  of  the  cut- 
ting sections  with  the  cutting  edges  of  the  guard  fingers. 

In  the  class  of  mowers  represented  by  Fig.  6,  the  two  driving  wheels  straddle  the  swath 


PIG.  7.— Lawn  mower. 


558 


NIAGAEA,    THE   UTILIZATION    OF. 


just  after  it  is  cut,  but  one  of  the  two  horses  drawing  the  machine  must  necessarily  walk  in 
the  uncut  grass  to  maintain  centrality  of  draft.  The  scythe  is  vibrated  by  a  short  pitman, 
operated  by  a  combination  of  chain  and  cog  gearing  from  a  chain  wheel  on  the  end  of  the 
main  axle  which  in  turn  is  revolved  forward  by  both  or  either  of  the  driving  wheels,  through 
the  medium  of  the  now  universal  hub  ratchets.  The  main  draft  is  by  the  tongue,  but  any 
desired  portion  of  it  may  be  transferred  so  as  to  act  upon  the  cutter  frame  below,  by  an 
adjustable  arrangement  of  suspended  bars  and  chains,  to  ease  up  the  cutter  bar  and  its  frame 
hinged  upon  the  main  axle.  The  object  of  this  general  construction  is  to  attain  great  width 
of  swath  in  connection  with  central  draft.  The  mower  may  be  used  right  hand  or  left  hand. 
Lawn  Mowers. — Fig.  7  is  the  "Buckeye"  lawn  mower.  It  is  provided  with  a  hinged 

handle  bar,  and  is  self- 
adapting  to  the  ground 
surface.  Height  of  cut  is 
determined  at  pleasure  by 
adjustment  of  a  rolling 
guide  at  the  rear.  The 
mowing-reel  pinions  are 
driven  by  internally 
toothed  gear  wheels,  con- 
centric with  the  ground 
wheels,  in  which  they  are 
ratcheted,  so  as  to  rest 
when  the  machine  is 
backed  by  the  operator. 

^•vX     r-.V..-"'   ' "^••••P^BW™P~^^  The  hub  of  each   ground 

wheel,  projecting  inward, 

FIG.  8.— Lawn  mower.  forms  a  bearing    for  the 

hubs  of  the  gear  wheels, 

to  condense  the  driving  parts  laterally,  to  avoid  projections  destructive  to  the  bark  of  trees 
and  shrubbery  ;  a  front  bar  also  fends  them  from  the  blades  of  the  machine.  Fig.  8  is  a 
horse  lawn  mower,  with  which  the  lawn  may  not  only  be  mown,  but  rolled,  and  also  cleared 
of  the  mown  grass,  which,  as  it  flies  from  the  mowing  reel,  is  caught  in  a  pan  attachment, 
carried  on  the  mower. 

Naphtha  Engine  :  see  Engines,  Gas. 
Napper  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machines. 

NIAUARA,  THE  UTILIZATION  OF.  Few  persons  can  have  seen  Niagara  Falls  with- 
out reflecting  on  the  enormous  energy  which  is  there  continuously  expended.  No  one  con- 
versant with  the  national  importance  and  commercial  value  of  supplies  of  motive  power  can 
have  passed  the  falls  without  some  feeling  of  regret  that  so  much  available  energy  was 
wasted.  To  an  engineer  it  must  have  occurred  that  the  constancy  of  the  volume  of  flow, 
the  small  variation  of  levels,  the  depth  of  the  plunge  over  the  escarpment,  the  nature  of 
the  rocks,  the  topography  of  the  land,  the  proximity  of  railways,  the  access  to  the  Great 
Lakes — all  marked  out  Niagara  as  a  site  for  an  ideally  perfect  and  unprecedentedly  import- 
ant water-power  station. 

The  great  system  of  lakes  or  inland  seas,  which  extend  half  way  across  the  continent, 
collect  the  rainfall  from  a  vast  territory,  store  it  temporarily,  and  discharge  it  through  the 
St.  Lawrence  into  the  Atlantic.  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  and  Erie  receive  the 
drainage  from  a  catchment  basin  of  240,000  square  miles,  whence  it  flows  through  the  Niagara 
River  into  Lake  Ontario,  falling  in  level  326  ft.  in  a  distance  of  37|  miles.  The  average 
volume  of  flow  is  estimated  at  265,000  cub.  ft.  per  second  If  the  whole  stream  between 
Erie  and  Ontario  could  be  used  to  drive  hydraulic  machinery,  more  than  seven  million 
horse  power  could  be  rendered  available. 

Fall  of  Level  in  the  Niagara  River. 

Upper  Niagara  River 6  ft. 

Rapids  above  falls 50  " 

Falls 160" 

Rapids  below  falls 110  " 

Immediately  below  the  falls  the  river  turns  at  right  angles,  and  flows  through  a  narrow 
gorge.  The  city  of  Niagara  Falls  occupies  a  flat  table-land  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  river. 
The  variation  during  the  year  of  the  river  levels  is  small,  and  is  chiefly  due  to  the  action  of 
wind.  The  ordinary  variation  of  level  does  not  exceed  1  ft.  in  the  upper  river,  or  5  ft.  in 
the  lower  river.  The  greatest  authenticated  changes  of  level  in  the  lower  river,  due  to  ice 
blocks  and  other  causes,  amount  to  13*  ft.  rise  above  mean  level,  and  9  ft.  fall  below  it.  The 
rock  consists  of  limestone  and  shale,  in  nearly  horizontal  strata,  and  is  trustworthy  for 
foundation  works  and  tunneling,  though  timbering  is  required  in  the  shale,  and  lining 
throughout,  for  a  tunnel  of  large  dimensions. 

Early  History  of  Water  Power  at  Niagara. — The  early  traders  erected  stream  mills  in 
1725.  Later,  the  Porter  family  caused  to  be  erected  factories  on  the  islands  in  the  rapids 
above  the  falls,  and  obtained  power  from  the  river.  Thirty  years  ago  a  much  more  syste- 
matic attempt  was  made  to  utilize  the  falls.  A  canal  was  constructed  from  Port  Day,  about 


NIAGARA,  THE  UTILIZATION    OF. 


559 


three-fourths  of  a  mile  above  the  falls,  to  the  cliff  above  the  lower  river.  In  1874,  the  Cataract 
mill  was  erected  by  Mr.  Charles  B.  GasMll.  Since  then  other  mills  have  been  built  along 
the  cuff,  taking  water  from  the  same  canal,  and  utilizing  altogether  about  6,000  horse-power. 
These  mills  employ  about  a  thousand  operatives,  and  pay  yearly  in  wages  $350,000.  They 


/    fl      ft 

NHH!P&-'I-!I  - ! 


are  prosperous  partly  because  of  the  cheapness  and  steadiness  of  the  motive  power,  partly 
because  of  the  facilities  of  transport.  These  mills  discharge  the  tail  water  on  the  face  of 
the  cliff  over  the  river.  Since  the  growth  of  a  feeling  against  disfiguring  the  falls,  it  has 
become  undesirable  to  extend  works  of  this  kind. 


560 


NIAGARA,  THE  UTILIZATION   OF. 


The  idea  of  a  better  method  of  utilizing  the  falls  is  due  to  the  late  Mr.  Thomas  Evershed. 
He  proposed  to  construct  canals  and  head  races  on  unoccupied  land  a  mile  and  more  above  the 
falls,  and  to  drop  the  water  down  vertical  turbine-wheel  pits  into  tunnels,  discharging  into 
a  great  main  tunnel  passing  under  the  town  of  Niagara  to  the  lower  river.  Apart  from  an 


inappreciable  diminution  of  the  volume  of  flow  over  the  falls,  this  plan  avoids  any  damage 
to  the  scenery,  and  permits  the  utilization  of  a  fall  of  200  ft.  It  is  essential  to  the  plan  of 
constructing  a  tail-race  tunnel  in  the  rock,  that  a  very  considerable  amount  of  power  should 
be  utilized.  Otherwise  the  proportionate  cost  of  the  tunnel  would  be  excessive. 


NIAGARA,  THE   UTILIZATION   OF, 


561 


The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  and  the  Cataract  Construction  Co. — In  1886,  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  was  incorporated  by  a  special  act  of  the  legislature  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  Niagara  in  accordance  with  Mr.  Evershed's 


FIG.  3.— Wheel  pit  and  discharge. 

plans.  (Laws  of  New  York,  1886,  ch.  83,  489  ;  1889,  ch.  109  ;  1891,  ch.  253  ;  1892,  ch.  513.) 
Land  extending  along  two  miles  of  the  shore  above  Port  Day  was  obtained.  Subse- 
quently, in  1889,  the  Cataract  Construction  Co.  was  formed,  the  primary  object  of  which  is, 
under  contract  with  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.,  to  execute  all  the  works  required.  The 

36 


562  NIAGARA,    THE  UTILIZATION   OF. 

President  of  the  company  is  Mr.  Edward  D.  Adams ;  its  vice-presidents  are  Mr.  Francis 
Lynde  Stetson  and  Mr.  'Edward  A.  Wickes,  and  its  secretary  and  treasurer  Mr.  William 
B.  Rankine.  To  advise  and  direct  the  works  they  have  constituted  a  board  of  engineers, 
consisting  of  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers.  Mr.  John  Bogart,  Mr.  Clemens  Herschel,  Mr.  George  B. 
Burbank,  and  Mr.  Albert  H.  Porter.  Col.  Theodore  Turrettini,  who  directed  the  works  for 
utilizing  the  motive  power  of  the  Rh6ne  at  Geneva,  is  associated  with  them  as  foreign 
consulting  engineer. 

Already  some  1,550  acres  of  land  have  been  acquired,  of  which  1,000  acres  will  be  re- 
served for  manufacturing  purposes,  150  acres  for  a  terminal  railway,  and  about  400  acres  for 
a  residential  district.  This  latter  part  is  being  laid  out  on  a  systematic  plan.  The  great 
main  tail-race  tunnel  has  been  commenced,  the  contract  having  been  given  to  Messrs. 
Rodgers  -&  Clement.  This  tunnel  will  at  the  outset  be  7,000  ft.  in  length,  and  490  sq.  ft. 
in  section.  It  will  be  capable  of  discharging  the  tail  water  of  turbines  developing  luO,0()0 
horse-power.  At  the  present  time,  6,700  ft.  of  heading,  and  6,251  ft.  of  bench  have  been 
driven.  Arrangements  have  also  been  made  for  developing  initially  about  20,000  horse- 
power. Fig.  1  shows  the  position  of  the  tunnel,  the  intake  canal,  and  the  proposed  arrange- 
ment of  the  manufacturing  quarter.  Fig.  2  shows  the  arrangement  proposed  for  the  primary 
power  stations.  Fig.  3  shows  a  turbine  wheel  pit,  with  the  arrangement  of  head  race  and 
discharge  tunnel. 

Systems  of  Power  Distribution. — Probably  to  an  engineer  considering  the  conditions 
with  any  care,  it  would  soon  appear  that  the  provision  of  a  tunnel  tail  race  and  hydraulic 
machinery  solved  only  half  the  Niagara  problem,  and  that  the  least  difficult  and  doubtful 
half.  It  is  likely  Mr.  Evershed  and  those  acting  with  him  considered  that  nothing  more 
was  wanted  for  utilizing  Niagara  than  the  adoption  of  plans  already  in  successful  opera- 
tion in  the  United  States,  but  on  a  more  gigantic  scale.  It  does  not  seern  to  have  been  at 
all  recognized  at  first  that  the  magnitude  of  the  Niagara  scheme  was  itself  a  condition  ren- 
dering the  older  methods  of  utilizing  water  power,  if  not  physically  impracticable,  at  least  of 
doubtful  commercial  success.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  has  water  power  been  utilized 
on  so  great  a  scale  as  in  the  United  States.  The  towns  of  Lowell,  Lawrence,  Holyoke,  and 
Manchester  owe  their  very  existence  as  manufacturing  centers  to  water  power.  At  these 
towns,  less  favorably  situated  than  Niagara,  a  fall  was  artificially  created  by  building  a 
dam  across  a  river  ;  from  the  up  stream  side  of  the  dam,  water  was  supplied  to  mills  by 
canals,  and  they  discharged  it  below  the  dam  by  other  canals.  The  mill  owners  constructed 
the  requisite  machinery,  and  the  water-power  companies  obtained  a  return  on  their  expendi- 
ture by  a  rental  based  on  the  quantity  of  water  supplied.  Generally,  in  these  towns  the 
fall  utilized  is  not  very  great,  so  that  no  very  expensive  excavations  are  required  for  the 
wheels  ;  also  the  distribution  of  the  water  and  assessment  of  the  rental  presents  no  special 
difficulty.  The  cost  for  the  water  supplied  varies  in  different  towns  ;  on  the  average,  the 
rental  appears  to  be  from  $14  to  $18  per  annum  per  effective  horse-power  delivered  from  the 
turbine  shaft.  The  additional  charge  for  interest  on  capital  expended  by  the  mill  owner  in 
hydraulic  machinery,  repairs,  wages  of  attendants,  etc.,  would  appear  to  be  about  $8  per 
horse-power  per  annum.  So  that  the  total  cost  of  an  effective  horse-power  to  the  mill 
owners  appears  to  be  from  $22  to  $28  per  annum. 

At  Niagara  no  dam  has  to  be  constructed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tail-race  tunnel  is  a 
work  of  such  a  kind  that  its  cost  per  horse-power  utilized  diminishes  very  much  as  the 
whole  amount  of  power  dealt  with  is  greater.  The  actual  section  of  the  tunnel  is  490  sq.  ft., 
and  it  is  intended  to  discharge  8,800  cub.  ft.  per  second.  Taking  the  effective  fall,  after 
deducting  all  possible  losses,  at  160  ft.,  and  assuming  moderately  good  turbines,  this  quantity 
of  water  will  yield  100,000  effective  horse-power.  The  cost  of  the  tunnel  amounts  to  less 
than  $10  per  effective  horse-power.  A  rock  tunnel  lined  with  brick  is  practically  as  durable 
as  the  rock  itself,  and  the  interest  on  this  sum  is  but  an  insignificant  item  in  the  charge  for 
power  if  the  tunnel  is  fully  worked.  With  8,800  cub.  ft.  per  second,  the  velocity  in  the  tail- 
race  tunnel  will  be  only  18  ft.  per  second  if  it  discharges  full  bore,  or  perhaps  25  ft.  per 
second  if  it  discharges  as  an  open  canal.  Neither  of  these  velocities  is  too  great  for  a 
masonry  lined  rock  tunnel. 

The  construction  of  a  tail-race  tunnel  imposes,  therefore,  no  difficulty  in  the  way  of  utiliz- 
ing Niagara,  provided  it  is  undertaken  on  a  large  scale.  It  is  only  when  the  details  of  a 
system  of  surface  canals  for  distributing  so  enormous  a  volume  of  water  to  different  con- 
sumers are  considered,  and  the  cost  and  complexity  of  a  system  of  secondary  tunnels  to 
re-collect  the  water  from  different  consumers,  and  discharge  it  into  the  main  tunnel,  that  a 
doubt  arises  as  to  the  practicability  of  methods  in  which  each  consumer  takes  the  water 
required  for  power  on  his  own  land,  and  constructs  his  own  wheel  pits  and  machinery. 
Part  of  the  water  power  at  Niagara  will  undoubtedly  be  utilized  in  this  way,  especially  on 
land  nearest  adjacent  to  the  main  tunnel.  In  the  case  of  an  industry  requiring-  a  very 
large  amount  of  power,  it  will  be  practicable  and  economical  for  manufacturers  to  take  the 
water  and  construct  wheel  pits,  necessarily  180  ft.  in  depth,  and  the  machinery  for  utilizing 
it.  But  such  a  method  is  little  adapted  for  smaller  factories.  It  would  probably  be  a  long 
time  before  at  Niagara  a  sufficient  number  of  large  manufacturers  could  be  attracted  to 
utilize  in  this  way  120,000  horse-power. 

Obviously,  it  would  greatly  economize  the  capital  expenditure  to  develop  the  power  in  one 
or  more  central  stations  by  turbines  of  large  size,  of  uniform  type,  under  common  manage- 
ment. It  would  equally  facilitate  the  sale  of  the  power  if  manufacturers  could  take  it  in 
any  required  quantity,  without  the  trouble  of  sinking  wheel  pits  or  erecting  turbines.  Once 


NIAGARA,  THE   UTILIZATION   OF. 


5G3 


given  the  means  of  conveying  and  distributing  power  instead  of  water,  a  very  import- 
ant extension  of  the  original  project  becomes  possible.  In  addition  to  supplying  "manufac- 
tures attracted  to  Niagara,  the  power  may  be  taken  to  existing  manufactures  in  Buffalo  and 
Tonawanda. 

Various  systems  of  power  distribution  to  different  consumers  have  been  tried  during  the 
last  twenty  or  thirty  years.  Quite  recently  great  success  has  been  achieved  in  some  of  these 
systems,  and  a  very  short  account  of  the  methods  adopted  will  serve  to  indicate  both  the 
nature  of  the  problem  at  Niagara,  and  the  extent  to  which  past  experience  affords  guidance 
in  its  solution. 

The  International  Niagara  Commission. — To  secure  impartial  examination  and  compe- 
tent discussion  of  projects  for  the  utilization  of  Niagara,  an  International  Niagara  Commis- 
sion was  formed,  and  a  sum  of  £4,500  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  commission,  to  be 
awarded,  partly  in  premiums  to  all  invited  engineers  who  sent  in  plans  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance, partly  in  prizes  to  those  projects  judged  to  be  of  the  highest  merit.  The  commission 
was  constituted  as  follows  :  Sir  William  Thomson,  F.R.S.,  LL.D.,  President;  Dr.  Coleman 
Sellers,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. ;  E.  Mascart,  Membre  de  1'lnstitut,  Paris  ;  Col.  Theodore  Turrettini, 
director  of  the  works  for  the  utilization  of  the  motive  power  of  the  Rhone  at  Geneva  ;  Prof. 
W.  C.  Unwin,  F.R.S.,  Secretary. 

For  the  information  of  the  competitors,  plans  and  photographs  were  prepared,  and  a 
detailed  letter  of  instructions  was  drawn  up.  Competitors  were  asked  to  prepare  plans  and 
estimates  for  developing  an  effective  power  of  120,000  horses  by  hydraulic  machinery,  and  for 
the  transmission  and  distribution  of  this  power  partly  to  a  manufacturing  district  on  the  land 
of  the  company,  partly  to  Buffalo  and  Tonawanda.  The  arrangements  adopted  were  success- 
ful. A  large  number  of  projects  were  received  from  mechanical  and.  electrical  engineers  of 
the  greatest  reputation.  Many  of  these  were  worked  out  with  extraordinary  care  and  com- 
pleteness. In  some  cases  the  accompanying  memoir  formed  a  scientific  treatise,  and  con- 
tained information  of  the  greatest  value.  The  following  is  a  resume  of  the  projects 
received : 


Name. 

Kind  of  hydraulic  machinery  proposed. 

Method  of  distribution  proposed. 

Cuenod  Sautter  &  Co., 

and  Faesch  &  Piccard. 

(Geneva.) 


Vigreux  &  Levy. 
(Paris.) 


Hillairet  &  Bouvier. 
(Paris.) 


Popp  &  Riedler. 
(Paris  and  Berlin.) 


Impulse  turbines  of  2,500  horse-i  (a)  One  hundred  dynamos  of  1,250  horse-power 
power,  with  horizontal  shafts?,  in  un-'each,  and  10  in  reserve,  coupled  in  pairs  in  se- 
derground  galleries,  coupled  direct  to  ries.  Distribution  at  Niagara  in  two  circuits  of 
dynamos  by  Raffard  couplings.  ]  1,000  volts  and  one  of  500  volts.  Overhead  con- 

(b)  Impulse  turbines  of  2,500  horse- ductors,  with  spans  of  200  yards.  For  Buffalo, 
power  in  wheel  pits,  with  vertical  10  dynamos  in  series,  giving  16,000  volts.  Motor 
shafts,  driving  machinery  above  transformers  in  Buffalo,  giving  four  circuits  at 
ground.  Turbine  shaft*  with  hydrau-'  1,000  volts,  and  two  at  500  volts.  System,  con- 
lie  support,  hydraulic  relay  governors,  tinuons  current  at  constant  potential, 
and  sluices  worked  hydraulically.  (b)  Dynamos  of  530 and  4,735  volts.  The  man- 

infacturing  district  supplied  with  four  circuits  at 
4,500  volts  and  two  at  500  volts,  and  a  neutral 
wire.  For  Buffalo,  two  conductors  at  4,500 
volts,  and  a  neutral  wire.  Compensating  motor 
transformers  at  Buffalo. 

(a)  Axial-flow  pressure  turbines  of  Dynamos  with  twin  armatures,  continuous 
2,500  horse-power,  coupled  in  pairs  on  current,  2,500  horse-power.  330  amperes,  5,000 
(horizontal  shafts  in  underground  gal- volts.  Dynamos  for  exciting  current  at  500 
leries.  Ivolts.  Iron-braced  girders  carrying  naked  cop- 

Inward-flow  pressure  turbines  of  per  conductors  overhead,  in  spans  of  100  feet. 


5,000  horse-power. 

(c)  Outward-flow  pressure  turbines 
of  5,000  horse-power. 

10,000  horse-power  turbines  of  Girard 
type,  with  vertical  shafts. 


Motor  transformers /or  reducing  potential. 


Dynamos  of  10,000  horse-power,  directly 
coupled  to  turbine  shafts,with  Raffard  couplings. 

Each  dynamo  gives  7,000  amperes  at  1,000 
volts.  The  dynamos  used  independently  or 
coupled  in  series,  according  to  the  distance  of 
transmission.  Motor  transformers  for  low-ten- 
sion circuits. 

For  projects  (a)  and  (6) :  Axial-flow     (a)  Underground,  directly  driven  compound 
pressure  turbines  of  5,000  horse -power,  air  compressors,  at  80  revolutions  per  minute. 
From  Rieter  of  Winterthnr.    Horizon-j     (b)  Underground  air  compressors,  at  150  revo- 
tal  shafts  in  (a)  and  vertical  in  (c).         lutions  per  minute. 

For  project  (b).    Outward-flow  pres-1    (c)  Overground  compressors,  at  80  revolutions 
sure  turbines,  with  horizontal  axis,  bylper  minute. 


Nagel  &  Kaemp,  of  Hamburg,   (c)  Sim- 
'lar  turbines,  with  vertical  axis. 


(d)  A  similar  arrangement. 

25,000  horse-power  transmitted  to  Buffalo  at 
114  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  giving  88  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  in 
Buffalo,  through  two  mains  2*  ft.  diameter. 
Or  75,000  horse-power,  transmitted  through  the 
same  mains  with  199  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  giving  110 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  in  Buffalo.  Compressors,  com- 
pound, with  Riedler  system  of  controlled  valves. 
Efficiency  estimated  at  85  per  cent.,  every  loss 
in  compressors  and  motors  and  transmission 
to  Buffalo  included. 


564 


NIAGARA,  THE  UTILIZATION  OF. 


Name. 


Deacon  &  Siemens  Bros, 
(London.) 


Pearsall. 
(London  ) 


Lupton  &  Sturgeon. 
(Chester  and  Leeds.) 


Ganz  &  Co. 
(Buda  Pesth.) 


Escher  Wyss  &  Co. 
(Zurich.) 


Rieter  &  Co. 
(Wiuterthur.) 


Vigreux  &  Feray. 
(Paris.) 


Pelton  Water  Wheel  Co, 
(San  Francisco.) 


George  Forbes. 
(London.) 


Norwalk  Ironworks  Co 
(South  Norwalk,  Conn. 


Inward-flow  pressure  turbines  of  Continuous-current  dynamos  of  2,500  horse- 
2,500  horse-power,  with  horizontal  power,  giving  a  constant  current  of  400  amperes, 
shafts,  directly  coupled  to  dynamos  [and  potential  varying  up  to  4,500  volts.  Con- 
n  underground  galleries.  ductors,  insulated  cables.  Low-tension  current 

obtained  by  motor  transformers, 
ressure 
ves 

worked  by  pressure  engines.  Air  pres- 
ure,  150  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  Pressure 
ater  supplied  m  the  same  way. 


Kind  of  hydraulic  machinery  proposed. 


Method  of  distribution  proposed. 


Air  directly  compressed  by  pressi 
due  to  fall  in  cylinders,  with  vah 


Inward-flow    pressure    turbines   of 
3,750  horse-power,  with  vertical  shafts. 


Single-acting  air  compressors  delivering  at  5£ 
atmospheres.    Compressors  Beared  to  turbine 
haft.    Air  main  to  Buffalo,  10  ft.  diameter,  de- 
creasing to  7  ft.    Electric  lighting  station  at 
Buffalo  worked  by  compressed  air. 


Partial -flow   impulse    turbines   of 
5,000  horse-power,  with  vertical 
n  wheel  pits,  directly  coupled  to  dy 
lamos  placed  above  ground.  Governor  a 
to  turbine  sluices. 


Alternate-current  dynamos  working  at  5,000 
shafts  horse-power,  336  amperes,  10,000  volts.  Over- 
lead  conductors  on  iron  supports  50  metres 
apart.  Transformers  at  Buffalo  to  reduce  poten- 
tial to  2,000  volts.  Separate  exciting  current 
dynamos  at  200  volts. 


Axial-flow  pressure  turbines  on  ver- 
ical  shafts  in  wheel  pits.  Powervary- 
ng  from  2,500  to  10,000  horse-power. 

Pressure  turbines  of  2,000  horse- 
power on  vertical  axes. 

Pressure  turbines  of  2,500  horse- 
power on  horizontal  axes. 

Pressure  turbines  of  5,000  horse- 
power on  horizontal  axes. 

Partial-admission  Girard  turbines,  ol 
34  ft.  diameter  and  2,500  horse-power, 
with  horizontal  axes. 


4,000  horse-power  and  2,000  horse- 
power Pelton  wheels,  with  multiple 
nozzles  and  governed  sluices. 

Turbines  (not  designed). 


Pelton  wheels  of  5,000  horse-power 


The  Oerlikon  Electrical  Co.  were  to  have  sent 
designs  of  dynamos,  but  were  too  late  to  com 
pete. 

Wire-rope  transmission  only  partially  worked 
out, 


Direct  driven  hydraulic  pumps,  giving  pres- 
sure water  at  710  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  A  pair  of  steel 
distributing  mains  24  in.  in  diameter  from  each 
set  of  12  pumps,  delivering  10,000  horse-power. 

Air  compressors,  pressure  pumps,  and  dyna- 
mos. 


For  Niagara,  alternating  or  continuous  dyna- 
mos at  2,000  volts.  For  Buffalo,  alternating 
dynamos  at  2,000  volts,  the  current  transformed 
to  10,000  volts.  Bare  copper  conductors  on 
posts.  Synchronizing  motors  and  motor  trans- 
formers for  continuous  current  at  low  potential. 

Compound  air  compressors,  delivering  at  147 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 


The  prizes  were  awarded  as  follows  for  projects  combining  the  development  of  power 
and  its  distribution  :  First  prize  not  awarded.  One  second  prize,  to  the  project  of  Messrs. 
Faesch  &  Piccard,  Geneva,  and  Messrs.  Cuenod  Sautter  &  Co.,  Geneva.  Four  third  prizes, 
to  the  projects  of  Mr.  A.  Hillairet  and  Mr.  Bouvier,  Paris  ;  Mr.  Victor  Popp.  Paris,  and 
Prof.  Riedler,  Berlin  ;  Prof.  L.  Vigreux,  and  Mr.  L.  Levy,  Paris  ;  the  Pelton  Water  Wheel 
Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  and  Norwalk  Ironworks  Co.,  South  Norwalk,  Conn.  For  pro- 
jects for  the  hydraulic  development  of  the  power,  prizes  were  awarded  as  follows  :  First 
prize,  to  the  project  of  Messrs.  Escher  Wyss  &  Co.,  Zurich.  Two  second  prizes,  to  the 
projects  of  Messrs.  Ganz  &  Co.,  Budapest";  Prof.  A.  Lupton,  Leeds,  and  Mr.  J.  Sturgeon. 
For  projects  for  the  distribution  of  the  power,  no  prize  awarded. 

The  Tunnel.—  Since  the  invention  of  machine  drills,  the  question  of  drilling  for  the 
excavation  of  rock  tunnels  has  become  subordinate  to  the  question  of  the  removal  of 
"  muck  "  (broken  rock)  when  rapid  driving  is  required.  It  is  necessary  that  very  little  time 
be  lost  before  and  after  firing  the  blasts,  so  that  the  muckers  can  work  the  longest  possible 
time.  To  attain  this  end,  powder  must  be  selected  which  is  free  of  obnoxious  gases,  and  run- 
ways for  barrows  or  cars  must  be  arranged  so  as  to  require  but  one  handling  of  material. 

The  plate  shows  method  in  use  during  construction  of  Niagara  Falls  power  tunnel. 
Here  the  tunnel  was  driven  in  two  benches,  or,  more  correctly,  one  heading  and  one  bench. 
Muck  was  taken  directly  from  the  heading  in  cars  and  dumped  into  cars  on  lower  floor  of 
tunnel,  without  interrupting  the  working  of  the  lower  bench.  This  is  the  usual  practice 
now,  when  driving  tunnels  over  10  ft.  in  height,  Several  modes  of  supporting  the  runways, 
however,  have  been  used,  but  we  know  of  none  so  perfectly  adapted  to  saving  of  time  as 
mode  shown  in  sketch.  In  timber  section  the  hangers  were  put  in  about  8  ft.  apart.  The 
tongs  were  made  of  1$  in.  x  -£  in.  Norway  iron,  steel  pointed.  Rods  were  1  in.  in  diameter, 
with  hooks  at  both  ends  ;  the  bars  were  of  wood,  8  in.  x  8  in.  2  in.  x  12  in.  planks,  24  ft. 
long,  were  used  for  the  bridge  or  floor,  on  which  a  track,  fastened  together  at  proper  gauge, 
was  laid.  The  advantage  of  this  scaffold  was  that  it  was  easily  put  up,  and  that  it  did  not 
require  to  be  taken  down  when  blasting  the  bench.  When  blasts  were  made,  the  planks 


NUT-FACING   MACHINE. 


565 


which  connected  the  upper  bench  with  the  first  bar  were  pulled  back  onto  the  bench, 
leaving  the  balance  of  scaffold  free  to  swing  in  any  direction.  After  the  blast  the  planks 
were  run  out  into  place,  and  the  time  lost  was  hardly  noticeable.  While  the  scaffold  was  in 
use  it  was  necessary  to  keep  it  from  swaying  from  side  to  side.  This  was  done  by  using 
iron  rods  fastened  to  eyes,  bolted  to  the*  bars,  so  that  they  could  be  extended  to  projecting 
points  on  side  of  tunnel.  One  of  the  headings  where  these  scaffolds  were  used  was  through 
hard  limestone,  which  broke  with  sharp  cutting  edges.  Eight  bars  were  used  from  start 
to  finish. 

Conclusions. — Some  idea  can  now  be  formed  of  the  importance  of  the  work  in  progress  at 
Niagara,  and  as  to  the  extent  to  which  there  still  remain  questions  which  can  only  be 
answered  by  experience.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  tail-race  tunnel,  the  greatest  of  the 
constructional  works  required,  together  with  the  great  surface  inlet  canal,  are  already  in 
construction.  Some  land  has  already  been  leased  with  the  right  to  take  water  for  8,000  horse- 
power, and  probably  twice  as  much  subsequently.  Machinery  for  a  first  instalment  of  the 
generating  plant,  comprising  turbines  of  10,000  o'f  horse-power,  air-compressing  machinery  for 
5. 000  horse- power,  and  electric  machinery  for  5,000  horse-power,  has  been  contracted  for.  The 
two  systems  of  power  transmission  which  are  most  available  will  thus  be  tried  side  by  side, 
and  extensions  can  be  made  in  whichever  direction  seems  advisable  after  some  experience  is 
gained,  and  as  fast  as  the  demand  for  them  arises. 

The  Niagara  project  differs  from  any  similar  undertaking  primarily  in  the  magnitude  of 
the  work  undertaken.  But  it  is  precisely  this  which  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  plans  of 
power  distribution  as  a  supplement  to  water  distribution.  Such  plans,  on  a  smaller  scale,  it 
is  true,  but  in  conditions  in  many  respects  greatly  more  difficult,  have  been  carried  out 
successfully  in  Europe.  Indeed,  with  respect  to  the  distribution  of  power  within  a  distance 
of  four  or  five  miles  from  the  power  generating  station,  it  may  be  asserted  that  the  distri- 
bution can  be  effected  either  by  compressed  air  or  by  electricity,  with  certainty  and 
economy,  by  methods  well  understood,  by  appliances  which  have  been  already  used  and 
tested  m  practical  work,  and  without  at  any  point  having  to  encounter  any  unforeseen 
difficulty.  Compressed  air  has  the  advantage  that  it  can  be  used  on  the  consumers'  works  in 
machinery  of  well-understood  type.  The  air  motor  is  merely  a  simplified  steam  engine  with- 
out boilers,  and  requiring  less  attention  in  working  than'a  steam  engine.  There  are  also 
many  subsidiary  operations  which  could  be  carried  on  more  easily  by  compressed  air  than  in 
any  other  way.  As  to  electricity,  it  would  seem  likely  to  prove  a  cheaper  means  of  trans- 
mission than  compressed  air,  and  its  adoption  now  in  many  factories,  especially  for  lifting 
machinery,  seems  to  show  that  ordinary  workmen  soon  become  capable  of  managing  the 
new  appliances  required.  The  transmission  of  power  to  Buffalo  is  a  problem  of  somewhat 
greater  novelty  and  difficulty.  The  advantage  of  transmission  to  a  town  where  manufactures 
already  exist  is  obvious  enough.  Compressed  air  can,  it  appears,  be  taken  to  Buffalo  without 
any  excessive  waste  and  at  a  cost  which  would  leave  to  steam  no  chance  of  successful 
rivalry.  It  could  be  used  for  power  purposes  with  the  least  amount  of  change  in  existing 
machinery  in  the  factories.  On  the  other  hand,  electricity  seems  specially  adapted  for  a 
long-distance  transmission.  The  Frankfort  experiment  shows  that  whether  or  not  the  best 
method  of  transmission  electrically  to  such  a  distance  is  yet  determined,  yet  such  a  trans- 
mission is  perfectly  practicable  by  methods  which  are  known.  The  development  of  electrical 
power  transmission  has  recently  been  so  rapid  that  before  the  Buffalo  transmission  has  to  be 
undertaken,  important  improvements  are  likely  to  be  effected. 

The  new  industry  of  electric  lighting  has  made  it  necessary  to  produce  mechanical  power 
for  driving  the  dynamos  in  very  large  quantity,  and  new  chemical  and  metallurgical  processes 

are  being  discovered,  which  en- 
tirely depend  for  their  commer- 
cial success  on  the  provision  of 
cheap  motive  power.  The  electric 
reducing  processes  by  which  alu- 
minium is  being  obtained,  electric 
depositing  processes  used  in  ob- 
taining high-class  copper,  electric 
welding  processes,  and  others 
must  drift  to  places  where  cheap 
power  in  large  quantity  can  be  ob- 
tained. Niagara  is  likely  to  be- 
come not  only  a  great  manufact- 
uring center,  but  the  home  of  im- 
portant industries  of  a  new  type. 
Nickel-in-slot  Machine  :  see 
Vending  Machine. 

Nickel  Steel :  see  Alloys  and 
Armor. 

Nozzles,  Hose  :  see  Fire  Ap- 
pliances. 

NUT-FACING  MACHINE.  A 
machine   for  dressing    the  sur- 
faces of  nuts  and  bolts. 
FIG.  i.-xut-facinjr  machine.  The  Nicholson  &  Waterman 


566 


NUT-FACING   MACHINE. 


Nut-facing  Machine,  Fig.  1,  has  two  duplicate  spindles  placed  in  a  revolving  drum,  which  is 
locked  in  such  a  position  as  always  to  have  one  spindle  above  the  other.  This  arrangement 
permits  the  upper  spindle  to  remain  at  rest,  and  allows  the  work  to  be  removed  and  replaced, 
at  the  same  time  the  cutters  are  facing  the  work  on  the  lower  spindle. 

The  cutters,  which  are  made  of  bar  steel  ground  to  shape  and  tempered,  are  held  in  an 
oscillating  head  governed  by  a  cam  motion  and  change  gears.  Three  cutters  are  used,  shaped 
as  in  Fig.  2. 

One  cutter  removes  the  first  thread,  the  second  relieves  or  rounds  the  corner,  and  the  third 
finishes  the  flat.  While  each  cutter  can  be  shaped  to  do  all  these  operations,  this  arrange- 
ment is  much  cheaper  in  time  of  grinding  and  resharpening.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  this 
machine  the  cost  to  relieve  the 
thread,  chamfer,  and  face,  is  no 
greater  than  to  face  alone. 

Depending  upon  the  size  of  the 
work,  the  machine  should  make 
from  one  to  four  oscillations  per 
minute,  each  oscillation  meaning 
a  face  dressed  ;  and  as  this  speed 
is  independent  of  the  motion  of  the 
spindle,  and  drives  the  operator, 
it  can  be  relied  on  for  estimates 
of  product. 

Newton's  Nvt-finishing  Ma- 
chines consist  of  a  nut-facing 
machine,  for  facing  the  end  of  the 
nuts,  and  a  nut-milling  machine  for 

finishing   the   sides.     These  tools  FIG.  2.— Nut-facing  machine  cutters, 

are  in  use  in   many    locomotive 

and  nut  and  bolt  works.  .The  nut-facing  machine,  Fig.  3,  may  be  used  in  place  of 
a  lathe  or  ordinary  facing  machine.  The  tools  for  facing  can  be  made  12  in.  long,  and  the 


J 


FIG.  3.— Nut-facing  machine. 

profiles  desired  are  planed  or  milled  lengthwise  on  their  faces.      An  important  feature  of 
this  tool  is  a  device  for  reaming  the  burr  from  the  thread.     A  small  tool  is  held  in  the 


OTT-TAPPING   MACHINE. 


567 


carriage  and  operates  on  the  nut  the  same  time  it  is  being  faced  ;  requiring  only  one  opera- 
tion to  face  the  nut  and  ream  the  burr  from  the  thread. 

The  double-headed  nut-milling  machine,  Fig.  4,  has  two  independent  head  stocks,  each 
provided  with  an  adjustable  cutter,  the  teeth  of  which  are  made  of  £  in.  square  steel,  and  are 


FIG.  4.— Double-headed  nut-milling  machine. 

4  in.  in  length.  The  teeth  are  placed  in  two  rows  or  circles  in  the  cutter-head,  and  are  held 
in  position  by  set-screws.  The  first  row  acts  as  an  advance  or  roughing  cutter,  and  the 
inner  row,  which  projects  ^  in.  further,  takes  the  finishing  cut.  There  is  a  device  provided 
for  setting  the  nuts  in  position  on  the  arbors,  so  that  they  will  come  exactly  square  with  the 
face  of  the  cutter  when  they  are  placed  for  milling,  and  no  further  setting  is  required.  The 
machine  mills  two  sides  of  from  12  to  20  nuts  at  once,  depending  on  the  thickness  of  the  nuts. 
Jf  UT-TAPPINW-  MACHINE.  The  machine  here  illustrated  is  designed  to  tap  auto- 
matically square  or  hexagonal  nuts. 
Immediately  under  the  hopper,  which 
is  intended  to  receive  the  blank  nuts, 
is  an  openingthrough  which  the  blanks 
fall  into  a  trough,  which  conveys  them 
to  the  feeding  mechanism.  This  part 
of  the  machine  is  so  adjusted  that  the 
blanks  are  discharged  with  sufficient 
rapidity  to  supply  the  screw-thread- 
ing mechanism,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  prevent  more  than  the  needed 
quantity  being  discharged.  Provision 
is  made"  for  automatically  stopping  or 
starting  the  mechanism  agitating  the 
hopper,  and  thus  starting  or  stopping 
the  flow  of  blanks,  whenever  the 
number  of  blanks  in  the  conduit  is 
increased  or  diminished  from  the 
given  quantity.  The  number  of 
blanks  in  the  conduit  sufficient  to  stop 
or  start  the  agitating  mechanism  may 
be  varied  as  desired.  The  conduit  is 
placed  at  such  an  angle  that  the 
blanks  pass  through  it  to  the  feeding 
mechanism  by  gravity,  and  it  is  made 
of  such  shape,  that  the  blanks,  as 
they  fall  in  it  and  pass  downward  to 
the  feeding  mechanism,  are  gradually 
turned  so  as  to  fall  on  one  of  their 
flat  sides.  The  lower  portion  of  the 
trough  is  curved,  as  shown  in  the 
vertical  sectional  elevation,  Fig.  2. 
to  a  vertical  position,  and  joins  the 
feed  case  at  right  angles.  This  feed 
case  contains  a  T-shaped  or  three-way 
chamber,  the  main  portion  of  which 
stands  horizontally  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  end  of  the  conduit. 
The  cross  portion  of  the  T-shaped 
FIG  l.-Automatic  nut-tapping  machine,  chamber  stands  vertical,  and  is  pro- 


568 


NUT-TAPPING  MACHINE. 


vided  in  its  upper  arm  with  a  spring  plunger  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  blank  to  be  tapped, 
the  lower  arm  being  formed  in  cross  section  to  corespond  with  the  blank  to  be  tapped,  and 
adapted  to  receive  the  upper  end  of  the  tap,  7,  supported  at  its  lower  end  by  the  chuck,  C. 
Immediately  back  of  the  point  where  the  conduit  joins  the  chamber  is  a  plunger  adapted  to 
feed  the  nut  forward.  The  actuating  mechanism  is  operated  by  rod,  h,  the  movement  of 
which  is  controlled  by  the  cam  groove,  D2,  placed  on  the  wheel,  D,  which  is  operated  through 
the  worm  on  the  shaft,  B.  The  blanks  from  the  conduit  fall  in  a  vertical  position  into  the 
chamber.  As  the  plunger  advances,  each  blank  is  carried  forward  until  the  lower  edge 
strikes  against  a  projection  formed  on  the  bottom  of  the  chamber.  The  blank  is  thus  turned, 
and  a  further  motion  of  the  plunger  carries  it  forward  to  a  point  immediately  above  the  tap, 
/,  and  just  below  the  spring  plunger.  Provision  is  made  to  insure  that  the  blank  will  come 
to  the  proper  place  over  the  tap,  and  for  holding  it  at  the  proper  point  to  be  fed  under  the 
tap  by  the  spring  plunger.  At  the  proper  time,  the  full  force  of  the  spring  plunger  is 
exerted  against  the  blank,  which  is  held  upon  the  tap  until  it  is  formally  engaged.  The 
chuck,  C,  which  carries  the  tap,  is  hollow  throughout  its  length,  and  is  secured  in  a  beveled 
gear,  B*,  the  hub  of  which  turns  in  a  suitable  bearing  in  the  main  frame.  This  gear  is 
driven  by  another  gear,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

The  tap  is  supported  in  a  vertical  position,  with  the  screw-threaded  portion  upward,  the 
lower  part  or  shank  being  of  such  a  size  as  to  permit  the  nut  to  drop  off  when  released  by 
the  chuck  mechanism.  The  tap  is  revolved  by  the  chuck,  arid  means  are  provided  for  auto- 


ou 

CED 

FIG.  4  —Vertical  section  through 
chuck. 


FIG.  2.— Vertical  sectional  elevation.          FIG.  3.— Section  through  chucks  and  operating  mechanism, 
FIGS.  2-4.— Automatic  nut-tapping  machine. 

matically  disengaging  the  tap  at  one  point  when  it  is  engaged  at  another,  thereby  permitting 
the  finished  nuts  to  drop  by  their  weight  from  one  end  of  the  tap  without  any  intermission 
in  the  motion  of  the  machine,  and  without  changing  the  longitudinal  position  of  the  tap. 
The  main  portion  of  the  chuck,  shown  in  vertical  section  in  Fig.  3,  consists  of  a  sleeve  pro- 
vided at  different  points  in  its  length  with  two  pairs  of  jaws,  which  are  adapted  to  embrace 
the  tap  at  different  points,  and  are  placed  preferably  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  although 
they  may  be  supported  in  the  same  vertical  plane,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  jaws,  k  k,  are 
each  pivoted  in  a  slotted  opening  in  the  sleeve,  and  are  provided  at  the  bottom  with  a  cam 
projection.  Surrounding  the  supporting  sleeve  is  an  outer  collar  provided  in  its  periphery 
with  a  groove,  and  with  adjustable  projections  provided  to  bear  against  the  outer  surfaces  of 
the  jaws.  This  collar  is  adapted  to  revolve  with  the  sleeve,  and  is  also  capable  of  longitudi- 
nal movement  on  the  sleeve.  As  it  is  moved  longitudinally  in  either  direction,  its  projec- 
tions come  against  the  earn  projections  on  the  respective  jaws,  causing  them  to  separate, 
thus  releasing  the  tap,  the  projections  being  so  placed  on  the  collar  that  when  one  pair  of 
jaws  is  being  opened,  the  other  pair  is  closed  tightly  against  the  tap.  Supposing  the  upper 
pair  of  jaws  to  be  closed  on  the  shank  of  the  tap.  for  a  time  sufficient  to  tap  a  sufficient 
number  of  nuts,  then  the  lower  pair  of  jaws  are  closed  on  the  shank,  and  the  other  pair 


ORDNANCE.  569 


opened,  thereby  permitting  the  tapped  nuts  to  fall  on  the  shank,  and  to  rest  between  the 
two  pairs  of  jaws.  The  upper  jaws  then  become  clamped  on  the  shank,  and  the  lower  jaws 
opened,  when  the  finished  nuts  are  permitted  to  fall  freely. 

Oil  Cup  :  see  Lubricators.     Oil  Engrine  :  see  Engines,  Gas. 

Opener  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machines. 

Open-hearth  Furnace  :  see  Steel,  Manufacture  of. 

ORDNANCE.  (See  also  ARMOR  ;  GUN,  PNEUMATIC  ;  AND  PROJECTILES.)  PROGRESS 
ABROAD. — In  June,  1879,  a  committee  of  ordnance  was  appointed  in  England  for  a  full 
consideration  of  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  muzzle  loading  and  breech 
loading.  The  result  was  to  commit  the  government  to  an  experimental  course  of  con- 
struction of  breech-loading  guns  of  some  of  the  heaviest  calibers  then  in  existence.  The 
committee  was  dissolved  in  1881,  after  having  fairly  launched  the  country  into  gun-making 
upon  the  following  principles  :  (1)  A  heavy  steel  tube,  reinforced  over  the  rear  portion  with 
wrought-iron  coils  and  jacket,  the  trunnion  piece  being  welded  to  the  jacket;  (2)  the 
interrupted  screw  breech  closure  ;  (3)  the  Elswick  cup  obturator. 

It  was  in  the  summer  of  1H79  that  Krupp  startled  artillerists  -with  the  most  magnificent 
series  of  experiments  ever  witnessed  up  to  that  time,  the  chief  event  being  the  trial  of  the 
new  40  cmt.,  71-ton  gun.  This  was  a  jacketed  gun,  made  of  crucible  cast-steel,  forged  under 
the  hammer,  and  weighed  71  tons  ;  length  of  bore,  21 '8  calibers.  With  a  charge  of  4^5 
Ibs.  of  prismatic  black  powder,  and  a  1,715-lb.  projectile,  a  velocity  of  1,702  foot-seconds 
was  recorded  with  20-9  tons  pressure.  The  accuracy  of  the  gun  was  remarkable  ;  six  shots 
were  placed  within  a  vertical  rectangle  measuring  less  than  18  in.  in  height  by  71  in.  in  width. 
In  1881,  Krupp  made  guns  35  calibers  in  length,  Fig.  1,  all  of  which  had  a  jacket  in  which 


FIG.  1. — Krupp  gun. 

was  lodged  the  cylindro-prismatic  wedge,  the  heavier  calibers  being  hooked  to  the  muzzle. 
The  shot  chamber  (&),  which  was  cylindrical,  is  now  conical,  and  slopes  into  the  bore  grad- 
ually ;  the  rifling  has  an  increasing  twist  of  from  50  to  25  calibers,  instead  of  the  former 
uniform  twist  of  about  45  calibers. 

Before  the  close  of  1881  some  8-in.  guns,  entirely  of  steel,  were  under  way  in  England, 
their  form  being  a  heavy  steel  tube  supported  by  steel  coils.  Objections  being  raised  to  this 
method,  there  was  another  investigation  into  the  subject  of  gun  construction,  which  resulted 
in  the  following  :  (1)  The  breech  screw  should  engage  in  the  jacket ;  (2)  the  hoops  should  be 
carried  well  forward,  and  be  made  as  long  as  was  consistent  with  certainty  of  manufacture  ; 
(3)  forged  steel  should  be  used  ;  (4)  steel  to  be  open-hearthed,  well  tempered  and  annealed  ; 
(5)  the  De  Bange  obturator,  shown  by  Fig.  4,  should  be  used.  The  wire-wound  system  was 
found  to  possess  certain  important  advantages,  and  designs  for  this  type  were  ordered. 

In  those  days  the  use  of  liners  was  quite  general  for  the  prevention  of  erosion,  and  a 
tube  was  used  in  continuation  of  the  liner  to  the  muzzle.  As  numerous  guns  have  been  put 
out  of  service  through  the  splitting  of  the  liners,  the  system  as  then  adopted  was  not  found 
entirely  satisfactory.  The  locking  of  the  joints  was  accomplished  in  this  way  :  Take,  for 
example,  the  locking  joint  between  the  jacket  and  the  tube.  The  former  is  prepared  at  the 
forward  end  with  a  row  of  projections  on  its  inner  surface,  and  the  tube  is  in  like  manner 
prepared  with  a  row  of  projections  on  its  outer  surface.  In  the  operation  of  shrinking  on, 
the  projections  of  one  part  pass  between  those  on  the  other,  and  the  jacket  is  then  turned 
until  they  are  in  line,  when  the  intervals  are  filled  in  by  wedges  driven  under  pressure.  In 
the  16'25-in.  gun  longitudinal  strength  is  provided  by  shoulders,  and  movement  of  the  tube 
is  prevented  by  shrinkage,  assisted  by  a  ring  of  yellow  metal  run  into  grooves  near  the  front 
end  of  the  jacket.  This  device  is  repeated  near  the  front  end  of  the  thrust  collar  hoop. 

In  1881-82,  designs  were  prepared  in  France  for  guns  of  all  service  calibers  from  65  mm. 
to  84  cmt.  inclusive,  in  which  the  length  of  bore,  save  in  a  few  guns  intended  for  special 
purposes,  is  increased  to  28  calibers.  These  guns  constitute  the  1881  model,  and  are  the 
most  approved  pattern  actually  in  service  ;  they  are  hooped,  but  not  tubed,  and  the  material 
used  throughout  is  steel,  forge'd  and  oil  tempered.  The  chamber  is  of  much  greater  diameter 
than  formerly,  and  the  final  twist  of  the  rifling  is  increased  from  4°  to  7°.  While  all  the 
parts  unite  to  resist  the  transverse  stresses,  the  longitudinal  stress  is  borne  by  the  tube  alone. 
Certain  difficulties  having  developed  with  large  guns  built  after  the  1881  model,  notably  in 
obtaining  an  equable  temper  in  the  large  masses  of  steel  called  for  by  the  design,  a  new 
design  was  proposed  for  the  27  cmt,  and  superior  calibers.  These  guns  are  tubed,  a  sleeve 
screws  onto  the  rear  of  the  tube  for  the  breech  plug  ;  the  tube  is  hooked  to  within  about 
8  calibers  of  the  muzzle  ;  a  jacket  about  16  calibers  long  is  shrunk  over  the  first  layer,  and  is 
in  turn  reinforced  with  a  second  layer  of  five  hoops,  one  of  which  carries  the  trunnions.  ^ 

The  heaviest  guns  in  existence  are  the  four  Krupp  119-ton  guns,  of  15  75  in.  caliber, 
made  for  the  Italian  government  and  designed  in  1882.  The  terms  of  the  contract  required 
that  one  gun  of  the  four  should  fire  at  least  fifty  rounds  with  projectiles  of  2,028  Ibs. 
weight,  to  which  should  be  given  a  muzzle  velocity  of  1,804  foot-seconds.  Ten  of  the  fifty 


570 


ORDNANCE. 


rounds  were  to  be  fired  at  a  target  2,734  yards  distant,  and  it  was  stipulated  that  all  of  the 
shot  should  fall  within  an  area  10  66  ft.  square.  The  firing  was  continued  up  to  eighty- 
two  rounds,  the  pressure  rising  to  18 '9  tons,  with  a  velocity  of  1,876  foot-seconds. 

The  above  construction  of  ordnance  is  practically  what  obtains  to-day  in  foreign  gun 
shops.  The  question  of  larger  calibers  has  been  brought  up  and  decided  against.  The 
111 -ton  English  guns  were  made  by  contract  for  home  consumption  and  there  were  grave 
faults  of  design  developed  in  the  trials  which  the  makers  are  now  trying  to  remedy  by 
partial  reconstruction.  As  to  the  question  of  necessity,  the  16-in.  gun  is  required  to  give 


FIG.  2. — Built  up  forged  gun. 

at  battle  ranges,  and  occasionally  at  long  ranges,  the  penetrative  power  and  destructive 
effect  which  is  lacking  in  the  12  and  13-in.  calibers.  The  striking  energy  of  the  16-in.  gun 
is  about  2'4  times  that  of  the  12  in.,  and  its  penetration  at  five  miles  is  equal  to  the  12-in.  at 
one  mile.  British  vessels  carry  34  guns,  French  54,  Italian  40,  none  of  which  are  less  than 
13-4  in.  A  naval  estimate  of  the  highest  power  guns  required  cannot,  however,  be  accepted 
as  a  standard,  as  the  land  defenses  should  avail  themselves  of  their  advantages  over 
ship  carrying  capacity,  and  maintain  at  all  times  their  natural  superiority  over  naval  arma- 
ment. The  ships  are  limited  for  space,  and  especially  by  weight — objections  which  m 
themselves  are  minor  matters  in  shore  defenses. 

PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  — In  1884  the  main  batteries  of  United  States  war 
vessels  were  composed  of  (1)  Dahlgren  smooth-bores,  chiefly  of  9-in.  caliber  ;  (2)  muzzle- 
loading  guns  of  the  Parrott  type;  (3)8-in.  muzzle-loading  rifles  converted  on  the  Palliser 
system  from  11-in.  smooth  bore,  and  (4)  60  and  80  pounder  breech-loading  rifles,  resulting 
from  the  conversion  of  Parrott  muzzle-loading  guns.  In  the  army  there  was  placed  in  service 
210  8-in.  rifles,  converted  from  10-in.  smooth-bores,  having  three  times  the  accuracy  and 
more  than  double  the  power  of  the  latter,  and  should  war  arise  to-morrow  they  are  the  only 
reliable  rifles  that  we  have  available  for  coast-defense.  These  guns  of  the  same  general 
construction,  with  Krupp  mechanism,  unchambered,  and  firing  a  charge  of  35  Ibs.  of  powder, 
were  a  practical  success.  The  3-in.  wrought-iron  muzzle  loading  rifle  was  cut  off  near  the 
bottom  of  the  bore,  and  screwed  in  from  the  rear  was  a  steel  breech  receiver,  through  which 
the  bore  is  prolonged.  The  breech-block,  supported  in  the  breech  receiver,  was  of  the  Krupp 
pattern,  made  in  this  country  ;  the  Broad  well  ring  was  used. 

The  result  of  the  appointment  of  various  committees,  who  investigated  gun-making 
possibilities  at  home  and  abroad,  was  the  conclusion  that  the  solution  of  the  gun  question 
lies  in  the  manufacture  of  the  built-up  forged-steel  gun,  Pig.  2,  and  that  the  industry  of 
making  forged  steel  for  such  guns  should  be  established  in  this  country.  The  conclusions 
of  the  various  committees  and  boards  have  thus  far  been  very  useful  in  helping  the  navy 
build  guns  in  the  quantities  needed  for  the  new  vessels,  and  this  beneficial  policy  will 
probably  soon  be  extended  to  the  land  service.  The  whole  number  of  sets  of  forgings  pro- 
cured, or  under  contract,  for  the  navy  are  148.  ranging  from  3  to  12  in.  in  caliber,  to  which 
must  be  added  eight  8-in.  and  three  10-inch  rifles  for  which  the  forgings  were  procured  from 
England. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  ORDNANCE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. — The  first  built-up  forged-steel 
gun  made  in  this  country  was  a  6-in.  breech-loading  rifle.  The  tube  was  annealed  metal,  but 
the  jacket  was  of  oil-tempered  steel,  imported.  The  two  guns  following  were  also  6-in.,  of 
annealed  metal,  the  forgings 
being  of  domestic  manu- 
facture, as  all  have  since 
been,  with  the  exception  of 
those  above  mentioned. 
Notwithstanding  the  con- 
siderable delays  made  by 
waiting  for  the  first  deliv- 
eries of  the  forgings,  and 
the  lack  of  machinery  and 
plant  for  the  new  and  su- 
perior quality  of  work  de- 
manded, guns  and  their 
carriages  are  now  being 
turned  out  as  fast  as  the 
new  vessels  are  ready  for 
them.  Finished  guns  have 


FIG.  3.— 6-inch  breech-loading  rifle. 


been  subjected  to  the  proof  required  by  law,  which  constitutes  a  series  of  10  rounds  fired 
with  all  possible  dispatch.  All  guns  have  thus  far  stood  the  firing  tests  perfectly  and  have 
given  satisfaction  in  service.  The  6-in.  guns,  as  mounted  in  broadside  aboard  the  men-of- 
war,  are  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  carriage  is  known  as  a  gravity  return  ;  the  gun  after  being 
fired  runs  down  the  slide  (a)  on  the  carriage  trucks  (bibb);  the  training  is  done  at  (c)  by  the 
cogs,  and  the  elevating  at  (d). 


ORDXANCE.  571 


In  their  main  features  the  army  and  navy  guns  are  alike,  the  most  important  difference 
in  construction  being  that,  in  the  navy  guns,  the  trunnion  hoops  are  made  of  oil-tempered 
and  annealed  castings,  and  are  screwed  on  cold,  while  in  the  army  these  hoops  are  forged  and 
assembled  by  shrinkage.  In  the  matter  of  charges,  also,  the  practice  differs,  in  that  the  rule 
in  the  navy  is  to  use  a  charge  of  powder  equal  to  about  one-half  the  weight  of  the  shot, 
whilst  in  the  army  the  weight  of  projectile  is  made  proportionately  much  heavier.  The 
lighter  projectile  gives  a  high  velocity  with  a  relatively  flat  trajectory,  which  is  best  adapted 
to  the  conditions  of  naval  combat.  There  is  certainly  no  mechanical  difficulty  in  making 
these  guns  which  cannot  be  overcome.  The  machinery  of  the  finished  surfaces  requires  less 
care  than  is  exercised  in  making  paper  rolls.  A  variation  of  0*003  of  an  inch  is  usually 
allowed  in  turning  the  shrinkage  surfaces  for  a  gun,  and  the  shrinkages  required  to  produce 
the  maximum  resistance  of  a  gun  built  up  of  several  layers,  may  be  obtained  by  a  relatively 
heavy  shrinkage  on  the  first  layer,  and  a  relatively  light  shrinkage  for  the  second  layer,  and 
so  on,  or  the  reverse. 

The  division  of  the  gun  into  many  parts  has  all  the  advantage  of  procuring  the  very  best 
of  material,  because  of  the  thorough  working  which  each  part  receives,  and  the  facility  for 
examination  of  the  quality  of  the  material  which  is  afforded.  In  the  construction  of  these 
guns,  the  different  parts  are  assembled  to  give  great  economy  of  material.  The  jacket 
affords  all  the  requisite  longitudinal  strength.  The  methods  pursued  in  the  manufacture 
and  application  in  the  gun  structure,  essentially  fit  them  to  afford  the  kind  of  resistance 
required.  The  tube  in  a  built-up  gun  is  subjected  to  the  greatest  strains  in  the  struct- 
ure, and  there  is  always  left  a  margin  of  elastic  strength  in  the  outside  parts,  which, 
should  the  tube  be  heated  to  excess,  would  be  equivalent  to  a  case  of  a  gun  assembled  with  a 
greater  shrinkage.  So  that  in  firing,  the  place  of  most  dangerous  strain  in  the  gun — that  is, 
at  the  surface  of  the  bore  of  the  tube — would  be  under  a  less,  instead  of  a  greater,  strain. 

Breech  Mechanism. — The  system  of  breech  mechanism  in  use  is  that  of  the  slotted 
screw,  which  is  the  type  in  use  in  France,  Italy,  and  England  ;  the  De  Bange  gas  check,  with 

mushroom  head  and  plastic  obturator, 
has  also  been  quite  generally  adopted 
with  heavier  calibers  in  this  country. 
The  details  of  this  mechanism  vary  in 
different  countries,  only  the  main  fea- 
tures being  preserved.  Gas-check  rings 
replace  the  plastic  check  in  Italian  and 
in  the  Armstrong  guns,  and  they  differ 
in  details  from  each  other,  and  from 
the  De  Bange  mechanism.  The  differ- 
ent parts  will  be  readily  understood 
from  the  illustration,  (Fig.  4):  mush- 
room head,  slotted  screw,  breech  plug, 
catch,  sight  bar,  and  handle.  The 
Krupp  mechanism  has  been  adopted 

FIG.  4.— Breech  mechanism.  by  Russia  and  Germany.     In  regard  to 

these  two  systems,  so  thoroughly  tested 
and  proved,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  slotted  screw  has  been  generally  received  by  gun- 
makers  with  more  favor  than  the  Krupp,  and  probably  the  principal  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  latter  requires  a  forging  of  larger  diameter  for  the  block-carrying  cylinder  than  the 
former,  which  may  even  be  attached  in  the  tube  forging  itself. 

Tests  of  Ordnance. — Three  of  the  systems  contemplated  in  1883 — the  built-up  steel,  the 
simple  cast-iron,  and  the  multi-charge—have  been  subjected  to  trial  ;  another,  the  combined 
cast-iron  and  steel,  has  been  submitted  to  partial  trial  only,  in  the  proof  of  a  12-in.  muzzle- 
loading  rifled  mortar  hooped  with  steel,  whilst  the  rifles  made  on  the  same  system,  and  the 
wire-wound  guns,  are  in  a  more  or  less  forward  state  of  completion.  The  principal  feature 
of  the  multi-charge  gun  consists  in  the  accelerating  principle  as  applied  to  the  action  of  the 
powder  upon  the  projectile,  which  is  sought  to  be  obtained  by  using  a  series  of  powder 
charges  placed  in  pockets  at  intervals  along  the  bore  near  the  breech,  which  are  intended  to 
be  ignited  by  the  inflamed  gases  of  the  breech  charge  following  the  passage  of  the  projectile 
over  the  opening  of  each  pocket  in  the  bore.  The  breech  charge  is  relatively  light,  to  give  a 
gradual  impetus  to  the  projectile,  which  is  placed  immediately  in  front  of  'it,  and  in  rear  of 
all  the  pockets.  Higher  energy  and  greater  penetration  than  this  gun  has  been  able  to  show 
are  matters  of  every-day  record  with  guns  using  a  single  charge  of  powder,  and  with  a  much 
safer  pressure  on  the  gun. 

A  12-in.  breech-loading  rifle,  made  of  cast-iron,  was  built,  and  tried  at  Sandy  Hook,  N".  J., 
in  1886.  The  gun  had  the  exterior  curved  outline  of  the  Rodman  model,  with  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  decreasing  toward  the  muzzle,  and  proportioned  to  the  powder  pressure  to  be 
withstood  in  the  different  sections  of  the  bore.  Except  the  sleeve  that  holds  the  breech 
block  and  the  breech  mechanism,  the  gun  was  wholly  of  cast-iron,  and  in  one  piece.  The 
erosion  of  the  bore  during  the  trials  became  so  great  that  gauging  was  very  difficult,  flared 
openings  having  a  depth  of  0-15  of  an  inch  being  made. 

The  first  experimental  rifled  mortar,  12-in.  muzzle-loading,  was  completed  in  1884.  The 
reasons  leading  to  the  adoption  of  the  muzzle-loader  for  the  first  experimental  type  were 
because  it  was  then  thought  that  the  old  method  of  loading  from  the  muzzle  would  be,  on  the 
whole,  better  adapted  to  such  short  pieces,  as  combining  simplicity  and  cheapness,  together 


572 


ORDNANCE. 


with  less  care  and  attention  required  in  service,  as  compared  with  the  breech-loader.  The 
piece  has  been  fired  over  400  times,  and  is  considered  amply  strong  for  service.  Its  best 
record  for  accuracy  is  a  target  of  ten  shots;  range,  3,490  yards;  26  Ibs.  of  powder,  610-lb. 
projectile  ;  percentage,  99  hits  for  100  shots  on  the  deck  of  a  vessel  330  ft.  long,  and  60  ft. 
wide. 

12-in.  breech-loading  rifled  mortars  were,  however,  thought  to  be  more  desirable,  as  further 
experiment  developed  an  unsatisfactory  degree  of  accuracy,  and  a  lack  of  uniform  steadi- 
ness in  the  flight  of  the  shell.  In  general  design  these  mortars  show  a  short  rifled  piece  of 
about  nine  calibers  length  of  bore,  weighing  about  14^  tons,  having  the  slotted  screw-block 
and  breech  mechanism,  and  embodying  a  new  and  special  design  of  retracting  gear.  The 
body  is  cast-iron,  having  two  rows  of  steel  hoops  shrunk  on,  extending  from  the  breech 
over  about  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  piece.  The  trunnions  are  forged  as  part  of  one  of 
the  steel  hoops. 

The  Navy  Department  has  in  hand  a  6-in.  steel  tube  wire-wrapped  gun,  partly  completed. 
The  army  is  wrapping  a  10-in.  breech-loading  cast-iron  rifle.  The  muzzle  half  of  the  cast- 
iron  body  is  not  covered.  A  steel  trunnion  band  is  shrunk  on  the  outside  of  the  wire,  and 
the  portion  of  wire  in  front  of  the  band  is  covered  by  a  steel  sleeve,  also  shrunk  on,  which 
will  transmit  the  thrust  of  the  trunnion  band  to  another  steel  hoop  shrunk  on  the  cast-iron 
body,  and  backed  up  by  a  key  ring  shrunk  on  cold.  The  10-in.  carries  longitudinal  bars, 
and  is  wound  from  breech  to  muzzle.  The  tube  is  of  steel,  and  extends  entirely  through  the 
gun.  The  longitudinal  bars  or  staves  form  a  cylinder,  fitting  the  tube  over  about  one- 
half  its  length  from  the  breech,  and  connected  indirectly  with  the  trunnion  band  and  the 
breech  block. 

Two  steel  cast  G  in.  guns  were  built,  one  of  Bessemer  steel,  and  the  other  of  open -hearth 
steel.  The  former  burst  at  the  second  round,  and  the  latter  had  a  permanent  extension  of 
the  bore,  and  other  defects  were  developed  that  caused  the  rejection  of  the  gun.  The  steel 
breech-loading  guns  are  as  follows  : 

Table  of  United  States  Ordnance. 


NAVY. 


Calibers. 

Weight. 
Tons. 

Total 
length. 
Feet. 

Length 
of  bore. 
Calibers. 

Charge. 

Powder 
pressure. 
Tons. 

Initial 
velocity. 
Feet. 

Muzzle 

energy. 
Ft.  tons. 

Powder. 
Ibs. 

Projectiles 
Ibs 

4-in.  R.  F.  and  B.  L.  R.    Mark  I.. 

1-5 

IS'7 

40 

14 

33 

2,000 

915 

5-in    R  Y            

31 

17-4 

40 

30 

50 

2,250 

1,754 

5-in  Mark  I                        

2'8 

13'5 

30 

30 

60 

2,000 

1,664 

6-in.  Mark  L,  II.,  Ill  

(4-8 
14-9 

15-8  ( 
16  3f 

30 

(471 
1  50  f 

100 

2,000 

2,774 

6-in  (35  calibers  ) 

52 

18'8 

35 

47 

100 

2,080 

3.000 

6  in  (40        "        ) 

60 

21  '3 

40 

4? 

100 

« 

2,150 

3.204 

8-in.  Mark  I.  and  11  

1  12-3  { 
1  13-0  ) 

21-5 

30 

115 

2,50 

2,000 

6,934 

8-in   Mark  III      

13-1 

25'4 

35 

115 

250 

2,080 

7,498 

10-in.  Marks  I.  and  II.  (30ealibers.) 

(  25-1  | 

"1  25  7  f 

27-4 

30 

240 

500 

2,000 

13,870 

10-in.  Marks  I.  and  II.  (35      "       ) 

J27-1 

/28'2 

30-5) 
31  -2  f 

35 

240 

500 

i  2,080 
"I  2,100 

15,000 
15,5885 

12-in                 '      

45'2 

36'8 

35 

425 

850 

2,100 

25,985 

13-in 

605 

40'0 

35 

550 

1.100 

2.100 

32,862 

R.  F.,  rapid  fire.    B.  L.  R.,  breech-loading  rifle. 


ARMY. 


Calibers. 

Weight 

ibs. 

Total 
length. 
Feet. 

Length 
ct  bore. 
Calibers. 

Charge. 

Powder 
pressure. 
Tons. 

Initial 
velocity. 
Feet. 

Muzzle 
energy 
Ft.  tons 

Powder. 
Ibs. 

Projectiles- 
Ibs. 

MOUNTAIN  ANDFIELD  ARTILLERY. 
3-in.  mountain  gun  
3-*Mn  light  field  gun  . 

218 
829 
1,181 
244 

3.C60 
3,710 

Tons. 
14-5 
30-0 
520 
13-00 
15'25 

3-9 
7-56 
7'56 
2-75 

12-15 

8-06 

23-21 
30-60 
36-66 
11-76 
10-75 

14' 
2o- 
23- 
5-25 

27' 
12- 

32 
34 
34 
10 
9 

0-88 
3-75 
4-50 
I'OO 

12-50 
9-75 

130 
256 
440 
100 
80 

12- 
13  5 

20- 
20- 

45- 
105" 

300 
575 

1,000 
800 
630 

6-5 

is- 
le- 
s' 

16- 
12-5 

16-5 
16'5 
16-5 
16- 
12-5 

870 
1,675 
1.554 
650 

1,830 
1,085 

1,935 
1,940 
1,940 
1,150 
1,152 

63 
263 
335 

58 

1,000 
857 

7,787 
15,000 
26,000 
7,334 
5,796 

3'6-in.      "        "       "     
3'6-in.  field  mortar    

SIEGE  ARTILLERY. 
5-in.  guns  

7-in.  howitzer  

SEA-COAST  ARTILLERY. 
8-in.  gun  
10-in.  "  

12-in.  " 

12-in  mortar 

12-in.    "     cast-iron,  steel  hooped. 

f   THf 

UNIVERSITY 


OKDJSTANCE. 


573 


Quick-fire  Gun*. — The  Hotchkiss  revolving  cannon  and  the  torpedo  boat  came  into 
prominence  about  the  same  time,  and  for  a  while  the  gun  was  the  more  powerful,  but  as  the 
boats  were  gradually  perfected,  heavier  guns  were  demanded,  and  the  1 -pounder  grew  to  a 
2-pounder  and  then  to  a  4-pounder.  These  guns  were  found  too  heavy  for  their  energy  and 
killing  power,  and  the  French  government  suggested  a  single-barreled  gun  that  was  to  use 
metallic  ammunition.  Mr.  Hotchkiss  undertook  the  contract,  altered  his  breech-block  so 
that  it  would  slide  vertically,  used  a  very  long  barrel,  and  introduced  in  a  3-pounder  the  first 
gun,  of  its  type.  England,  in  1881,  demanded  a  6-pounder,  and  Hotchkiss  and  Nordenfeldt 
produced  guns  that  to-day  form  part  of  the  armament  of  nearly  every  great  naval  power, 
Germany  being  the  most  important  exception.  In  1883  the  United  States  gave  an  order  for 
rapid-fire  guns  which  was  the  first  regular  order  given  by  any  government. 

The  Hotchkiss  is  the  wedge  system  of  mechanism,  and  has  a  falling  or  vertically  moving 
block,  which  is  as  applicable  to  the  5  and  6-in.  calibers  as  to  the  3-pounders,  the  same 
design  being  used  of  rail,  every  part  being  exactly  the  same  pattern,  larger  or  smaller  as  the 
caliber  requires.  The  breech-block  is  worked  by  a  lever  arm  which  travels  in  a  slot,  so  that 
the  first  movement  of  opening  gives  but  a  small  descent  to  the  block.  This  motion  becomes 
quicker,  until  the  block  falls  freely  and  throws  its  full  weight  in  aid  of  the  extraction.  The 
extractors  have  a  straight,  positive  motion  with  a  long  travel,  and  are  actuated  by  a  groove 
in  the  breech-block,  having  a  slow  motion  at  first,  but  exerting  powerful  leverage  as  the 
block  is  opened  wider.  The  block  is  supported  when  open  by  the  head  of  a  stop  screw 
passing  through  the  side  of  the  breech. 

The  firing  mechanism  consists  of  an  ordinary  pivoted  hammer  with  main  and  sear 
springs.  Cocking  takes  place  automatically  by  heel-and-toe  cams  outside  the  right  part  of 
the  breech,  but  it  can  be  done  with  the  fingers,  and  the  entire  breech  mechanism  can  be 
removed,  whether  the  block  be  closed  or  opened.  Except  the  1-pounder  and  the  mountain 
gun,  all  of  this  system  are  jacketed  to  stand  a  pressure  of  18  tons.  The  projectiles  have  a 


FIG.  5. — Engstrorn  rapid  fire  gun. 

travel  of  35  calibers,  which  makes  the  gun  about  44  calibers  long.  All  guns  above  1-pounders 
must  exceed  2,000  ft.  initial  velocity,  with  black  or  brown  powders  ;  2,350  ft.  being  reached 
with  smokeless  powder. 

Recognizing  the  great  advantage  of  the  rapid-fire  system,  and  anticipating  the  large  field 
of  employment  for  a  reliable  and  effective  weapon  of  this  kind.  Lieutenants  Driggs  and 
Schroeder,  U.  S.  N. ,  took  hold  of  the  subject  in  1887,  and  by  careful  study  and  experiment 
developed  a  weapon  that  has  already  met  with  favor  among  naval  experts.  The  jacket  is  in 
two  parts,  one  of  which  is  termed  a  sleeve  and  is  shrunk  upon  the  tube,  the  two  parts 
being  connected  under  the  trunnion  band  by  the  screw  thread  of  the  latter.  The  breech 
mechanism  is  in  rear  of  the  jacket,  which  forms  its  natural  housing  and  protection.  One 
of  the  most  important  features  in  the  breech  closure  is  the  lightness  of  the  block,  which 
is  further  enhanced  by  revolving  the  block  upon  an  interior  axle.  There  are  two  independent 
extractors,  either  one  of  which  will  eject  the  empty  cases. 

The  breech  being  closed  and  the  gun  fired,  the  operator  revolves  the  handle  through  90°, 
which  opens  the  breech,  full-cocks  the  firing  mechanism,  and  throws  the  empty  cases  well  to 
the  rear.  The  breech  being  closed,  the  block  is  supported  by  a  cam  which  fits  in  a  recess  in  the 
center  of  the  block.  Moving  the  handle  around  revolves  the  cam,  forcing  the  firing  pin 
to  the  rear  and  cocking  it.  The  twist  in  the  rifling  is  1  turn  in  30  calibers  in  the  1-pounder  ; 


574  ORDNANCE. 


in  the  3-pounder  1  turn  in  100  to  1  in  25  calibers  ;  and  in  the  6-pounder  1  turn  in  150  to  1  in 
27  calibers.  In  tests  for  rapidity,  the  6-pounder  was  fired  eight  rounds  in  20  seconds.  In 
testing  for  accuracy,  all  of  20  shots  fell  inside  a  lateral  distance  of  six  feet  in  1.500  yards. 

The  Nordenfeldt  rapid-fire  guns  were  very  similar  in  appearance  to  the  Hotchkiss,  and 
differed  but  in  few  particulars.  The  breech-wedge  of  the  Hotchkiss  was  in  one  piece,  while 
that  of  the  Nordenfeldt  was  in  two.  The  former  was  capable  of  almost  instantaneous 
pointing  by  means  of  a  shoulder-piece,  while  the  latter  was  pointed  a  little  more  slowly  by 
means  of  screw  gearing  manipulated  by  two  hand  wheels.  The  former  was  mounted  on  a 
non-recoil  elastic  frame  stand,  and  the  latter  was  mounted  for  short  recoil.  Since  these  pio- 
neers, others  have  entered  the  field,  the  principal  among  them  being  Armstrong,  Krupp, 
Gruson,  Maxim,  Thronson,  Engstrom  (Fig.  5),  Canet,  Daudeteau,  and  Skoda.  In  general 
terms,  the  principal  differences  in  these  types  are  those  pertaining  to  details  of  breech  mechan- 
ism. The  form  of  breech  closure  in  each  is  either  that  of  a  sliding  wedge  or  of  an 
interrupted  screw,  and,  in  all,  the  longitudinal  strains  are  taken  by  the  jacket  instead  of  by 
the  tube. 

The  ingenuity  displayed  in  the  Maxim  automatic  gun  is  so  remarkable  that  it  deserves 
rather  more  than  general  notice,  although  it  may  be  outlived  by  a  number  of  the  other  types. 
The  gun  is  single- barreled,  so  arranged  in  its  mountings  as  to  slide  freely  to  and  fro  in  its 
supports  when  firing.  The  first  round  is  fired  by  hand,  and  the  automatic  system  is  set  in 
motion  by  the  resultant  recoil  as  follows  :  The  recoil  opens  the  breech,  withdraws  a  loaded 
cartridge  from  the  belt,  extracts  the  empty  case,  and  cocks  the  hammer,  at  the  same  time 
stretching  a  spiral  spring,  which,  when  the  recoil  is  absorbed,  forces  the  barrel  into  the  firing 
position ;  the  return  of  the  moving  parts  expels  the  empty  case,  thrusts  a  loaded  cartridge 
into  the  barrel,  pushes  a  fresh  cartridge  in  the  belt  into  position,  closes  the  breech,  and  pulls 
the  trigger. 

Almost  at  the  beginning  of  the  recoil,  a  shaft  and  crank  begin  to  rotate,  and  thus 
gradually  draw  all  other  movable  parts  away  from  the  barrel.  A  sliding  piece,  which  has  an 
undercut  groove  on  its  forward  face,  exactly  fitting  the  head  of  a  cartridge,  serves  the  double 
purpose  of  breech  closure  and  carrier  for  transferring  cartridges  from  belt  to  gun  ;  as  it 
moves  away  from  the  barrel  it  withdraws  an  empty  case  from  the  bore  and  a  loaded  cartridge 
from  the  belt,  and  as  its  rearward  motion  continues,  it  drops,  partly  by  gravity,  and  partly  by 
the  action  of  a  spring,  into  such  a  position  as  to  bring  the  loaded  cartridge  into  line  with  the 
barrel,  and  the  empty  case  in  line  with  the  discharge  tube.  In  tests  for  durability,  an 
average  rapidity  of  600  rounds  per  minute  was  obtained,  the  loading  and  firing  mechanism 
working  faultlessly. 

In  a  test  for  rapidity  made  by  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  A.,  2.004  rounds  were 
fired  in  1  rain.  45  sec.  In  a  subsequent  test  for  accuracy,  out  of  334  shots  fired  at  a  distance 
of  300  yds.  at  a  target  12  X  26  f  t.,  268  hits  were  made.  The  cartridges  used  in  the  two 
last-named  tests  were  solid  head,  containing  70  grains  of  powder  and  a  bullet  weighing  405 
grains. 

As  the  benefits  to  be  gained  from  the  accuracy,  rapidity,  and  power  of  rapid-fire  guns 
became,  evident  from  practical  tests  of  the  3  and  6  pounders,  it  was  seen  that  their  sphere  of 
utility  admitted  of  extension,  and  large  calibers  of  greater  power  were  constructed  from  time 
to  time,  until  the  present  limit  of  6-in.  caliber  has  been  reached.  But  before  any  of  these 
larger  guns  were  ready  for  use,  special  recoil-checking  arrangements,  with  an  automatic 
firing  position,  were  introduced,  by  means  of  which  the  loss  of  time  from  running  out  and 
relaying  the  gun  after  firing  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.  What  limits  the  further  extension 
of  the  system  to  still  larger  calibers  is  not  the  recoil,  but  the  fixed  ammunition.  The  com- 
bined weight  of  cartridge-case,  charge,  and  projectile  should  be  such  that  one  man  could 
handle  it  with  ease  and  rapidity,  and  could  readily  exert  sufficient  power  to  extract  the 
empty  cases  after  firing. 

The  successful  use  of  guns  of  this  type  up  to  a  caliber  of  6  in.  necessitates  efforts  to 
obtain  greater  rapidity  of  fire  from  high-power  guns,  and  much  quicker  means  of  supplying 
ammunition.  The  next  step  in  their  development,  as  already  pointed  out  by  ordnance 
experts,  lies  in  changing  the  tube,  decreasing  the  size  of  the  powder-chamber,  and  strength- 
ening the  walls  of  the  case,  all  made  necessary  by  the  introduction  of  smokeless  powders, 
which,  with  smaller  charges  than  of  present  service-powders,  give  the  same  chamber  press- 
ures, but  higher  pressures  all  along  the  bore. 

In  order  to  cope  successfully  with  swiftly  moving  torpedo-boats,  a  gun  must  be  capable 
of  giving,  for  a  short  period  of  time,  a  rapid  and  continuous  fire  of  explosive  projectiles, 
having  great  penetrative  power  up  to  a  range  of  2,000  yards,  and  of  such  quick  and  accurate 
training  as  to  admit  of  being  kept  constantly  bearing  on  the  torpedo-boat.  It  was  these 
demands  that  introduced  the  rapid-fire  artillery,  but  the  machine  guns  of  Gatling  and 
Nordenfeldt,  the  Gardner  gun,  and  one  or  two  others,  are  still  retained  in  service,  and  are 
considered  as  useful  auxiliaries  where  there  are  exposed  bodies  of  men  or  protection  of  light 
scantling.  In  these  weapons  the  last  few  years  have  seen  but  slight  changes,  and  what  has 
been  done  was  in  the  line  of  a  positive  feed,  a  reduction  of  weight,  and  in  the  fittings,  rather 
than  in  any  marked  alteration  in  their  mechanism.  Full  descriptions  of  all  modern  ordnance 
will  be  found  in  the  files  of  Engineering  (London)  for  1890,  1891,  and  1892.  See  also  Reports 
of  Chief  of  Ordnance,  U.  S.  A. 

Ore  Cooler:  See  Mills,  Silver.  Ore  Drier:  see  Mills,  Silver.  Ore  Roaster:  see  Fur- 
naces, Roasting.  Ore  Smelting:  see  Furnaces,  Smelting.  Ore  Washer:  see  Ore-dressing 
Machinery. 


ORE-CRUSHING   MACHINES. 


575 


ORE-CRUSHING  MACHINES.  Machines  for  crushing  ore  or  rock  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  coarse-crushing  and  fine-crushing.  The  ore  as  received  from  the  mine  is  usually 
in  large  pieces,  requiring  a  preliminary  breaking,  which  is  accomplished  by  machines  of  the 
first  class,  before  the  succeeding  and  final  crushing,  which  is  done  by  machines  of  the  second 
class.  The  coarse-crushing  machines  in  general  use  are  nearly  all  of  the  jaw  type,  most  of 
them  being  modifications  of  the  well-known  Blake  rock-breaker.  Fine-crushing  machines 
are  of  two  kinds,  those  in  which  the  rock  is  broken  by  direct  pressure,  or  impact,  as  in  the 
case  of  stamps,  rolls,  and  Chilian  mills,  and  those  in  which  the  comminution  is  effected  by 
a  grinding  motion.  The  selection  of  any  particular  machine  depends  upon  the  purpose  for 
which  the  rock  or  ore  is  to  be  ground.  It  is  obvious  that  in  pulverizing  to  any  given  size,  a 
greater  proportion  of  fine  material  will  be  made  by  the. machines  which  have  a  grinding 
action,  in  which  the  distance  to  which  die  and  shoe 'approach  each  other,  as  in  the  case  of 
rolls  and  multiple-jaw  crushers,  can  be  regulated,  than  by  those  which  act  by  a  direct  blow. 
In  some  work,  such  as  crushing  ore  for  mechanical  dressing  by  water,  it  is  desirable  to  make 
as  small  a  proportion  of  slimes  as  possible  ;  hence  rolls  are  commonly  used.  In  crushing 
ore  for  gold  and  silver  milling,  where  it  is  necessary  that  the  whole  shall  be  crushed  fine, 
and  the  proportion  of  slimes  is  not  of  so  much  consequence,  stamps  are  used.  For  exces- 
sively fine  grinding,  as  is  desirable  in  pulverizing  phosphate  rock  for  the  manufacture  of 
superphosphate,  for  comminuting  ochre,  etc.,  for  mineral  paint,  and  work  of  like  kind,  the 
grinding  machines  are  well  adapted  and  are  generally  employed. 

COARSE-CRUSHING  MACHINES. — Blake's  Challenge  Crusher  is  an  improved  form  of  the  well- 
known  rock -breaker,  which,  by  many  years'  experience,  has  been  proved  to  be  the  best  type  of 
coarse-crushing  machine  in  use.  It  is  constructed  upon  the  old  Blake  principle — eccentric,  pit- 
man, and  toggles— but  the  pitman  is  made  of  somewhat  different  form,  admitting  of  largely 
increased  length  of  toggles  without  adding  materially  to  the  weight  of  the  machine,  and  con- 
sequently reducing  strains  on  the  pitman  and  shaft.  The  machine  is  so  cushioned  that  if, 
as  sometimes  happens,  a  piece  of  steel — a  sledge-hammer,  for  example— should  accidentally 
fall  between  the  jaws,  it  permits  a  partial  revolution  of  the  fly-wheels  before  coming  to  a 
full  stop,  thus  doing  away  with  the  rigidity  inseparable  from  machines  with  cast-iron  frames, 
and  greatly  diminishing  the  chances  of  breakage.  In  this  machine  all  tensile  strains  are 
upon  wrought-iron  or  steel,  the  principal  strain  being  carried  by  longitudinal  tension-rods. 

Ihe  Krom  Crusher  (Fig.  1)  is  a  modification  of  the  Blake.  The  motion  of  the  mov- 
able jaw  is  imparted  in  the 
usual  manner,  by  eccentric, 
pitman,  and  toggles.  The 
machine  is  strengthened 
by  longitudinal  tie- bolts, 
through  the  frame,  which  re- 
ceive all  the  strain  due  to 
crushing  the  rock  or  ore.  In 
the  toggle  abutment,  through 
which  the  main  tie-bolts  pass, 
are  recesses  around  the  bolt 
holes,  which  are  covered  with 
wrought-iron  washers  of  such 
strength  that  they  will  not 
bend  under  the  ordinary 
strain  in  crushing  the  ore, 
but  will  yield  to  excessive 
strain.  The  movable  jaw  is 
pivoted  at  its  lower  end  in- 
stead of  at  the  top,  as  in  the 
Blake  crusher,  this  method 
of  hanging  the  jaw  giving  a 
product  of  more  uniform  size, 
and  giving  the  least  motion  at  the  point  of  greatest  strain.  The  die  and  shoe,  or  the 
crushing  faces  of  the  jaws,  are  smooth,  being  made  of  bars  of  good  steel,  of  proper  size,  laid 
horizontally.  Thin  strips  of  metal  are  provided  to  put  behind  the  bars  to  keep  the  wearing 
faces  in  line.  The  toggles  are  made  with  rolling  ends  with  the  object  of  reducing  friction. 
The  ends  are  made  with  three  teeth,  which  mesh  with  the  toggle-seats,  the  toggles  being  thus 
held  in  place.  . 

Tiie  Fultan  Crusher  is  constructed  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  Blake,  with  modifica- 
tions which  it  is  claimed  render  the  wearing  parts  more  accessible  and  more  easily  renewed. 
The  stationary  jaw  is  held  in  place  by  flat  iron  bars,  having  eyes  forged  on  their  ends,  slip- 
ping over  shafts  in  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  jaw.  By  taking  out  pins  in  the  ends  of  the 
upper  shaft,  and  loosening  the  nuts  holding  the  upper  flat  iron  bars  at  the- back  of  the  rock- 
breaker,  the  latter  can  be  slipped  off  the  upper  jaw-shaft,  and  the  jaw,  pivoting  on  the 
lower  shaft,  can  be  opened  and  lowered,  making  it  easy  to  replace  the  shoe,  die,  and  cheek- 
plates.  A  spring  is  placed  beneath  the  loose  babbitt-lined  gib,  bearing  against  the  lower 
part  of  the  eccentric  of  the  pitman-shaft,  taking  up  lost  motion  and  preventing  heating  and 
pounding.  The  tension  of  the  spring  is  regulated  by  a  wedge,  placed  beneath  it,  and  ad- 
justed by  means  of  nuts  on  the  outside  of  the  pitman.  The  shoes  and  dies  are  composed  of 
alternate  layers  of  wrought-iron  and  hardened  machine-steel  bars  placed  horizontally  on 


FIG.  1 .  -Krom  crusher. 


576 


OKE-CRUSHING  MACHINES. 


FIG.  2. — Buchanan  crusher. 


edge,  and  held  together  by  a  heavy  wrought-iron  band  shrunk  around  them.  The  iron 
being  softer  than  the  steel,  wears  away  more  rapidly,  causing  the  shoe  and  die  in  a  short 
time  to  present  a  corrugated  surface  to  the  rock,  and  giving  a  better  crushing  effect.  The 
surfaces  of  the  iron  bars  wear  but  a  short  distance  below  those  of  the  steel,  being  protected 
by  the  latter.  The  crushing  of  the  rock  upsets  the  iron  bars  and  thus  tends  to  force  them 
more  firmly  within  the  band. 

The  Buchanan  Crusher  (Fig.  2)  is  constructed  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  Blake. 

The  essential  point  of  difference  is 
in  the  method  of  supporting  the 
movable  jaw,  B.  In  the  Blake  this 
swings  on  a  shaft  passing  through 
its  top  ;  in  the  Buchanan  the  jaw, 
which  has  a  long,  horizontal  pro- 
jection under  the  pitman,  6',  is 
supported  by  two  rocking  arms,  F, 
pivoted  at  their  lower  ends  upon 
the  base  of  the  breaker.  Conse- 
quently, every  part  of  the  jaw 
moves  evenly  back  and  forth. 
There  is  no  other  strain  on  the 
rocking  arms  than  the  weight  of 
the  jaw,  which  the  makers  claim 
is  an  advantage,  as  there  is  no 
direct  strain  due  to  crushing  im- 
posed on  pivotal  pins  or  shafts, 
as  in  other  breakers  of  this  type. 

The  Brennan  Crusher  (Fig.  3), 
which  is  much  used  for  breaking 
rock  for  macadam,  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  Blake  crusher,  differ- 
ing mainly  in  the  fact  that  the 

driving-shaft  is  placed  near  the  base  of  the  frame  instead  of  at  the  top.  The  pitman  and  tog- 
gles, consequently,  work  above  the  eccentric  instead  of  below  it.  In  the  base  of  the  machine 
is  an  oil-chamber, 
0 — the  oil  being 
kept  at  uniform 
height  by  means 
of  supply  and 
overflow  pipes — 
in  which  the  ec- 
centric works, 
thus  insuring  a 
constant  and  am- 
ple lubrication  of 
this  important 
wearing  part. 
The  oscillating 
jaw,  D,  is  pivoted 
at  the  top  as  in 
the  Blake  crusher, 
but  is  much 
shorter.  The 
crushing-plate,  C, 
of  this  jaw  is  cor- 
resp  ondingl  y 
longer,  and  is 
hinged  in  the  jaw 
at  its  upper  end. 
On  the  frame  of 
the  machine,  just 
behind  the  lower 
end  of  the  hinged 
plate,  is  an  ad- 
justable cam,  F,  by  which  the  stroke  of  the  plate  can  be  cut  off  to  any  desired  proportion  of 
the  stroke  of  the  oscillating  jaw,  the  lower  end  of  the  plate  resting  against  the  cam  during 
the  time  the  stroke  is  cut  off.  The  impact  of  the  plate  against  this  cam  facilitates,  it  is 
claimed,  the  discharge  of  the  crushed  material.  By  this  arrangement  of  the  jaw  proper  and 
the  plate,  it  is  obviously  possible  to  give  approximately  the  same  length  of  stroke  throughout, 
which  is  an  impossibility  in  any  machine  in  which  the  jaw  is  pivoted  at  one  end  only. 

The  Blake- Mar  sden  Crusher  is  another  modification  of  the  ordinary  Blake  crusher,  in 
which  the  eccentric-shaft  is  placed  at  the  extreme  rear  end  of  the  machine,  the  motion  of 
the  pitman  being  transmitted  to  the  toggles,  and  thence  to  the  oscillating  jaw  through  a  bent 
lever.  The  fulcrum  of  the  bent  lever  is  a  horizontal  shaft  through  the  center  of  the  machine. 


FIG.  3.— Brennan  crusher. 


ORE-CRUSHING   MACHINES. 


577 


The  toggles  are  seated  in  the  short  arm  of  the  lever  which  extends  upward  ;  the  long  arm 

S  rejects  backward,  and  is  pivoted  at  its  end  with  the  lower  end  of  the  pitman.     The  oscillat- 
ig  jaw  is  pivoted  at  the  top,  as  in  the  ordinary  Blake  crusher.     It  is  claimed  that  greater 
power  is  gained  by  the  pitman  and  lever  construction  of  this  machine,  which  is  extensively 
used  in  England,  but  rarely,  if  at  all,  in  this  country. 

The  Nichols  Crusher  is  a  machine  of  the  jaw  type  in  which  the  fixed  jaw  of  other  ma- 
chines of  this  class  is  replaced  by  a  heavy  cast-iron  cylinder,  supported  upon  a  horizontal 
axis.  The  oscillating  jaw  is  mounted  on  a  revolving  eccentric  shaft,  and  works  against  the 


FIG.  4. — Forster  crusher. 

cylinder  in  a  rotary  oscillating  motion,  which  causes  the  cylinder  to  move  slowly  around 
with  each  descending  stroke  of  the  jaw.  The  cylinder  is  prevented  from  moving"  back,  as 
the  jaw  ascends,  by  small  balls,  which  are  placed  in  each  end  of  the  cylinder  and  against  a 
wedge-formed  projection  on  the  inner  face  of  the  sides  of  the  jaw,"  forming,  in  effect,  a 
ratchet.  The  lower  end  of  the  oscillating  jaw  is  secured  to  the  shaft  of  the  cylinder  by  flat  con- 
necting bars.  In  the  ends  of  these  bars  are  heavy  set-screws,  bearing  against  the  cylinder- 
shaft,  by  which  the  distance  between  the  lower  end  of  the  jaw  and  the  cylinder  is  adjusted 
for  either  coarse-crushing,  reducing,  or  pulverizing,  packing-blocks  being  placed  against  the 
opposite  side  of  the  cylinder-shaft.  The  oscillating  jaw  is  provided  with  a  shoe  of  either 


FIG.  5.— Dodge  crusher. 

white-iron  or  steel,  which  can  be  reversed  from  center  to  side,  or  end  for  end,  when  worn. 
The  eccentric  shaft  is  fitted  with  two  heavy  balance-wheels  and  tight  and  loose  pulleys. 

The  Forster  Crusher  (Fig.  4)  is  a  coarse-crushing  machine  of  the  jaw  type.  The  oscillat- 
ing jaw  is  pivoted  vertically,  however,  instead  of  horizontally,  as  in  most  machines  of  this 
class.  The  oscillating  jaw  is  a  heavy  casting,  pivoted  centrally  near  the  crushing  end.  A 
horizontal,  reciprocating  motion  is  communicated  to  the  other  end  by  an  eccentric.  This  is 
a  very  efficient  crusher  for  coarse  work,  being  very  powerful  and  having  few  wearing  parts. 

The  Dodge  Crusher  (Fig.  5)  differs  from  the  Blake  in  that  the  oscillating  jaw  is  pi  voted 

37 


578 


ORE-CRUSHING   MACHINES. 


at  the  lower  instead  of  the  upper  end  (resembling  the  Krom  crusher  in  this  respect),  from 
which  it  results  that  the  product  is  more  uniform  in  size,  as  the  discharge  opening  remains 
nearly  constant.  It  is  obvious  from  this  that  it  can  be  used  to  crush  finer  than  the  Blake, 
and  that  its  capacity  is  smaller.  The  oscillating  jaw  projects  in  an  arm  to  which  an  up-and- 
down  movement  is  communicated  by  means  of  the  eccentric  on  the  driving- shaft  at  the  rear 
of  the  machine.  The  jaw-shaft  rests  in  movable  boxes.  To  change  the  size  of  the  material 
crushed,  it  is  only  necessary  to  loosen  or  tighten  the  adjusting  screws,  placing  packing- 
blocks  on  either  side  of  the  movable  boxes. 

The  Comet  Crusher  (Fig.  6)  is  a  rotary  coarse-crushing  machine  of  large  capacity.  It 
consists  of  an  upright  spindle,  G,  carrying  a  cone-shaped  crusher-head,  F,  which  works  in  a 
circular  hopper,  P,  fitted  with  a  chilled-iron  lining,  E.  The  axis  of  the  spindle  is  not  coinci- 
dent with  the  main  axis  of 
the  machine  or  bevel-wheel, 
but  intersects  it  in  the  jour- 
nal at  the  top,  while  the 
lower  end  is  from  }  in.  to  f 
in.  (depending  on  the  size  of 
the  crusher)  out  of  center. 
This  arrangement  causes  a 
gyrating  motion  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  spindle,  the  top 
of  the  journal  being  practi- 
cally stationary  except  in 
the  slight  motion  due  to 
the  angularity,  which  is 
very  small,  and  is  compen- 
sated for  by  the  oscillating 
box,  B.  The  spindle,  with 
a  I  its  fixed  crusher-head,  F,  is 

not  fastened  into  the  bevel- 
^  wheel,  but  is  free  to  revolve 

in  it.  Crushing  is  caused 
by  the  moving  of  the 
crusher-head,  F,  to  and 
from  the  liners,  E,  exactly 
as  in  a  Blake  or  other  simi- 
lar crusher  with  reciprocat- 
ing jaw  motion,  and  as  the 
entire  space  around  the 
head  is  filled  with  rock,  the 
crusher  is  doing  duty  at 
every  point  in  revolution  of 
the  pulley  and  gears. 

The  machine  does  not  have  a  grinding  action,  as  the  head  does  not  turn  while  crushing, 
although  it  is  free  to  do  so  when  not  crushing.  The  crushed  rock  drops  into  the  inclined 
chute  and  immediately  slides  out.  This  machine  is  especially  designed  for  crushing  railroad 
ballast  and  street  macadam,  but  has  also  been  used  for  coarse-crushing  of  ores,  phosphate 
rock,  etc.  Messrs.  Fraser  &  Chalmers,  the  makers,  state  that  machines  with  a  6  x  12  in. 
opening  will  crush  from  4  to  8  tons  of  rock  per  hour  to  macadam  size,  consuming  8  horse- 
power, while  the  largest  machines  made,  12  x  24  in.,  will  crush  from  40  to  60  tons  per 
hour,  with  a  consumption  of  50  horse-power. 

The  Gates  Crusher  is  similar  in  principle  and  construction  to  the  Comet.  Prof.  H.  0. 
Hofman  states,  in  a  paper  on  "  Gold  Milling 
in  the  Black  Hills  "  (Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min- 
ing Engrs.,  vol.  xviii.)  that  one  of  these 
crushers,  lately  installed  at  the  Caledonia 
mill,  at  Terraville,  S.  D.,  with  three  receiving 
openings,  each  12  x  18  in.,  attended  by  one 
man,  crushed  200  tons  of  ore  in  10  hours, 
with  about  the  same  horse-power  as  three 
No.  5  Blakes,  and  set  to  the  same  size  as 
the  latter.  When  the  three  Blakes  were  in 
use,  it  required  20  hours  and  5  men  to  pro- 
duce the  same  result.  The  disadvantage  of 
both  the  Gates  and  Comet  crushers  is  their 
enormous  weight,  and  the  consequent  diffi- 
culty of  transporting  them,  especially  in 
many  mining  regions  in  rough  and  moun- 
tainous parts  of  the  country. 

FINE-CRUSHING    MACHINES. — The  Blake 
Multiple-jaiv  Crusher  (Fig.  7)  is  constructed  FIG. 

upon  the  same  principle  as    the   ordinary 
Blake  crusher,  but  is  designed  for  finer  crushing.     In  this  machine  the  crushing  is  done 


PIG.  6. — The  Comet  crusher. 


ORE-CRUSHING  MACHINES.  579 

between  a  series  of  sliding  jaws  supported  upon  the  main  tension-rods.  The  jaws  are  sep- 
arated and  held  by  rubber  rings  placed  between  them  on  the  tension-rods.  In  Fig.  7  this 
crusher  is  shown  with  the  jaws  thrown  open,  as  if  to  put  in  new  crushing-plates,  or  the  like. 
The  method  of  imparting  motion  is  the  same  as  in  the  regular  Blake  crusher — i.e.,  by  means 
of  eccentric,  pitman,  and  toggles.  The  revolution  of  the  shaft  bringing  the  toggles  more 
nearly  into  line,  throws  the  main  sliding  jaw  forward,  thus  compressing  the  whole 
series  of  sliding  jaws,  the  crushing  pressure  being  transmitted  through  the  material  to 
be  crushed,  with  which  the  jaws  are  supposed  to  be  filled.  It  is  evident  that  if  a  piece  of 
iron  or  steel  should  by  accident  get  into  one  of  the  jaws,  the  only  result  would  be  to  ren- 
der that  jaw  for  the  time  inoperative,  the  motion  that  it  would  have  with  respect  to 
the  next  succeeding  one  being  taken  up  and  distributed  through  the  other  jaw  openings. 
The  size  of  the  jaw  openings  in  the  machines  ordinarily  used  varies  from  15  x  4  in.  to 
30  x  2  in.  These  crushers  have  not  yet  come  into  general  use,  but  they  promise  much  for 
the  future.  The  construction  admits  of  a  great  area  of  discharge  opening,  and  since  the 
breaking  of  each  fragment  of  rock  is  accomplished  by  the  approach  of  two  opposing 
surfaces,  which  can  never  meet,  all  particles  sufficiently  fine  are  at  once  removed.  They 
give  a  more  direct  blow  than  rolls,  and  the  die  and  shoe  do  not  come  together,  as  in  the  case 
of  stamps ;  hence,  they  make  a  comparatively  small  proportion  of  fines,  and  would  seem  to  be 
particularly  adapted  for  use  in  dressing-works.  According  to  Mr.  Theo.  A.  Blake,  the  pres- 
ent limit  of  crushing  with  this  machine  is  from  14-mesh  to  20-mesh,  although  it  may  be 
possible  to  carry  it  to  30-mesh.  The  largest  installation  of  multiple-jaw  crushers  that  has 
yet  been  made  is  at  the  dressing-works  of  the  Chateaugay  Ore  and  Iron  Co.,  Lyon  Mountain, 
N.  Y.,  where  all  the  ore  is  crushed  by  Blake  machines,  beginning  with  a  single-jaw  crusher 
of  the  ordinary  type,  and  finishing  with  a  series  of  multiple-jaw  crushers  of  gradually 
diminishing  size.  "  The  efficiency  of  this  system  is  shown  by  the  coal  consumption,  which  was 
1  ton  of  coal  to  60  tons  of  ore,  crushing  from  15-in.  size*  to  i-in.  size,  on  a  fifteen  months' 
run,  from  September  26,  1886,  to  January  1,  1888,  a  total  of  137,551  tons  of  ore  being 
worked. 

The  Improved  Steam  Stamp  (Fig.  8). — One  of  the  most  important  machines  developed  in 
the  history  of  American  ore-dressing  machinery  is  the  steam  stamp,  which,  although  in- 
vented in  1856,  and  manufactured  ever  since,  has  but  lately  been  improved.  These 
stamps  are  used  exclusively  for  crushing  ore  for  concentration  at  Lake  Superior,  and 
are  extensively  used  in  crushing  copper-sulphide  ore  at  the  large  dressing-works  at 
Anaconda,  Mont.  A  steam  stamp  has  also  been  used  in  the  Homestake  ^old-mill,  at  Lead 
City,  S.  I).,  with,  it  is  said,  poor  commercial  results.  At  Broken  Hill,  New  South 
Wales,  steam  stamps  have  been  erected  for  crushing  silver-lead  ores,  but  the  results  ob- 
tained there  have  not  yet  been  published.  The  improved  steam  stamp  is  built  entirely  of 
iron  and  steel,  the  entire  framing  of  the  machine  consisting  of  four  massive  cast-iron  col- 
umns, braced  to  one  another,  and  securely  bolted  together  and  to  the  heavy  cast-iron  sills  or 
bed-plates,  with  body- bound  bolts.  The  stamp  is  operated  by  a  vertical  steam  cylinder, 
•which  can  be  made  "of  any  diameter  or  length  of  stroke,  according  to  capacity  required. 
The  shaft  operating  the  valves,  by  means  of  eccentrics  and  rods,  is  worked  by  a  pair  of 
machine-cut  elliptical  steel  spur-wheels,  receiving  their  motion  from  a  countershaft  driven 
from  the  mill  line-shaft  by  a  belt.  This  countershaft  has  a  balance-wheel  to  insure 
steady  motion.  The  irregular  motion  conveyed  by  the  elliptical  gears  moves  the  valves  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  keep  the  top  steam-port  fully  open  for  admitting  the  full  steam  press- 
ure during  the  down  stroke,  and  a  small  opening  of  the  lower  steam-port  for  the  up 
stroke.  The  mortar  has  four  discharge  openings,  and  rests  on  a  heavy  cast-iron  anvil  or  bed- 
plate 20  in.  thick,  weighing  about  11  tons,  which  is  carried  by  spring  timbers  that  rest  upon 
the  lower  sills.  Between  the  anvil  and  spring  timber  is  a  rubber  cushion,  1  in.  thick.  The 
angle  guide-pieces  cast  on  the  columns  hold  the  mortar  in  place.  These  guides  are  planed 
and  fitted  with  gibs  adjustable  by  set-screws  and  jam-nuts.  Neither  mortar  nor  anvil  is 
held  down  by  bolts.  This  construction  gives  a  yielding  foundation,  and,  consequently,  a 
certain  amount  of  vertical  elasticity.  Within  the  past  two  years  the  innovation  has  been 
made  of  doing  away  with  the  spring  timbers  under  the  mortar  bed,  and  setting  the  anvil 
block  on  a  solid,  unyielding  base  of  masonry,  and  the  results  at  Lake  Superior  seem  to 
have  demonstrated  that  an  increase  in  capacity  is  gained  in  this  manner.  With  the  anvil 
and  mortar  springing  away  from  the  hammer  a  certain  percentage  of  the  force  of  the  blow  is 
lost,  while,  with  the  solid  foundation,  the  whole  is  utilized  for  pulverizing  the  material  in 
the  mortar.  The  upper  and  lower  guides  for  the  stamp-stems  consist  of  cast-iron  brackets 
fitted  with  removable  bronze  bushings,  which  can  be  replaced  when  worn.  The  stamp- 
stem  is  slowly  revolved  by  means  of  a  horizontal  pulley  on  a  cast-iron  sleeve  between  the 
upper  and  lower  guide-brackets.  This  sleeve  is  brass-bushed,  and  contains  two  feathers 
fitting  in  corresponding  slots  in  the  stamp-stem,  by  which  the  latter  is  rotated.  The  piston- 
rod  is  made  of  steel,  and  is  connected  to  the  stamp-stem  by  a  circular  disk,  which  is  encased 
bv  a  cast-iron  bonnet  bolted  to  the  flange  of  the  stamp-stem.  The  space  between  is  filled 
with  pure  gum-rubber  packing.  This  arrangement  relieves  the  shock  on  the  piston,  and  also 
permits  removal  of  the  piston  for  repairs  without  disturbing  the  stamp. 

The  piston  is  made  of  steel  and  fitted  with  bronze  packing-rings,  and  is  easy  of  access  for 
packing  and  repairing  when  necessary.  The  water  is  fed  in  through  the  two  nozzles  shown  on 
the  top  of  the  mortar,  and  from  the  circular  chamber  is  thrown  against  the  stamp-stem  from 
every  side,  preventing  it  from  being  cut  and  worn  by  the  sand.  The  ore-feed,  or  spout,  is 
placed  on  top  of  the  mortar,  and  is  covered  over  to  prevent  any  pieces  of  ore  from  falling 


580 


ORE-CRUSHING   MACHINES. 


outside  around  the  mortar.  The  speed  of  the  stamp  averages  90  blows  per  minute.  The  ca- 
pacity of  the  15  x  30  in.  stamp  averages  about  150  tons  fine-crushing,  and  about  230  tons  coarse- 
crushing,  per  24  hours.  A  stamp  of  this  size  weighs  70  tons.  The  new  stamps  at  the  Tamarack 
mill,  Lake  Superior,  crush  225  tons  per  24  hours,  from  3-in.  size  to  -ft-in.,  running  at  90  to 
92  strokes  per  minute  ;  from  34  to  36  tons  of  ore  being  crushed  per  ton  of  coal  consumed. 
Although  the  steam  stamp  makes  a  greater  percentage  of  slimes  than  careful  crushing  by 


FIG.  8.— Steam  stamp. 

rolls,  by  its  rapid  and  enormous  delivery  it  makes  less  slimes  than  gravitation  stamps,  as  has 
been  proved  by  crushing  the  same  kind  of  ore  in  both  ways  for  pan  amalgamation — a  steam 
stamp  having  been  used  for  the  latter  purpose  by  the  Anaconda  Mining  Co.,  at  Anaconda, 
Mont. 

Gravitation  Stamps  are  still  the  means  generally  in  use  for  crushing  gold  and  silver  ores 
for  amalgamation  and  lixiviation.  The  tailings  from  the  amalgamating  plates  in  gold  mills 
are  frequently  concentrated  to  recover  the  auriferous  pyrites,  but  stamps  are  never  used 
now  in  well -designed  dressing- works,  except,  perhaps,  for  re-crushing  middlings,  unless  it  is 


ORE-CRUSHING   MACHINES.  581 

necessary  to  crush  all  the  ore  to  the  condition  of  meal  or  pulp.  When  ore  is  to  be  crushed 
to  the  size  of  fine  sand  only,  even  the  best  stamp-batteries  are  objectionable,  because  they 
reduce  by  far  the  greatest  proportion  of  the  ore — frequently  over  90  per  cent. — to  a  much 
finer  condition  than  is  required.  Some  important  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
wearing  parts  of  stamps,  particularly  shoes,  dies,  and  guides. 

Fraser  &  Chalmers'  stamp-shoes  are  cast  of  two  kinds  of  iron  at  the  same  operation,  by  a 
patent  process.  The  body  of  the  shoe  is  made  of  white-iron  of  the  hardest  quality,  while  the 
neck,  or  stem,  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  shoe,  is  made  of  iron  possessing  almost  the 
tenacity  of  malleable  or  wrought-iron.  The  two  qualities  of  iron  are  thoroughly  united  when 
in  an  incandescent  state,  the  point  of  union  being  below  the  bottom  of  the  stem.  The  com- 
bination of  extreme  toughness  where  the  strain  is  greatest,  with  exceeding  hardness  and 
durability  of  parts  exposed  to  wear,  makes  these  shoes,  it  is  claimed,  far  more  lasting  and 
reliable  than  those  made  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

The  chrome-steel  shoes  and  dies,  made  of  chrome-steel  prepared  by  a  special  formula 
and  process,  which  is  kept  secret  by  the  manufacturers,  have  given  excellent  results.  At  the 
Utica  mill,  Angel's  Camp,  Cal.,  where  chrome-steel  dies  and  iron  shoes  are  used,  the 
wear  of  shoes,  according  to  the  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Mineralogist,  was  19  Ibs., 
or  1-5  cents,  per  ton,  of  ore  crushed,  and  55  Ibs.,  or  2 -5  cents,  of  iron  dies  per  ton  of  ore, 
making  a  total  wear  of  but  4  cents  per  ton. 

Brovghatt  Stamp  Guides. — These  consist  of  a  series  of  wrought-iron  clamps  and  Jinks  enclos- 
ing wooden  bushings,  completely  filling  the  space  between  the  battery  posts,  being  rigid, 
but  fully  adjustable.  These  guide  clamps  consist  of  two  or  more  arms  pivoted  to  keys,  which 
are  firmly  secured  to  the  guide  rail.  At  their  free  ends  each  is  connected  by  a  link,  having 
an  outwardly  movable  part  provided  with  a  locking  or  pressure  device,  which  is  simply  a 
clamp  screw'and  lock  nut  bearing  upon  a  plate,  which  protects  the  guide  blocks  from  injury 
by  the  point  of  the  clamp  screw.  By  this  arrangement  any  one  set  of  the  clamps  can  be 
loosened  or  tightened  to  properly  adjust  the  bushings  without  interfering  at  all  with  the 
others.  There  is  no  wear  on  the  iron  clamps  or  links,  nor  are  they  shaken  out  of  place  or 
loosened  by  the  regular,  recurring  blows  of  the  stamps — a  source  of  great  annoyance, 
demanding  constant  attention,  with  the  ordinary  guides.  By  removing  the  upper  bushings, 
the  tappet  can  be  taken  off  or  put  on  any  stem  without  stopping  any  other.  By  removing 
both  upper  and  lower  bushings,  any  stem  can 
be  taken  out  without  removing  either  tappet, 
stamp  head,  or  shoe,  and  without  disturbing 
any  other  stem,  and  if  desired  the  battery  can 
be  run  with  one  or  more  stamps  out  for  re- 
pairs. 

The  Fargo  sectional  stamp  guides  (Fig.  9), 
for  which  are  claimed  the  same  advantages  as 
the  Broughall,  consist  of  a  series  of  iron  keys 
enclosing  wooden  bushings,  completely  filling 
the  space  between  the  battery  posts.  The  keys  FIG.  9.— Fargo  stamp-guides, 

for  each  stem  are  arranged  in  pairs,  connected 

at  the  outer  end  by  iron  bars,  and  at  the  inner  end  by  the  guide  rail  of  the  battery.  The 
inner  faces  of  each  pair  are  inclined  to  each  other  with  a  broad  bearing  of  each  side  of  a  bush- 
ing, and  by  tightening  the  nut  on  the  inner  end,  will  take  up  all  wear  in  the  bushing.  Their 
outer  edges  are  parallel,  and  tongued  and  grooved  together.  This  admits  of  each  pair  of 
keys  being  moved,  and  its  bushing  tightened,  without  interfering  at  all  with  any  other  pair. 

Cornish  Rolls. — Cornish  rolls,  the  typical  form  of  all  crushing  rolls,  consist  of  two  iron 
rollers,  from  9  to  40  in.  in  diameter,  and  'from  9  to  16  in.  face,  their  axles  connected 
by  strong  gear  wheels,  and  revolving  in  opposite  directions.  The  shaft  of  one  roller  is  in 
stationary  bearings,  the  other  being  in  sliding  boxes,  acted  on  by  regulating  heavy  springs 
or  weighted  levers,  so  that  a  uniform  pressure  is  maintained  between  the  faces  of  the  revolv- 
ing rolls  to  crush  the  rock  introduced  between  them.  The  rolls  are  fitted  on  the  outside  with 
shells  of  hard  iron  or  steel,  and  these  can  be  replaced  by  new  ones  when  worn  out.  Of  late 
rolls  have  generally  been  built  without  the  gear-wheel  connections  between  their  shafts,  but 
each  run  independently  by  belt  pulleys,  a  greater  speed  of  rolls  being  emnloyed,  with  conse- 
quent increase  of  capacity,  and  the  annoying  wear  of  gearing  avoided.  This  important  im- 
provement is  principally  due  to  Mr.  S.  R.  Krom,  of  New  York,  whose  name  is  famous  in 
connection  with  the  design  of  crushing  rolls,  and  the  innovation  was  first  made  at  the  Ber- 
trand  mill,  in  Nevada,  in  1883.  The  rolls  which  were  introduced  at  that  mill  were  designed 
to  run  at  100  revolutions  per  minute  ;  it  is  impossible  to  drive  geared  rolls,  with  safety,  at  a 
greater  speed  than  40  to  50  revolutions  per  minute.  Since  the  installation  at  the  Bertrand 
mill  much  higher  speeds  have  been  used  successfully,  but  100  revolutions  per  minute  is  the 
average  rate  now  employed. 

The  shells  used  on  the  rolls  may  be  either  chilled  white  iron  or  mild  steel.  The  former 
are  the  harder,  but  they  become  nicked  by  excessively  hard  lumps  of  ore,  or  pieces  of  steel, 
which  may.  perhaps,  pass  through  them,  and  thus  lose  the  smooth  surface  which  is  necessary 
for  good  work.  The  mild  steel  has  the  objection  of  retaining  these  pieces  of  steel,  thus  chis- 
eling the  face  of  the  shell  as  if  it  were  in  a  lathe.  This  disfigurement  and  damage  is  usu- 
ally averted  by  the  use  of  magnets  similar  to  those  used  in  flour  mill  grain  chutes. 
Unless  fed  properly,  they,  like  all  other  shells,  wear  hollow  in  the  center.  It  is  not  gen- 
erally known  that  the  chilled  iron  may  be  turned,  and  shells  of  this  material  are  usually 


582 


ORE-CRUSHING  MACHINES. 


thrown  aside  when  too  badly  worn.  Dr.  E.  D.  Peters  states,  however,  in  his  Modern 
American  Methods  of  Copper  Smelting,  that  the  hardest  chilled  iron  may  be  turned  with  an 
ordinary  tool  without  difficulty  if  a  sufficiently  slow  motion  is  used  in  the  process.  Steel 
shells,  which  may  be  turned  quite  easily,  have,  on  the  whole,  given  greater  satisfaction  than 
the  chilled  iron,  and  are,  at  the  present  time,  more  generally  in  use. 

The  size  of  the  rollers  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  and  the  tendency  of  late  years, 
on  the  part  of  many  engineers,  has  been  to  increase  the  diameter — rollers  of  36  in.,  1  meter, 
or  even  40  in.  in  diameter  being  now  not  infrequent.  The  larger  the  diameter,  the  larger 
the  size  of  the  lumps  of  ore  which  can  be  crushed,  and  with  lumps  of  ore  of  a  given  size, 
the  greater  the  capacity  and  the  less  fines  made,  the  lumps  of  rock  receiving  a  more  direct 
crushing  blow  and  less  grinding  action. 

Rolls  make  a  smaller  proportion  of  fines  than  stamps  or  any  of  the  grinding  machines, 
and  are,  consequently,  especially  adapted  for  the  final  crushing  for  concentration.  Within 
the  past  ten  years  their  use  for  very  fine  crushing  in  lixiviation  mills  has  been  advocated, 
and  they  have  been  thus  employed  in  several  mills  with  fairly  successful  results,  although 
they  have  not  yet  come  into  general  use  for  this  purpose. 

Krom's  Rolls  (Fig.  10)  are  the  standard  type  of  Cornish  rolls  in  use  in  this  country  at 
the  present  time.  They  are  constructed  after  the  same  general  pattern  as  the  ordinary 

rolls,  but  differ  in  several 
details,  which  are,  never- 
theless, of  much  import- 
ance. In  most  of  the 
ordinary  rolls,  one  pair  of 
pillow  blocks  is  arranged  to- 
slide  on  the  bed  plate,  and 
each  one  of  the  two  sliding 
pillow  blocks  must  be  ad- 
justed separately.  It  re- 
quires great  care  to  bring^ 
up  two  separately  movable 
pillow  blocks  evenly  and 
parallel  with  the  stationary 
ones,  and  any  looseness  be- 
tween the  faces  of  the  mov- 
able pillow  blocks  and  the 
bed  plate  results  in  damage 
to  the  machine.  In  some 
rolls  the  difficulty  of  adjust- 
ing the  movable  roll  is 
overcome  by  connecting  the 
sliding  pillow  blocks  so 
that  they  move  together, 
and  are  thus  kept  always 
parallel  with  the  face  of 
the  fixed  roll.  Mr.  Krom 
has  gone  still  further,  how- 
ever, and  introduced  a  de- 
vice which  not  only  keeps  the  two  rolls  always  parallel,  but  obviates  the  wear  of  sliding 
pillow  blocks  on  the  bed  plate  almost  entirely.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
swinging  bearings,  the  construction  of  which  fs  shown  in  Fig.  11.  The  movable  roll  being* 
supported  in  this  manner,  both  ends  must  swing  together,  and 
as  the  bearing  does  not  slide  on  the  bed  plate  at  all,  simply 
swing  from  it,  there  is  obviously  much  less  wear  there.  These 
swinging  bearings  are  made  so  strong  that  the  roll  will  maintain 
its  parallel  position  if  the  bearing  is  bolted  to  the  bed  frame  at 
one  end  only.  The  shells,  which  are  made  of  hammered  steel, 
such  as  is  used  for  locomotive  tires,  are  held  on  by  two  heads, 
slightly  cone-shaped.  One  of  these  heads  is  securely  fixed  to  the 
shaft  by  shrinking  on  ;  the  other  is  split  on  one  side,  so  that,  when 
the  heads  are  drawn  together  within  the  shells  by  bolts,  the  split 
head  will  close  tightly  upon  the  shaft.  The  bearings  are  water- 
jacketed,  so  that  in  cases  where  the  work  is  very  severe  and 
heavy,  or  when  the  machine  is  new,  the  journals  can  be  kept 
cool  by  the  circulation  of  water  behind  the  bearings.  These 
rolls  are  so  covered  by  housings  that  ore  can  be  crushed  very 
finely,  without  the  escape  of  dust,  it  is  said,  but  an  exhaust 
fan  is  generally  used  to  collect  the  fine  pulp.  The  rollers  are  de- 
signed to  run  at  a  speed  of  100  revolutions  per  minute,  and  are 
always  driven  by  belts.  The  capacity  of  a  set  of  rolls  varies 
principally  with  the  fineness  of  crushing.  A  pair  of  14  x  26  in. 
rolls,  running  at  100  revolutions  per  minute,  should  easily  crush 
20  tons  of  moderately  hard  ore  per  hour.  From  this  maximum  the  capacity  diminishes  with 
the  fineness.  At  the  Bertrand  mill,  in  Nevada,  in  1883,  two  sets  of  Krom's  15  x  26  in.  rolls 


PIG.  10.— Krom's  rolls. 


FIG.  11.— Roll  bearings. 


ORE-CRUSHING   MACHINES.  583 

crushed  100  ton?  of  hard  quartzose  ore,  so  as  to  pass  a  16-mesh  screen,  in  24  hours,  accord- 
ing to  the  statement  of  Mr.  R.  D.  Clark,  the  superintendent  of  the  mill,  which  is  regarded 
by  Mr.  C.  A.  Stetefeldt  (Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  vol.  xiii.  p.  114)  as  equivalent 
to  the  work  of  30  stamps,  of  850  Ibs.  each,  dropping  from  7  in.  to  8  in.,  94  times  per  minute. 
This  statement  is  controverted,  however,  by  other  mechanical  engineers  who  have  had 
opportunities  of  examination  of  the  plant  under  its  normal  condition.  In  the  same  paper, 
Mr.  Stetefeldt,  basing  his  figures  upon  the  data  furnished  by  the  Bertrand  mill,  and  three 
prominent  stamp  mills  in  the  West,  estimated  that  the  saving  in  a  mill  equipped  with  two 
sets  of  Krom's  26-in.  rolls,  as  compared  with  30  stamps,  was  $27.23  per  day,  of  which  $10.55 
was  in  wear  and  tear  and  repairs,  $4.68  in  interest  and  amortization,  and  $12  in  fuel.  Mr. 
S.  R.  Krom  states  that  the  capacity  of  the  rolls  at  the  Bertrand  mill  was  subsequently  rated 
at  150  tons  per  24  hours,  crushing  to  pass  a  16-mesh  screen.  At  the  Mt.  Morgan  mill, 
Queensland,  Australia,  eight  sets  of  rolls  are  used,  crushing  to  40-mesh  fineness,  at  the  rate 
of  about  37i  tons  per  24  hours  per  set.  The  Mt.  Morgan  ore  is,  for  the  most  part,  easy  crush- 
ing, but  even  considering  that  fact,  this  is  certainly  a  remarkable  result. 

Buchanan's  Straight-line  Crushing  Rolls  are  a  modification  of  the  ordinary  type  of 
Cornish  rolls.  The  journals  of  the  sliding  roll  are  cast  in  one  piece,  the  standards  of  the 
journals  being  connected  by  a  strong  cross-bar,  strengthened  by  heavy  ribs.  There  are  heavy- 
slides  on  the  bed  frame,  and  the  entire  top  of  the  latter  is  planed,  so  that  the  sliding  roll  is 
compelled  to  move  in  a  straight  line,  its  face  being  always  parallel  with  that  of  the  fixed  roll, 
when  giving  to  pass  a  piece  of  material  too  hard  to  crush,  such  as  a  drill  point.  The  makers 
claim  that  this  straight-line  movement  causes  the  rolls  to  wear  more  evenly,  and  avoids  end 
play  of  the  rolls. 

Bowers'  Rolls  are  constructed  upon  the  principle  of  ordinary  Cornish  rolls,  differing  only 
in  the  shape  of  the  roll  faces.  With  careless  and  improper  feeding,  the  faces  of  cylin- 
drical rolls  wear  concavely.  To  compensate  for  this,  the  Bowers  rolls  are  made  with  the  face 
of  one  concave  and  the  other  convex.  Rolls  properly  fed  wear  regularly  enough,  however, 
and  as  the  advantages  gained  by  the  Bowers  system  are  more  than  balanced  by  the  disad- 
vantages, they  have  not  come  into  general  use. 

The  Heberle  Mill,  one  of  the  standard  types  of  fine-crushing  machines,  consists  of  a  cyl- 
indrical drum,  in  which  is  a  large  plate  slowly  rotating  on  a  horizontal  axis,  and  two  small, 


FIG.  12. — Sturtevant  mill. 

rapidly  revolving  runners,  each  having  a  plane  annular  grinding  face  and  a  coned  center. 
Both  of  the  runners  are  set  on  the  same  side  of  the  turning  plate,  very  close  to  and  parallel 
with  it,  and  in  the  fields  of  its  lower  quadrants.  The  large  turning  plate  is  pierced  by  a 
number  of  holes  set  radially  and  in  a  ring,  so  as  to  form  in  it  a  circle  of  apertures.  Ore, 
supplied  by  launders  to  one  side  of  the  plate,  passes,  during  the  revolutions  of  the  latter, 
through  the  apertures,  and  falls  directly  into  the  narrow  slit  between  the  inner  edge  of  the 
grinding  face  of  each  runner  and  the  wearing  surface  of  the  plate.  Seized  by  the  runners, 
and  partly  ground  and  partly  sheared,  the  ore  is  reduced,  and  drops  out  through  the  bottom 
of  the  machine.  The  closeness  of  the  runners  to  the  plate,  and  the  pressure  they  exert  upon 
the  ore,  can  be  accurately  adjusted  by  hand  screws  and  rubber  resistance  buffers.  The 
wearing  parts  of  the  machine  are  made  so  as  to  be  easily  replaceable.  Shoes  on  the  runners 
last  about  960  hours.  According  to  W.  B,  Kunhardt,  in  his  book,  The  Art  of  Ore  Dressing 
in  Europe,  the  machine  works  to  poor  advantage  and  with  small  capacity  on  ore  above  5  mm. 
(:V  in.)  in  size.  It  is  generally  used  for  grinding  to  a  fineness  of  1  mm.  (^  in.)  to 
2  mm.  (-£-;  in.),  but  the  reduction  has  sometimes  been  carried  down  to  0'75  mm.  As  the 
result  of  long-continued  working  at  Przibram,  the  quantity  of  quartzose  ore  crushed  down 
to  2  mm.  size  by  a  Heberle  mill  with  two  runners  was  as  follows  :  2,466  Ibs.  of  4-mm.  ore 
per  hour  ;  1,368  Ibs.  of  6-mm.  ore  ;  and  1,157  Ibs.  of  9- mm  ore.  Under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  the  consumption  of  water  in  crushing  was  5.4  gallons  per  minute  for  each  runner. 
The  percentage  of  slimes  made  is  small  compared  with  many  other  machines,  and  the  Heberle 
mill  is,  consequently,  especially  adapted  for  fine-crushing  in  dressing  works.  For  further 
details  see  Berg  und  Huettenmannische  Zeitung,  vol.  xi.  p.  400,  1881. 

The  Sturtevant  Mitt  (Fig.  12).— The  crushing  and  grinding  parts  of  this  mill  consist  of 
two  cylindrical  heads  or  cups  arranged  upon  the  opposite  sides  of  a  case  into  which  they 


584 


OKE-CRUSHING   MACHINES. 


slightly  project,  and,  facing  each  other,  are  made  to  revolve  in  different  directions.  The  rock 
or  ore  to  be  reduced  is  fed  into  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the  case,  and  passing  down  to  the 
interior,  is  prevented  from  dropping  below  the  revolving  heads  by  a  cast-iron  screen,  and 
entering,  as  it  must,  the  heads  or  cups  in  revolution,  is  immediately  thrown  out  again  from 
each  cup  in  opposite  directions  with  such  tremendous  force  that  the  rock  or  ore  coming  in 
collision  is  crushed  and  pulverized,  and  the  grinding,  which  would  otherwise  be  upon  the 
mill,  is  transferred  to  the  material,  which  is  at  once  reduced  to  any  fineness  desired,  deter- 
mined by  the  size  of  opening  in  the  screen  used.  The  material,  as  fast  as  ground,  passes 
through  the  screen,  and  falls  into  the  bin.  When  necessary  to  reduce  the  rock  to  a 
greater  fineness  than  the  screen  outlets  allow,  the  coarser  part  of  what  leaves  the  screen  is 
reconveyed  to  the  mill  by  an  elevator,  for  regrinding,  that  which  is  already  sufficiently  fine 
being  first  removed  by  the  usual  apparatus  adopted  in  milling.  A  suction  blower  causes  the 
air  to  draw  strongly  into  the  mill,  and  prevents  the  escape  of  dust.  The  cast-iron  screen 
is  composed  of  small  sections,  and  the  worn  parts  are  cheaply  and  easily  replaced.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  wear  upon  this  screen  is  very  slight,  as  it  is  always  protected  from  the  action 
of  the  rocks  thrown  from  the  heads  or  cups  by  a  cushion  of  interposing  material,  formed  by 
the  rocks  which  always  fill  the  case  and  cover  the  screen. 

The  manufacturers  of  this  mill  furnish  the  following  data  : 


t  - 

Ji 

Largest  size 
material 
to  feed  mill. 

Capacity  in  Ibs. 
per  hour  to  pass 
10  mesh. 

Capacity  in  Ibs. 
per  hour  to  pass 
40  mesh. 

Outside  dimen- 
sions of  mill, 
length  and 
width. 

Weight  of  mill 
in  Ibs. 

Horse-power 
required. 

No.  of  rev.  per 
minute. 

in. 

ft.  in.    in. 

6 

2"  cube. 

500  to    1,000 

4     '7  x  26 

1,100 

10 

2,600 

8 

24"   " 

1,000  "     3,000 

500  to    1,100 

6     '9  x  28 

2,335 

20 

2,000 

12 

3±"   " 

10,000  "  20,000 

2,000   "    8,000 

9     '7  x  35 

4,625 

45 

1,300 

20 

4*"   " 

15,000  "  30,000 

4,000   "  10,000 

14     '8  x  56 

17,775 

75 

850 

This  is  an  excellent  mill  for  fine-grinding,  and  a  large  number  of  them  are  in  use  for 
comminuting  phosphate  rock,  copper  matte,  etc.  They  have  lately  been  introduced  for 
grinding  iron  ore  for  magnetic  concentration  with  very  good  results.  Mr.  W.  H.  Hoffman 
gave  the  results  in  crushing  with  this  mill  at  the  Croton  magnetic  iron  mines  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  as  follows  :  The  screen-block  openings 
were  ^  in.  wide,  and  the  coarsest  material  passing  through  them  was  less  than  -fa  in.  thick, 
while  the  finest  material  would  be  rejected  by  a  60-mesh  screen.  The  ore  entered  the  miDs 
at  a  temperature  of  about  350°,  under  which  conditions  it  was  quite  friable,  and  there  was 
no  difficulty  in  grinding  22  tons  per  hour  with  a  20-in.  mill,  and  16  tons  in  the  same  time 
with  a  15-in.  mill.  One  set  of  bushings  will  grind  from  4,000  to  6,000  tons  of  ore,  according 
to  the  depth  of  the  chill  in  the  bushing,  the  cost  of  each  set  being  $16.  The  screen  blocks 
for  this  amount  of  ore  cost  $9.  At  22  tons  per  hour  the  20-in.  mill  requires  94  horse-power, 
and  the  15-in.  mill  70  horse-power. 

The  Cyclone  Pulverizer  consists  of  a  small  iron  cylinder,  in  the  base  of  which  are  two  small 
iron  fans,  resembling  propeller  screws,  which  are  rotated  in  opposite  directions  at  great 
velocity,  creating  counter  currents  of  air  of  great  force,  which  take  up  the  particles  of  the 
material  with  which  the  machine  is  fed,  grinding  them  by  their  impact  and  attrition.  The 
velocity  of  the  fans  ranges  from  1,800  to  3,000  revolutions  per  minute.  At  the  upper  part  of 
the  machine  is  a  hopper  into  which  the  ore  to  be  pulverized  is  delivered :  connected  with  the  hop- 
per is  an  automatic  device  which  feeds  the  material  regularly  into  the  machine.  The  degree  of 
fineness  of  the  grinding  is  regulated  by  an  adjustable  fan,  which  causes  a  draft  of  air  through 
the  machine.  If  the  product  is  desired  coarse,  the  draft  is  increased,  and  the  product  thrown 
into  the  collecting  chamber  before  it  is  reduced  to  a  powder  ;  if  the  product  is  desired  exces- 
sively fine,  the  draft  is  made  slight,  thereby  allowing,  the  material  to  remain  longer  in  the 
machine.  This  machine  is  adapted  for  very  fine  grinding  only.  Mr.  Axel  Sahlin.  in  a  paper 
read  before  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  October,  1891,  stated  that  puddle 
slag  was  ground  with  this  machine  at  Boonton,  N.  J.,  so  that  the  coarsest  particles  would 
pass  a  225  mesh  sieve,  at  a  cost  of  $1.50  per  ton,  the  capacity  of  the  machine  being  about  900 
Ibs.  per  hour. 

The  Frisbee-Lucop  Mill  (Fig.  13)  is  a  centrifugal  roller  mill  in  which  the  rolls  are  driven 
around  against  the  inner  periphery  of  a  heavy  steel  ring,  set  vertically  in  a  suitable  iron  casing. 
The  ring  is  immovable  ;  the  rolls,  two  in  number,  are  held  loosely  in  position  between  a  pair 
of  annular  disks,  or  disk-plates,  firmly  bolted  to  a  central  arm,  which  latter  is  keyed  to  the 
shaft.  Between  the  disks  also  are  fastened  two  cylindrical  drivers,  one  for  each  roll,  which 
pushes  or  drives  it  around  as  the  mill  revolves.  The  revolving  parts  are  thus  the  arm, 
disks,  drivers,  and  rolls,  all  of  which  have  a  motion  uniform  with  the  shaft  ;  the  rolls  have 
in  addition  an  independent  motion  around  their  axes.  The  separation  of  the  fines  from  the 
coarse  is  effected  within  the  mill,  either  by  air-blast  or  by  suitable  screens.  The  casing  on 
each  side  of  the  mill  is  divided  by  a  vertical  screen  of  suitable  fineness,  set  transversely  to 
the  shaft.  Fan-blades  are  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  disks,  by  which  the  material,  as 


ORE-CRUSHING  MACHINES. 


585 


fed  into  the  mill,  is  distributed  around  the  inner  periphery  of  the  ring  in  the  path  of  the 
rolls,  to  insure  an  equal  amount  of  work  at  every  point  of  the  face  of  the  ring.  Exterior 
to  the  screens  on  each  side  is  a  circulating  fan,  which  causes  a  current  of  air  to  pass  out- 
ward through  the  screens,  and  discharges  the  fin- 
ished product  through  chutes  passing  downward 
through  the  bed  plate.  The  casing  is  divided  hori- 
zontally, and  the  upper  and  lower  halves  are  held 
together  by  hinged  bolts  in  slots  cut  in  the  flange 
of  each  section.  The  upper  half  is  hinged  to  the 
lower  at  one  side,  and  can  be  raised  so  as  to  give 
free  access  to  the  interior  of  the  mill  for  examina- 
tion and  replacing  worn  parts. 

A  revolving  screen  of  coarse  mesh,  attached  to 
the  shaft  inside  of  the  fixed  screens,  prevents  any 
piece  of  iron  or  large  fragments  of  rock  from  coming 
in  contact  with  the  fine  screen,  but  does  not  prevent 
the  finished  product  from  passing  freely.  This  re- 
volving screen  is  unnecessary  with  quartz  or  other 
hard  material,  and  is  used  only  when  clay,  cement, 
talc,  or  some  such  material  is  ground,  when  the 
mill  is  entirely  full  of  the  rock.  The  material  to  be 
ground  is  first  passed  through  a  crusher  to  a  size 
of  f  in.  or  less,  as  may  be  convenient,  and  then  fed 
by  a  chute  directly  on  the  feed  shoe.  The  mill  should 


FIG.  13.—  Frisbee-Lucop  mill. 


be  used  for  dry  work  only.  The  mill  is  built  in  two  sizes,  24-in.  and  20-in. ,  these  dimensions 
being  the  inner  diameter  of  the  ring.  The  24-in.  screen  mill  weighs  5,500  Ibs.  It  will  grind, 
according  to  its  manufacturers,  about  2,000  Ibs.  of  quarts  per  hour  to  60-mesh  powder,  and 
up  to  6,000  Ibs.  per  hour  of  softer  material.  Speed,  300  revolutions  per  minute,  requiring 
from  15  to  18  horse-power,  according  to  hardness  of  material  ground.  The  20-in.  mill  weighs 
3,800  Ibs.  It  has  a  capacity  of  1,000  Ibs.  of  hard  quartz  per  hour  to  60-mesh  powder.  Speed, 
500  revolutions  per  minute,  requiring  about  8  horse-power.  In  the  Frisbee-Lucop  blast  mills 
the  screens  are  omitted,  and  the  pulverized  material  is  separated  from  the  coarse  by  gravity, 
being  drawn  from  the  mill,  as  generated,  through  pipes  connected  with  the  top  of  the  casing, 
and  carried  to  chambers  prepared  for  it,  by  an  exhaust  fan  or  other  method  of  causing  a  cur- 
rent of  air  to  pass  through  the  mill.  This  mill  is  claimed  to  be  especially  adapted  for  grind- 
ing phosphate  rock  and  like  substances. 

The  Frisbee-Lucop  Wet-crushing  Mill  is  constructed  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  dry- 
crushing.  It  has  double  screens  at  each  end — coarse  ones  on  the  inner  side,  which  take  the 
wear  of  the  coarse  rock,  and  fine  screens  beyond  (which  may  be  of  any  mesh),  to  finish  ; 

nothing  can  leave  the  mill  until 
fine  enough  to  pass  the  outer 
screen,  the  coarse  stuff  passing 
the  inner  screen  going  back 
under  the  rolls.  The  annular 
die,  or  ring,  on  which  the  rock 
is  crushed,  is  of  rolled  steel,  24 
in.  inside  diameter,  3  in.  thick, 
with  6  in.  face.  The  rollers  are 
9j  in.  in  diameter  by  6  in.  face, 
with  a  tire  of  forged  steel. 
The  capacity  of  this  mill  is 
claimed  to  be  3  tons  per  hour 
of  hard  quartz  to  40-mesh,  up 
to  twice  that  amount  for  soft 
material  and  coarse  pulp. 

The  Bryan  Mill  is  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  well-known  Chile 
mill,  arranged  for  the  continu- 
ous wet-crushing  of  either  gold 
or  silver  ores,  eliminating,  it  is 
claimed,  all  that  is  objectionable 
in  the  Chile  mill.  It  consists 
of  an  annular  mortar,  contain- 
ing fixed  segmental  steel  dies  arranged  in  the  path  of  its  three  crushing  rollers.  The  axles  of 
the  rollers  are  journaled  in  a  central  revolving  table  attached  to  and  driven  by  the  belt  pulley 
directly.  The  4-ft.  mill  has  a  similar  arrangement  of  dies,  but  smaller  rollers,  whose  weight 
is  increased  as  desired  by  the  load  carried  in  the  pulley  drum,  which  rests  on  their  periphery, 
thus  adding  to  their  weight,  and  driving  them  by  friction.  The  pulverized  ore  is  discharged 
through  screens  in  the  side  of  the  annular  mortar.  This  mill  has  a  peculiar  advantage, 
inasmuch  as  its  weighting,  upon  which  its  crushing  capacity,  like  other  mills,  depends,  can  be 
done  at  the  mine  by  placing  either  shoes,  dies,  or  eveii  stones  in  the  pulley,  virtually  a  pan 
which  bears  upon  the  rollers.  Thus  heavy  transportation  is  avoided  in  comparatively  inac- 
cessible districts. 


FIG.  14.— Huntington  mill. 


586 


ORE-CRUSHING  MACHINES. 


Jordan's  Reducer,  sometimes  used  in  crushing  gold  ores  for  amalgamation  in  connection 
with  Jordan's  amalgamator  (see  GOLD  MILLS),  is  a  revolving  pan,  set  at  an  angle,  and  carrying 
three  massive  balls  of  white  iron,  which  work  in  a  suitably  shaped  bed,  also  of  white  iron,  round 
the  greatest  circumference  of  the  pan.  The  ore  and  water  are  fed  automatically  into  the  bed  of 
the  pan,  and  by  the  rotary  motion  of  the  latter,  are  conveyed  under  the  rapidly  revolving 
balls,  whereby  the  comminution  of  the  ore  is  effected.  The  inner  half  of  the  floor  of  the  pan 
rises  as  a  shallow  dome  surrounding  the  central  shafts,  and  is  fitted  with  movable  frames 
carrying  wire  screens  of  any  required  mesh.  The  feeds  of  ore  and  water,  and  the  inclination 
of  the  screens,  are  so  adjusted  that,  as  the  ore  is  reduced  to  a  sufficient  degree  of  fineness, 
it  is  washed  over  the  screens  and  passed  away  into  a  launder  for  conveyance  to  the  amalga- 
mator. It  is  claimed  that  this  machine  has  reduced  20  tons  of  ore  in  24  hours,  so  as  to  pass 
an  80-mesh  screen. 

The  Huntington  Mill  (Fig.  14)  consists  of  a  spindle,  G,  carrying  a  circular  frame,  B,  at 
its  top,  from  which  are  suspended  four  steel  rollers,  E,  which  are  rotated  against  a  ring, 
forming  the  base  of  a  mortar  or  pan.  The  ore  and  water  being  fed  into  the  mill  at  the 
hopper,  A,  the  rotating  rollers  and  scrapers  throw  the  ore  against  the  ring  die,  where  it  is 
crushed  to  any  desired  fineness  by  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  rollers  as  they  pass  over  it. 
The  water  and  pulverized  ore  are  thrown  against  and  through  the  screens  when  fine  enough. 
The  rollers  are  suspended,  leaving  a  space  of  1  in.  between  them  and  the  bottom  of  the  mill, 
thus  allowing  them  to  pass  freely  over  the  quicksilver  and  amalgam,  without  grinding  it  or 
throwing  it  from  the  mill,  while  it  agitates  it  sufficiently  to  insure  amalgamation.  This 
mill  is  used  for  crushing  and  amalgamating  gold  ores,  with  excellent  results.  It  is  also 
employed  for  fine-crushing  in  dressing  works,  but  its  use  for  that  purpose  is  not  to  be  rec- 
ommended, as  it  slimes  the  ore  excessively.  The  manufacturers  furnish  the  following  data  : 


Size. 

Weight. 

Revolutions. 

Capacity. 

Power. 

3^  ft.  diameter  

7,000  Ibs. 

90 

12  tons. 

4H.  P. 

5    ft          "        

11,000    " 

TO 

20      " 

6H.  P. 

6    ft.         "        

20,000    " 

55 

80     " 

8H.  P. 

The  Oriffen  Mill  consists  of  a  shallow  cast-iron  ring  or  mortar,  which  is  surmounted  by  a 
tall  sheet-iron  cone,  with  an  opening  at  the  apex,  through  which  a  vertical  shaft  works. 
This  shaft,  which  is  driven  by  a  horizontal  pulley,  has  a  universal-joint  at  its  upper  end — i.e., 
just  below  the  driving  pulley  ;  while  at  its  lower  end  is  rigidly  fixed  a  heavy  cast-iron  roller. 
The  shaft  and  roller  being  free  to  move  by  means  of  the  universal-joint,  the  roller  is 
thrown  against  the  side  of  the  mortar  or  crushing  ring  by  centrifugal  force,  and  the  rock  or 
ore,  which  is  fed  in  through  an  opening  in  the  side  of  the  case,  is  thus  pulverized.  The 
crushing  roll  swings  several  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  mortar,  but  upon  its  lower  side 
there  is  a  plow  which  stirs  up  the  ore  in  the  bottom,  and  throws  it  against  the  ring  die, 
where  it  may  be  acted  upon  by  the  roller.  The  crushed  ore  is  discharged  through  screens  in 
the  case  just  above  the  ring  die.  A  fan  attached  to  the  shaft  above  the  roll  causes  the  air  to 
draw  strongly  into  the  mill,  and  prevents  the  escape  of  dust.  This  mill  is  extensively  used 
for  fine  grinding,  such  as  pulverizing  phosphate  rock,  but  is  not  adapted  to  work  where  the 
formation  of  an  undue  proportion  of  slimes  is  to  be  avoided.  It  is  stated  that  it  will  grind 
4  tons  of  South  Carolina  phosphate  rock  per  hour,  so  that  75  per  cent,  will  pass  a  75-mesh 
screen. 

The  Narod  Pulverizer,  similar  to  the  Griffen  mill,  consists  of  a  shallow,  heavy  cast- 
iron  mortar  or  pan,  surmounted  by  a  conical  sheet-iron  case,  in  which  are  revolved  three 
iron  rolls,  carried  loosely  at  the  end  of  vertical  shafts.  The  shafts  are  fixed  in  an  iron  cast- 
ing at  the  top  of  the  machine,  having,  individually,  a  radial  play  in  order  to  allow  for 
centrifugal  motion,  and  the  whole  is  rotated  by  a  horizontal  pulley  at  the  top  of  the  ma- 
chine. The  rollers,  being  loose  on  the  shafts,  are  free  to  turn.  The  ore  is  fed  into  the  machine 
at  one  side,  just  above  the  rollers,  and  is  crushed  against  the  side  of  the  mortar.  Each  shaft 
is  covered  by  a  sleeve,  fixed  to  the  roller,  and  extending  to  the  top  of  the  shaft.  On  each 
sleeve,  just  above  the  roller,  are  two  spiral  fans  which,  according  to  the  makers,  take  up  the 
material  after  preliminary  grinding,  and  keep  it  in  self-frictional  agitation  until  rendered 
fine  enough  to  discharge  through  screen  in  the  base  of  the  machine.  The  sleeves  on  the  verti- 
cal shaft  serve  as  oil  chambers  for  the  rolls,  and  the  main  or  central  shaft,  which  is  hollow, 
serves  as  oil  chamber  for  the  main  journal.  The  main  shaft  is  driven  at  140  revolutions  per 
minute.  This  machine  has  been  used  for  pulverizing  phosphate  rock,  etc.,  but,  like  the 
Griffen  mill,  does  net  seem  to  be  adapted  for  anything  but  fine  grinding. 

Tustiris  Rotary  Pulverizer  consists  of  a  cast-iron  cylinder,  or  barrel,  hung  horizontally 
upon  two  hollow  trunnions.  Within  the  barrel  is  a  ring,  of  somewhat  smaller  diameter  than 
the  barrel  itself,  composed  of  chilled-steel  bars,  placed  longitudinally  and  a  small  distance 
apart,  like  grate  bars.  Within  this  annular  grate-bar  ring  are  two  heavy  cast-iron  rolls, 
which  are  nearly  as  long  as  the  cylinder  itself,  lying  loosely.  The  cylinder  is  turned  slowly 
upon  the  trunnions.  Ore  is  fed  into  a  hopper  at  one  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  passes  into  the 
latter  by  means  of  a  tube  projecting  through  one  of  the  hollow  trunnions.  The  ore  falls  onto 
and  under  the  rollers,  and  is  crushed  between  them  and  the  grate-bar  ring.  The  crushed  ore 


ORE-CRUSHING  MACHINES. 


587 


falls  between  the  bars,  and,  if  fine  enough,  sifts  out  through  the  screens  in  the  outer  shell  of  the 
barrel.  If  not  fine  enough,  it  slides  down  over  the  screen  until  stopped  by  one  of  the  ribs 
which  support  the  grate-bar  ring,  and  is  carried  upward  by  the  rotation  of  the  barrel  until 
nearly  overhead,  when  it  drops  back  to  the  interior  through  the  apertures  in  the  crushing 
(grate-bar)  ring,  and  again  falls  between  the  rollers.  The  rollers  lie  naturally  at  the  lowest 
point  in  the  circumference  of  the  barrel,  and  if  the  machine  is  properly  fed,  they  remain  ap- 
proximately in  that  position.  If  the  feed  is  scant,  however,  they  oscillate  right  and  left,  like 
a  pendulum  ;  in  so  doing  they  strike  a  horizontal  yoke,  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  shaft  passing 
through  the  hollow  trunnion  opposite  the  feed  trunnion,  and  by  a  pointer  at  the  other  end 
of  this  shaft,  outside  the  barrel,  give  warning  to  the  attendant  ;  or,  this  pointer  may  be  con- 
nected with  an  automatic  feeder,  and  regulating  the  latter,  insure  absolutely  constant  feed. 
The  best  work  done  by  this  mill  is  on  rock  broken  to  1£  in.  size,  or  smaller.  The  makers 
claim  that,  owing  to  the  free  escape  of  the  crushed  ore  through  the  slotted  dies,  and  the  ample 
screen  surface,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  rollers  to  run  more  than  once  over  a  grain  small 
enough  to  pass  the  screen,  and  that  for  that  reason  a  high  percentage  of  the  ore  grains  are 
nearly  of  the  same  size  as  the  screen,  and  but  very  little  slime  is  made. 

ORE  FEEDERS. — Regular  feeding  is  an  essential  in  securing  the  maximum  efficiency  from 
any  crushing  machine,  and  where  possible  this  is  accomplished  by  automatic  devices.  It  is 
usually  necessary  to  hand-feed  coarse-crushing  machines,  such  as  the  Gates  or  Blake  crushers, 
where  the  lumps  of  rock  are  of  large  and  irregular  size ;  but  to  the  fine-crushing  machines — 
stamps  and  Huntington  mills,  which  are  invariably  run  on  rock  broken  previously  to  a 
comparatively  small  and  uniform  size,  automatic  feeders  are  well  adapted  and  are  almost  a 
necessity.  Not  only  is  the  efficiency  of  the  crushing  machine  increased  by  this  means,  but 
there  is  a  saving  in  labor,  as  one  man  can  attend  to  a  greater  number  of  stamps  or  machines 
fed  automatically  than  if  fed  by  hand  only.  Nearly  all  ore  feeders  in  common  use  are  of  the 
same  general  type,  consisting  of  a  sheet-iron  hopper  from  which  the  ore  is  discharged  regu- 
larly by  some  device  actuated  by  one  of  the  stamp  stems,  or  some  other  regularly  moving 
part  of  the  crushing  machine. 

The  Challenge  Ore  Feeder  consists  of  a  hopper,  below  which  is  fixed  a  cast-iron  plate,  the 
latter  being  inclined  at  an  angle  to  the  receiving  aperture  of  the  crushing  machine.  The 
piate  is  rotated  by  a  bevel  gear,  which  in  turn  is  moved  by  a  lever,  which  is  struck  by  the  tap- 
pet on  the  stamp  stem,  the  motion  being  communicated  to  the  gear  through  an  ingenious 
friction  device.  At  each  partial  rotation  of  the  plate  a  small  quantity  of  ore  is  scraped  off  by 
stationary  wings,  projecting  from  the  hopper,  which  rest  upon  it.  One  feeder  is  used  for 
each  battery  of  five  stamps.  This  feeder  is  an  especially  good  one  for  wet  ores. 

The  Fulton  Ore  Feeder  has  a  roller  with  wide,  shallow,  spiral  corrugations,  placed  below 
a  sheet-iron  hopper.  The  ore  slides  down  in  a  shallow  stream  onto  the  top  of  the  roller, 
which  discharges  it  regularly  and  continuously.  Just  enough  pitch  is  given  to  the  corruga- 
tions of  the  roller  to  have  one  commence  discharging  at  one  end  of  the  roller  when  the  pre- 
ceding one  has  finished  at  the  other.  The  roller  is  turned  by  an  adjustable  pawl  movement, 
actuated  by  a  lever  struck  by  a  stamp  tappet,  as  in  the  Challenge  feeder. 

The  Tulloch  Ore  Feeder  consists  of  a  similar  hopper,  below  which  is  suspended  an  in- 
clined tray,  by  four  short  iron  rods,  from  the  same  frame  that  supports  the  hopper.    The  tray 
is  swung  backward  and  forward  by  a 
system  of  levers  actuated  by  one  of  the 
tappets  of  the  stamp  battery,  just  as  in 
the  Challenge  feeder.    The  back  of  the 
hopper  has  an  adjustable  scraper,  and 
at  each  motion  of  the  tray  a  portion 
of  the  ore  is  scraped  forward  to  the 
battery. 

Krom's  Ore  Feeder  (Fig.  15),  de- 
signed for  feeding  crushing  rolls 
evenly  and  regularly,  consists  of  a 
hopper  discharging  over  a  slowly  re- 
volving cylinder,  the  flow  of  ore  over 
the  latter  being  regulated  by  a  gate  at 
the  bottom  of  the  hopper.  The  re- 
volving cylinder  is  driven  by  a  large 
geared  wheel  and  pinion,  and  the  pin- 
ion shaft  being  driven  by  a  cone  pulley, 
its  speed  can  be  adjusted  thereby. 
The  minimum  speed  required  is  about 
4  revolutions  per  minute  ;  the  maxi- 
mum, 10  revolutions.  In  front  of 
the  revolving  cylinder  is  an  electro- 
magnet, before  which  the  stream  of 
falling  ore  passes.  Any  pieces  of  iron 
or  hard  steel  mixed  with  the  rock  or 
ore,  such  as  drill  points,  which  might 
damage  the  rolls,  are  thus  caught. 
The  electro-magnets  are  drawn  back  at  intervals,  and  the  pieces  of  iron  and  steel  collected 
are  dropped  by  cutting  off  the  electric  current.  A  regular  feed  for  rolls  is  an  essential  point 


FIG.  15. — Krom's  ore  feeder. 


588  ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY. 

not  only  for  prolonging  the  life  of  the  shells,  but  for  securing  the  maximum  efficiency  in 
crushing,  and  this  feeder  has  given  excellent  results. 

ORE-DRESSING  MACHINERY.  DRESSING  WORKS.  (See  ORE-CRUSHING  MACHIN- 
ERY).— Ore  dressing  is  the  art  of  separating  the  mineral  in  ore  from  the  worthless  rock  or 
gangue,  with  which  it  is  intermingled,  the  mineral,  thus  concentrated,  being  subsequently 
treated  by  the  proper  metallurgical  process.  In  dressing  ores  mechanically,  there  is  always 
a  loss  in  values,  varying  from  10  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent.,  or  even  more,  and  it  is  not  cus- 
tomary to  subject  to  this  form  of  preparation  ores  which  can  be  directly  treated  economi- 
cally by  any  of  the  ordinary  metallurgical  processes.  Mechanical  dressing  is,  consequently, 
only  resorted  to  when  the  cost  of  the  operation  and  the  loss  in  values  is  more  than  balanced 
by  the  saving  in  freight  and  in  the  cost  of  the  subsequent  treatment  of  the  ore,  gained  by 
the  elimination  of  the  worthless  gangue. 

The  method  of  mechanical  ore  dressing,  in  general,  consists  in  crushing  the  ore  to  suffi- 
cient degree  of  fineness  to  free  the  particles  of  valuable  mineral  from  the  gangue,  and  after- 
ward effecting  a  separation  between  the  two  by  virtue  of  the  difference  in  specific  gravities. 
Two  classes  of  crushing  machinery  are  commonly  used  in  every  dressing  works,  viz. :  coarse- 
crushing  and  fine-crushing.  The  former,  of  which  the  well-known  Blake  crusher  is  a  type, 
takes  the  coarse  lumps  of  ore  as  they  come  from  the  mine,  and  breaks  them  to  a  convenient 
size  to  be  received  by  the  fine-crushing  machine,  which  may  be  a  set  of  Cornish  rolls.  In 
most  mills  there  are  two  sets  of  rolls  in  each  crushing  system,  the  final  comminution  being 
done  in  the  second,  which  are  set  closer  together  than  the  first.  Between  each  crushing 
machine  and  the  next  in  series  there  should  be  a  screen,  over  which  the  crushed  ore  is  passed 
to  remove  the  particles  already  crushed  finely  enough,  thus  relieving  the  following  machines 
and  preventing  this  ore  from  being  crushed  finer  than  is  necessary,  an  important  point,  as 
the  fine  ore  becomes  slime,  when  mixed  with  water,  which  will  probably  give  rise  to  increased 
loss  in  the  dressing.  Similarly,  the  ore  is  frequently  dumped  over  a  grizzly  (a  coarse  screen 
composed  of  parallel  steel  bars),  before  being  fed  to  the  first  crusher.  The  crushed  ore  coming 
from  the  finishing  rolls  is  passed  over  a  screen,  the  mesh  of  which  constitutes  the  standard 
of  crushing  of  the  mill.  That  which  will  not  pass  through  this  screen  is  returned  to  the 
rolls;  that  which  passes  is  sized  in  preparation  for  the  washing  machines.  The  sizing  is  done 
either  by  screens  or  hydraulic  separators,  but  generally  both  systems  are  used  in  the  same 
mill.  With  the  former,  the  operation  being  technically  known  as  "  sizing,"  the  particles  of 
ore  are  divided  into  classes  of  equal  size  ;  in  a  hydraulic  separator  the  particles  of  ore  settle 
against  an  upward  current  of  water,  and  are  thus  classified  into  equal  falling  grains,  the 
operation  being  technically  known  as  "  sorting."  The  usual  practice  in  dressing  works  is  to 
size  by  screens  particles  down  to  about  1  mm.  in  diameter.  The  finer  particles  are  sorted. 
At  Lake  Superior,  where  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  specific  gravities  of  the  minerals  to 
be  separated — native  copper  and  the  various  siliceous  minerals  which  constitute  the  gangue — 
hydraulic  classifiers  alone  are  used.  Screens,  only,  may  be  used  in  mills  doing  very  coarse 
work,  but  never  in  a  well-designed  mill  intended  for  fine  and  close  work. 

The  sized  and  sorted  ore  goes  from  the  screens  and  separators  to  the  washing  machines, 
by  which  the  heavy  particles  of  mineral  are  separated  from  the  lighter  particles  of  gangue, 
by  virtue  of  the  difference  in  specific  gravities.  Washing  machines  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes,  viz. :  sand  washing,  represented  by  the  various  kinds  of  jigs;  and  slime  wash- 
ing, of  which  the  various  slime  tables  and  buddies  are  types.  The  sized  ore  of  which  the 
particles  are  between  16  mm.  and  4  mm.  in  diameter,  is  commonly  designated  as  pea;  between 
4  mm.  and  1  mm. ,  as  sand  ;  and  finer  than  1  mm. ,  as  meal.  The  pea  and  sand  sizes  are  washed 
on  jigs,  the  material  from  each  sizing  screen  being  conducted  to  a  jig  properly  designed  and 
adjusted  for  that  size.  The  meal  sizes,  from  the  hydraulic  separator,  are  washed  on  the 
slime  machines  ;  the  coarsest  meal  is  worked  on  jigs,  varying  from  the  coarser  jigs  only 
in  details  of  design,  speed,  etc.,  while  the  finer  meal  is  conducted  to  other  machines 
adapted  to  the  size  and  character  of  the  ore.  With  the  washing  machines  the  operation 
of  dressing  is  completed,  and  the  concentrates  are  ready  to  go  to  the  smelting  works,  or 
elsewhere,  for  further  treatment. 

The  cost  of  dressing  varies,  of  course,  with  the  capacity  of  the  mill,  the  character  of  the 
ore,  and  the  quality  of  the  work  done.  The  following  are  a  few  instances  of  the  best  Ameri- 
can practice:  At  the  Atlantic  mill,  Lake  Superior,  siliceous  copper  rock  containing  from 
0'9  per  cent,  to  1  '00  per  cent,  native  copper  has  been  dressed  (1886)  at  a  cost  as  low  as  26 '5 
cents  per  ton,  about  70  per  cent,  of  the  mineral  being  saved.  The  cost  may  be  sub- 
divided, assuming  the  same  percentages  as  in  the  previous  year,  about  as  follows  :  Labor, 
35  per  cent. ;  fuel,  47 '5  per  cent. ;  supplies,  etc.,  17*5  per  cent.  The  cost  of  dressing  in  this 
mill  in  1890  was  27 '78  cents  per  ton.  At  the  mill  of  the  St.  Joseph  Lead  Co.,  at  Bonne 
Terre,  Mo.,  ore  was  dressed  in  1887,  according  to  Prof.  H.  S.  Monroe  (Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min- 
ing Engrs.  vol.  xvii.  659),  at  a  cost  of  36 '4  cents  per  ton,  divided  as  follows  :  Labor,  13*4 
cents  :  repairs,  10  cents  ;  supplies,  3'5  cents  ;  coal,  9- 5  cents.  At  this  mill  all  the  water 
used  has  to  be  pumped  to  the  crusher  floor ;  and  all  the  tailings  are  carried  off  in  cars,  dis- 
advantages under  which  the  Atlantic  does  not  labor,  so  that  in  making  a  comparison  between 
the  two,  it  is  only  fair  to  deduct  10  cents  per  ton,  in  Professor  Monroe's  opinion,  from 
the  St.  Joseph  figures.  The  St.  Joseph  ore  is  galena  with  a  magnesian  limestone  gangue, 
assaying  from  7' 5  per  cent,  to  8  per  cent.  lead.  The  capacity  of  the  mill  is  800  tons  per 
day.  The  loss  in  tailings  amounted  to  27 '4  per  cent,  of  the  mineral.  At  the  Hecla  Con- 
solidated Mining  Co.'s  mill  at  Glendale,  Mont.,  ore  assaying  7  per  cent,  lead  and  15  oz. 
silver  per  ton,  was  dressed,  in  1890,  at  a  cost  of  41-47  cents  per  ton,  55  per  cent,  of  the 


ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY. 


589 


FIG.  1.— Rotary  picking  table. 


lead  and  37|  per  cent,  of  the  silver  being  saved.  The  average  cost  of  dressing  low-grade  ore 
in  the  silver-mining  districts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  small  mills,  say  of  100  tons  per  day 
capacity,  is  probably  between  75  cents  and  $1  per  ton. 

PICKING  TABLES. — In  ore  dressing  it  is  frequently  found  to  be  advantageous  to  sort  the 
ore  before  it  goes  to  the  fine-crushing  machinery  which  prepares  it  for  the  hydraulic 
machines — picking  out  the  pieces 
of  rich  mineral,  which  do  not 
need  to  be  concentrated,  and 
also  the  waste  or  worthless  rock. 
This  is  often  done  by  hand  by 
men  or  boys,  who  go  over  a  lot 
of  ore  spread  upon  a  platform, 
breaking  the  lumps  of  ore  with 
spalling  hammers  to  free  the 
pieces  of  rich  mineral,  and  throw- 
ing them  aside  into  separate 
piles.  A  more  economical  and 
systematic  method  is  to  discharge 
the  coarsely-crushed  rock  from 
the  rock  breaker  upon  a  contin- 
uously moving  table,  beside 
•which  are  stationed  boys  who 
pick  out  the  pieces  of  good 
ore  or  gangue  as  they  pass. 
Picking  tables  are  usually  made 
either  in  the  form  of  broad,  end- 
less belts  or  circular  rotating  platforms.  In  the  belt  tables  the  crushed  ore  is  made  to 
drop  on  it  at  one  end,  is  carried  forward  by  the  travel  of  the  belt,  being  picked  over  in 
the  meanwhile,  and  is  discharged  into  chutes  at  the  other  end.  The  rotary  tables  generally 
consist  of  a  large  annular  platform,  covered  with  punched  iron  plate  and  revolving  slowly 
(see  Fig.  1).  The  coarsely- broken  rock  falls  on  it  from  a  chute,  spreading  out,  and  is  carried 
by  the  revolution  of  the  table,  until,  meeting  an  inclined  scraper,  the  whole  is  pushed  off  into 
the  delivery  spout.  Standing  around  the  table  are  boys  who  pick  out  by  sight  the  large  pieces 
of  pure  mineral  or  gangue,  which  are  easily  distinguished  in  the  slowly  moving  layer  of  ore. 

ELEVATORS.— Elevators  are  used  for  raising  crushed  ore  from  breakers  or  rollers,  accord- 
ing to  the  arrangement  of  the  mill,  to  the  sizing  screens.  They  are  usually  of  the  belt-and- 
bucket  style,  and  driven  by  the  upper  pulley  shaft.  The  elevator  is  generally  inclined  for- 
ward at  the  top  to  give  a  free  discharge  to  the  buckets,  but  in  last-running  elevators  the 
centrifugal  force,  as  the  belt  passes  over  the  upper  pulley,  is  sufficient  to  throw  the  sand  into 
the  chute,  even  when  the  belt  is  hung  perpendicularly.  An  elevator's  capacity  depends  on 
the  size  and  number  of  buckets  and  the  speed.  Elevators  of  this  kind  are  encased  with  wood 
to  prevent  loss  of  spilled  material  and  slopping  of  water.  The  lower  end,  in  which  the  lower 
pulley  is  fixed,  may  be  a  continuation  of  the  wooden  casing,  or  may  be  an  iron  boot  with  a 
belt  tightener.  The  belt  is  always  of  four  or  five-ply  rubber  belting  of  good  quality,  and  the 
buckets,  of  heavy  sheet  iron  or  steel,  are  fastened  to  the  belt  by  countersunk  bolts. 

The  Link-belt  (cfiain}  Elevator  consists  of  a  series  of  iron  buckets  carried  or  fixed  to  an 
endless  chain,  instead  of  to  a  belt,  making  a  combination  of  great  durability.  For  ordinary 
duty  a  single  chain  is  sufficient,  but  for  great  duty  and  wide  buckets  two  chains  side  by  side 
are  used.  The  average  speed  of  an  elevator  is  about  200  ft.  per  minute. 

Sand  Wheels  are  a  special  form  of  elevators  employed  at  the  Lake  Superior  dressing 
works  for  raising  the  vast  quantity  of  tailings  to  such  height  that  they  can  be  sluiced  to  the 
place  of  deposit,  the  contour  of  the  ground  on  which  many  of  the  mills  are  built  being  such 
that  this  can  not  be  done  naturally.  The  great  wheels  used  at  the  Calumet  and  Hecla  mills, 
which  will  serve  as  a  type  of  all,  are  built  upon  the  principle  of  those  used  on  bicycles,  with 
all  spokes  in  tension.  These  spokes  are  in  two  systems — a  set  of  conically  divergent  radial 
spokes  for  lateral  stability  and  to  support  the  rim,  and  a  set  of  smaller  tangent  spokes  for 
driving.  The  shaft  and  hub  are  of  gun-metal,  cast  hollow,  in  three  pieces,  and  about  23  ft. 
8  in.  long  over  all.  The  greatest  diameter  of  the  spider  of  the  hub  where  the  spokes  are 
attached  is  7  ft.  4  in.  The  journals  are  22  in.  diameter  and  40  in.  long.  The  spokes  are  of 
forged  steel,  3f  in.  diameter  and  about  22  ft.  long.  The  rim  of  the  wheel  is  built  up  of  18 
cast-iron  segments  bolted  together,  outside  of  which  is  an  equal  number  of  gun-iron  gear 
segments.  The  pitch  diameter  of  this  gear  is  54  ft.,  the  number  of  teeth  432,  and  the  face  of 
teeth  is  18  in.  On  either  side  of  this  central  rim  a  plate-steel  frame  is  built,  carrying  internal 
buckets,  making  the  total  width  of  wheel  rim  11  ft.  \  in.  The  buckets  are  lined  with  wood 
to  take  the  wear.  The  water  and  sand  are  delivered  to  the  wheel  by  launders,  which  empty 
into  the  buckets  on  either  side.  At  the  top  of  the  wheel  on  either  side  is  an  apron  suspended 
from  the  roof  trusses  and  extending  into  the  wheel  far  enough  to  receive  the  water  and  sand 
delivered  by  the  buckets,  whence  it  is  run  off  through  other  launders.  The  wheel  is  driven 
by  a  pinion  which  meshes  into  the  gear  before  mentioned.  The  weight  of  each  wheel  com- 
plete,  including  the  wooden  lining  of  the  buckets,  is  about  177  tons,  and  the  weight  of  con- 
tained  water  and  sand  about  10  tons.  The  elevating  capacity  of  this  wheel  is  30.000,000 
gallons  of  water,  containing  2,000  tons  of  sand,  every  24  hours.  This  amount  of  sand  is  nearly 
sufficient  to  cover  one  acre,  one  foot  deep,  daily. 


590 


ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY. 


SIZING  SCREENS. — Sizing  screens  are  a  very  important  part  of  a  concentrating  mill,  as  the 
success  of  the  subsequent  separation  of  the  various  constituents  of  the  ore  to  be  treated  by 
the  hydraulic  machines  depends  upon  the  proper  sizing  of  the  particles.  The  ordinary  sizing 
screen  or  trommel  consists  of  a  series  of  spiders,  keyed  to  a  shaft,  over  which  is  stretched 
wire  cloth  or  sheets  of  punched  steel  or  iron  plate.  The  number  of  trommels  and  the  mesh 
of  the  screens  on  them  is  regulated  to  suit  the  character  of  the  ore  treated  and  the  degree  of 
separation  desired.  The  general  arrangement  of  the  trommels  used  in  concentrating  mills 
is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Each  trommel  is  geared  to  the  one  next  to  it,  so  that  the  whole  line  may 


FIG.  2.— Sizing  screens  or  trommels. 


be  driven  from  one  point.  The  fine  material  from  one  screen  passes  to  the  next  finer  screen, 
and  so  on  to  the  required  number.  The  material  remaining  on  each  screen,  and  afterward 
discharged  to  the  proper  jig,  is  thus  sized — i.e.,  it  has  passed  through  the  perfora- 
tion of  the  preceding  screen  and  will  not  pass  through  the  perforations  of  the  one  retaining 
it.  In  dressing  works  the  ore  is  invariably  screened  wet.  The  water  for  this  purpose  is 
sometimes  fed  through  the  shaft  of  the  trommel,  which  is  in  this  case  made  hollow,  but 
usually  from  a  perforated  pipe  hung  above  the  trommel.  Trommels  are  sometimes  made  of 
conical  form,  the  axis  being  horizontal,  and  occasionally  both  cylindrical  and  conical 
screens  are  made  with  two  sizes  of  wire  cloth  upon  the  same  frame,  making,  in  effect,  a  com- 
pound trommel.  Concentric  trommels,  which  consist  of  drums  of  different  mesh,  one  within 
another,  are  never  used  now,  the  difficulty  of  repairing  them  making  them  highly  objection- 
able in  a  mill.  It  is  not  usual  in  well-designed  dressing  works  to  use  screens  finer  than  20- 
mesh,  as  the  material  which  will  pass  that  size  is  better  prepared  for  the  slime  jigs  and 
tables  by  hydraulic  separators,  and  the  finer  screens  wear  out  top  fast,  increasing  expenses 
for  repairs,  and  causing  undue  loss  of  time  in  patching  or  recovering  them. 

HYDRAULIC  SEPARATORS. — Hydraulic  separators  are  machines  for  classifying  the  fine 
material  to  be  concentrated  into  groups  of  particles  which,  under  like  conditions,  fall  through 
the  water  together,  the  material  thus  being  prepared  for  the  jigs  or  other  slime-washing  ma- 
chines. The  hydraulic  classifiers  in  general  use  are,  with  unimportant  modifications,  forms 
of  the  old  German  Spitzlutte  or  Spitzkasten,  in  which  the  particles  of  ore  settle  in  pointed 
boxes  against  an  upward  current  of  clean  water.  They  are  regulated  according  to  the  work 
to  be  done  by  varying  the  velocity  of  the  stream  of  ore  and  water  passing  through  them,  and 


the  strength  of  the  upward  current  of  water. 
IJie  Calumet  or  Richards-C( 


z- 


FIG.  3.— Calumet  separator. 


'oggin  separator  (Fig.  3),  which  is  generally  used  in  the  Lake 
Superior  dressing  works,  con- 
sists of  four  or  five  boxes,  D,  D, 
etc.,  or  depressions  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a  continuous  trough. 
The  water  and  sand  enter  at 
m  and  undergo  successive  wash- 
ings in  each  box  until  the  fine 
sand  overflows  at  n.  The  opera- 
tion in  each  of  the  boxes  is  as 
follows  :  The  heaviest  sand  at 
once  finds  its  way  to  the  bottom  of 
the  box ;  the  wash-water  is  brought 
in  through  the  pipe,  a,  in  greater 
quantity  than  is  sufficient  to  sup- 
ply the  spigot,  E.  No  sand,  there- 
fore, can  find  its  way  out  through 
E  that  has  not  weight  enough  to 
stem  this  water  stream.  This  ex- 
cess of  water  also  acts  by  keeping 
the  whole  bottom  of  the  box  in  a 
boil  and  turmoil,  thus  ever  push- 
ing up  the  lighter  sands  and 
allowing  the  heavier  to  keep  near 
the  bottom.  The  shield,  c,  prevents 
the  stream  from  rising  straight 
up,  thereby  confining  the  turmoil 
to  the  bottom  of  the  box. 


JIGS. — This  is  the  general  name  for  the  concentrating  machine  universally  employed  for 


ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY. 


591 


separating  the  particles  of  mineral  and  gangue  in  sand  and  coarse  meal  sizes.  The  Hartz 
jig  (Fig.  4),  which,  as  is  well  known,  consists  of  a  wooden  tank  with  a  wedge-shape  bottom, 
divided  transversely  into  a  number  of  compartments,  these 
being  further  subdivided  by  a  longitudinal  partition  not  ex- 
tending to  the  bottom,  on  one  side  of  which  is  a  sieve,  and  on 
the  other  a  piston,  remains  the  standard  type  of  jig,  and  most 
of  the  other  jigs  in  use  are  but  modifications  of  it.  In  the 
Hartz  jig  the  motion  of  the  piston  or  plunger  is  given  by  an 
adjustable  eccentric.  The  Collom  jig,  used  at  Lake  Superior, 
is  a  side-piston  jig  (Fig.  5),  in  which  the  plunger  is  depressed 
by  a  crank  and  lever  tappet,  a  spring  raising  the  plunger  when 
the  tappet  is  removed.  This  device  gives  a  rapid  rising  cur- 
rent through  the  jig  sieve,  and  a  more  gentle  descending  cur- 
rent, an  action  which  increases  the  sorting  action  of  the  jig. 
Other  mechanical  means  for  securing  this  slow  return  move- 
ment of  the  piston  have  been  introduced,  but  the  Collom  is 
the  only  jig  of  this  type  which  has  come  into  use  in  this 
country.  The  under-piston  jigs  have  a  piston  working  in  a 
short  cylinder  placed  in  the  longitudinal  portion  between  two 
compartments,  the  piston  rod  extending  out  through  the  jig 
box  through  a  stuffing-box,  and  receiving  its  reciprocating 
motion  from  an  eccentric.  Instead  of  the  ordinary  V-shape 
bottoms,  jigs  with  rounded  bottoms  are  sometimes  used,  es- 
pecially as  slime  jigs,  the  rounded  bottom  aiding  in  the  regu-  FIG.  4.— Hartz  jig. 
lar  movement  of  the  water.  For  very  coarse  material,  and 

occasionally  for  iron  ores,  instead  of  giving  motion  to  water  through  a  fixed  screen,  sieves, 
either  rectangular  or  circular,    having  a  vertical  reciprocating  motion  in  a  tub  of  water, 

are  sometimes  used,  the 
effect  being  the  same.  Pneu- 
matic jigs  have  been  de- 
signed and  used  experimen- 
tally, but  have  rarely  been 
regularly  employed. 

The  Argall  Jig  is  a  double 
Hartz  jig  with  a  central  pis- 
ton working  between  two 
sieves.  The  reciprocating 
motion  of  the  piston  is  given 
by  an  adjustable  eccentric  in 
the  usual  manner. 

The  Parsons  Jig  is  a  two- 
sieve,  under-piston  jig,  each 
sieve  being  22  x  27  in.  in  the 
clear.  The  pulsating  move- 
ment of  the  water  is  given 
by  a  piston  working  in  a  short  horizontal  cylinder  in  the  partition  between  the  two  jig  boxes. 
The  piston  is  15^  in.  in  diameter ;  the  cylinder,  44-  in.  long.  The  piston-rod  is  horizontal 
and  enters  through  a  stuffing-box.  The  stroke  of  the  piston  is  2  in.,  and  its  speed  510  strokes 
per  minute.  The  quantity  of  water  required  at  the  St.  Joseph  Lead  Co.'s  Works,  at  Bonne 
Terre.  Mo.,  where  this  jig  is  extensively  used,  is  about  32  gallons  per  minute,  jigging  about 
9  tons  of  sand  per  24  hours.  For  convenience  the  jigs  are  made  double — i.e.,  four  sieves,  or 
two  jigs,  are  united  in  one  machine. 

SLIME-WASHING  MACHINES. — The  Frue  Vanner  (Fig.  6)  is  an  endless  inclined  rubber  belt, 
supported  by  rollers  so  as  to  form  a  plane  inclined  rubber  surface,  4  ft.  wide,  12  ft.  long, 
and  bounded  on  the  sides  by  rubber  flanges.  The  belt  travels  up  the  incline  and  around  a 
lower  drum,  which  dips  into  a  water  tank  where  the  mineral  is  collected.  In  addition  to  the 
trave?  of  the  belt,  the  latter  receives  a  steady  shaking  or  settling  motion  from  a  crank  shaft 
along  one  side,  the  shake  being  at  right  angles  to  inclination  and  travel  of  belt.  The  best 
motion  is  found  to  be  from  180  to  200  strokes  per  minute,  with  about  1  in.  throw.  The  ore 
is  fed  on  in  a  stream  of  water  about  3  ft.  from  the  head  of  the  belt,  and  flows  slowly  down  the 
incline,  subjected  to  the  steady  shaking  motion,  which  deposits  the  mineral  on  the  belt.  At 
the  head  of  the  belt  is  a  row  of  water  jets.  The  slow  upward  travel  of  the  belt,  varying  from 
2  ft.  to  12  ft.  per  minute,  brings  up  the  deposited  mineral,  and  the  water  jets  wash  back  the 
lighter  sand,  letting  only  the  heavy  mineral  pass  and  deposit  in  the  water  tank  below.  The 
inclination  of  the  upper' surface  of  the  belt  varies  from  4  in.  to  |  in.  in  1  ft.  The  capacity 
of  the  machine  is  from  5  to  12  tons,  according  to  character  of  the  ore  treated,  but  practice 
has  demonstrated  that  6  tons  of  40-mesh  stuff  per  24  hours  is  as  much  as  it  is  advisable  to 
treat.  A  depth  of  -|  in.  to  |  in.  of  sand  and  water  is  constantly  kept  on  the  belt.  The 
average  amount  of  water  required  is  from  1  to  \\  gallons  per  minute  at  the  head,  and  from 
1|  to  3  gallons  per  minute  with  the  pulp. 

The  Morw-Frue,  Vanner  is  a  modification  of  the  old  type  of  Frue  vanner.  the  essential 
difference  being  in  the  rubber  belt,  the  surface  of  the  latter  being  roughened  in  the  new  ma- 
chine, with  fine  transverse  corrugations.  The  corrugated  belt  being  heavier  than  the  plain 


FIG.   5.— Collom  jig. 


592 


ORE-DRESSING  MACHINERY. 


belt,  extra  supporting  rollers  on  the  shaking  frame  are  necessary.  The  surface  of  the  corru- 
gated belt  is  given  a  slightly  greater  inclination,  a  fall  ,of  from  3  in.  to  5  in.  in  12  ft.  being 
commonly  used,  instead  of  3  in.  to  4  in.,  as  in  the  case  of  the  plain  belt.  The  water  distribu- 
tor consists  of  two  rows  of  water  jets,  1£  in.  apart,  the  back  ones  alternating  with  the  front 
ones,  the  distance  between  the  back  and  front  rows  being  2J  in.  The  distributor  is  placed 
from  1  in.  to  2  in.  higher  up  towards  the  head  of  the  belt  than  in  the  old  machines,  and  is 
also  raised  somewhat  higher  above  the  belt,  so  as  to  give  a  drop  of  about  1§  in.  from  the 
spouts  to  the  belt  surface.  More  water  is  required  than  with  the  old  belts.  The  revolutions 
of  the  crank  shaft  vary  from  194  to  210  per  minute,  and  the  forward  motion  of  the  belt  from 
28  ft.  to  33  ft.  per  minute,  according  to  the  character  of  the  ore  treated.  The  capacity  of  this 
machine  is  considerably  greater  than  that  of  the  ordinary  Frue  vanner,  and  it  can  be  used 
for  the  treatment  of  coarser  slimes.  Indeed,  these  belts  have  given  excellent  results  at  some 
places  on  material  that  is  usually  washed  on  meal  jigs. 

The  Embrey  Concentrator  is  very  similar  to  the  Frue  vanner  in  construction  and  opera- 
tion, but  the  belt  is  given  an  end  shake  instead  of  a  side  shake. 

The  Triumph  Table  is  also  a  belt  machine,  resembling  the  Frue  vanner  and  Embrey  con- 
centrator, and,  like  the  latter,  the  belt  has  an  end  shake. 

The  Lurig  Vanner  is  an  end-shake  belt  machine  which  is  very  similar  to  the  Frue  van- 
ner in  construction,  and  works  upon  the  same  principle. 

The  Gamier  Concentrator  is  a  belt  machine,  in  which  the  belt  is  given  a  peculiar  panning 


FIG.  6.  —Frue  vanner. 

motion.  The  belt  frame  is  supported  at  the  rear  end  on  a  sliding  bearing,  and  at  the  front 
by  a  vertical  eccentric  shaft.  By  means  of  the  eccentric  a  circular  movement  is  imparted  to 
the  forward  part  of  the  belt,  which  becomes  approximately  a  simple  back  and  forth  throw  at 
the  other  end.  The  belt  has  a  continuous  forward  movement,  as  in  other  machines  of  this 
class,  and  is  fed  and  adjusted  in  similar  manner. 

The  Woodbury  Concentrator  is  similar  to  the  Frue  vanner,  but  instead  of  the  single 
smooth  belt,  thirteen  narrow  parallel  belts  are  used.  The  pulp  being  equally  divided  be- 
tween these  belts,  which  prevent  it  from  running  to  one  side  of  the  machine  or  the  other,  it 
is  claimed  that  a  thicker  bed  of  pulp  can  be  worked,  and  that  the  machine  has  increased 
capacity  in  consequence.  A  revolving  feed-bowl  distributes  to  each  belt  its  exact  proportion 
of  sand  and  water.  The  rims  of  the  belts  are  corrugated  to  prevent  cracking  as  they  stretch 
in  passing  over  the  end  rollers.  The  capacity  of  this  machine  is  claimed  to  be  from  12  to  15 
tons  per  24  hours.  Several  of  them  have  been  introduced  recently,  but  no  actual  working 
results  have  been  published. 

The  Golden  Gate  Concentrator  consists  of  a  tray  about  11  ft.  in  length,  resting  upon 
supports,  upon  which  it  has  a  longitudinally  reciprocating  movement.  This  reciprocating 
movement  varies  in  speed  in  such  manner  as  to  cause  the  pulp,  fed  upon  the  tray  at  one  end, 
to  travel  slowly  over  its  surface  toward  the  other  end,  and  the  pulp  is,  by  the  shaking 
motion,  kept  in  a  loose  condition,  so  that  the  mineral  may  settle  out  of  the  gangue  upon  the 
surface  of  the  tray.  The  tray  proper  consists  of  two  distinct  parts,  forming,  however,  one 
continuous  surface.  One  part,  being  designed  for  the  settling  of  the  mineral,  is  horizontal, 
and  has  hardly  any  perceptible  current  of  water,  thus  allowing  the  fine  mineral  to  settle  out 
of  the  water  and  reach  the  bottom  of  the  tray  ;  the  other  part  has  an  adjustable  inclination 
upwards  from  its  junction  with  the  horizontal  part,  and  over  this  part  the  current  of  wash- 
water  flows,  which  washes  away  the  gangue  from  the  mineral.  At  the  junction  of  the  hori- 
zontal with  the  inclined  part  of  the  tray,  and  extending  across  its  width,  is  a  protecting 
plate,  set  somewhat  above  its  surface  and  parallel  thereto.  Above  the  protecting  plate  is  an 
exhaust  tube  extending  across  the  tray,  and  connected  with  two  settling  chambers,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  tray,  within  which  a  vacuum,  sufficient  to  sustain  a  column  of  4  in. 
or  5  in.  of  water,  is  constantly  maintained  by  an  exhaust  fan.  Just  above  the  protecting 
plate,  and  connected  with  channels  formed  in  the  body  of  the  exhaust  tube,  are  exhaust 
mouths,  into  which  the  gangue  and  water  are  drawn  by  the  vacuum  maintained,  being  then 
discharged  over  each  side  of  the  machine  into  the  settling  chambers,  and  thence  into  the 


ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY.  593 

tailing  sluice.  The  operation  of  the  concentrator  is  as  follows  :  The  crushed  ore,  with  a 
suitable  amount  of  water,  is  fed  on  to  the  horizontal  part  of  the  tray  through  the  distributor 
at  one.  end  of  the  machine.  The  shaking  motion  of  the  tray  causes'the  pulp  to  slowly  travel 
toward  the  protecting  plate.  The  heavy  mineral,  settling*  to  the  bottom,  passes  under  the 
latter,  together  with  some  of  the  gangue.  The  larger  part  of  the  gangue  and  all  the  surplus 
water  pass  above  the  plate,  the  position  of  which  is  adjusted  to  suit  the  ore,  and,  arriving  at 
the  exhaust  mouths,  are  drawn  off  and  discharged  into  the  tailings  sluice.  The  pulp  which 
has  passed  under  the  plate  continues  on  up  the  inclined  part  of  the  tray,  where  the  gangue  is 
separated  from  the  mineral  by  a  stream  of  wash-water  from  the  head  of  the  machine.  The 
gangue  and  wash-water  are  taken  up  by  the  exhaust  mouths,  as  before  explained,  and  the 
mineral  is  delivered  continuously  over  the  head  of  the  machine. 

lite  Bertenshaw,  or  Gilpin  County  Concentrator  (Fig.  7),  is  an  end  bump  table, 
the  motion  being 
imparted  by  a  cam 
at  the  tailings  end. 
The  cam  works 
in  a  box,  which 
can  be  filled  with 
tallow  or  other 
grease,  thus  insur- 
ing constant  lubri- 
cation at  every 
revolution  of  the 
shaft.  In  this  box 
is  placed  a  steel 
shoe,  with  a  bolt 
tnrough  its  center 
for  the  cam  to  wear 
upon,  which  can  be 
changed  end  for  Fl°-  7.— Bertenshaw  concentrator, 

end    as    the    wear 

may  require.  The  spring  is  of  torsional  character,  and  easily  adjusted,  without  stopping  the 
machine,  by  the  set-screw  and  clamp  at  each  end.  There  is  also  a  clamp  bar  attached  to  the 
center  of  the  spring,  which  works  in  the  cam  box  to  give  the  bumping  blow  when  the  cam 
point  leaves  the  shoe.  The  bed  frame  of  the  machine  terminates  in  a  solid  block  of  wood  at 
the  headings  end,  against  which  the  table  bumps.  The  table  is  supported  from  four 
standards,  swinging  on  knife-edge  bearings.  The  pitch  of  the  table  is  adjusted  by  bolts  and 
set-screws  on  the  front  standards.  The  speed  of  the  machine  is  governed  by  the  character  of 
the  ore  to  be  treated,  varying  from  loO  bumps  per  minute  upward. 

The  RUtinger  Table,  one  of  the  oldest  types  of  slime- washing  machines,  is  much  used  in 
Germany,  and  to  some  extent  in  this  country.  It  consists,  in  the  single  form,  of  a  plain 
inclined  table,  hung  from  above  in  such  manner  as  to  move  freely  at  right  angles  to  inclina- 
tion, and  operated  by  a  cam  and  spring,  which  produce  a  quick  succession  of  jars  and  shocks 
against  a  solid  frame.  The  ore,  in  a  stream  of  water,  is  fed  on  at  one  of  the  upper  corners, 
and  flows  down  the  incline,  but  the  successive  shocks  affect  the  particles  of  rock  and  mineral, 
tending  to  jerk  them  out  in  the  direction  of  the  shock  with  a  force  varying  with  specific 
gravity  and  size.  The  effect  of  the  double  force  exerted  by  the  downward  current  of  water 
and  jar  at  right  angles  thereto  is  to  make  the  heavier  particles  take  a  diagonal  course,  and, 
by  a  few  adjustable  buttons  on  the  lower  end  of  the  table,  a  separation  according  to  speci  fie 
gravity  is  brought  about,  the  heaviest  particles  moving  farther  across  than  the  lighter. 
Along'the  upper  end  of  table  unoccupied  by  the  pulp  discharge,  water  jets  flow  on  the  table 
in  regulated  quantity,  so  that  its  whole  surface  is  washed  and  the  line  of  the  mineral  particles 
controlled.  The  tables  are  usually  hung  in  pairs,  to  save  space  and  machinery.  The  tables 
are  sometimes  of  wood,  with  rubber  covering  ;  sometimes  of  slate,  marble,  or  plate  glass, 
about  4  ft.  wide  by  8  ft.  long,  and  varying  in  number  and  intensity  of  shocks  with  the 
fineness  of  ore  treated.  These  tables  are  well  adapted  for  the  treatment  of  the  coarser  slimes, 
but  their  capacity  is  small. 

The  Parsons-Rittinger  Table  is  a  modification  of  the  old  Rittinger  side-bump  machine. 
The  tables,  as  used  at  Bonne  Terre,  Mo.,  are  built  in  pairs,  and  each  table  is  made  double, 
as  usual,  each  half  of  the  double  table  being  about  3  x  7-V  ft.  Instead  of  being  hung 
from  rods,  the  table  is  supported  on  four  cast-iron  feet  or  guides,  which  slide  on  horizontal 
steel  rods.  The  latter  rest  in  cast-iron  saddles,  bolted  to  heavy  sill  timbers,  which  run 
under  a  whole  row  of  tables.  The  tables  bump  against  each  other,  the  blow  being  taken  by 
a  joist  of  hard  wood  lying  loose  between  them.  The  tables  are  forced  apart,  against  the 
tension  of  springs,  by  a 'spiral,  wedge-shaped  cam.  The  number  of  bumps  given  per  minute 
is  150  :  throw.  \  in.  The  tables  are  inclined  at  an  angle  of  4.?".  Their  surfaces  are  covered 
with  black  enameled  duck,  such  as  is  used  for  desks,  which  furnishes  a  covering  cheap  and 
easily  renewed,  and  well  adapted  for  the  fine  material  treated  at  Bonne  Terre. 

The  Ecans  Table  is  a  circular  buddle  of  improved  pattern,  which  is  in  general  use  at  the 
Lake  Superior  dressing  works.  Referring  to  Fig.  8,  A  is  a  launder  to  conduct  the  slimes 
from  the  catch-pit  or  slime  box  to  the  distributor,  B,  which  has  a  partition  (a)  in  it  to  sepa- 
rate the  clear  water  from  the  puddled  water  or  slime  water.  The  clear  water  is  supplied 
by  pipe  (d)  to  the  distributor,  and  runs  over  one-hail'  of  the  table,  D,  while  the  sliine  water 

38 


594 


ORE-DRESSING  MACHINERY. 


runs  over  the  other  half,  being  controlled  by  the  division  piece.  L.  The  sand  and  water 
being  on  one  side  of  distributor,  B,  runs  through  its  perforated  bottom,  and  are  distributed 
equally  over  one-half  of  the  stationary  head,  C\  and  run  on  the  rotating  table,  D,  into  the 
circular  launder,  N,  then  through  the  waste  pipes,  00;  the  ores  remain  on  the  upper  part 
of  table,  D,  and  after  concentration  being  shielded  from  the  action  of  clear  water  by  the 
cone-shaped  head,  G.  The  proper  grades  of  ores  are,  through  the  action  of  clear  water, 

washed  about  half  way  down 
the  rotating  table,  D.  They 
then  come  in  contact  with 
the  diagonal  perforated  pipe, 
E,  and  are  re-washed  by  a 
succession  of  small  jets  from 
perforations  of  small  pipe. 
The  ore  passing  between  the 
jets  is  carried  around  on  the 
rotating  table,  D,  until  it 
comes  in  contact  with  a  jet 
of  water  from  pipe,  F,  and 
conducting  board,  G.  The 

PIG.  8.— Evans  table.  jet,  F,  conducts  the  ore  into 

hutch,  H,  through  pipe,  /. 

The  middle  or  second  grade  ore  is  washed  off  table,  Z>,  by  the  perforated  pipe,  E,  and  is 
deposited  in  hutch,  J,  through  pipe,  K,  to  be  re-washed.  The  head,  C,  is  suspended  from 
frame.  M,  so  that  it  can  be  readily  adjusted  relatively  to  the  table  as  it  may  be  required. 
The  arms  and  segments  should  be  made  of  hard  pine,  about  half  seasoned.  The  sheeting 
or  surface  should  be  soft  pine,  and  must  be  green  lumber  and  perfectly  clear.  The  surface 
of  table  must  be  true  and  uniform,  and  the  width  of  the  boards  should  not  exceed  5  in. 
The  boards  are  joined  by  tongue  and  grooves.  The  speed  of  machine  is  one  revolution  in 
80  seconds.  Pitch  or  incline  of  table,  1\  in.  to  1  ft.  Pitch  of  head,  If  in.  to  1  ft.  The 
capacity  of  the  machine  is  25  to  30  tons  per  day  of  24  hours. 

The  Linkenbach  Buddie  is  a  stationary,  continuous-working,  outward- flow  table,  designed 
by  C.  Linkenbach.  The  table  itself  is  fixed,  but  both  the  supply  and  receiving  launders 
revolve,  the  advantages  thus  gained  being  cheaper  construction  and  the  possibility  of 
using  very  large  tables,  requiring  small  motive  force.  The  principle  of  the  slime  washing 
on  this  table  is  the  same  as  with  the  rotary  round  table.  The  slimes  are  delivered  upon  a 
distributing  apron  at  the  center,  and  are  discharged  at  each  revolution  of  the  axle, 
spreading  out  over  the  table.  The  axle  carries  the  perforated  wash-water  pipes,  which 
extend  out  over  the  table,  and  at  each  revolution  wash  the  pulp  covering  the  surface  of 
the  latter.  The  headings  and  tailings  are  discharged  into  a  circular  launder,  around  the 
table,  which  revolves  at  the 
same  rate  as  the  wash-water 
pipes.  The  tables  are  made 
of  thin  iron  plates,  supported 
by  radial  arms,  covered  with 
a  layer  of  cement  about  3  in. 
thick.  The  capacity  of  a  sin- 
gle table,  26  ft.  in  diameter, 
is  said  to  be  about  15  tons  of 
fine  meal  and  pulp  per  24 
hours.  To  economize  space, 
and  further  cheapen  the  cost 
of  construction,  triple  tables 


FIG.  9.— Collom  buddle. 


are  sometimes  used,  the  three  fH " UsfissdlllfcsssEsf 

being  placed  one  above  the 
other,  and  the  feed-water 
pipes  being  carried  on  the 
same  axis. 

The  Collom  Buddie  (Fig. 
9)  is  a  convex,  circular  revolving  table,  over  one-half  of  which,  and  parallel  with  its  surface, 
are  fixed  six  light  arms,  from  each  of  which  are  suspended  two  or  three  small  brooms,  lightly 
sweeping  the  surface  of  the  table.  The  pulp  is  fed  at  the  center  of  the  table,  and  as  it 
spreads  out  the  coarser  particles  are  stirred  repeatedly  from  their  positions  and  caused  to  roll 
outward,  or  toward  the  tail  end  of  the  table. 

IRON-ORE  DRESSING  MACHINERY. — In  this  country  much  money,  labor,  and  thought  have 
been  devoted  to  the  enrichment  of  iron  ores  by  roasting  to  drive  off  sulphur  and  carbonic 
acid,  or  make  the  ore  more  friable,  and  by  washing  and  screening  to  remove  the  clay  and 
sand  from  earthy  ores.  Iron  ores  being  so  different  in  character  from  lead,  zinc,  and  copper 
ores,  their  value  per  ton  being  so  much  less,  and  many  varieties  being  magnetic,  a  property 
which  is  made  available  in  the  separation  of  the  mineral  from  the  gangue,  iron-ore  dressing 
works,  and  the  machinery  used  in  them,  is  quite  different  from  that  employed  for  other  ores. 
Earthy,  clayey  ores  are  cleaned  in  many  districts  by  crude  machines  of  large  capacity,  such 
as  log-washers,  which  suffice  to  make  a  fairly  good  separation  of  the  mineral  and  gangue, 
the  difference  in  specific  gravity  being  so  great.  Rough  jigs  are  used  in  many  places,  and 


ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY. 


595 


in  some  localities  elaborately  equipped  dressing  works  have  been  erected.  For  many  years 
the  magnetites  of  the  Adirondack  region  have  been  roasted,  and  jigged  on  screens  in  water. 
Laterally  crushers  and  rolls  have  been  introduced  for  comminuting  tue  ore,  and  plunger  and 
rotary  jigs  have  taken  the  place  of  the  cruder  jigs  formerly  in  use.  At  the  large  dressing 
works  of  the  Chateaugay  Ore  and  Iron  Co.,  at  Lyon  Mountain,  N.  Y.,  the  cost  of  dressing 
137.551  tons  of  ore,  from  September  '26,  1886,  to  January  1,  1888,  was  30  7  cents  per  ton, 
which  was  divided  as  follows  :  Fuel,  64  cents  ;  labor,  15^  cents  ;  oil,  waste,  etc.,  1-7  cents  ; 
supplies,  renewals,  and  repairs,  7£  cents.  The  ore  was  crushed  from  15  in.  size  to  \  in.  size 
by  Blake  rock  breakers  and  multiple  crushers,  and  was-  washed  on  Conkling  jigs.  Recently 
much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  magnetic  concentration  of  iron  ores,  and  several 
plants,  which  have  already  made  large  outputs,  have  been  erected.  The  most  extensive  and 
systematic  work  with  this  process  has  probably  been  done  at  Witherbee,  Sherman  &  Co.'s 
mines  at  Port  Henry,  N.  Y.,  and  at  the  Croton  mines,  at  Brewster,  N.  Y.  At  the  latter 
place,  Mr.  W.  H.  Hoffman  states  that  i!8  per  cent,  ore  is  concentrated  at  a  cost  of  f  1.95  per 
gross  ton  of  concentrates.  This  expense  is  divided  as  follows  :  Mining  and  delivering  to 
roasters,  $1.13  ;  roasting,  23  cents  ;  handling  at  roasters,  3  cents  ;  preparation  and  screening, 
22  cents;  supplies  and  repairs,  5|  cents  ;  separating,  including  labor  and  power,  7 cents; 
delivering  concentrates  to  railway,  4  cents  ;  office  and  laboratory  expenses,  4|  cents  ;  insur- 
ance, interest,  and  taxes,  13  cents.  This  is  equivalent  to  a  cost  of  less  than  16  cents  per  ton 
of  crude  ore  for  dressing,  and  is  very  remarkable,  and,  at  the  present  time,  exceptional 
practice. 

HYDRAULIC  MACHINES. — The  McLanaJian  Improved  Double-log  Ore  Washer  consists  of  a 
long,  inclined  box,  in  which  revolve  two  parallel  logs,  studded  spirally  with  broad,  flat 
teeth.  The  logs  are  from  17  in.  to  18  in.  in  diameter,  hewn  hexagonally,  and  30  ft.  long, 
covered  with  iron  their  entire  length.  The  washer  box  is  placed  on  an  incline  of  from  2  to 


?12Z£g^ 


II  iflflflflfl?    SSSS3SS 


FIG.  10.— Thomas  washer. 

3  ft.  in  its  length,  thus  practically  submerging  the  logs  one-half  their  entire  length,  the  back 
end  of  the  washer  box  being  4  ft.  high.  The  teeth  with  which  the  logs  are  studded  are  made 
with  detached  bases,  the  bases  being  secured  to  the  logs,  so  that  the  chilled  teeth  may  be  re- 
newed without  disturbing  the  bases.  The  logs  are  provided  with  heavy  flanged  gudgeons,  the 
back  or  lower  gudgeon  being  protected  with  a  chilled  thimble,  which  runs  in  a  chilled  step 
or  bearing. 

The  logs  are  both  driven  from  the  front  or  discharge  end  by  spur  and  bevel  gearing.  Two 
or  more  washers  may  be  set  side  by  side,  all  driven  by  the  same  main  line  shaft,  with  counter- 
shafts to  each  washer,  this  countershaft  being  fitted  with  a  shifting  clutch,  so  that  any  one 
machine  may  be  readily  stopped  without  interfering  with  the  operation  of  the  others.  Some- 
times it  is  desirable  to  drive  from  the  back  end,  but  in  all  cases  both  logs  are  driven  from 
the  same  end.  and  logs  are  always  submerged  at  back  end.  The  ore  to  be  washed  is  brought 
from  the  mines  in  tram-cars  and  discharged  directly  into  the  washer-box  through  a  coarse 
grating,  or  "grizzly,"  which  prevents  very  large  lumps  going  into  the  washer.  As  the 
teeth  agitate  and  feed  the  ore  forward  toward  the  discharge,  it  is  met  by  a  stream  of  water 
which  carries  the  clay  back  to  the  mud  discharge.  The  ore,  after  bein^  thoroughly  separated 
from  the  adhering  clay  and  soil,  passes  into  a  revolving  sand  screen,  where  it  receives  a  final 
rinsing,  and  passes  clean  and  bright  onto  an  inclined  conveyor,  which  serves  as  a  table  from 
which  any  foreign  material  may  be  hand-picked  as  it  is  slowly  carried  forward  into  loading 
bins,  or  discharged  direct  into  cars.  Xo  ore  washer  is  complete  without  the  revolving  screen 
and  conveyor,  both  of  which  are  of  simple  construction,  made  of  iron  and  steel,  and  especially 
designed  for  this  work.  The  screen  is  driven  by  gearing  from  the  discharge  end.  The  back 
end,  being  carried  on  friction-roller  wheels,  admits  of  large  opening  to  receive  the  ore  from 
the  washer.  The  conveyor  is  made  of  steel  pans  24  in.  wide,  secured  to  double-link  chain  of 
i  x  li-in.  iron,  and  l}-in.  steel  pins,  with  wearing  blocks  in  joints  to  protect  the  links. 

The  Thomas  Washer,  which  is  very  similar  to  the    preceding,  consists  essentially  of  a 


596 


ORE-DRESSING  MACHINERY. 


rectangular  box  having  cast-iron  ends  and  heavy  oak  bottom  and  sides.      The  box  is  usually 


or  shovels,  of  cast-iron,  arranged  helically,  in  such  manner  that  the  logs,  which  are  turned  in 
opposite  directions,  form  two  large  screws.  The  main  box  is  set  at  a  small  angle  from  the 
horizontal,  and  receives  the  ore  at  its  lowest  end,  while  a  stream  of  water  enters  at  the  upper 
end.  The  logs  revolve  in  the  ore,  and  move  it,  gradually,  to  the  upper  end  of  the  box, 
whence  it  is  discharged,  cleaned,  through  a  proper  opening,  the  current  of  water  having 
washed  off  the  light  and  worthless  gangue.  The  water  and  tailings  leave  the  box  at  the 
lower  end.  The  angle  at  which  the  machine  is  inclined,  and  the  quantity  of  water  used, 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  ore  treated.  The  manufacturers  of  these  machines  give 
the  following  data  :  average  amount  of  water  required  for  a  25-ft.  double-log  washer,  85 
to  50  gallons  per  minute  ;  capacity,  50  to  75  tons  of  ore  per  day  ;  power  required,  12  to  15 
horse-power. 

The  Conkling  Jig  consists  of  a  circular  sieve,  suspended  from  one  end  of  a  lever  in  a 
wooden  tub  4  ft.  11  in.  square  and  4  ft.  8  in.  deep  (inside  measurement),  being  moved  up 
and  down  by  a  cam  striking  the  opposite  end  of  the  lever.  The  concentrates  pass  through 
the  sieve  to  the  bottom  of  the  tub  ;  the  tails  pass  out  by  means  of  an  annular  opening  around 
the  jig  shaft.  The  general  arrangement  of  this  jig,  as  used  at  the  works  of  the  Chateaugay 
Ore  and  Iron  Co.,  at  Lyon  Mountain,  N.  Y.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  11.  The  spider  is  made  in  one 


FIG.  11. — Conkling  jig. 

piece  of  cast-iron,  with  a  taper  bore  to  receive  the  jig  shaft,  which  is  keyed  into  it.  It  is  also 
supported  by  the  standards  from  the  flange,  which  may  be  moved  by  the  upper  and  lower 
nuts.  A  sheet-iron  hoop,  12  in.  high,  is  bent  around  the  spider,  and  fastened  by  the  holding- 
down  bands,  which  are  riveted  to  the  rim,  pass  through  the  holes  in  the  end  of  the  arms,  and 
are  fastened  below  with  nuts.  The  screen  plates  rest  on  the  arms  of  the  spider,  and  are  held 
in  place  by  U -bolts  passing  under  the  arms  and  through  the  holes  in  the  screens.  The 
screen  plates  are  £  in.  thick,  made  of  cast-iron,  in  segments  of  £  of  a  circle  ;  the  holes  are 
f$  in.  in  diameter  on  top,  and  ^ff  in.  below. 

Beneath  and  bolted  to  the  spider  is  the  cone  (SO);  under  that  is  the  water  sleeve  (SI),  which 
slides  up  and  down  in  the  water  box  (#2).  All  the  water  which  is  to  be  used  in  jigging 
passes  through  these  two  boxes,  and  flowing  out  through  the  annular  openings,  keeps  the 
bearings  free  from  grit.  The  water,  under  pressure  of  8  ft.  head,  enters  through  the  8-in. 
pipe  (41),  provided  with  a  valve  (4$)  to  regulate  the  quantity. 

The  trunnion  piece  (7)  is  kept  in  place  by  the  upper  and  lower  collars,  which  are  provided 
with  set-screws.  The  links  (5)  connect  the  jig  with  the  lever  beam.  The  jig  shaft  passes  up 
through  the  horizontal  bevel-gear  wheel  (1)  by  which  it  is  rotated  ;  the  shaft  moves  freely 
up  and  down,  but  it  is  provided  with  splines  in  which  fit  keys  attached  to  the  gear  wheel. 
The  pinion  is  driven  by  belt  from  the  rear  driving  shaft  (33).  The  pulleys  to  transmit  the 
rotary  motion  are  conical,  reversed  in  order  to  change  the  speed.  The  cam  wheel  (26)  is 
provided  with  6  cams,  and  is  keyed  to  the  shaft,  which  is  driven  by  a  belt  8  in.  wide, 
passing  over  the  36-in.  driving  pulley  (27).  The  cam  wheel  makes  43  revolutions  per 
minute,  'giving  about  260  jars  per  minute  to  the  jig.  The  lever  beam  is  set  to  move 
the  jig  up  and  down  about  |  in.,  giving  a  slow  up  and  a  quick  down  motion.  The  jig 
makes  seven  revolutions  per  minute.  The  practice  in  dressing  iron  ores  at  Lyon  Mountain, 
as  described  by  Mr.  P.  S.  Ruttman,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  vol.  xvi.  609,  is  as 
follows  :  The  crushed  ore  is  brought  from  the  hoppers  to  the  jigs  by  chutes  provided  with 
gates  at  the  lower  end,  just  above  the  screen  plates.  The  screens  are  first  covered  closely 
with  pieces  of  heavy  ore  about  the  size  of  hickory-nuts  ;  the  crushed  ore  is  then  spread  over 
this  until  it  is  level  with  the  collar  of  the  spider,  about  24  in.  to  3  in.  deep.  The  spring 
pole  is  connected  with  the  lever  beam  by  the  strap,  the  water  turned  on,  and  the  jig  started. 


ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY. 


597 


The  water  flows  upward  through  the  screen  plates  and  over  the  collar  of  the  spider,  carry- 
ing the  gangue  to  the  tail  race  ;  the  ore  settles  through  the  screen,  is  collected  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tub,  and  thence  raised  by  the  elevators  to  bins.  The  rotation  of  the  jig  produces  an 
equal  distribution  of  the  crushed  ore  on  the  screen  plates,  and  also  forces  the  particles  to 
traverse  a  path  longer  than  the  radius  of  the  sieve.  The  crushed  ore  is  allowed  to  fall  on 
the  screen  as  near  the  outer  periphery  as  possible.  The  jig  has  a  capacity  of  treating  5  tons 
of  ore  per  hour,  requiring  135  gallons  of  water  per  minute,  or  1,620  gallons  per  ton  treated. 
One  man  or  boy  is  sufficient  to  attend  to  two  jigs. 

The  McLanahan  Impj'oved  Jiff,  o'peratingon  the  same  principle  as  the  common  Hartz  jig, 
is  a  rough  jig  designed  for  dressing  iron  ores.  They  are  built  in  sets  of  four,  in  tanks  18  ft. 
long,  14  ft.  wide,  and  12  ft.  deep.  The  framework  of  the  tank  extends  to  sufficient 
height  to  carry  the  sizing  trommel  and  the  elevators,  the  total  height  being  24  ft.  The  tank 
is  divided  into  four  jig  compartments,  besides  an  elevator  pit  at  each  end.  The  pulsating 
movement  of  the  water  in  each  jig  compartment  is  effected  by  a  central  piston  working  in  a 
cylinder.  The  stroke  of  the  piston  is  adjusted  by  an  eccentric,  as  in  Hartz  jigs.  The  trommel 
above  the  tank  is  divided  into  four  sections,  each  being  covered  with  a  screen  of  the  proper 
size  to  suit  the  ore  being  washed.  The  jigs  are  fed  by  spouts  from  the  various  sections  of 
the  trommel.  The  jigs  discharge  concentrates  continuously  into  a  launder  leading  to  the 
elevator  pit  at  one  end  of  the  tank,  by  which  they  are  raised  to  storage  bins  for  shipment. 
Tailings  are  conveyed  to  the  elevator  at  the  other  end  of  the  tank,  by  which  they  are  raised 
and  loaded  into  cars  to  be  carried  to  the  waste  dump.  The  water  in  these  jigs  is  used  over 
and  over  again,  with  a  small  Joss. 

MAGNETIC  SEPARATORS. — The  Buchanan  Magnetic  Separator  (Fig.  12)  consists  of  two 
iron  rolls,  journaled  in  two  horseshoe  magnets.  These  magnets  are  wound  with  insulated 
copper  wire  and  excited  by  a  dynamo.  The  direction  of  the  winding  is  such  that  one  roll  is 
of  north  and  the  other  of  south  polarity,  thus  forming  a 
powerful  magnetic  field  between  the  two.  The  ore  is  fed 
into  hoppers  above  the  rolls,  and  the  stream  of  ore  from 
them  is  regulated  by  hand  levers.  As  the  ore  is  drawn  into 
the  magnetic  field  between  the  rolls,  all  that  is  magnetic  is 
attached  to  the  faces  of  the  rolls  and  carried  around  to  the 
opposite  sides,  where  the  rolls  are  non-magnetic,  and  dropped. 
The  gangue  being  non-magnetic,  falls  directly  between 
the  rolls.  One  of  the  rolls  is  movable,  so  that  the  distance 
between  them,  and  consequently  the  strength  of  the  magnetite 
field,  may  be  adjusted.  An  interesting  comparison  between 
this  machine  and  hydraulic  jigs  was  made  at  the  Croton 
mines  at  Brewster,  N.  Y.,  where  the  ore,  a  dense  magnetite, 
was  crushed  by  Cornish  rolls  so  as  to  pass  a  IG-mesh  screen. 
Ore  assaying  37'968  per  cent,  iron,  and  29-30  per  cent,  silica, 
gave  concentrates,  with  the  Buchanan  separator,  assaying 


Fig.  12.— Magnetic  separator. 


64-554  per  cent,  iron,  and  5 '350  per  cent,  silica.  A  few  years  before  the  introduction  of  the 
magnetic  machine,  plunger  jigs  had  been  used,  when  the  following  results  were  obtained  : 
Fine  jigs,  crude  ore  assayed  36*48  per  cent,  iron  ;  concentrates,  65'56  per  cent,  iron  ;  tailings, 
14-31  per  cent.  iron.  Coarse  jigs,  crude  ore,  36 '48  per  cent,  iron  ;  concentrates  58-78  per  cent, 
iron,  and  tailings,  22'16  per  cent.  iron. 

The  Ball-Norton  Electro-magnetic  Separator,  sometimes  called  the  "  Monarch,"  consists 

of  a  partially  closed  chest, 
having  an  opening  at/, 
Fig.  13,  from  the  feed 
hopper,  h,  through  which 
the  ore  is  delivered  tothe 
machine  from  a  storage 
bin,  provided  with  means 
for  regulating  the  flow  of 
ore.  Other  openings  are 
provided  for  the  dis- 
charge, at  t,  of  tailings  ; 
at  in,  of  middlings  ;  and 
at  c,  of  concentrates  ;  also 
at  e  for  allowing  free  in- 
gress of  air  to  the  chest 
at  that  point,  and  at  «, 
where  a  powerful  exhaust 
fan  is  connected.  The 
openings  at  t  and  m  are 
kept  sealed  against  ingress  of  air  at  those  points  by  means  of  hinged  and  weighted  valves, 
v  V,  which  discharge  the  products  from  the  hoppers,  p  and  Jc,  continuously,  and  in  the 
same  proportion  as  received  from  above,  when  a  sufficient  weight  has  accumulated  upon 
the  inside  to  cause  the  contents  of  the  hoppers  to  leak  by  the  valves.  The  machine  is 
also  provided  with  two  drums,  1  and  2,  turning  upon  the  shafts,  t  and/.  These  shafts,  to- 
gether with  the  magnets,  a  and  &,  which  they  also  serve  to  support,  stand  still,  while  the 
drums  may  be  rapidly  revolved  around  the  magnets  and  out  of  contact  therewith.  It  will 


FIG.  13. — Ball-Norton  magnetic  separator. 


598 


ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY. 


be  noticed  that  the  magnet  occupies  a  sector  of  the  drum,  the  proportions  being  such  that, 
approximately,  one-third  of  the  periphery  of  the  drum  is  within  the  influence  of  the  magnetic 
field,  while  the  upper  two-thirds  is  outside  of  the  field  and  removed  from  the  magnetic  influ- 
ence. The  magnet  is  so  constructed  as  to  present  a  series  of  poles  of  alternately  opposite 
polarity  near  the  inner  surface  of  the  drum.  In  accordance  with  the  well-known  phenomena 
of  magnetic  attraction,  which  in  the  case  of  powerful  magnets  is  exerted  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  magnetic  poles,  any  magnetizable  matter  brought  near  the  outer  surface 
of  the  drum,  within  the  arc  covered  by  the  magnet,  will  be  powerfully  attracted  and  drawn 
into  firm  contact  with  the  outer  surface  of  the  dram.  These  drams  are  composed  of  a  non- 
metallic  and  neutral  material,  such  as  wood,  paper,  etc.,  and  they  turn  in  the  direction  indi- 
cated by  the  arrows  near  the  top  of  the  drums.  Just  below  the  feed  hopper,  an  apron  of 
neutral  metal,  3,  is  arranged,  curving  downward  and  forward  in  the  direction  of  the  rotation 
of  the  drum,  its  lower  portion  describing  a  short  arc  concentric  to  the  surface  of  the  drum. 
This  serves  as  a  chute  to  direct  the  stream  of  ore  falling  from  the  feed  hopper  within  the 
influence  of  the  first  two  or  three  poles  of  the  magnet.  A  similar  but  somewhat  shorter 
apron,  4,  is  arranged  in  like  relation  to  the  second  drum  and  magnet,  b. 

In  operation  the  magnets  are  excited,  the  drums  revolved  in  the  direction  indicated,  and 
the  air  current  established  through  the  machine  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  drums. 
The  ore  passing  down  the  chute  under  the  first  drum,  the  magnetizable  portions  are  drawn 
into  contact  with  the  dram,  and  take  on  the  forward  movement  of  the  latter.  When  the  ore 
reaches  the  limit  of  the  arc  covered  by  the  magnetic  field  it  is  no  longer  attracted,  and  takes 
on  a  tangential  movement,  which  carries  it  away  from  the  drum.  It  has  now,  however, 
passed  the  edge  of  the  second  apron,  and,  on  leaving  the  first  drum,  comes  within  the  influ- 
ence of  the  magnet  of  the  second  drum,  where  similar  operations  are  repeated,  a  portion 
being  finally  discharged  as  concentrate  at  c.  The  function  of  the  second  drum  and  magnet 
being  to  differentiate  the  product  from  the  first  drum  into  two  portions,  which  may  be  con- 
veniently designated  as  middlings,  discharged  at  m,  and  concentrates,  discharged  at  c.  The 
easy  working  capacity  of  a  machine  having  drums  of  24  in.  diameter  and  24  in.  working 
face  is  said  to  be  from  15  to  20  tons  per  hour  of  ore  granulated  to  pass  10  to  20-mesh  screens. 
The  power  required  is  from  1  to  H  horse-power  in  electricity  for  each  dram,  and  i  to  f 
horse-power  to  drive  the  machine.  Mr.  C.  M.  Ball  states  that  Port  Henry  "  Old  Bed  "  ore 
has  been  converted  by  means  of  this  machine  into  a  Bessemer  ore,  carrying  iron,  71'10  ; 
phosphorus,  0.037.  This  concentration  was  made  from  the  crude  ore,  carrying  iron,  58'7  ; 
phosphorus,  2%25  ;  the  Bessemer  concentrate  representing  about  65  per  cent,  of  the  original 
mass.  See  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  vol.  xix.  p.  187. 

TheWenstrom  Magnetic  Separator  (Fig.  14)  has  a  stationary  field  magnet,  and  an  armature- 
barrel  consisting  of  a  number  of  soft-iron  bars,  separated  from  one  another  by  a  non-magnetic 
material — strips  of  wood,  for  instance.  The  whole  is  bound  together 
by  non-magnetic  end  rings.  The  bars  are  cut  away  alternately  on  the 
inside,  to  make  one  bar  project  only  toward  the  north  poles  of  the 
magnet,  and  the  next  only  to  the  south  poles.  This  gives  each  suc- 
ceeding bar  opposite  magnetism.  On  each  of  the  four  sections  of  the 
magnet  are  wound  15  Jbs.  of  copper 
wire.  An  Edison  dynamo  furnishes  a 
current  of  10  amperes  and  33  volts. 
The  ore  is  fed  to  the  barrel  by  means 
of  a  hopper,  as  shown  in  outline,  Fig. 
14,  the  cylinder  turning  in  the  direction 
of  the  arrow.  The  magnetite  adheres 
to  the  bars  of  the  barrel  and  is  carried 
downward  past  the  first  delivery  chute. 
Below  the  machine,  the  bars,  departing 
from  the  influence  of  the  electro-magnet,  which  is  placed 
eccentrically,  lose  their  power  to  hold  the  particles  of  mag- 
netic iron  ore,  and  they  drop  off.  The  particles  of  rock  in  the 
ore,  being  non-magnetic,  drop  from  the  barrel  almost  imme- 
diately and  fall  on  the  first  chute  shown  in  the  engraving. 

The  Edison  Unipolar  Non-contact  Electric  Separator 
.(Fig.  15)  differs  from  other  magnetic  separators  in  that  it 
has  no  moving  parts,  except  such  as  are  essential  for  adjust- 
ment of  the  apparatus  in  treating  different  ores.  The 
separator  consists  simply  of  a  hopper,  a  magnet,  and  a  par- 
tition to  separate  the  concentrates  and  tailings  into  different 
receptacles.  The  illustration  shows  but  one  hopper,  but  in  ,  -n^\ 

practice  the  ore  can  pass  on  each  side  of  the  magnet,  thus  #$|$»?§rii 

doubling  the  capacity.     The  ore,  after  being  properly  crushed  ,&$\ 1  •;;•'..- /,/; 

and  sized,  is  placed  in  hoppers,  from  which  its  discharge  is  TAILS  ,,sV : ._ _(•  ^/' : -.-V '.  CONCENTRATES 
controlled  by  bars  closing  slots  which  extend  the  length  of 
the  hopper.  These  slots  are  made  adjustable,  so  as  to  suit 
the  size  to  which  the  ore  has  been  reduced.  The  hoppers 
are  adjusted  to  appropriate  heights  above  the  magnet.  The  magnet  is  a  mass  of  soft  iron, 
6  ft.  long  by  30  in.  wide  and  10  in.  thick,  weighing  3,400  Ibs.,  and  wound  with  450  Ibs.  of 
copper  wire,  the  coil  being  connected  with  a  dynamo  consuming  24  horse-power,  and  requir- 


FIQ.  14.  — WenstrOm 
magnetic  separator. 


FIG.  15.— Unipolar  electric  sepa- 
rator. 


ORE-DRESSING   MACHINERY.  599 


ing  a  current  of  electricity  of  16  amperes,  and  an  electro- motive  force  of  116.5  volts.  The 
material  falling  from  the  "hopper  passes  the  face  of  the  magnet,  but  does  not  touch  it. 
The  distance  of  the  magnet  from  the  vertical  plane  of  the  falling  material  is  so  chosen  that 
its  attraction  causes  the  magnetic  to  separate  from  the  non -magnetic  particles  sufficiently 
to  alter  their  direction.  By  reason  of  the  force  of  gravity,  this  deflection  of  the  trajectory, 
while  sufficient  to  draw  the  magnetic  particles  away  from  the  non-magnetic,  does  not  draw 
them  against  the  magnet,  but  should  any  ore  accumulate  on  the  magnet,  it  can  be  instantly 
dropped  by  breaking  the  current.  The  exact  distance,  however,  is  maintained  so  that  none 
can  stick  to  the  magnet.  Owing  to  the  altered  trajectory,  the  magnetic  ore  falls  upon  one 
side  of  the  partition,  which  is  so  adjusted  as  to  secure  the  best  result,  while  the  gangue 
material  drops  upon  the  opposite  side.  The  capacity  of  a  machine  of  this  kind,  ofr  the  size 
given  above,  is  said  to  be  easily  150  tons  per  day  of  ore  crushed  so  as  to  pass  a  10-mesh 
screen,  or  300  tons  per  day  for  a  double-face  machine. 

The  Conkling  Magnetic  /Separator  is  a  belt  machine  of  the  general  form  indicated  in  Fig. 
16,  which  merely  shows 

the  principle  and  not  the  \    HOPPER 

detail.  The  ore  is  fed  on 
a  belt,  and  carried  along 
under  a  series  of  belts 
running  at  right  angles  to 
the  first.  These  cross 
belts  pass  between  the 
magnets  and  the  ore  lying 
on  the  distributing  belt, 
and  may  be  placed  at 
varying  distances  from  the  TAILg: 
latter.  As  the  ore,  reduced 
to  the  proper  size,  passes  FlG- 16.— Conkling  magnetic  separator, 

along  on  the  distributing 

belt,  the  magnetic  belts,  which  may  be  influenced  by  magnets  of  different  powers,  pick  up 
and  carry  to  one  side  the  magnetic  particles  of  the  ore,  while  the  non -magnetic  portion  of 
the  gangue  is  carried  off  as  tailings. 

The  Hoffman  Magnetic  Separator  consists  of  an  endless  belt  traveling  over  two  drums, 
within  one  of  which  is  fixed  a  series  of  magnets,  which  occupy  a  sector  of  the  drum,  so 
arranged  that  rather  more  than  one-half  of  the  latter  is  under  magnetic  influence.  Between 
the  two  drums,  and  immediately  below  the  upper  surface  of  the  belt,  is  another  series  of 
magnets,  called  the  stratifying  magnets.  The  ere  is  fed  on  the  belt  from  a  hopper,  which 
has  a  device  for  insuring  an  equal  distribution  of  the  ore  across  the  surface  of  the  belt.  The 
ore  is  carried  forward  by  the  travel  of  the  belt,  passes  over  the  stratifying  magnets  and  over 
the  magnets  within  the  drum.  As  the  belt  turns  over  the  latter,  the  non-magnetic  material 
falls  off  into  a  bin,  while  the  magnetic  particles  are  retained  until  the  belt  passes  out  of  the 
magnetic  field,  when  they  are  dropped  into  a  separate  bin. 

The  Lovett-Finney  Magnetic  Separator  consists  of  a  shaft  on  which  are  placed  two  30-in. 
iron  disks  50  in.  apart.  The  space  between  the  disks  is  wound  with  No.  14  insulated  copper 
wire,  forming  a  solenoid.  One  end  of  the  shaft  is  hollow,  and  through  this  central  aperture 
are  passed  the  ends  of  the  wire,  which  connect  with  the  commutator  attached  to  the  shaft. 
From  the  rim  of  each  disk  extend,  alternately,  a  number  of  iron  bars,  each  bar  extending 
almost  to  the  edge  of  the  opposite  disk,  but  insulated  from  this,  as  well  as  from  the  adjacent 
bars.  The  spaces  between  the  bars  are  filled  with  non-conducting  cement,  giving  to  the 
finished  wheel  the  shape  of  a  solid  cylinder,  80  in.  in  diameter  and  50  in.  long.  Over  this 
cylinder  travels  an  endless  belt  of  ordinary  canvas,  held  tight  by  an  adjustable  pulley.  An 
apron  of  copper  is  placed  under  the  magnetic  wheel,  closely  following  the  curvature  of  the 
same.  Over  the  apron  the  crushed  .ore  is  carried  by  a  liberal  flow  of  water.  An  electric 
current  of  13i  amperes  and  110  volts  is  run  through  the  wire  of  the  wheel,  which  is  revolved 
at  the  speed  of  14  revolutions  per  minute.  The  disks  and  bars  being  thus  magnetized,  the 
magnetic  particles  of  ore  are  attracted  to  the  wheel,  and  attach  themselves  to  the  endless  belt. 
The  non-magnetic  particles  are  in  the  meantime  washed  off  and  carried  away  by  the  water. 
When  the  belt  leaves  the  top  of  the  magnetic  wheel  it  carries  with  it  the  collected  concen- 
trates, which  are  shed  into  a  water  tank,  through  which  the  belt  passes  before  returning  to 
the  separator.  From  this  tank  the  concentrates  are  lifted  by  a  flight  conveyor  and  deposited 
directly  on  the  railroad  car,  ready  for  shipment.  The  advantage  claimed  for  this  separator 
is  the  entire  absence  of  dust,  and  the  wear  on  the  machinery  due  to  the  same.  According  to 
Mr.  Axel  Sahlin,  a  machine  at  Weldon,  N.  J.,  has  been  in  constant  operation  for  nine 
months,  handling  about  12  J  tons  of  crude  ore  per  day,  and  the  only  repairs  have  been  ene 
new  canvas  belt,  costing  so,  and  one  course  of  new  wire  cloth  for  the  revolving  screen,  cost- 
ing about  $20.  The  dynamo  furnishing  the  current  for  this  machine  required  3  horse-power. 

Works  for  Reference.— The  Art  of  Ore-dressing  in  Europe,  by  W.  B.  Kunhardt,  1889  ; 
Losses  in  Gold  Amalgamation,  with  Notes  on  the  Concentration  of  Gold  and  Silver  Ores, 
by  McDermott  and  Duffield,  1890  ;  Mining  and  Ore-dressing  Machinery,  by  C.  J.  W.  Lock, 
1^90;  Aufbcreitung  der  Erze,  by  C.  Linkenbach  ;  "Description  of  Lauremburg  Dressing 
Works/'  Berg  und  HuettenmannischeZeitang,  1882,  xli.  140-144  ;  "  Description  of  Clausthal 
Dressing  Works,"  ibid  ,  1882.  xli.  29,  et  seq.  ;  "The  English  vs  Continental  System  of  Jig- 
ging," by  H.  S.  Munroe,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  xvii.  637  ;  "  The  New  Dressing 


600 


ORE   SAMPLING. 


Works  of  the  St.  Joseph  Lead  Co.,"  by  H.  S.  Munroe,  ibid.,  xvil.  659  ;  "  Velocity  of  Bodies 
of  Different  Specific  Gravity  falling  in  Water,"  by  R.  H.  Richards  and  A.  E.  Woodward, 
ibid.,  xviii.  6)4;  The  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  by  Manuel  Eissler,  1889. 

For  further  details  concerning  the  magnetic  concentration  of  iron  ores,  see  Trans.  Am. 
Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  vols.  xviii.  and  xix.,  which  contain  numerous  papers  upon  the  subject. 
ORE  SAMPLING.  Gold  and  silver  ores  are  generally  bought  and  sold  by  sample.  In 
Colorado,  where  nearly  all  the  silver  lead  ores,  and  much  of  the  gold  ore,  is  sold  to  public 
lead  smelters  for  reduction,  this  custom  is  followed  exclusively,  and  the  methods  of  ore 
sampling  have  undoubtedly  been  carried  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection  there  than  any- 
where else  in  this  country.  Attached  to  each  smelting  works  is  a  sampling  mill,  in  which 
the  samples  arc  prepared.  The  usual  arrangement  of  these  sampling  mills,  and  the  method 
of  sampling,  are  as  follows  :  The  ore,  having  been  unloaded  from  the  wagons  or  railway 
cars,  is  taken  to  the  mill,  where  the  lumps  are  crushed^  to  uniform  size,  say  1  in.,  by  means 
of  a  Blake,  Krom,  Dodge,  or  some  other  coarse-crushing  machine.  The  broken  ore  falls 
to  the  floor  below  the  crusher,  whence  it  is  shoveled  into  barrows  and  wheeled  away  to 
bins  in  the  roasting-furnace  house  or  blast-furnace  house,  as  the  case  may  be,  with  the 
exception  of  every  tenth  shovelful,  say,  which  is  thrown  to  one  side,  forming  a  separate  pile 
in  the  sampling  mill.  With  ores  of  average  grade  it  is  customary  to  throw  aside  every  tenth 
shovelful,  but  with  richer  ores,  every  fifth,  or  even  every  third,  shovelful  is  rejected.  The 
sample,  constituting  one-third,  one -fifth,  or  one-tenth  of  the  original  lot,  is  then  wheeled  to 
the  sampling  floor,  which  is  covered  by  a  smooth  iron  plate,  and  quartering  is  commenced. 
A  paragraph  from  a  paper  read  by  Dr.  R.  W.  Raymond  before  the  A  merican  institute  of 
Mining  Engineers,  June,  1891,  describes  the  method  of  (quartering  a  sample  as  practiced  at 
the  leading  sampling  works  of  the  West  at  the  present  time  : 

"  The  mass  is  first  shoveled  into  a  ring  on  the  sampling  floor,  and  this  ring  is  then 
shoveled  toward  the  center,  each  shovelful  being  carefully  delivered  upon  the  summit  of  the 
pile  in  the  center,  so  that  they  shall  roll  equally  in  all  directions.  A  conical  heap  having 
thus  been  formed,  it  is  pulled  down  and  spread  out.  The  workmen  walk  round  and  round 
the  pile,  pulling  with  the  shovel,  as  it  were,  the  ore  toward  them,  so  that  it  rolls  outward. 
The  lower  six  inches  of  the  pile  is  not  disturbed,  and  when  this  process  is  finished,  the  con- 
ical heap  has  become  a  truncated  cone  of  larger  base  area  and  6  in.  high.  This  flat  heap 
is  now  quartered  by  pressing  a  stick  or  a  board  held  edgewise  down  into  it  so  as  to  mark 
the  diametrical  divisions.  Two  opposite  quarters  are  cut  out  with  the  shovel  and  removed. 
The  other  two  are  again  mixed,  formed  into  a  conical  heap,  and  flattened  out  as  before.  This 
procedure  is  repeated  until  the  quantity  has  been  reduced  to  one  or  two  wheelbarrow  loads, 
when,  if  the  material  has  never  been  mechanically  crushed,  it  is  crushed  in  the  rolls  to,  say. 
half-inch  maximum  size.  The  quartering  is  then  continued  till  the  sample  has  been  reduced 
to  a  panful.  This  is  ground,  say,  to  50-rnesh  size  (after  a  partial  preliminary  drying,  if  nec- 
essary, to  facilitate  the  grinding  in  a  rotary  fine-crusher),  and  then  taken  to  the  assay  labora- 
tory, where  it  is  thoroughly  dried  (say,  for  twenty-four  hours  at  212°  F.),  and  rubbed  fine  un- 
til the  whole  will  pass  through  an  80-mesh  sieve.  Quartering  is  then  resumed  and  continued 
until  the  sample  is  only  sufficient  to  fill  three  bottles,  one  of  which  is  for  the  assay  of  the 
works,  one  for  the  customer,  and  the  third  for  the  umpire  assay,  if  such  should  be  required." 
In  some  sampling  works  automatic  samplers  are  used,  in  which  case  the  original  sample 
(say,  one-fifth  or  one-tenth  of  a  gross  lot)  is  crushed  by  rolls  to  a  convenient  size,  say  so  as  to 
pass  a  4-mesh  sieve,  and  the  crushed  ore  is  raised  by  a  belt  elevator  to  the  top  of  the  mill, 
where  it  goes  through  a  drum  screen,  the  ore  which  is  rejected  being  returned  to  the  rolls. 
The  ore  which  has  been  crushed  to  proper  size  and  passes  the  screen  falls  through  a  tube  or 
spout  in  which  it  is  divided  mechanically.  The  means  employed  for  this  all  depend  upon 
the  same  general  principle  of  cutting  or  diverting  the  falling  stream  of  ore  by  means  of 

flanges,  fingers,  or  traveling  buckets,  in  such 
manner  as  to  obtain  any  desired  proportion  of  it 
for  a  sample.  There  are  numerous  automatic 
samplers  in  use,  but  most  of  them  are  constructed 
upon  this  principle. 

Brunton's  Automatic  Sampler  (Fig.  1),  which  is 
one  of  the  best  in  use,  is  designed  upon  a  slightly 
different  principle  from  the  others,  in  that  the 
entire  ore-stream  is  deflected  to  right  or  leit. 
This  is  accomplished  by  placing  a  funnel  with  a 
large  opening  at  a  certain  point  in  the  spout.  Just 
below  the  bottom  of  the  funnel  is  a  diaphragm  or 
switch,  the  bottom  of  which  is  pivoted  midway  in 
the  spout.  The  ore  falling  against  this  is  diverted 
to  one  side  or  the  other  according  as  the  dia- 
phragm is  turned.  Outside  of  the  spout  the  dia- 
phragm is  connected  with  a  suitable  gear,  whereby 
it  can  be  deflected  at  any  desired  interval,  say- 
five  seconds  in  twenty-five,  or  five  seconds  in 
fifty,  during  which  time  all  the  ore  passing  thro  ugh 


FIG.  1. — Brunton's  automatic  sampler. 


the  spout  is  discharged  into  the  sample  bin.  The  first  sample  is  then  crushed  and  elevated, 
and  again  reduced  by  dropping  through  another  spout  equipped  with  a  sampler  of  the  same 
design.  The  two  machines  are  driven  at  different  speeds  to  prevent  any  possible  error  that 


ORE   SAMPLING. 


601 


might  result  from  isochronal  motion.  Experience  has  shown  that  10  per  cent,  of  20  per 
cent.,  or  2  per  cent,  of  the  original  amount  of  ore,  is  usually  quite  sufficient  for  the  final 
sample,  though  in  exceptional  cases  15  per  cent,  of  30  per  cent.,  or  4£  per  cent,  of  the  whole, 
are  taken.  Careful  tests  of  this  machine  in  resampling  lots  of  ore  have  shown  a  limit  of 
error  of  less  than  one-fourth  of  1  per  cent.  For  further  details  see  Trans.  Am.  Inst. 
Mining  Engrs.,  vol.  xiii.  p.  639. 

Another  device  to  facilitate  sampling  is  the  split  shove!,  which  is  an  ordinary  shovel  so 
divided  that  in  being  pushed  through  a  lot  of  finely  crushed  ore,  a  certain  proportion  only, 
say  one  fourth,  is  taken.  Brunton's  shovel,  Fig.  2,* is  one  of  the  best  of  these.  This  tool, 
which  is  described  in  the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  vol.  li.  71N,  consists  essentially 
of  a  flat-bottomed,  well-balanced  steel  shovel,  10  in.  in  width,  having  vertical  sides,  and  two 


FIG.  2.—  Brunton's  sampling  shovel. 

central  partitions.  24  in.  apart,  thus  dividing  the  shovel  into  three  compartments,  the  center 
one  being  closed  by  a  curved  back,  and  having  a  width  one-quarter  of  the  whole.  The  oper- 
ator pushes  the  shovel  into  a.  pile  of  finely  crushed  ore.  As  he  raises  the  shovel,  it  is  drawn 
back  with  a  sharp  rotary  motion  to  the  right,  which  throws  the  ore  contained  in  the  outside 
compartments  out  from  the  back  end  of  the  shovel  into  a  rejected  ore  pile.  When  the  nec- 
essary throw  to  accomplish  this  result  has  been  given,  the  motion  is  reversed,  and  the  shovel 
brought  rapidly  to  the  left,  which  action  discharges  the  sample  from  the  central  compart- 
ment of  the  shovel  upon  another  pile. 

While  the  required  motions  are  somewhat  difficult,  and  beginners  are  awkward  at  first,  a 
few  weeks'  practice  brings  the  necessary  skill  to  enable  the  operator  to  sample  a  pile  of  ore 
almost  as  rapidly  as  it  can  be  shoveled  over.  Tests  at  sampling  works  and  different  smelters 
upon  hundreds  of  lots  of  ore,  manv  of  them  in  duplicate  and  triplicate,  show  that  there  is  no 
difference  between  the  results  obtained  by  this  method  and  by  Cornish  quartering  in  the  com- 
mon  manner.  Experienced  operators  attain  great  rapidity  m  this  method  of  quartering  ;  in 
some  recent  speed  tests  it  was  found  that  a  ton  of  ore  could  be  cut  down  to  a  100-lb. 
grinder  sample  by  a  man  in  15  minutes. 

In  dry-crushing  silver  mills,  where  it  is  desired  to  take  regular  and  continuous  samples,  a 

mechanical  arrangement  can  be 
fitted  to  a  trough  or  chute 
through  which  the  finely  crushed 
ore  is  passing,  which  will  take  a 
small  portion  of  the  pulp  at  regu- 
lar intervals.  McDermott's  and 
Collom's  automatic  samplers  are 
machines  devised  forthis  purpose. 
McDermott's  Automatic  Sam- 
pler, Fig.  3,  consists  of  a  spout, 
C,  which,  by  means  of  the  worm- 
wheel,  D,  and  the  pin,  G,  coming 
in  contact  with  the  lever,  A,  is 
moved  into  the  stream  of  ore 

FIG.  3.-McDermott'8  automatic  sampler.  P^lp,  causing  a  small  portion  of 

the  current  to  be  directed  for  an 

instant  into  the  sample  box,  H ;  the  pin,  G,  having  then  passed  the  lever,  it  returns  to 
original  position  by  spring,  F. 
This  arrangement  of  long-armed 
lever,  A,  with  spring  return 
enables  the  slow  revolving  wheel, 
D,  not  to  take  samples  too  fre- 
quently, nor  too  large  ;  so  that 
the  machine  can  run  all  day  and 
not  take  too  bulky  a  sample  for 
convenient  handling.  The  divid- 
ing launder  splits  up  the  stream 
of  pulp  in  a  large  mill  for  the 
same  purpose,  viz. :  to  keep  sam- 
ple small,  by  passing  sample 
spout,  C.  through  only  a  part  of 
the  stream.  This  machine  can  be  adapted  to  mills  in  operation,  where 


FIG.  4.— Collom's  automatic  sampler. 


fall  "  is  limited, 


602 


ORE   SAMPLING. 


either  by  making  a  few  inches  drop  at  some  point  in  the  main  launder,  which  carries  the 
pulp  or  tailings,  or,  if  this  is  not  practicable,  by  using  a  long  dividing  launder,  B  B, 
which,  being  narrow  and  of  metal,  will  clean  itself  with  less  fall  than  the  main  wooden 
launder.  The  frequency  of  the  samples  can  be  indefinitely  increased  by  adding  pins  to  the 
gear-wheel,  D,  or  increasing  the  speed  of  the  worm  shaft,  E,  The  size  of  each  sample  taken 
can  be  varied  by  the  widths  of  the  dividing  launders  and  of  the  sampling  spout,  C ;  these 
being  of  thin  sheet-iron,  can  be  bent  by  hand  to  the  desired  width. 

CoBom'8  Automatic  Sampler,  Fig.  4,  is  constructed  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  Mc- 
Dermott,  but  the  sample  spout  is  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  horizontal  arm,  which  is  revolved 
slowly  by  means  of  a  bevel  gear,  cutting  a  sample  of  the  falling  ore  each  time  it  passes 
through  it. 

Bridgemari's  Automatic  Sampling  Machine  is  a  new  device,  designed  to  give  practically 
finished  samples.  It  is  a  rotary  machine,  which  takes  the  whole  stream  of  ore  for  part  of  the 
time,  and  which,  in  a  single  passage  of  the  material  through  it,  gives  two  or  more  absolutely 

independent  samples,  and  cuts  down  each  of  these 
a  sufficient  number  of  times  to  give  the  smallest 
final  samples  desirable  without  re-crushing.  The 
accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  5)  shows  the 
apparatus  in  sectional  elevation.  Extending  verti- 
cally from  the  base  is  a  shaft,  A,  provided  with  a 
bevel-gear  wheel,  B.  Loosely  surrounding  this  shaft 
is  an  independent  rotary  sleeve,  C,  provided  with 
another  bevel  wheel,  D;  and  loosely  surrounding  the 
sleeve,  (7,  is  another  sleeve,  E,  which  in  turn  has  a 
bevel  wheel,  F.  Means  are  provided  for  giving  mo- 
tion to  the  three  bevel  wheels,  B,  D,  and  F.  Fixed 
to  the  sleeve,  E,  is  a  rotary  apportioning  device, 
G,  directly  above  which  is  a  similar  apportioning 
device,  H,  fixed  to  the  sleeve,  C.  Upon  the  shaft.  A, 
and  above  the  apportioning  device,  H,  is  still  another 
apportioning  device,  /.  The  guide  chutes,  J,  are 
annular  at  their  upper  portions,  and  are  sepa- 
rated by  partitions,  K,  shallow  at  one  side  of 
the  machine,  deepening  toward  the  opposite  side. 
The  apportioning  devices,  Gr  and  77,  are  similar 
in  their  construction  ;  they  are  funnel-shaped 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  their  area,  and 
terminate  at  the  bottom  in  an  annular  spout,  L. 
At  opposite  sides  of  the  spout,  L,  and  in  a  direct 
radial  line  with  each  other,  are  two  sets  of  bottom- 
less compartments,  M,  JV,  divided  by  partitions  from 
one  another  and  from  the  spout,  L.  The  apportioning 
device,  7,  comprises  an  annular  trough,  0,  divided 
preferably  into  eight  hopper-like  compartments  terminating  in  outlets,  P,  directly  over 
chutes,  M,  and  being  provided  with  adjustable  spouts,  Q,  which  may  be  turned  to  discharge 
into  the  spouts,  L,  or  paths  of  the  chutes,  M  and  N.  J?  is  a  hopper  into  which  the  crushed 
ore  is  fed,  and  whence,  by  the  action  of  the  spiral  blade,  S,  it  is  discharged  in  a  uniform 
stream  through  the  spout,  T,  into  the  rotating  trough,  0,  so  that  one-eighth  part  of  the  mass 
will  pass  out  at  each  spout,  Q.  By  a  certain  adjustment  of  the  spouts,  Q.  six  eighths  of  the 
entire  mass  passing  down  will  fall  into  the  annular  spout,  L,  and  be  discharged  at  the  inner 
spout  of  guide  chutes,  J.  One-eighth  portion  of  the  mass  passing  down  through  the  spout,  Q, 
which  extends  over  the  annular  path  of  the  chute,  M,  is  distributed  equally  over  the  said 
path,  one-eighth  part  of  the  said  eight  portions  into  each  of  the  distributing  chutes,  M,  and 
the  remaining  six-eighths  thereof  into  the  confluent  chutes,  £7,  whence  it  passes  with  the  first 
discarded  six-eighths  down  through  the  spouts,  L,  to  the  chute.  The  mass  is  again  divided 
by  passing  into  the  apportioning  device,  &,  and  two  approximately  equal  samples  of  the  mass 
are  obtained  in  the  guide  chutes,  J.  The  machine  is  adjustable  to  give  samples  of  different 
size.  Its  capacity  is  from  15  to  25  tons  per  hour,  and  it  is  claimed  that  it  will  sample  satis- 
factorily material  of  any  character;  ore  with  over  10  per  cent,  moisture  even  offering  no  diffi- 
culty. It  takes  feed  directly  from  crusher  or  rolls,  regularly  or  irregularly,  and  requires  no 
attention  except  for  cleaning  out  and  removal  of  samples.  Prior  to  the  introduction  of  this 
machine  at  the  Blue  Island  Copper  Works,  states  Mr.  Bridgeman,  54  car-load  lots  (of  about 
30,000  Ibs.  each)  of  copper  matte  had  been  treated,  on  which  duplicate  samples  were  made  by 
hand.  The  average  assay  contents  cf  these  54  lots  were  :  7'SS  oz.  gold,  168'71  oz.  silver, 
55'24  per  cent,  copper.  The  average  differences  between  the  two  samples  of  each  lot  were 
0  43  oz.  gold,  3-77  oz.  silver,  0'71  per  cent,  copper.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  machine, 
22  lots  of  ore  and  138  lots  of  matte  have  been  run,  the  latter  being  of  the  same  general  char- 
acter as  the  hand-sampled  matte,  except  that  it  did  not,  as  a  rule,  carry  so  much  "metal- 
lies."  By  reason  of  these  "  metallics,"  much  of  this  matte  was  very  difficult  to  sample  accu- 
rately, as  will  be  easily  understood.  The  weights  of  these  160  lots  varied  from  65  Ibs.  to  42,000 
Ibs.,  averaging  not  less  than  30,000  Ibs.  Their  average  assay  contents  were  0'71  oz.  gold, 
112-04  oz.  silver,  51  7o  per  cent,  copper.  The  average  ^differences  between  the  two  samples 
of  each  lot  were  0'02  oz.  gold,  1'19  oz.  silver,  0'23  per  cent,  copper.  Reduced  to  percent- 


FIG.  5.— Bridgeman's  sampler. 


ORE   SAMPLING. 


603 


ages  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  the  average  differences  were  as  follows  :  54  hand  samples 
—gold,  5'46  ;  silver,  2^4;  copper,  1'29.  1GO  machine  samples— gold,  2 '82  ;  silver,  1  06; 
copper,  0*45. 

Bridgemarfs  Small  Ore-sampling  Machine  (Pig.  6)  is  a  modification  of  the  large  ma- 
chine. Its  particular  field  of  usefulness  is  the  quick  and  certain 
cutting  down  of  the  miscellaneous  small  samples  (from  5  Ibs.  to 
50  )  Ibs.  in  weight)  that  are  constantly  being  received  by  assay 
offices.  It  will  handle  anything  from  "the  finest  assay  pulp  to 
crushed  material  of  -£  in.  or  more  in  size.  In  operation,  the  ma- 
terial is  fed  either  by  hand  or  (with  large  lots)  from  a  suitably 
supported  bucket  into  the  funnel,  F,  the  divider,  Z>,  being  first  set 
in  rotation  by  hand,  clockwork,  or  any  convenient  power.  The 
divider  gives,  as  will  be  seen  by  inspection  of  the  drawing,  eight 
cuts  to  the  revolution,  four  being  delivered  to  the  funnel,  1,  and 
four  to  the  receptacle,  2 ;  that  is,  with  uniform  flow  and  speed, 
cutting  the  material  in  half  The  divider  may  easily  run  100  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  giving  in  that  time  800  cuts,  a  very  much 
greater  distribution  and  division  than  can  be  secured  in  any  other 
way.  The  rejected  sample  passes  down  the  outlet  to  0  2,  into  any 
suitable  vessel.  T  he  retained  portion,  should  it  be  too  large,  may 
be  cut  again  and  again,  until  of  suitable  size.  The  operation  is 
very  accurate  and  rapid  ;  about  as  fast  as  the  material  will  flow 
through  a  1-in.  spout. 

Bridgeman's  Mixer  and  Divider  (Fig.  7)  for  ore  samples  is  an 
apparatus  designed  to  obviate  the  tedious  and  frequently  inaccurate 
methods— usually  with  oil-cloth  and  spatula — in  general  use,  for 
mixing  and  dividing  the  ground  samples  of  ore,  matte,  slag,  and 
other  similar  material.  The  operation  is  as  follows  :  The  ground  material  is  introduced  into 
the  large  covered  funnel  (mixer),  the  outlet  being  first  closed  by 
thumb  or  finger,  as  may  be  most  convenient.  Funnel  and  contents 
are  then  well  shaken  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then,  with  opened  out- 
let, passed  to  and  fro  over  the  set  of  distributing  funnels  (divider) 
and  bottles,  as  shown.  With  very  finely  ground,  or  very  light  ma- 
terial, the  flow  may  be  assisted  by  a  slight  shaking  or  tapping  with 
the  hand.  The  little  skill  necessary  is  readily  acquired.  To  tesx 
the  efficiency  of  the  mixer,  Mr.  H.  L.  Bridgeman  took  a  mixture 
of  6  assay  tons  of  litharge,  3  assay  tons  of  soda,  and  J  assay  ton 
of  argols  ;  it  was  well  shaken,  divided  by  weight  into  three  lots,  of 
3\-  assay  tons  each,  and  these  charges  fused  separately  in  crucibles. 
The  resulting  lead  buttons  weighed  53*436  gms.,  53'416  gms.,  and 
53 '398  gms.,  respectively. 
The  Hartley  Ore  Sampler.— This  machine  differs  radically  from  others,  as  it  combines 
the  features  of  both  the  time-dividing  and  the  stream-dividing  types  of  ore  samplers  ;  and, 
again,  as  it  furnishes  two  samples,  each  serving  as  a  check  on  the' accuracy  of  the  other.  The 
ore,  previously  crushed  by  rolls  or  crushers,  or  both,  is  fed  through  a  revolving  screen,  or 
may  be  conveyed  directly,  to  a  large  hopper,  in  which  there  is  an  oscillating  wing,  driven  by 
an  eccentric  rod  deriving  its  motion  from  a  shaft,  on  which  are  centered  other  eccentrics  per- 
forming the  same  operation  at  a  later  stage  of  the  sampling.  This  oscillating  wing  in  its 
passage  cuts  the  stream  into  two  portions,  one  of  which  passes  directly  to  the  floor,  and  the 
other  is  cut  in  its  descent  by  a  second  oscillating  wing  into  two  portions  again,  passing  into 
separate  compartments.  This  operation  can  be  extended  in  a  properly  constructed  machine 
until  as  small  a  sample  as  one-sixteenth  of  the  original  amount  is  arrived  at,  and  this  divided 
into  two  portions,  which  are  crushed  fine  and  again  quartered  in  samples  fit  for  the  grind- 
ing plate.  Each  is  assayed  separately,  and  they  are  said  to  agree  within  extremely  close 
limits. 

COST  OF  SAMPLING. — This  depends,  like  any  other  metallurgical  or  industrial  operation, 
largely  upon  local  conditions  as  to  the  cost  of  power  and  labor.  In  an  average  Western  min- 
ing camp,  in  a  sampling  mill  handling  2,000  tons  a  month,  the  following  laborers  would  be 
required  :  One  foreman,  at  $5  a  day;  one  assayer,  at  .$4  ;  one  engineer,  at  $H.50  ;  ten  wheelers, 
at  $3,  and  two  quarterers  at  $3,  or  a  total  of  $48.50  for  labor.  One  cord  of  wood  for  $5  would 
be  consumed,  and  other  expenses,  such  as  bottles,  assay  supplies,  etc.,  would  amount  to  $5 
additional  ;  depreciation,  estimating  the  plant  to  cost  $5,000,  would  amount  to  $2  50  a  day, 
making  a  total  expense  of  $61,  or  $1,830  a  month — an  average  of  $915  per  ton  ;  thus  leav- 
ing but  a  small  margin  of  profit  in  hand-sampling  proper.  The  profits  are  usually  derived 
from  the  sampler's  connection  with  the  ore  buyers  and  smelting  works,  having  reduced  rates 
for  reduction,  as  well  as  tariff  arrangements  with  the  railroads,  enabling  them  to  purchase 
ores  to  great  advantage.  In  many  cases  they  act  as  agents  for  the  smelting  works  on  com- 
mission. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  sampling  works  in  the  United  States  are  in  Colorado,  where 
the  railroad  facilities  are  admirable.     There  is  hardly  a  mining  camp  in  the  State  which 
does  not  contain  one,  while  in  California  there  are  but  two,  in  Nevada  but  one,  three  in  Idaho, 
six  in  Montana,  five  in  Utah,  and  a  few  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
Oven,  Coke  :  see  Coke  Ovens. 


FIG.  7.— Mixer  and  divider. 


604 


PACKING. 


PACKING.  Corrugated  Copper  Gaskets,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  are  now  used  for  packing 
pipe  joints.  They  are  made  of  thin  sheet-copper,  stamped  with  concentric  corrugations, 
which  on  compression  flatten  out  and  produce  a  complete  metal  union.  They  are  not 

impaired  by  heat  or  cold,  and  can  not  blow  out.     From  3  to  6  corru- 
gations inside  the  bolt  circle  is  ample  to   insure  a   permanent   joint. 

They  are  made   in  any  desired  shape.     Many  varieties  of  packings  for 

joints  are  now  in  the  market,  made  of  paper,  rubber,  cotton,  asbestos, 

graphite,  or  combinations  of  these  and  other  materials.     Some  of  these 

are  of  compositions  which  are  kept  trade  secrets,  and  they  are  known  in 

the  market  by  arbitrary  names, 

such  as  Vulcanized  Fibre,  Vul- 

cabeston,  Usudurian,    etc.,  or 

by  the  names  of  the  makers,  as 

Jenkins'  Packing,  etc. 

Tnpp's    Metallic   Packing 

is  shown    in   Figs.    2  and  3. 

It  consists  of  matched  sections, 

which  are  held  against  the  rod 

by  circular  springs   which 

grasp  the  sections.      In  Fig.  2 

the  light  color  shows  babbitt 

metal    and    the    dark    color 

Fig.  3,  and  the  sectional  view 
the    application 


FIG.  1.— Copper 
kets. 


FIG.  2.— Tripp's  packing. 


brass  composition. 

on    the  right  of    Fig.    2,  shows 

of  the  packing  to  an  engine. 

Mitchell* 8  Metallic  Packing  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.     It  consists  of  metal  and  elastic  rings 

alternated.  The  met- 
al rings  are  of  trian- 
g  u  1  a  r  section,  and 
compression  of  the 
round  elastic  rings  on 
their  beveled  sides 
forces  them  inward 
against  the  rod.  The 
cut  showing  a  packed 
rod  shows  three  elastic 
rings  with  four  metal 
rings.  The  metal 
rings  are  made  in  half- 
sections,  divided  by  a 

FIG.  s.-Tripp's  packing.  brass  space  ring.   They 

are  put  in  so  as    to 
break  joints  at  right  angles. 

The  "  Common  Sense"  Metallic  Packing  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.     It  con- 
sists of  rings  of  granu- 

r^»    n»   t&»  lated  metal  inclosed  in 

ftj£   I  I  a  cotton  tube,  alternat- 

ing   with    soft  metal 
rings.      When    applied,       FIG.  4.— Mitchell's 
the  granulated  coils  are  packing, 

firmly  packed  in  place, 

and  hammered  down  solid  and  even  all  around 
the  rod,  thus  adjusting  themselves  to  both 
rod  and  box. 

Deeds  Metallic  Packing  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 
It  is  made  of  babbitt  and  other  anti-friction 
metals.  The  packing  consistsof  four  segments 
placed  in  position  in  the  form  of  a  cylindrical 
shell  about  the  rod,  and  beveled  off  at  each 
end.  Two  of  the  segments  are  wedge-shaped, 
with  the  base  resting  against  the  rod.  There 
are  one  or  more  recesses  or  grooves  on  the 

inside  of  each  segment,  which,  when  joined  together,  form  a  complete  chamber  around  the 
rod.  This  chamber  is  for  lubricating  purposes,  and, 
when  filled  with  oil  and  condensed  steam,  reduces  the 
bearing  of  the  metal  to  a  minimum.  This  peculiar 
construction  enables  the  packing  to  readily  adjust  itself 
to  the  variations  of  the  rod  and  remain  tight,  and  also 
to  follow  its  wearing  surfaces,  and  when  there  is  any, 
to  take  up  its  own  wear.  The  metal  is  kept  in  position 
by  elastic  rings.  In  the  bottom  of  the  stuffing-box  two 
or  more  of  these  rings  are  placed,  one  of  which  is  larger 
than  the  other,  to  fit  the  bevel  of  the  packing.  In  FIG.  6.— Deeds1  packing. 


FIG.  5. — "Common  Sense"  packing. 


PHONOGRAPH. 


605 


making  the  adjustment,  these  rings  are  first  put  in  position  ;  then  the  packing,  with  its 
interior  cavity  filled  with  lubricant,  is  placed  around  the  rod  and  pushed  down  into  the 
stuffing-box.  "  Then  two  more  rings  are  fitted  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  metal,  and  pressed 
into  toe  box.  The  gland  is  then  screwed  down  into  position.  These  rings  do  not  touch  the 
rod  or  stem,  but  only  serve  to  retain  the  segments  of  metal  in  position  when  once  fitted,  and 
to  yield  in  case  of  any  slight  deviation  of  the  rod  from  a  straight  line.  Referring  to  Fig.  6, 
1  is  the  packing  and  stuffing-box  complete  :  £.  sectional  view,  showing  condensing  chamber 
G;  3,  Wedge-shape  segment  of  same  ;  4,  End- view  of  packing  on  piston  A.  A  A,  Piston 
rod.  B,  Stuffing-box.  G,  Gland.  I)  D,  Metallic  packing  complete.  E  E  E  E,  Elastic 
rings.  G,  Condensing  or  lubricating  chamber. 

Oarlock's  Packing  is  shown  in  three  forms  in  Figs.  7,  8,  and  9,  known  as  the  elastic  ring, 
the  sectional  ring,  and  the  spiral  packing,  respectively.  It  is  a 
combination  of  rubber  and  cotton,  woven  together  as* shown,  and 
filled  with  finely  divided  graphite. 

Steam  Piston  Packing. — Prof.  John  E.  Sweet 
(Trans.  Am.  Soc.  Mech.  Engrs.,  Vol.  IX.)  proposes  a 
new  principle  in  steam-piston  packing,  which  is 
shown  in  Figs.  10  and  11.  It  is  a  common  eccen- 
tric ring  hooked  together  by  a  clamp  which  forms 
a  part  of  the  ring  itself,  and  this  hook  clamp 
limits  the  expansion  of  the  ring  and  changes  the 
whole  principle  of  its  action.  The  rings  are  cast 
heavy,  rough-turned  very  much  larger  than  the 
cylinder,  a  piece  cut  out,  sprung  together,  and 
fitted  with  the  hook  clamp  or  shoes,  left  slightly 
larger  than  the  cylinder,  and  then  returned  to 
PIG.  8.— Oarlock's  packing,  a  tight  fit.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  rings  can  FIG.  9.— Gar- 
compress  to  a  limited  extent,  but  cannot  expand,  lock's  packing. 
In  use  they  act,  or  are  supposed  to  act,  as  follows  : 

When  the  engine  is  first  started  and  the  hot  piston  moves  to  the  cold  end  of  the  cylinder, 
the  rings  compress  and  allow  it  to  go  free  ;  but  when  both  cylinder  and  piston  get  up  to 

working  tempera- 
ture, the  rings  just 
fit  and  work  with- 
out any  pressure  and 
very  little  tendency 
to  wear.  Filing  out 
the  hooks  compen- 
sates for  wear  when 
it  has  taken  place. 
It  will  be  seen  that 
the  hook  clamp  is 
longer  at  one  end 
than  the  other.  The 
object  of  this  is  to 
break  joints  when 
two  rings  are  placed 
side  and  side  in  the 
same  groove,  and 
thus  cut  off  the  leak 
which  would  other- 
wise take  place 
through  the  gaps. 


FIG.  10.— Sweet's  packing. 


FIG.  11.— Sweet's  packing. 


The  hook  clamps  or  shoes  are  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  piston,  in  the  horizontal  engines, 
and  secured  by  leaving  them  a  tight  fit  and  allowing  the  follower  to  bind  them  fast.  Figs.  10 
and  11  show  the  arrangement  as^used  in  a  large  piston  with  spider,  bull  ring,  and  follower, 
and  the  method  of  lining  up  the  rod  with  liners  between  bull  ring  and  spider.  The  objection 
to  the  plan  is  that  it  is  only  applicable,  with  any  prospect  of  success,  to  parallel  cylinders, 
a  thing  not  always  obtainable. 

DuvaFs  Metallic  Packing  consists  of  fine  filaments  or  wires  of  hard  brass  laid  up  into 
strands  and  then  braided  to  form  gaskets  of  various  cross  sections. 

Panel  Raising  :  see  Moulding  Machines,  Wood. 

Paper  Cutters  :  see  Book-binding  Machines. 

Pea  Harvester  :  see  Harvesting  Machine,  Grain. 

Pebbling  Machines  :  see  Leather- working  Machines. 

Petroleum  Engines  :  see  Engines,  Gas.     Fuel :  see  Locomotives. 

PHONOGRAPH,  This  instrument  has  undergone  many  improvements,  but  it  cannot  be 
said  yet  to  have  come  into  commercial  use.  As  now  constructed  (Fig.  1 )  it  is  mounted  on  a 
hollow  wooden  base,  which  contains  an  electric  motor.  The  spindle  of  the  motor  extends 
from  the  top  of  the  base  and  drives  a  governor  which  can  be  adjusted  to  produce  any  number 
of  vibrations  a  minute,  within  limits.  It  also  drives  the  phonograph  itself.  The  spindle 
on  which  the  main  driving-pulley  is  fixed  is  carried  in  two  bearings,  and  the  part  between 
the  bearings  is  very  finely  screw-threaded,  and  an  extension  of  the  spindle  carries  a  taper 


606 


PHONOGRAPH. 


brass  mandrel,  on  which  the  cylinder  which  receives  the  record  is  slipped.  The  fine-threaded 
screw  serves  to  give  the  feed  to  the  diaphragms,  carrying  them  lengthwise  of  the  wax  cylin- 
der, so  that  the  style  traces  a  helix  which  is  of  the  same  pitch  as  the  screw. 

There  are  two  diaphragms -the  first  of  glass,  for  receiving  and  recording  the  message, 
and  the  second  of  silk  for  interpreting  the  record,  and  articulating  it  afresh.  Both  dia- 
phragms are  enclosed  in  metal  cases  having  openings  to  which  flexible  tubes  are  connected. 
The  listening  tube  is  bifurcated,  and  at  each  extremity  carries  a  small,  bent  nozzle  which 
rests  easily  in  the  ear.  The  other  tube,  which  is  shown  lying  beside  the  instrument,  is  an 
ordinary  speaking  tube.  In  the  centre  of  each  diaphragm  is  a  style,  the  one  for  engraving 
being  stiff  and  sharp,  while  the  other  is  hook-shaped,  so  that  it  drags  over  the  record 
without  any  tendency  to  cut  down  the  elevated  portions.  The  frame  which  carries  the  dia- 
phragm can  tilt  on  the  back  guide,  its  weight  being  carried  by  a  set  screw  sliding  along  the 
rail  in  front  of  the  cylinder.  By  means  of  this  screw,  the  style  can  be  adjusted  exactly  in 
relation  to  the  wax  cylinder.  The  rail  is  carried  by  a  cam  by  which  it  can  be  raised  at  will, 

the  cam  being  turned 
by  hand,  or  in  some 
cases  by  the  foot  of 
the  operator.  A  par- 
tial movement  of  the 
cam  lifts  the  style 
clear  of  the  wax  cyl- 
inder, and  at  the  same 
time  tilts  the  back 
frame,  lifting  the  part 
nut  off  the  screw. 
Thus  the  instrument 
is  thrown  out  of  ac- 
tion. By  turning  the 
cam  still  further,  a 
finger  on  the  nut  lever 
is  brought  into  en- 
gagement with  the 
comparatively  coarse- 
threaded  screw  shown 
in  front,  and  then  the 
frame  with  the  dia- 
p  h  r  a  g  m  is  moved 
rapidly  back.  The 
wax  is  of  considerable 
thickness,  so  that 
after  it  has  once 
served  its  purpose,  its 
surface  is  skimmed 

To  enable  this  to  be  done,  there  is  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  plate  which  carries 
the  diaphragm,  a  cutting  tool  which  always  precedes  the  engraving  style,  and  trims  up  the 
wax  surface  in  front  of  it.  One  cylinder  will  serve  for  more  than  forty  successive  records. 

The  Graphophone.—¥ig.  2  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  the  Bell-Tainter  grapho- 
phone.  The  instrument  is  mounted  on  a  table  provided  with  a  lid  which  can  be  closed  and 
locked  when  not  in  use.  Underneath  this  lable  is  fixed  a  balanced  treadle  and  driving  wheel, 
similar  to  those  of  a  sewing  machine.  The  cord  from  the  driving  wheel  passes  through  the 
table  and  around  a  small  pulley,  to  actuate  the  governing  device,  which  is  arranged  to  give 
speed  of  160  revolutions  per  minute.  In  practice  this  speed  can  be  maintained  within 
one  or  two  revolutions,  no  mat- 
ter bow  fast  or  how  irregularly 
the  treadle  is  worked.  From  a 
pulley,  on  the  other  end  of  the 
governor,  a  cord  passes  to  the 
main  pulley  of  the  instrument, 
which  is  fixed  to  the  front  of  the 
table.  This  pulley  is  loose  on  a 
spindle  which  carries  the  cen- 
tring drum  that  supports  one  end 
of  the  record  cylinder.  A  simi- 
lar drum,  opposite  the  former, 
and  at  a  distance  from  it  corre- 
sponding to  the  length  of  the 
cylinder,  runs  free  in  a  suitable 
bearing.  This  drum  and  its  cyl- 
inder are  capable  of  a  lateral 
motion,  controlled  by  a  spring. 
To  mount  a  cylinder  upon  its 
centres,  the  drum  and  its  spindle 
are  drawn  back,  the  cylinder  is  FIG.  2.-The  -raphophone. 


FIG.  1.— The  phonograph. 


Off. 


PHONOGRAPH.  607 


put  in  position,  and  the  spring  is  released,  so  that  the  cylinder  is  held  tightly  by  its  bearings, 
and  any  motion  communicated  to  the  driving  pulley  through  the  governor  is  of  course 
imparted  to  it.  In  order  to  provide  a  means  for  starting  or  arresting  the  movement  of  the 
cylinder  immediately — an  operation  absolutely  necessary  in  operating  the  graphophone — the 
driving  pulley  of  the  instrument,  which,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  runs  loose  on  its 
spindle,  can  be  made  fast  with  the  latter  at  will  by  means  of  a  clutch,  which  can  be  thrown 
in  and  out  of  gear  by  means  of  a  system  of  levers  operated  by  two  buttons  placed  in  the 
position  shown  in  the  engraving;  by  depressing  one  or  other  of  these  buttons  or  keys,  the 
record  cylinder  can  be  stopped  and  started  instantly. 

The  recording  style  is  carried  upon  a  tube  which  is  fixed  parallel  to  the  cylinder,  but  at  a 
higher  level.  The  lower  part  of  this  tube  is  cut  away,  to  expose  a  very  fine-threaded  screw 
placed  within  it.  This  screw  is  caused  to  revolve  by  means  of  toothed  gearing  driven  from 
the  main  pulley,  so  that  when  this  latter  is  running  idle,  the  screw,  as  well  as  the  record 
cylinder,  is  stopped.  The  circular  box  containing  the  recording  diaphragm  is  carried  at  the 
end  of  a  short  arm  which  terminates  in  a  half-sleeve,  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  tube  enclos- 
ing the  screw.  Hinged  to  this  half-sleeve  is  another  similar  one,  from  which  projects  a  short 
arm  carrying  at  its  end  a  relatively  heavy  balance  weight.  Set  in  a  slot  made  in  the  half- 
sleeve  first  referred  to,  is  a  portion  of  a  nut,  threaded  to  the  same  pitch  as  the  screw  ;  at  the 
back  of  this  nut  is  a  spring  which  keeps  it  projecting  slightly  beyond  the  face  of  the  sleeve, 
but  which  allows  it  to  pass  back  into  the  recess  if  a  slight  pressure  be  applied.  The  position 
of  the  parts  is  so  arranged  that  the  style  attached  to  the  centre  of  the  diaphragm  slightly 
penetrates  the  wax  film  with  which  the  record  cylinder  is  coated,  and  in  this  way  a  very  fine 
screw  of  160  threads  to  the  inch,  and  one-thousa'ndth  of  an  inch  in  depth,  is  traced  upon  the 
cylinder.  We  now  come  to  consider  the  construction  of  the  recording  part  of  the  instrument, 
the  function  of  which  is  to  receive  the  sound  vibrations  and  to  engrave  them  faithfully  upon 
the  wax  surface.  It  consists  of  the  shallow  circular  box,  referred  to  previously  as  being  at- 
tached to  the  carrying  sleeve.  The  diaphragm  forming  a  bottom  to  this  box,  is  made  from 
a  piece  of  very  thin  and  flawless  mica;  a  short  distance  above,  and  parallel  to  it,  is  fixed  in 
the  box  a  metal  plate,  pierced  with  two  series  of  concentric  slots  ;  above  this  again,  but  not  in 
contact  with  it,  is  a  metal  cone,  the  centre  of  which  coincides  with  the  center  of  the  box,  and 
is  therefore  immediately  over  the  style  attached  to  the  mica.  All  these  parts  are  enclosed 
within  the  box  by  a  metal  cover  with  a  central  opening,  to  which  is  attached  a  flexible  speaking- 
tube,  provided  with  a  mouthpiece.  In  front  of  the  mica  diaphragm,  and  stretching  from  one 
side  of  the  box  to  the  other,  is  a  metal  bridge,  so  placed  that  it  is  almost  in  contact  with  the 
style.  In  the  centre  of  this  bridge  a  projection  is  formed,  of  such  a  shape  that  when  the  instru- 
ment is  in  operation  it  presses  upon  the  wax  surface  of  the  recording  cylinder  and  burnishes 
it  in  advance  of  the  style,  so  that  the  latter  may  have  an  absolutely  true  surface  to  work  upon. 

The  style  is  simply  a  very  fine,  chisel- pointed  cutting  tool,  capable  of  forming  a  perfect 
thread  upon  the  wax-coated  cylinder,  of  the  pitch  and  depth  already  mentioned.  In  engrav- 
ing, the  carrier  is  placed  upon  its  tube  so  that  the  style  bears  upon  the  cylinder;  the  driving 
pulley  is  set  in  motion ;  the  message  is  delivered  through  the  mouthpiece  of  the  speaking- 
tube,"and  the  air  vibrations  thus  created  strike  upon  the  cone  within  the  receiving  box,  and 
are  distributed  uniformly  over  the  surface  of  the  mica  diaphragm  with  the  aid  of  the  slotted 
plate,  setting  up  in  the  latter  a  series  of  vibrations  corresponding  to  the  sounds  produced 
by  the  speaker  and  transmitted  through  the  tube. 

The  transmitting  or  repeating  mechanism  consists  of  a  light  carriage  for  carrying  the 
socket,  to  which  the  transmission  tube  is  attached,  as  well  as  the  diaphragm  and  its  attach- 
ments. On  this  carriage  are  four  curved  arms;  the  back  pair  fixed,  and  the  forward  pair 
hinged  to  the  carriage  and  controlled  by  springs.  A  threaded  block  or  nut,  similar  to  that 
already  described  as  forming  part  of  the  receiving  mechanism,  is  fixed  between  the  forward 
pair  of  arms;  at  the  back  of  the  carriage,  and  rigid  with  it,  is  another  pair  of  arms  with  con- 
necting pieces  at  top  and  bottom ;  this  serves  as  a  handle  for  holding  the  transmitter  when  it 
is  taken  off  or  put  on  the  instrument.  The  front  part  of  the  carriage  terminates  in  a  screwed 
tubular  socket  which  forms  a  continuation  of  the  nozzle  on  which  the  elastic  transmitting 
tube  is  fixed;  upon  this  socket  is  screwed  the  circular  box,  containing  the  transmitting  dia- 
phragm. The  under  side  of  the  box  is  pierced  with  holes  to  prevent  the  setting  up  of  air 
currents  within,  which  might  interfere  with  the  proper  action  of  the  diaphragm.  A  hollow 
stem,  terminating  in  a  curved  beak,  forms  a  part  of  the  bottom  of  the  box.  To  the  centre  of 
the  diaphragm,  which  is  of  mica,  is  attached  one  end  of  a  silk  thread,  the  other  end  being 
fastened  to  a  small  curved  style,  which  is  secured  to  the  beak  by  a  pin  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  it  entire  freedom  of  motion.  If  now  a  record  has  been  engraved  by  the  recording  style 
upon  the  wax-coated  cylinder,  and  the  recording  diaphragm  with  its  attachments  has  been 
removed,  the  transmitting  carriage  is  slipped  over  the  tube  containing  the  traversing  screw. 
In  doing  this  the  nut  between  the  pair  of  arms  engages  with  the  screw,  the  point  of  the 
curved  style  enters  the  groove  engraved  upon  the  cylinder,  and  on  the  instrument  being  set 
in  motion  the  irregularities  which  had  previously  been  engraved  by  the  recording  style  give 
a  corresponding  motion  to  the  transmitting  point,  and,  by  means  of  the  silk  thread,  which  is 
kept  in  tension,  set  up  in  the  transmitting  diaphragm  a  series  of  vibrations  similar  in 
character  to  those  which  had  been  previously  created  in  the  recording  diaphragm  by  the 
message  spoken  into  it.  In  this  way  the  original  sounds  are  faithfully  reproduced  as  to 
quality,  but  not  as  to  intensity,  perhaps  owing  to  the  smaller  diameter  of  the  repeating  dia- 
phragm, but  they  are  not  audible  excepting  through  the  intervention  of  the  transmitting 
tube.  This  tube,  which  is  slipped  over  the  nozzle,  is  bifurcated  near  its  outer  end. 


608 


PHONOGRAPH. 


The  governor,  which  maintains  a  constant  speed  of  the  record  cylinder  and  the  feed 
screw,  consists  of  a  light  frame  secured  to  the  table,  carrying  a  spindle  on  which  the  device 
is  mounted.  Loose  on  the  spindle  near  the  right-hand  end  of  the  frame  are  a  disk  and 
pulley,  made  in  one  piece  ;  a  belt  from  the  treadle  passing  over  drives  the  governor.  The 
driving  pulley  which  gives  motion  through  a  belt  to  the  instrument,  is  fast  on  the  spindle, 
and  is  formed  with  a  boss  on  the  inner  side.  A  third  disk  is  held  in  contact  with  the 
leather  facing  on  this  latter  by  a  strong  spiral  spring  abutting  against  the  boss  of  the  julley, 
and  a  disk  close  to  the  cross  arm  keyed  to  the  spindle.  Pinned  to  the  ends  of  this  arm  are 
the  two  weights,  and  two  short  arms  project  from  them  at  the  point  where  they  are  pinned 
to  the  cross  arms,  the  end  engaging  in  a  groove  formed  in  the  boss  of  the  disk.  Two  small 
pins  pass  from  these  arms  through  the  boss  on  the  arm,  and  into  the  disk  against  which  the 
spiral  spring  presses.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  spring  holds  the  disk  in  close  contact  with 
the  other  disk— sufficiently  so  that  when  motion  is  transmitted  from  the  treadle  to  the 
pulley,  the  governor  is  caused  to  revolve,  and  a  belt  from  the  pulley  to  the  instrument  gives 
the  desired  motion  to  the  cylinder  arid  driving  screw.  So  long  as  the  speed  continues 
normal,  the  instrument  is  driven  at  the  rate  for  which  the  different  parts  are  arranged,  but 
should  an  extra  velocity  be  given,  the  weights  of  the  governor  open  slightly,  and  the  pressure 
between  the  disks  is  reduced  so  that  the  speed  falls  instantly.  So  nicely  are  the  various 
parts  adjusted  that  with  the  most  ordinary  care,  the  normal  rate  of  160  revolutions  per 
minute,  to  which  the  instrument  is  speeded,  need  never  be  exceeded  by  more  than  one  or 
two  revolutions. 

The  Gramophone. — Among  the  instruments  for  recording  and  reproducing  speech  and 
other  sounds,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Emile  Berliner,  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  known  as  the 

gramophone,  is  remarkable 
as  being  distinct  from  the 
others  in  both  form  and  prin- 
ciple. The  gramophone  was 
one  of  the  early  modern  talk- 
ing machines.  It  was  nearly 
perfected  when  the  latest 


form  of  phonograph  appeared. 
Since  that  time  it  has  been 


FIG.  3.— The  gramophone. 


improved,  and  we  understand 
that  recent  trials  of  the  in- 
strument in  Europe  have 
proved  very  successful. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  record- 
ing apparatus  ;  Fig.  4,  the 
reproducer  ;  Fig.  5,  a  print 
of  a  gramophone  record. 

In  this  machine  a  central 
apertured  disk  of  zinc  is  used 
for  receiving  the  record.  The 
disk,  which  is  covered  with 
an  extremely  thin  film  of 
wax,  is  mounted  on  a  vertical 
spindle  within  an  etching 
trough  which  revolves  with 

the    spindle.      The   recording    style,    the    diaphragm,    and   the   mouth   of    the    tube    are 

mounted    on  a  carriage,  which  is  moved  toward  the  centre  of  the  zinc  disk  by  a  screw, 

taking  its   motion  from   the 

spindle    carrying     the    disk. 

Motion  is    imparted    to    the 

record  disk  by  a  friction  wheel 

on  the  horizontal  shaft  at  the 

right  of  Fig.  3.      This  shaft 

is    provided    in   the    present 

case  with  a  hand  crank,  by 

which  the  plate   is  revolved. 

The   same  shaft  is  also  pro- 

vided with  a   pulley  for  re- 

ceiving a  belt   from   a  suit- 

able motor,  when  it  is  desired 


to  operate    the    machine  by 


As  the  record  disk  is  re- 
volved, sounds  uttered  in  the 
mouth -tube  cause  the  dia- 
phragm to  vibrate,  and  the 
style  is  moved  in  a  direction 
parallel  with  the  face  of  the 
record  surface,  forming  in 
the  wax  film  a  sinuous  line  representing  the  sounds  uttered  in  the  mouth-tube. 


FIG.  4.— The  reproducing  apparatus  of  the  gramophone. 


As  the 


PILE   DEIVING. 


609 


FIG.  5.— Gramophone  record  (reduced). 


plate  revolves,  the  style  and  parts  connected  with  it  are  carried  forward  toward  the  centre  of 
the  disk,  thus  forming  a  spiral,  sinuous  line  in  the  wax  film.  When  the  record  is  complete, 
the  style  is  removed,  and  acid  is  admitted  to  the  etching  trough  from  the  bottle  supported 
at  the  right  of  the  machine.  As  soon  as  the  plate  is  sufficiently  etched,  the  trough  is 
removed,  the  acid  is  returned  to  the  bottle,  the  wax  film  dissolved  off,  and  the  plate  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  reproducing  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

In  this  apparatus  the  record  plate  is  mounted  on  a  vertical  spindle,  and  revolved  as  in 
the  other  case.  The  diaphragm  of  the  reproducing  instrument  carries  a  style  which  follows 
the  spiral  groove  in  the  plate,  thus  causing  vibrations  in  the  diaphragm,  similar  to  those 
produced  by  the  sounds  uttered  in  the  mouth-tube  of  the  recording  instrument.  The 
diaphragm  cell  and  reproducing  style  are  carried  upon  the  smaller  end  of  the  trumpet, 
which  is  delicately  pivoted  on  a  standard,  and  counterbalanced  so  that  the  reproducing 
stylus  exerts  only*  a  slight  pressure  upon  the  record  plate.  The  volume  of  sound  issuing 
from  the  trumpet  is  great.  Instrumental  and  vocal  music  are  faithfully  reproduced.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  records  formed  by  this  instrument  are  permanent,  and  the  plates  capable 
of  being  stored  in  a  very  small  space.  The  possi- 
bilities of  extending  the  gramophonic  principles 
are  perhaps  more  noteworthy  than  its  present 
development.  The  disks  can  be  easily  duplicated, 
and  at  an  exhibition  in  Philadelphia  an  electro- 
type copy  of  a  12  in.  disk  was  shown  which 
sounded  precisely  like  the  original.  Since  then 
talking  copies  have  been  made  by  pressing  a 
matrice  into  molten  glass,  but  the  liability  of  the 
glass  to  stick  in  the  form — the  matrice  being  of 
copper — and  the  consequent  warping  of  the  glass 
copy,  has  proved  a  serious  objection.  Steel  ma- 
trices have  been  suggested  as  liable  to  overcome 
this  difficulty.  Very  successful  copies  have  been 
made  in  celluloid  from  electrotype  matrices,  and  such  celluloid  copies  are  particularly  free 
from  all  frictional  noise,  provided  the  celluloid  is  pressed  hard,  and  of  well-seasoned  mate- 
rial. Gramophone  records  have  been  printed,  and  such  prints  have  been  photo-engraved, 
and  the  copy  thus  obtained  sounded  precisely  like  the  original.  The  important  subject  of 
good  articulation  ha<3  ever  been  kept  in  the  foreground,  and  this  is  now  in  so  satisfactory  a 
shape  that  the  inventor  has  carried  on  a  vocal  correspondence  with  friends  in  Europe,  by  means 
of  small  gramophone  disks,  which  can  be  mailed  in  a  good-sized  letter  envelope. 
Picker  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machines.  Also  Harvester,  Cotton. 
Picking  Table  :  see  Ore-dressing  Machinery. 

PILE  DRIYOG.— Drop  hammers  are  now  made  to  weigh  from  75  to  4,200  Ibs.     They 
are  much  longer  for  a  given  weight  than  the  older  forms,  thus  avoiding  the  sidewise  throw 
when  the  hammer  strikes  near  one  edge.     Wear  is  thus  dimin- 
ished and  the  effect  of  the  blow  increased.     The  bottoms  of  the 
hammers  are  made  concave,  while  the  sides  are  cored,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1.     Dies  are  of  hammered  steel,  triangular  in  form,  fitted  in 
the  hammer  and  stationary,  or  are  arranged  to  rotate  on  a  turned 
pin   which  is  keyed  in  the  ham- 
mer.    These  forms  of  die  are  used 
with  nippers.     Where  driving  is 
done  by  friction,  the  hoisting  line 
is  attached  directly  to  a   turned 
steel  pin. 

In  the  operation  of  pile  driv- 
ing it  frequently  happens  that 
the  piles  are  either  split  or 
4 '  broomed "  on  their  tops  by 
the  concussion  of  the  hammer. 
To  overcome  this  difficulty,  re- 
course has  been  had  to  'metal 
bands  around  the  upper  ends  of 
the  piles.  This  is  expensive  and 

wastes  time.  Casgrain's  cap,  illustrated  in  Fig.  2,  is 
intended  to  overcome  the  trouble.  It  consists  of  a  cast-iron 
cap  with  tapered  recesses  above  and  below,  the  chamfered 
head  of  the  pile  fitting  the  lower  one  and  the  wooden  block, 
D,  fitting  the  upper  one.  Suitable  jaws,  similar  to  those  on 
the  hammer,  engage  the  leaders  and  form  a  movable  toggle- 
iron,  steadying  the  pile  as  it  is  being  driven.  As  the  ham- 
mer descends,  it  strikes  the  timber  or  cushion  block  set  in 
the  upper  cavity,  and  the  pile  is  forced  down  by  the  blows. 
When  the  pile  is  driven,  the  short  chains  on  either  side  of 
the  hammer  are  connected  to  the  caps  by  means  of  pins, 
and  both  hammer  and  cap  are  hoisted  up  and  secured  for  an- 
other operation.  FIG.  2.— Pile  cap. 

39 


FIG.  1. — Pile  hammer. 


610 


PILE   DEIVING. 


In  order  to  prevent  the  grinding  action  of  the  drop  hammer  on  the  leaders,  it  is  usual 
to  protect  them  with  iron  wearing  pieces  known  as  "liner  irons."  The  most  modern  form 
of  these  consists  of  a  channel-iron  liner  protecting  the  entire  face  and  corners  of  the 
leaders.  They  are  made  in  full  lengths  to  avoid  joints  and  to  add  to  the  strength  of  the 
leaders. 

Pile  Drivers. — Fig.  3  represents  a  pile  driver  intended  for  township  work.     It  is  provided 

with  leaders  25  ft.  high, 

and    with    a    hammer 

weighing     from    800    to 

1,200   Ibs.     The.  hammer 

is  handled  by  horse  power, 

one  end  of  the  line  being 

fastened  to  a  suitable  post, 

while    the    other  end    is 

passed  through  a   pulley 

block,  which   is  fastened 

to  the  main  hoisting  line 

and  leads  to  the  whiffle- 

tree  direct.      Fig.  4  rep- 
resents a  pile  saw  arbor 

made  to  cut  off  piles   16 

to    24    ft.    under    water. 

The  shaft   is  3£    in.    in 

diameter,     and     counter- 
balanced.    A  42-in.  saw, 

at  a  speed  of    about  600 

revolutions,  is  usually  em- 
ployed.    The  arbor  works 

on  a  spline  over  its  entire 

length,  and  is  easily  ad- 
justable to  any    depth 

within    its  range.       The 

belt  runs  on  side  rollers 

and  frames  fastened  to  the  inner  side  of  the  leaders. 
The  hoisting  gear  for  steam  pile  drivers  is  usually  an 
engine  of  simple  construction,  provided  with  means  for  sustaining  and  lowering  the  load. 
Friction-drum  engines,  the  drums  being  cones  of  wood  and  iron  brought  into  contact 
while  hoisting  by  means  of  thrust  screws,  are  employed.  The  following  table  shows  the 
dimensions  of  engines,  boilers,  etc.,  of  the  Vulcan  Iron  Works  pile  drivers : 

Single  Cylinders. 


FIG.  3.— Pile  driver. 


FIG.  4.— Pile  saw. 


Dimensions  of  Cylinders. 

Weijint 

Hoisting  Drum. 

Dimensions  of  Boiler. 

Holster 
No. 

hoisted, 
single 
rope,  Ibs. 

No.  of  Tubes. 

Diam.,  in. 

Stroke,  in. 

Diam.,  in. 

Length,  In. 

Diam.  shell, 
in. 

Height  or 
length  of 

shell,  in. 

1 

6 

8 

1,850 

12 

24 

28 

68 

38 

1 

6 

12 

1,750 

12 

24 

30 

72 

40 

2 

6 

12 

1.750 

14 

24 

30 

110 

30 

1 

7 

12 

2,750 

14 

24 

34 

78 

52 

2 

7 

12 

2,750 

14 

24 

32 

110 

34 

1 

8 

12 

3,000 

14 

26 

36 

80 

56 

2 

8 

12 

3,000 

14 

£6 

36 

117 

46 

Double  Cylinders. 


1 

6 

8 

2,000 

12 

24 

36 

74 

56 

2 

6 

8 

2,000 

12 

24 

36 

117 

46 

1 

6 

12 

3,000 

14 

26 

36 

80 

56 

2 

6 

12 

3,000 

14 

26 

38 

120 

BO 

1 

7 

12 

4,000 

14 

26 

42 

86 

80 

2 

7 

12 

4,000 

14 

26 

42 

136 

C2 

Steam  Pile  Hammers. — These  hammers  are  raised  by  the  engine  in  the  leaders  and 
allowed  to  rest  full  weight  on  the  pile.  Steam  is  then  admitted  to  the  hammer  cylinder, 
causing  the  piston  carrying  the  hammer  head  to  reciprocate  so  that  the  hammer  pounds 
automatically  until  the  pile  is  driven  as  far  as  may  be  required.  The  Vulcan-Nasmyth 
hammer,  represented  in  Fig.  5,  has  the  novel  feature  of  a  positive  valve  gear  capable  or 
adjustment  for  long  or  short  strokes,  operated  by  the  movement  of  the  hammer,  and  deliver- 
ing either  an  elastic  or  non-elastic  blow  at  will.  A  rigid  connection  between  the  steam 


PIPE   AND   TUBE   MAKING   MACHINES. 


611 


cylinder  and  lower  bonnet  is  obtained  by  four  turned  steel  columns  fitting 
into  reamed  boles  in  the  cylinder  and  bonnet,  and  secured  by  heavy 
keys. 

The  hammer  proper  has  four  holes  bored  out,  through  which  the  rods 
pass.  As  these  rods  are  turned  the  entire  length,  and  the  holes  in  the  ham- 
mer bored  out  with  just  sufficient  play,  it  is  evident  that  the  hammer  can- 
not cast  and  break  the  piston-rod.  Breakage  of  the  bonnet  is  avoided  by 
placing  the  rods  in  the  corners  of  the  bonnet,  leaving  the  full  section  of 
the  metal  between  unimpaired  by  bolt  or  rivet  holes.  The  action  is  regular 
and  continuous.  The  manufacturers  claim  that  any  kind  of  pile  can  be 
used,  hard  or  soft,  straight  or  crooked,  and  driven  to  any  depth  without 
injury  to  the  head  of  the  pile,  in  the  hardest  kind  of  driving,  sand  or  hard 
pan  ;  and  that  the  most  ordinary  kind  of  timber,  such  as  spruce,  bass,  and 
pine,  can  be  thus  driven  without  the  use  of  head  bands. 

The  following  table  shows  the  dimensions  of  these  hammers: 

Table  of  Vulcan- Nasmyth  Steam  Pile,  Hammers. 


No. 

Weight,  Ibs 

7,300 
5,000 

Length,  ft. 

Diameter. 
Cylinder,  in. 

Nominal 
stroke,  in. 

Weisht  of 
striking 
parts. 

Distance 
between  jaws. 

Width  of 
jaws. 

1... 
2  

11 
9 

12 
10 

36 
30 

4,200 
2,800 

20 
19 

8 

FIG.  5. — Steam  pile 
hammer. 


Car  Pile  Drivers  are  widely  used  in  the  construction  of  railroads. 
These  are  of  especial  construction,  and  must  possess  great  capacity,  dura- 
bility, and  facility  of  operation  in  order  to 
keep  pace  with  the  phenomenal  rapidity  of 
the  track  layer.  A  novel  form  of  apparatus. 

swivelling  on  the  centre  to  work  at  either  end,  is  represented 

in  Fig.  6.     The  type  of  hammer  employed  is  the  steam  ham- 
mer last  above  described.     The  dimensions  are  as  follows  : 

Length  of  car,  34  ft. ;  centre  of  forward  axle  to  centre  of  pile, 

8.V  ft. ;  centre  of  forward  axle  to  centre  of  pile,  with  forward 

truck  moved  back,  16  ft.;  lateral  swing  either  side  of  centre, 

J)  ft. ;  extreme  height  above  top  of  rail,  with  leaders  lowered, 

loi  ft.;  total 

length   of 

leaders      t  o 

under  side  of 

head    block. 

86ft.;  weight 

^  ff      I       fc-JW 

%ir~::::: 

£" 


of  drop  ham- 
mer, 2,000 
Ibs  The 
leaders  are 
raised  and 
lowered  b  y 
the  engine. 
The  swing- 
ing pinions 
are  operated 
b  y  ratchet 
wrenches. 
The  car  it- 


PIG.  6.— Car  pile  driver. 


self  is  symmetrical  about  the  pivot  point,  so  that  the  carriage  may  be  swung  around  end 
for  end.  Driving  can  be  done  at  either  end,  with  equal  ease.  The  machine  may  be  made  self- 
propelling,  and  this  mechanism  is  likewise  quite  independent  of  the  position  of  the  carriage 
upon  the  car,  whether  at  one  end  or  the  other,  central,  or  swung  out  at  work.  The  engine 
is  of  a  special  form,  and  the  boiler  is  upright  to  save  length.  We  are  indebted  to  the  Vulcan 
Iron  Works  of  Chicago  for  the  foregoing  information. 

PIPE  AND  TUBE  MAKING  MACHINES.  I.  NEW  PROCESSES  OF  MAKING  SEAM- 
LESS TUBES.— The  manufacture  of  tubes  without  soldering  has  in  recent  years  been  the 
object  of  persistent  research  and  important  labors  that  have  originated  several  new  processes, 
among  which  those  of  Messrs.  Flotow  &  Leidig,  Robertson,  and  Mannesrnann  are  especially 
worthy  of  notice. 

The  first  of  these  processes,  which  is  of  limited  application,  employs  a  method  of  longi- 
tudinal drawing  upon  a  stationary  mandrel.  The  two  others  have  recourse  to  a  helicoidal 
or  diagonal  drawing,  accompanied  with  a  cooling  of  the  metal,  on  a  fixed  or  movable  man- 
drel, by  the  aid  of  revolving  draw  plates  or  rollers  having  a  differential  rotation.  They 
constitute  two  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  the  flow  of  solids  through  metals. 


612 


PIPE   AND   TUBE   MAKING    MACHINES. 


Up  to  the  present,  the  Robertson  process  appears  to  have  been  applied  with  the  most 
advantage  to  the  working  of  plastic  metals  (copper,  tin,  bronze,  etc.)  in  a  cold  state,  while 
that  of  Mannesmann,  which  is  of  the  most  remarkable  boldness  and  originality,  is  perfectly 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  tubes.  This  mode  of  manufacture,  which  is 
DOW  worked  in  Germany  on  a  large  scale,  produces,  at  a  low  price,  absolutely  homogeneous 


FIG.  1.— Flotow  &  Leidig  process  of  tube  making. 


FIG.  2. 


seamless  tubes,  whose  metal,  far  from  being  weakened,  is  strengthened  by  the  operations 
that  it  undergoes. 

The  Flotow  &  Leidig  Process. — In  the  process  of  drawing  employed  by  Messrs.  Wilhelm 
von  Flotow  and  Hermann  Leidig,  of  the  Dantzig  Arms  Manufactory,  the  mandrel,  d  (Figs.  1 
and  2),  is  fixed,  and  the  ingot  is  drawn  between  the  head,  v,  of  the  mandrel  and  the  draw 
plate,  m,  in  such  a  way  as  to  convert  it  into  a  tube  of  smaller  diameter.  To  this  effect, 


FIG.  3. — Robertson  process  of  tube  making. 

the  ingot  is  held  by  its  tenon  and  mortise  extremity,  e,  in  the  head,  s,  which  is  movable 
under  the  action  of  the  screws,  o  and  p.  Through  successively  reducing  the  diameter  of 
the  draw  plate,  this  process  permits  of  drawing  out  a  tube  conical  externally,  like  a  gun 
barrel. 

The  Robertson  Process. — The  mandrel,  D  (Figs.  3,  4,  5),  of  the  apparatus  of  Mr.  James 


FIG.  4. — Robertson  process  of  tube  making. 

Robertson,  of  Glasgow,  revolves  within  the  ingot,  C,  and  is  at  the  same  time  pushed  forward 
by  the  hydraulic  press,  E.  The  rotary  motion  is  given  by  a  train,  the  pinion  of  which  is 
fixed  by  tongue  and  groove  to  the  shaft,  /.  The  draw-plate,  A,  which  is  firmly  keyed 
between  the  jaws,  B,  is  slightly  conical,  so  that  the  ingot,  C,  fixes  itself  in  the  die  by  the 
very  pressure  of  the  mandrel.  The  form  of  the  mandrels  varies  according  to  the  metal  and 
„  „  temperature  of  the  ingot.  The  one 

shown  in  Fig.  5  serves  to  convert  cold 

II  I  (CJJ  copper  and  soft  steel  ingots  into  thick 
sided  tubes  that  are  afterward  drawn 
out.  The  point  is  provided  with  three 
longitudinal  grooves,  enlarged  from 
the  point  to  the  base,  and  with  rounded  sides,  so  as  to  displace  and  face  back  the  metal 
without  cutting  it,  and  designed  likewise  for  the  passage  of  the  petroleum  for  lubricating 
the  point  when  ingots  of  copper  are  thus  treated  in  a  cold  state.  The  velocity  of  the  tool 
at  the  circumference  is  then  but  about  3  in.  per  second,  although  it  is  very  rapid  (40  ft.  per 


FIG.  5. — Robertson  tube  mandrel. 


PIPE   AND   TUBE   MAKING   MACHINES. 


613 


second)  when  hot  steel  ingots  are  being  pierced,  without  a  possibility  of  oiling  the  point. 
The  advance  of  the  tool  in  this  case  is  about  5  ft.  per  second. 

The  Afannesmann  Process.— In  Messrs.  Reinhard  &  Max  Mannesraann's  process  the 
seamless  tubes  are  obtained  by  rolling  solid  bars.  As  shown  in  Fig.  6,  at  1,  the  bar,  B,  is 
held  between  two  cones  A  a,  revolving  in  the  same  direction,  and  the  axes  of  which  point  in 
opposite  directions  in  parallel  planes.  The  converging  sides  of  the  cones,  between  \yhich  the 
bar  is  held,  draw  out  the  metal  at  its  periphery  in  such  a  way  as  to  gradually  make  it  assume 
the  form  of  a  tube,  the  beginning  of  which  is  seen  at  &.  When  the  finished  tube  comes  from 
the  roller,  as  shown  at  2,  there  remains  a  blank,  B,  hollowed  out  at  62JL  through  the  pressure 
of  the  cones.  The  cones  are  nearly  always  hollow  helices  with  pitches  increasing  from  the 
point  to  the  base,  so  as  to  draw  out  the  surface  of  the  bar  progressively  in  measure  as  it 
advances  between  the  cones.  If  it  is  desired  to  avoid  the  blank  shown  in  2,  it  will  suffice 


FIG.  6.— The  Mannesmann  process  of  tube  making. 

to  push  the  tube  submitted  to  drawing  over  a  mandrel,  D  (3\  which  revolves  in  a  bearing,  E 
(4}>  For  softer  alloys,  which  may  be  rolled  in  a  nearly  cold  state,  a  conical  mandrel  is  em- 
ployed (M,  5),  and  this,  if  need  be,  can  be  kept  cool  by  a  stream  of  water,  and  serve  to  increase 
the  diameter  of  a  tube  already  formed.  This  mandrel  terminates  in  a  grooved  point,  and 
can,  as  shown  at  6  and  7,  revolve  in  the  same  direction  as  the  ingot,  or  the  opposite,  according 
as  it  is  desired  to  retard  or  hasten  the  drawing  around  the  point  of  the  mandrel.  The  proc- 
ess by  means  of  which  the  tubes  shown  at  8  are  obtained,  is  founded  on  the  principle  that 
an  ingot  rolled  diagonally  between  two  cones  (A  and  a,  9\  revolving  in  opposite  directions, 
undergoes  at  the  bearing"  point  distortions  that  are  distributed  over  the  triangular  wheels, 
c  c,  which  cause  within  the  ingot  molecular  stresses,  whose  resultant  tends  to  distend  its 
fibres  all  around  its  axis,  in  measure  as  it  revolves  between  the  cones.  The  tubes  thus  formed 
are  smooth  within.  Their  fibres  are  not  broken,  but  lengthened  out  spirally  around  their 
axis.  The  apparatus  represented  at  10  serves  for  manufacturing  copper  tubes  of  uniform 
thickness,  and  of  a  diameter  greater  than  that  of  the  ingot.  The  point  of  the  mandrel  pene- 


614 


PIPE  AND   TUBE   MAKING   MACHINES. 


trates  the  ingot  very  easily  without  heating  it  much.  In  a  new  variant  of  their  process,  Messrs. 
Mannesmann  substitute  mushroom-shaped  rollers,  a  a  (11),  for  the  cones.  The  intersection 
of  the  vertical  planes  passing  through  the  axis  of  rotation  and  through  the  apices  of  the 
rollers  is  situated  in  the  vertical  plane  passing  through  the  axis  of  the  ingot,  D,  and  man- 
drel, E.  Moreover,  the  angle,  e,  of  the  mandrel  is  a  little  more  open  than  that  of  the  roll- 
ing generatrices  of  the  mushroom-shaped  rollers,  so  that  the  lamination  compresses  and  re- 
duces the  thickness  of  the  sides  of  the  tubes  on  the  mandrel,  while  its  diameter  at  the  same 
time  increases.  From  12  will  be  seen  how  a  tube  may  be  made  by  means  of  two  successive 
operations,  one  of  them  preparatory,  and  consisting  in  tubing  the  axis  of  the  ingot  by  the 
diagonal  rolling  of  the  plates,  F  f,  and  the  other  a  finishing  operation,  consisting  in  widen- 
ing the  tube  on  the  mandrel,  E.  In  this  case  the  rollers,  A  a,  may  be  given  a  velocity  such 
as  to  make  the  mandrelled  part  of  the  tube  rotate  more  rapidly  than  that  part  of  the  ingot 
submitted  to  the  action  of  the  plates,  F  f. 

Diagrams  13  to  18  show  how  it  is  possible  to  make  a  tube  directly  with  but  a  single  pair 
of  rollers,  G  g.    Before  approaching  the  mandrel,  E,  as  shown  at  14,  the  ingot  (13),  held 


FIG.  7. — Manufacture  of  spirally  welded  tubing. 

between  the  converging  generatrices  at  G  g,  undergoes  a  preparation  that  reduces  its  dia- 
meter and  hollows  its  extremity  at  d'  (14),  so  that  it  can  favorably  meet  the  point  of  the 
mandrel  in  passing  from  the  converging  to  the  diverging  generatrices  of  the  rollers.  The 
tubular  part  of  the  ingot  is  then,  as  shown  at  15,  pushed  along  and  compressed  on  the  man- 
drel through  the  gradual  action  of  G  g,  and  converted  into  a  thin-sided  tube,  until  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  ingot  leaves  the  rollers.  When  the  entire  manufacture  of  the  tube  is 
effected  by  means  of  a  single  pair  of  cones,  it  is  necessary  that  the  torsion  given  to  the  ingot 
by  the  converging  generatrices  during  the  first  part  of  the  operation  (13  and  14)  shall  not  be 
destroyed  during  the  widening  and  calibrating  (15,  16,  17),  because  such  torsion,  which 
winds  "the  fibres  spirally  around  its  axis,  considerably  reduces  its  resistance  to  internal  press- 
ure. To  this  effect,  the  rollers  are  given  a  profile  and  inclination  such  that  the  vertical 
planes  passing  through  their  summits,  situated  (as  shown  at  18)  at  different  levels,  intersect 
each  other  in  the  vertical  plane  of  the  axis  of  the  tube.  The  tube  thus  rolls  without  torsion 
between  the  divergent  generatrices.  Other  descriptions  of  Mannesmann's  tube  process  may 
be  found  in  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  via.,  p.  564,  and  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs., 
vol.  xix.,  p.  884. 


PIPE   AXD    TUBE   MAKING   MACHINES. 


615 


II.  SPIRALLY  WELDED  TUBING. — The  manufacture  of  spirally  welded  tubing,  as  carried 
on  at  the  works  of  the  Spiral  Weld  Tube  Co.,  Orange,  N.  J.,  is  thus  described:  The  raw 
material  of  the  industry  is  the  sheet-iron  or  steel  of  commerce,  of  such  lengths  and  widtlis 
as  it  is  convenient  to  roll.  The  range  of  the  gauges  of  the  metal  which  can  be  employed 
has  not  yet  been  determined.  The  lightest  metal  thus  far  successfully  made  into  pipe 
is  No.  29  iron,  and  the  heaviest  a  steel  gauging  -165  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  or  No.  8  of  the 
Birmingham  gauge. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  of  manufacture  is  to  slit  the  sheets  into  bands  of  the  width 
most  convenient  for  the  production  of  the  desired  diameter  of  pipe.  The  wider  the  skelp. 
the  faster  the  pipe  is  made.  For  convenience,  all  diameters  are  made  from  four  widths  of 
skelp,  6,  12,  18,  and  24  ins.  To  make  a  6-in.  pipe  30  ft.  long  from  12-in.  skelp,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  ribbon  of  metal  about  49  ft.  long.  The  ends  of  the  strips  of  skelp  are  united 
by  a  machine  known  as  a  cross  welder.  The  sheets  are  so  placed  as  to  give  about  Mn.  lap, 
and  in  this  position  they  are  firmly  clamped.  Heat  is  then  applied  by  furnaces  above  and 
below,  which  move  along  the  seam.  As  they  recede,  the  hot  edges  are  welded  between  a 
hammer  moving  vertically  and  an  anvil  of  reciprocal  motion.  To  place  and  clamp  the  skelp, 
heat  the  overlapping  edges  and  weld  them,  consumes  about  one  minute  to  each  cross  seam  of 
12  ins.  A  pressure  of  the  foot  of  the  operator  upon  a  treadle  engages  a  worm-wheel  and 
worm,  which  rotates  a  reel  upon  which  the  skelp  is  wound.  As  it  is  drawn  from  the  reel,  it 
passes  between  pressure-rolls,  which  smooth  out  any  buckling  or  other  irregularity  in  the  still 
hot  metal,  and  rotary  shears  trim  off  the  burr  at  the  ends  of  the  welded  seam.  In  case  the 
weld  is  defective  or  the  sheets  have  not  been  clamped  in  line,  the  weld  is  cut  by  a  shear  held 
suspended  when  not  in  use,  and  the  ends  are  welded  again.  As  a  rule,  the  weld  is  smooth 
and  perfect,  and  the  extra  thickness  of  metal  at  the  weld  occasions  no  inconvenience  in 
forming  the  pipe. 

The  pipe-machine  (Fig.  7)  is  chiefly  made  of  heavy  castings,  requiring  but  little  finish. 


FIG.  8. — Machine  for  making  wc-lded  steel  pipes. 


It  occupies  about  3xG  ft.  of  floor  space.  The  reel  carrying  the  ribbon  of  skelp  is  put  in 
position,  and  one  end  of  the  metal  is  placed  upon  the  guide  table,  which  is  set  at  the  angle 
due  to  the  width  of  the  skelp  and  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  into  which  it  is  to  be  made.  The 
metal  is  carried  into  the  machine  between  feed  rolls  geared  together,  which  are  actuated 
by  a  ratchet,  giving  them  an  intermittent  rotation,  and  a  rate  of  feed  variable  between  ^ 
and  %  of  an  inch  at  each  impulse,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  operator.  This  carries  it  into  the 
forming  jaws,  which  bend  it  to  the  desired  curvature — the  forming  being  effected  by  pinching 
the  metal  in  curved  jaws.  The  essential  features  of  the  pipe-machine  are  a  guide  table  for 
the  skelp,  adjustable  to  the  desired  angle;  feed  rolls,  to  pass  it  forward  with  an  intermittent 
progress,  so  that  it  shall  advance  whenlhe  hammer  is  raised  and  be  at  rest  when  the  hammer 
falls :  a  former,  to  curve  the  metal  to  the  desired  radius,  also  adjustable ;  a  furnace,  to  heat 
the  metal :  a  hammer,  to  weld  it,  and  an  anvil  to  support  the  pipe,  and  receive'the  shocks  of 
the  hammer.  No  mandrel  is  used.  The  pipe  in  the  forming  process  is  held  "in  place  by  a 
pipe-mould,  which  is  a  cylindrical  shell,  within  which  the  pipe  rotates  as  the  stock  is  fed  in. 
The  anvil  is  of  considerable  mass,  steel-faced,  and  extends  the  entire  width  of  the  skelp. 
The  hammer  is  light,  and  at  normal  speed  strikes  160  blows  per  minute.  The  heating  is 
done  in  a  furnace  so  constructed  as  to  heat  both  the  edges  to  be  united  for  the  space  of 
several  inches  ahead  of  the  point  at  which  the  welding  is  effected.  A  G-in.  pipe  made  of 
No.  14  gauge  iron  of  good  average  quality,  showing  under  test  33,000  Ibs.  elastic  limit,  and 

Kf\      f\f\f\     11 !.!_•  xl  1  £  J  J.  1  f          f\~t    rt         11  •  T  lA»  A. 


of  stock  for  comparison,  the  6-in.  spirally  welded  pipe  weighs  5*2  Ibs.  per  ft.  against 
18'77  Ibs.  per  ft.  for  standard  lap-welded  pipe,  and  28*28  Ibs.  for  medium  cast-iron  pipe; 
the  12-in.  spirally  welded  pipe  weighs  10*46  lb-.  against  54*65  Ibs.  for  lap-welded,  and  77*36  for 
medium  cast-iron.  The  question  cf  durability  in  service  is  one  whicn  naturally  suggests 
itself  when  light  steel  or  iron  pipes  are  discussed.  Experience  on  the  Pacific  Coast  seems  to 
have  settled  this  question,  as  the  cheap  expedients  adopted  for  water-conveyance  during  the 


616 


PIPE   AND   TUBE   MAKING   MACHINES. 


days  when  hydraulic  mining  was  most  extensively  conducted  have  been  followed  ever  since  in 
permanent  engineering  works.  Data  on  this  subject  are  presented  in  a  paper  read  by 
Hamilton  Smitn,  Jr.,  before  the  British  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  and  printed  in  Vol.  I.  of 
the  Journal  for  1886. 

Cartwright's  Pipe-welding  Machine. — Figs.  8  and  9  represent  a  machine  designed  by 
Robert  Cartwright,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  for  welding  the  longitudinal  seams  of  steel  pipes  o'f 
large  diameter.  The  general  features  of  the  machines  are  two  compound  air  and  gas 
furnaces,  one  internal  and  one  external,  immediately  in  advance  of  internal  and  external 
rolls,  all  being  mounted  on  a  frame  to  which  a  reciprocating  motion  is  imparted  by  a  crank, 
the  seam  of  the  sheet  being  welded  being  drawn  between  the  furnaces  and  rolls  as  the  weld 
is  made.  The  gas  and  air  are  supplied  through  pipes  attached  to  the  reciprocating  frame ; 
and  as  their  rear  ends  are  joined  to  rubber  hose,  the  movement  of  the  frame  is  made  possible. 

The  sheetliavingbeen  rolled  to  the 
required  diameter,  is  held  rigidly 
in  shape  by  suitably  designed  re- 
movable clamps  on  the  outside, 
and  compression  rings  on  the 
inside  immediately  under  the 
clamps.  These  clamps  and  rings 
are  quickly  removed  as  the  weld 
advances  and  without  requiring 
the  stoppage  of  the  work,  in 
starting  to  weld  a  seam  the  blow- 
pipe jets  of  the  furnaces  heat  the 
material,  and  as  the  pipe  is  drawn 
in  the  part  longest  in  the  flame 
comes  to  welding  heat  and  is 
brought  between  the  rolls  and 
closed  down  to  a  perfect  weld, 


FIG.  9.— Machine  for  making  welded  steel  pipes. 


the  rolls  being  adjustable  to  suit  different  thicknesses  of  material.  The  machine  consists  of 
a  base,  A,  formed  with  horizontally  projecting  arms,  B  C,  so  arranged  as  to  create  an  elon- 
gated slot-way  opening  into  the  body  of  the  machine.  On  the  rear  of  the  machine  is  mounted 
a  crank  pulley,  connected  by  means  of  a  pitman  to  a  slide  arranged  as  shown.  To  this  slide 
are  connected  parallel  bars,  reciprocating  in  suitable  guideways  and  carrying  at  their  extreme 
outer  ends  the  welding  rolls  and  heating  furnaces.  The  welding  roll  is  guided  on  the  frame 
of  the  machine.  The  sides  of  the  frame  in  which  the  welding  roll  is  journaled  are  recipro- 
cated by  means  of  the  crank  motion.  Mounted  in  this  frame  is  the  main  arbor,  mounted  upon 
which  is  the  central  welding  roll,  and  two  supporting  rolls,  all  of  which  have  friction  bear- 
ings. These  operate  entirely  independent  of  each  other,  and  by  their  friction  upon  the  main 
arbor  they  cause  that  to  rotate  more  or  less,  the  result  being  that  when  in  operation  each  roll 
is  constantly  wearing  against 
a  different  part  of  the  main  ar- 
bor, so  that  the  latter  is  never 
worn  out  of  true.  The  sup- 
porting rolls  travel  upon  a 
track  held  adjustably  to  the 
frame  by  means  of  bolts.  By 
adjusting  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion the  rolls  may  be  adapted 
to  work  upon  thick  or  thin 
work,  especially  when  welding 
the  joint  of  a  pipe,  in  which 
case  one  welding  roll  is  used 
inside  and  one  outside  of  the 
pipe,  both  being  in  the  same 
vertical  line.  It  is  evident 
that  this  construction  trans- 
fers all  the  strain  of  the  weld- 
ing pressure  upon  the  roll  to 
the  arbor,  and  thence  to  the 
supporting  rolls  and  track- 
way, and  that  the  reciprocat- 
ing movement  of  the  roll  does 
not  abrade  the  metal  at  the 
weld,  the  operation  being 
more  nearly  allied  to  that  of 
annealing  the  hot  metal  at  the 
joint,  thereby  preserving  the 
fibre  intact. 

PIPE  BENDING  AND  COILING 


FIG.  10. — Pipe  bending  and  coiling  machine. 


MACHINE.— Fig.  10  shows  a  pipe  bending  and  coiling  machine,  made  by  the  United  States 
Pipe  Bending  &  Coiling  Co.,  of  Chicago. 

With  this  machine  the  heaviest  of  wrought-iron  pipe  or  the  lightest  of  brass  or  copper 


PIPE   COVERINGS. 


617 


pipe  can  be  bent,  coiled,  or  coned  in  any  shape  desired,  without  either  heating  or  filling  it, 
and  as  claimed,  with  accuracy  as  regards  the  size  of  the  bends  wanted,  or  the  diameter  or 
spacing  of  the  coils.  Any  number  of  a  particular  coil,  as  regards  the  diameter  or  spacing, 
can  be  made,  the  machine  having  been  adjusted  to  the  particular  size  wanted.  This  can  be 
done  at  the  rate  of  3  ft.  per  minute. 

The  pipe  is  fed  through  the  dies  shown  at  the  right  in  the  cut,  and  through  and  around 
the  circular  dies  at  the  left.  The  scale  on  the  inside  of  the  pipe,  which  is  an  accompaniment 
of  hot  bending,  is  entirely  absent,  and  the  inside  is  left  as  smooth  as  the  outside,  which  in  the 
case  of  brass  and  copper  pipe  needs  no  refinishing,  as  it  is  not  marred.  It  is  evident  that  any 
length  of  pipe  can  be  bent  or  coiled.  The  machine  illustrated  will  bend  from  1  to  2-in. 
wrought-iron  pipe,  and  the  corresponding  sizes  in  brass  and  copper. 

PIPE  COVERINGS.  (See  also  BOILERS.)  A  form  of  pipe  covering,  Fig.  1,  made 
by  the  United  States  Mineral  Wool  Co.,  consists  of  a  metallic  casing,  made  from  steel  plate, 
coated  with  lead,  constructed  with  a 
lock  which  conceals  the  edge  and  en- 
ables the  two  edges  to  be  permanently 
fastened  with  wood  screws,  forming  a 
cylinder.  One  end  of  each  cylinder  is 
crimped  and  beaded  to  facilitate  the  FIG.  l.— Pipe  Covering, 

making  of  an  end  joint.     Perforated 

disks  are  used  to  support  the  cylinder,  and  secure  the  equal  distribution  of  the  "rock  wool  " 
with  which  the  casing  around  the  pipe  is  filled,  and  holding  it  up  against  the  pipe.  The 
rock  wool  is  a  silicate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  made  from  a  magnesian  lime  rock  by  melting 
the  same  in  a  cupola  with  blast,  and  turning  the  molten  rock  upon  a  jet  of  dry  steam  at  80 
Ibs.  pressure.  The  melted  rock  is  thereby  blown  into  the  form  of  a  fibrous  substance  con- 
taining 97  per  cent,  of  air,  resembling  wool  in  appearance.  It  is  similar  to  mineral  wool,  or 
slag  wool,  which  is  made  by  blowing  a  jet  of  steam  or  air  at  high  pressure  into  a  stream  of 
liquid  slag  as  it  flows  from  a  blast  furnace.  Slag  wool  made  from  iron  furnaces,  however, 
generally  contains  sulphur,  usually  a  lime  sulphide,  which  tends  to  corrode  iron  pipes,  and 
is  therefore  objectionable  as  a  pipe  covering.  This  objection  does  not  hold  in  regard  to  rock 
wool. 

Magnesium  carbonate  has  recently  come  into  extensive  use  as  a  non-conductor  of  heat. 
The  substance  referred  to  is  the  artificially  prepared  basic  carbonate  of  magnesia,  a  com- 
pound of  the  carbonate  with  the  hydroxide.  It  is  the  "  block  magnesia  "  of  commerce,  the 
magnesia  alba  of  the  pharmacist.  It  is  moulded  to  form  coverings  suitable  for  steam-pipes 
and  their  fittings,  and  sectional  jackets  for  boilers  and  cylinders  ;  it  is  furnished  also  in 
forms  suitable  for  lining  refrigerators,  walls  and  roofs  of  buildings,  fire-proof  safes,  etc.  It 
is  a  smooth,  white,  close-grained  solid,  in  outward  appearance  resembling  a  block  of  Paris 
plaster.  It  possesses  the  lightness  of  cork,  the  porosity  of  sponge,  and  withal  a  degree  of 
firmness  and  strength  that,  in  view  of  its  levity,  is  quite  remarkable.  To  examine  more 
closely  the  properties  of  this  substance,  H.  Luttgen  (Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  Vol. 
XV..  p.  614)  made  the  following  experiment:  A  number  of  1-iu.  cubes  were  sawed  from  the 
commercial  block  carbonate ;  also  some  bricks,  that  is,  blocks  measuring  accurately  2x4x8 
ins.,  the  dimensions  of  an  ordinary  brick.  The  bricks  were  carefully  measured  and  weighed, 
and  placed  in  vessels  containing  distilled  water,  in  which  they  became  gradually  submerged, 
owing  to  the  displacement  by  water  of  the  air  enclosed  in  the  structure  of  the  magnesium 
carbonate.  After  twenty-four  hours  the  blocks  were  removed  from  the  water,  dried  super- 
ficially by  contact  with  filter-paper,  and  weighed.  From  the  increase  in  weight,  the  volume 
of  the*  water  absorbed,  and  consequently  that  of  the  air  displaced  by  it,  were  obtained.  The 
results  showed  that  the  air-cells  occupied  from  92  to  94'5  per  cent,  of  the  volume  of  the 
blocks.  Mr.  Luttgen  made  some  experiments  on  the  non-conducting  power  of  various  pipe 
coverings;  a  brief  abstract  of  the  results  is  given  below.  The  experiments  were  made  on 
G-ft.  lengths  of  2-in.  steam-pipe,  which  were  covered  with  the  different  coverings,  with  results 
as  follows: 


Description  of  covering. 

Diameter  <  f 
covering, 
ins. 

Weight  per 
ft.  in 
ozs  ,  av. 

Steam 
condensed, 
Ib.  per  ft. 
perhr. 

P  heat- 
units  per 
ft  perhr. 

1.  Hair  felt.     Wrapped  with  twine.    Burlap  jacket  

t\ 

!8f 

•076 

69*02 

2.  Sectional  carbonate  magnesia.    Asbestos  paper  jacket.    Bands 

4! 

20J- 

•083 

75-29 

3.  Sectional  carbonate  magnesia.     Canvas  jacket.     Bands  

44- 

20^- 

•084 

75-68 

4.  Sectional  mineral  wool.    Asbestos  paper,  mineral  wool,  muslin         5i 

28* 

•085 

76-68 

5.  Chalmer-Spence  Co.'s  covering.    Asbestos,  hair  felt,  paper  
6.  Shield's  &  Brown's  covering.  Asbestos  paper,  sheathing-paper 

4 

•092 
•094 

82-95 
84'fiS 

7.  Reed's  covering.    Asbestos  paper,  felt  paper  

4* 

26  ^ 

•099 

89-62 

8.  Fossil  meal  pipe  covering.    Fossil  meal,  organic  fibre  |        3| 

24 

•127 

114-54 

With  reference  to  the  economy  and  cost  of  non-conducting  materials,  it  may  be  said  .that 
the  material  which  is  in  the  greatest  degree  non-conducting,  incombustible,  and  durable  will 
prove  the  most  economical,  even  though  its  first  cost  be  greater  than  that  of  an  inferior  arti- 
cle. Experiments  with  naked  pipes  show  that  a  2-in.  pips  carrying  steam  at  60  Ibs.  pressure 


618 


PIPE   COVERINGS. 


will  condense  0.397  Ib.  per  ft.  per  hour.  Covered  with  a  good  covering  like  magnesium 
carbonate,  the  condensation,  according  to  Mr.  Luttgen,  will  be  but  0'084  Ib.  per  ft.  per 
hour,  a  saving  of  0'313  Ib.  per  ft.  per  hour,  or  3*13  Ibs.  of  steam  per  day  of  ten  hours,  for 
each  foot  of  pipe  covered.  The  covering  of  100  ft.  of  pipe,  then,  will  save  in  a  year  of  300 
ten-hour  days  the  coal  necessary  to  convert  93.900  Ibs.  of  water  into  steam.  One  pound  of 
bituminous  coal  is  capable  of  making  about  8'5  Ibs.  of  steam,  so  the  saving  of  coal  due  to  the 
100  ft.  of  covering  would  be  5^  tons  per  year,  which,  at  $4  per  ton,  amounts  to  $22.  The 
real  saving  will  probably  amount  to  more  than  this  estimate  in  most  cases;  and  it  may  be 
said  in  round  terms  that  the  100  ft.  of  covering  causes  each  year  a  saving  of  its  own  first 
cost  ($25).  Inasmuch  as  the  material  pays  for  itself  in  a  year,  and  will  last  indefinitely 
under  ordinary  conditions,  its  advantageousness  is  beyond  question. 

An  estimate  of  the  waste  of  fuel  in  neglecting  to  cover  steam-pipes  has  been  made  by  M. 
Le  Bour,  who,  referring  to  experiments  made  by  M.  Walther  Meunier,  gives  the  following 
as  the  quantities  of  steam  condensed  per  hour  and  per  year  of  3fO  working  days  of  10  hours, 
per  square  foot  of  surface  for  different  metals,  with  steam  at  about  260°  F. 


Lbs.  per  hour. 

Lbs.  per  year. 

Copper                                              

0-576 

1,728 

0'7!)8 

2  394 

Cast-iron  ....                     .  .        

1-712 

2,136 

Assuming  that  it  requires  an  expenditure  of  fuel  of  1  Ib.  of  coal  for  every  7  Ibs.  of  steam, 
the  annual  waste  of  fuel  will  be  as  given  below  for  every  square  foot  of  the  surface  of  the 
steam-pipe,  and!  taking  coal  at  $4  per  ton,  the  loss  per  square  foot  of  surface  will  be  as  in  the 
second  column. 


Lbs.  coal  wasted. 

Waste  of  coal  per  annum. 

245 

SO-49 

342 

0-68 

Cast  -iron                                                                               

305 

0-61 

A  few  years  since,  an  investigation  was  made  at  the  instance  of  the  Boston  Manufact- 
urers' Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Co.,  by  Prof.  John  M.  Ordway,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  upon  the  non-heat-conducting  properties  of  various  materials,  some  of  which 
may  be  used  for  covering  steam-pipes  and  boilers,  while  others,  owing  to  their  liability 
either  to  become  carbonized  or  to  take  fire,  cannot  be  directly  applied  to  such  use.  The 
results  of  this  investigation  are  given  as  follows  in  a  circular  (No.  27,  December,  1889), 
issued  by  the  insurance  company  to  its  members  : 

"In  order  that  the  relative  merits  of  the  different  substances  which  are  offered  for  pre- 
venting the  escape  of  heat  from  boilers  and  steam-pipes,  or  as  substitutes  for  wire  lathing 
and  plastering,  or  for  tin  plates  in  the  protection  of  elevator  shafts,  or  of  woodwork  nailed 
closely  to  walls,  the  following  tables  are  submitted.  These  tables  and  extracts  are  taken 
from  a  report  made  by  Professor  Ordway.  It  will  be  observed  that  several  of  the  incom- 
bustible materials  are  nearly  as  efficient  as  wool,  cotton,  and  feathers,  with  which  they  may 
be  compared  in  the  following  table.  The  materials  which  may  be  considered  wholly  free 
from  the  danger  of  being  carbonized  or  ignited  by  slow  contact  with  pipes  or  boilers  are 
printed  in  solid  black  type.  Those  which  are  more  or  less  liable  to  be  carbonized  are  printed 
in  italics. 


Substance  1  in.  thick. 
Heat  applied,  310°  F. 

Pounds  of  water 
heated  in°  F.  per 
hour-,  through  1  sq.  ft- 

Solid  matter  in  1  so.  ft. 
1  in.  thick.    Parts 
In  1,000. 

Air  included. 
Parts  in  1,000. 

1    Loose  wool. 

S'l 

56 

9hk 

%   Live  qeese  feathers 

9'6 

50 

950 

3.  Carded  cotton  wool  

10'k 

®0 

980 

k.  Hair  felt  

10'3 

185 

815 

5.  Loose  lamp-black  

9'  8 

56 

9UU 

6.  CompTessed  lamp-black.       

10'6 

2ltU 

756 

7.  Cork  charcoal. 

11'9 

53 

9U7 

8    White  pine  charcoal 

13'9 

119 

881 

9.  Anthracite  coal  powdf-T.         

3~>'7 

506 

h9U 

10.  Loose  calcined  magnesia  
}1.  Compressed  calcined  magnesia.    ..  . 

12-4 
42'6 

23 

285 

977 

715 

2.  Light  carbonate  of  magnesia  
13.  Compressed  carbonate  of  magnesia  
14.  Loose  fossil  meal  
15   Crowded  fossil  meal- 

lf-1 

14'5 

112 

940 
850 
940 

888 

16.  Ground  chalk  (Paris  white)  
17.  Dry  plaster  of  Paris  

§;e 

253 
368 

I 

18   Fine  asbestos*  ... 

'0 

81 

919 

19   Air  alone    .... 

4R'rt 

0 

20  Sand 

62'1 

527 

'471 

PIPE-CUTTING   AND   THREADING   MACHINES. 


619 


"  Professor  Ord  way's  report  is  as  follows:  'Careful  experiments  have  been  made  with 
various  non-conductors,  each  used  in  a  mass  1  in.  thick,  placed  on  a  flat  surface  of  iron 
kept  heated  by  steam  to  310°  F.  The  preceding  table  gives  the  amount  of  heat  transmitted 
per  hour  through  each  kind  of  non-conductor  1  in.  thick,  reckoned  in  pounds  of  water 
heated  10°  F.,  the  unit  of  area  being  1  sq.  ft.  of  covering. 

"  '  The  first  column  of  figures  of  results  gives  the  loss  by  the  measure  of  pounds  of  water 
heated  10°.  The  second  column  gives  the  amount  of  solid  matter  in  the  mass  1  in.  thick. 
The  third  column  gives  the  amount  or  bulk  of  included  or  entrapped  air.' 

"  There  are  some  mixtures  of  two  materials  which  may  be  quite  safe,  although  consisting 
in  part  of  substances  which  may  be  carbonized.  It  must  also  be  considered  that  a  covering 
for  a  steam-pipe  or  boiler  should  have  some  strength  or  elasticity,  so  that,  when  even  put  on 
loosely  and  holding  a  great  deal  of  entrapped  air,  it  may  not  be  converted  into  a  solid  con- 
dition by  the  constant"  jar  of  the  building,  then  becoming  rather  a  quick  conductor.  This 
warning  may  be  applied  especially  to  what  is  called  'slag  wool,'  which  consists  of  short, 
very  fine  threads  of  a  brittle  kind  of  glass.  The  following  table  has  been  submitted  by  Prof. 
Ord  way.  with  the  following  explanation: 

'• '  The  substances  given  in  the  following  table  were  actually  tried  as  coverings  for  two-inch 
steam-pipe,  but,  for  convenience  of  comparison,  the  results  have  been  reduced  by  calculation 
to  the  same  terms  as  in  the  foregoing  table.' 


Pounds  of  water 

heated  IO°F  per  hour, 

bylBq.rt. 


21   Best  sis.?  wool 

13 

jf.  Paper 

lit 

23.  Blotting  paper  wound  tiqht.                                                           ...  •. 

21 

£4   Asbestos  papfT  wound  tight 

Z1'7 

%o*  Cork  stripx,  bound  on  ....                       

1U'6 

26   Straw  Tope  wound  spirally   .                                                     .  .                        

18 

18'  7 

28  Paste  of  fossil  meal  with  hair       ...                                         .... 

16*7 

29   Paste  of  fossil  meal  with  asbestos 

22 

§1 

31   Loose  anthracite  coal  ashes                       

7 

32   Paste  of  clay  and  vegetable  fibre 

30'9 

"  '  Later  experiments  have  given  results  for  still  air  which  differ  little  from  those  of  Nos. 
3,  4,  and  6.  In  fact,  the  bulk  of  matter  in  the  best  non-conductors  is  relatively  too  small  to 
have  any  specific  effect,  except  to  entrap  the  air  and  keep  it  stagnant.  These  substances 
keep  the  air  still  by  virtue  of  the  roughness  of  their  fibres  or  particles.  The  asbestos  of  18 
had  smooth  fibres,  which  could  not  prevent  the  air  from  moving  about.  Later  trials  with  an 
asbestos  of  exceedingly  fine  fibre  have  made  a  somewhat  better  showing,  but  asbestos  is  really 
one  of  the  poorest  non-conductors.  By  reason  of  its  fibrous  character  it  may  be  used  advan- 
tageously to  hold  together  other  incombustible  substances,  but  the  less  the  better.  We  have 
made  trials  of  two  samples  of  a  "magnesia  covering"  consisting  of  carbonate  of  magnesia 
with  a  small  percentage  of  good  asbestos  fibre.  One  transmitted  heat  which,  reduced  to  the 
terms  of  the  first  of  the  above  tables,  would  amount  to  15  Ibs. ;  the  denser  one  gave  20  Ibs. 
The  former  contained  250  thousandths  of  solid  matter;  the  latter  896  thousandths.' 

"  '  Charcoal,  lamp-black,  and  anthracite  coal  are  virtually  the  same  substance,  and  Nos.  5, 
6,  7,  8,  and  9  show  that  non-conducting  power  is  determined  far  less  by  the  substance  itself 
than  by  its  mechanical  texture.  In  some  cases  when  a  greater  quantity  of  a  material  is  crowded 
into  the  same  thickness  the  non-conducting  virtue  is  somewhat  increased,  because  the  included 
air  is  thereby  rendered  more  completely  fixed.  But  if  the  same  quantity  is  compressed  so  as 
to  diminish  its  thickness,  its  efficiency  is  lessened;  for  the  resistance  to  the  transmission  of 
heat  is  nearly — though  by  no  means  exactly — in  proportion  to  the  thickness  of  the  non-con- 
ductor. Hence,  though  a  great  many  layers  of  paper — as  in  Xo.  23 — prove  to  be  a  tolerably 
good  retainer  of  heat,  one  or  two  layers  are  of  exceedingly  little  service.  Any  suitable  sub- 
stance which  is  used  to  prevent  the  escape  of  steam-heat  should  not  be  less  than  an  inch  thick.' 
"  '  Any  covering  should  be  kept  perfectly  dry,  for  not  only  is  water  a  good  carrier  of  heat, 
but  it  has  been  found  in  our  trials  that  still  water  conducts  heat  about  eight  times  as  rapidly 
as  still  air.'" 

PIPE-CUTTING  AND  THREADING  MACHINES.     Fortes'  Die  Stock.— Figs.  1  and  2 

illustrate  the  front  and  back  views  of  the 
Nos.  1  and  14-  Forbes'  die  stocks,  made  by 
Curtis  &  Curtis,  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.  One 
set  of  dies  is  supplied  with  the  machines  for 
each  of  the  standard  threads  cut,  so  that 
only  six  sets  of  dies  are  necessary  for  thread- 
ting  the  sixteen  different  sizes"  of  pipe  in- 
cluded in  the  range  of  the  Xo.  1  machine, 
and  three  sets  for  the  nine  sizes  of  the  Xo.  1  A- 
machine.  The  dies  are  set  by  turning  the 
face-plate  to  the  proper  graduation,  and  any 
Fia.  1.— Forbes'  die  stock.  FIG.  2.  variation  in  the  fittings  may  be  allowed  for. 


620 


PIPE-CUTTING   AND   THREADING   MACHINES. 


and  the  pipe  cut  either  over  or  under  standard  size,  by  making  the  proper  allowance  at 
the  graduation.  When  the  dies  are  set  to  the  proper  size,  the  pipe  is  inserted  through  the 
self-centring  vise  at  the  back,  with 
the  end  to  be  threaded  against  the 
back  of  the  dies,  and  is  clamped  and 
brought  central  with  the  dies  by 
tunrng  the  hand  wheel  shown  on 
top  cf  the  machine.  The  crank  is 
then  put  on  to  the  square  end  of  the 
pinion,  shown  in  front  of  the  ma- 
chine, and  through  it  the  power  is 
transmitted  to  the  die-carrying  gear ; 
as  the  die  is  thus  revolved  a  very 
slight  pressure  on  the  lever,  shown 
on  top  of  the  machine,  causes  the 
gear  to  recede  into  the  shell  and  the 
dies  are  fed  on  to  the  pipe.  When 
the  thread  is  cut  to  the  required 
length,  the  machine  is  run  back- 
wards for  about  one  turn,  so  as  to 
take  off  any  burr  that  the  dies  may 
leave ;  the  dies  are  then  drawn  back 
and  the  pipe  is  removed  from  the 
machine.  The  depth  of  the  shell 
allows  a  thread  to  be  cut  about  twice 
the  standard  length,  and  if  a  still 
longer  thread  is  desired,  it  can  be 
cut  to  any  length  by  loosening  the 
vise  and  pulling  the  gear,  with  the 
pipe  still  in  the  dies,  forward,  so  as 
to  give  it  a  new  start  as  many  times 
as  is  required.  Fig.  3  shows  a  heavy 
power  pipe-cutting  and  threading 
machine  on  the  same  principle. 
The  vise  for  holding  the  pipe  is 
self-centring,  and  the  dies  are 
opening  and  adjustable  to  any  vari- 
ations of  the  fittings. 

Pipe-threading  Attachment  for  Lathes. — Fig.  4  shows  an  attachment  which  can  be  at- 
tached to  any  lathe,  within  certain  limit  of  size,  and  with  which  a  lathe  can  be  turned  into 

a  power  pipe-threading 
machine  in  a  few  min- 
utes, and  pipe  of  any 
length  threaded  very 
rapidly  and  correctly. 
This  attachment  con- 
sists of  a  die-carrying 
head,  attached  to  the 
spindle  like  a  chuck; 
an  adjustable,  self-cen- 
tring vise  attached  to  the 
carriage,  and  an  adjust- 
able pipe  rest,  attached 
to  the  bed  of  the  lathe, 
to  support  long  lengths 
of  pipe,  as  shown  by  the 
heavy  engraving  in  the 
accompanying  illustra- 
tion. The  pipe  is  held 
securely  by  the  vise  on 
FIG.  4.-Pipe-threading  attachment  for  lathes.  he  carriage  and  fed  to 

the  revolving   dies  by 

moving  the  carriage.  This  can  be  done  automatically  by  setting  the  lead  screws  of  the  lathe 
to  cut  the  number ~of  threads  corresponding  to  standard  of  pipe  to  be  cut.  When  the  thread 
is  cut  to  the  length  required  the  dies  can  be  opened  by  turning  the  face  plate,  and  the  pipe 
taken  out  without  running  back.  All  the  dies  are  made  adjustable  to  any  variation  of  the 
fittings,  and  they  adjust  from  one  size  of  pipe  to  another,  so  that  each  set  of  dies  threads  sev- 
eral sizes  of  pipe  without  changing. 

Saunders*  Pipe-cutting  and  Threading  Machine. — Fig.  5  shows  a  pipe-cutting  and 
threading  machine  made  by  D.  Saunders'  Sons,  Yonkers,  N.  Y.  It  may  be  run  either  by 
hand  or  by  belt.  It  is  arranged  so  that  pipe  can  be  threaded  and  afterwards  cut  off,  without 
removing  any  part  of  the  machine.  It  is  capable  of  cutting  off  and  threading  pipe  up  to  4 
in.  diameter,  admitting  the  use  of  either  solid  or  adjustable  expanding  dies.  The  cutting- 


FIG.  3.— Curtis'  pipe-threading  machine. 


PIPE-CUTTING   AND   THREADING   MACHINES. 


621 


FIG.  5.— Pipe-cutting  and  threading  machine. 


off  arrangement  is  fastened  to  the  face  of  the  large  driving  gear,  between  the  gear  and  the 

die,  in  such  a  manner  that  either  may  be  used  without  one  interfering  with  the  other.     On 

the  face  of  the  large  gear 

are  ways  for  slides  which 

hold   V-shaped    jaws    of 

steel  which    are    closed 

on  the  pipe  by  a   right 

and    left    screw,    which 

adjusts  the  pipe  to  the 

centre  of  die :  also  stead- 
ies it  when  being  cut  off. 

The  cutting-off  arrange- 
ment is  provided  with  a 

ratchet  and  pawl,  and  a 

short  lever   which    pro- 
jects through  an  opening 

in  the  gear,  and  twice  in 

each  revolution  comes  in 

contact  with  a  trip, 

which  causes  it  to  feed 

the  cutting-off  tool,  thus 

securing    an    automatic 

feed.     There  is  provided 

a  universal  gripping 

chuck   on    back  end  of 

the  machine  for  holding 

pipe,    to    which    is    at- 
tached a  threaded  sleeve 

which  engages  with  a  ring  having  threaded  sections  in  it,  these  sections  being  movable  by  a 

lever,  so  as  to  be  engaged  with  the  threaded  sleeve  or  not,  as  desired.     Thus  large  pipes  are 

forced  into  the  dies  at  the  proper  rate. 

Saunders'  Adjustable  Expanding  Die  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.     It  is  designed  to  be  attached 

to  any  of  the  ordinary  pipe-threading  machines 
in  use  for  threading  steam  and  gas  pipe.  The 
distinguishing  features  of  these  dies  are  the  arrang- 
ing of  the  die-block  or  head  with  a  number  of  sets 
of  chasers  all  fitting  into  the  same,  to  thread  the 
different  sizes 
of  pipe.  The 
head  is  ad- 
justable and 
expanding, 
the  thread  be- 
ing cut  in 

once  passing  over;  when  the  thread  is  c".t  to  the 
desired  length,  the  cutters  or  chasers  are  opened  by 
a  movement  of  the  worm,  and  the  pipe  released 
without  stopping  or  reversing  the  motion  of  the  ma- 
chine. One  set  of  chasers  can  be  withdrawn  and  an- 
other set  inserted  in  a  few  minutes  ;  and  adjustment 
to  size  is  readily  effected.  These  dies  do  not  require 

to  be  moved  from  their  place  while  cutting  off  the  pipe,  as  they  expand  to  allow  the  pipe  to 

pass  through  into  the  guide  in  the  cutting  off  head  of  machine.     The  chasers  can  be  taken 

out  and  sharpened  by  grinding ;  when  too 
much  worn  they  can  be  recut  and  used  again, 
which  operation  can  be  repeated  several 
times. 

Saunders'  One-wheel  Pipe  Cutter  is  shown 
in  Fig.  7.  The  body  is  provided  with  rollers 
for  the  pipe  to  rest  on, 

FIG.  8.— Pipe  cutter.  producing     a    rolling 

instead  of    a   sliding 

motion,  thereby  lessening  the  friction  on  the  pipe.     They  also  roll 

down  the  burr  that  is  raised  by  the  wheel  in  cutting  the  pipe.     The 

hinged  block  with  the  cutter  wheel  is  so  arranged  that  it  will  not 

become  detached  and  mislaid.     Saunders'  Three-wheel    and   Roller 

Pipe  Cutter  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.     It  will  cut  off  pipe  without  revolv- 
ing the  entire  circle  of  the  pipe,  thus  enabling  workmen  to  reach 

contracted  places  otherwise  inaccessible,  such  as  against  the  wall, 

between  floors,  or  in  ditches.     Saunders'   Pipe  Vise  is  shown  in 

Figs.  9  and  10.     In  the  ordinary  pipe  vises  in  use  the  jaws  are  so 

enclosed  on  all  sides  that  the  p'ipe  can   only  be  entered  endwise, 

making  it  necessary  to  reserve  a  space  beyond  the  vise  equal  to  the  FIG.  9.— Pipe  vise. 


FIG.  7. — Pipe  cutter. 


FIG.  6. — Adjustable  expanding  die. 


622 


PLANING  MACHINES.— METAL. 


FIG.  10.— Pipe  vise. 


PIG.  11.— Tapping  machine. 


length  of  the  longest  pipe  to  be  screwed.     In  the  improved  vise,  the  top  half  being  hinged, 
can  be  opened,  admitting  the  pipe  sidewise,  and  saving  about  half  the  room  that  would  be 
otherwise  required.     This  side  opening  is 
attended  with  a  further  advantage  —  that 
the  vise  may  be  used  for  holding  pipes  while 
elbows,  tees,  or  other  fittings  are  screwed 
upon  one  or  both  ends,  or  for  taking  apart 
old  pipe  work  in  which  the  parts  have  be- 
come rusted  together. 

Hubbell's  Tapping  Machine.  —  A  tapping 
machine  for  tapping  water,  steam,  and  gas 
mains,  under  pressure,  shown  in  Fig.  11, 
consists  of  a  case  or  box  adapted  to  be 
applied  to  a  main,  containing  a  sliding 
carriage  holding  a  combined  tap  and  drill, 
and  a  stud  for  screwing  the  corporation 
cock  into  the  pipe.  The  carriage  is  placed 
in  the  machine  so  as  to  have  an  equal  press- 
ure above  and  below,  and  is  adapted  to 
be  moved  by  a  rod  from  the  outside  of  the  case,  so  as  to  bring 
either  the  combined  tap  and  drill  or  the  corporation  stud  under 
a  socket  wrench  or  actuating  spindle,  projecting  into  the  case  and  operated  by  a  handle  at  the 
top,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  The  spindle  is  forced  down  by  the  action  of  a  sleeve,  outside  screw 

threaded,  and  passing  through  a  yoke, 
upon  a  collar  fastened  to  the  said  spin- 
dle, the  yoke  being  held  in  position  by 
two  studs  or  posts  projecting  from 
the  case  or  body  of  the  machine. 

Smith's  Tapping  Apparatus.  —  Fig. 
12  is  a  sectional  view  of  a  machine  for 
tapping  water  and  other  pipes  under 
pressure,  and  connecting  branch 
sleeves,  gates,  etc.  The  mandrel  or 
cutter  shaft  is  shown  run  in  and  the 
central  drill  and  tap  in  position  to 
begin  work.  After  the  drill  and  tap 
have  completed  their  work  of  drilling 

FIG.  12.—  Connecting  branch  sleeve  and  tapping  apparatus.       and  tapping  a  small  hole  in  the  cen- 

tre of  the  piece   to  be  cut  out,    the 

main  cutting  tool  cuts  its  way  through  the  pipe.     When  this  operation  is  completed,  the  cut- 
ing the  circular  piece  cut  from  the  main  with  it,  is  run  back  outside 


ting  mechanism,  carrying 

the  gate,  which  is  then  shut  down  or  closed. 

ing  the  hub  end  of  the  gate  ready  to  receive  the  spigot  end  of  the  pipe  that  is  to  be  carried 

wherever  required. 

PIPE  HEADS.     Exhaust-steam  pipes  from  non-condensing  engines,  leading  out  into  the 

open  air,  and  discharging  above  a 

roof,  are  apt  to  be  a  nuisance  from 

their  discharging  with  the  steam  fine 

particles  of  water  and  oil.      To  en- 

trap this  water  and  oil,  and  prevent 

its  being  discharged  on  the  roof, 

exhaust  pipe  heads  are  used,  two 

forms  of  which  are  shown  herewith. 

In  that  shown  in  Fig.  1,  A  is  the 

exhaust  pipe  ;  B  £,  branches  of  the 

same  ;    C,  sleeves  ;    D,  condensing 

chamber  ;  F,  deflector  ;  G,  escape  ; 

H,  top  ;  K,  waste  or  drip. 

In  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  2  the 

steam  is  given  a  whirling  motion  by 

spiral  passages,  and  the  centrifugal 

force  causes  the  particles  of  water  and 

oil  to  be  driven  outward  against  the 

shell,  whence  they  drain  into  the  drip 

pipe,  while  the  steam  is  discharged 

through  the  internal  pipe. 
see  Steel. 


FIG.  1  —Exhaust  pipe  head 


FIG.  2.— Exhaust  pipe  head. 


Piping:  of  Ingots 
Pistols  :  see  Fire-arms. 


Piston  Valves  :  see  Engines,  Marine. 

Planer  :  see  Grinding  Machines,  Planing  Machine  Metals,  and  Wheel-making  Machines. 

PLANINO  MACHINES.— METAL.  The  Sellers  Spiral-gear  Planing  Machine.— At  the 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1889  Messrs.  William  Sellers  and  Co.,  Incorporated,  of  Philadelphia, 
exhibited  a  planing  machine,  Fig.  1,  which  attracted  great  attention  on  account  of  the  many 


PLANING   MACHINES.— METAL.  623 

interesting  features  which  it  possessed.  For  some  years  it  had  been  tried  experimentally  in 
the  works  of  the  makers,  but  this  was  the  first  time  that  such  a  machine  had  been  shown 
in  public.  The  problem  which  the  inventors,  Mr.  William  Sellers  and  Mr.  John  Sellers 
Bancroft,  had  set  themselves  to  solve,  was  to  design  a  planing  machine  which  would  turn 
out  work  without  any  evidence  of  jarring  or  "chattering,"  so  that  it  could  be  used  without 
scraping  or  polishing,  and  yet  present  a  good  surface.  In  other  words,  they  sought  to  give 
planed  surfaces  as  good  a  finish  as  those  from  the  lathe.  They  had  also  other  subsidiary 
objects.  Among  these  was  the  attainment  of  a  greatly  increased  rate  of  travel  on  the  back 
or  idle  cut;  the  ability  to  render  the  table  self -stopping  at  the  end  of  its  stroke;  to  pro- 
vide means  for  controlling  the  direction  of  the  table  movement  and  the  operation  of  the  feeds 
upon  both  sides  of  the  machine  ;  to  effect  the  operation  of  the  feeding  and  tool-lifting  devices 
at  a  uniform  speed,  whether  the  table  was  moving  in  one  direction  or  the  other,  and  while 
the  table  was  at  rest. 

To  prevent  a  chattering  motion  being  given  to  the  table,  the  use  of  ordinary  spur  and 
bevel  wheels,  gearing  into  each  other,  is  abandoned  altogether.  In  place  of  them  there  are 
used  pinions  having  the  contact  surfaces  of  their  teeth  arranged  spirally  around  the  axis. 
One  such  pinion  gears  with  a  straight-toothed  rack  on  the  table,  its  axis  being  inclined  to 
the  axis  of  the  table  at  the  necessary  angle,  while  another  on  the  pulley  shaft  gears  with  a 
straight-toothed  wheel  on  the  axis  of  the  first  pinion.  The  angles  of  the  teeth  of  the 
pinions  are  such  that  the  pulley  shaft  lies  parallel  with  the  table.  By  means  of  this 
system  of  gearing  motion  is  communicated  to  the  table  without  shock  or  jar,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  chatters  is  avoided.  To  gain  a  greatly  increased  rate  of  travel  on  the  back  cut, 
as  compared  with  the  forward  cut  (in  the  machine  illustrated  it  was  8  to  1),  the  part  subject 


FIG.  1.— The  Sellers  planer. 

to  reversal  at  high  speed  is  kept  as  light  as  possible.  The  pulleys  run  always  in  the  same 
direction,  the  reversal  being  effected  by  a  clutch  between  them,  which  engages  alternately 
with  each.  The  table,  tlie  pinion  shaft,  and  the  clutch  shaft  are  the  parts  which  suffer 
reversal  :  the  first  two  move  at  comparatively  slow  speeds,  while  the  latter  is  kept  as  light  as 
possible,  and  special  means  are  provided  for  absorbing  its  momentum.  AVhen  the  table 
strikes  the  stop  at  the  end  of  its  stroke,  it  draws  the  clutch  out  of  engagement  with  one 
pulley,  and  presses  it  lightly  against  the  other,  which  is,  of  course,  running  in  the  opposite 
direction.  In  this  way  the  pulley  and  pinion  shafts  are  quickly  checked,  and  the  table 
moves  forward,  in  relation  to  them,  no  far  as  to  take  up  the  backlash  of  the  teeth,  with 
the  result  that  when  the  pulley  shaft  is  reversed  there  is  no  jar.  The  reversal  of  the  pulley 
shaft  is  not  directly  effected  by  the  contact  of  the  stops  on  the  table  with  the  tappet  levers. 
All  that  is  done  by  them  is,  first,  to  knock  off  the  driving  power,  and  to  apply  the  brake, 
and  simultaneously  to  set  in  gear  an  escapement  motion  by  which  certain  wheels  and  a  cam 
are  made  to  give  a  semi-revolution  and  nothing  more.  The  cam  compresses  a  spring  which 
bears  on  the  reversing  clutch,  and  forces  it  to  engage  firmly  with  the  pulley  against  which  it 
has  been  running  in  light  frictional  contact  ;  the  wheels  put  on  the  various  feeds,  which 
thus  occur  between  the  end  of  one  stroke  and  the  commencement  of  the  next.  By  an 
ingenious  device  on  the  hand  lever  at  each  side  of  the  machine,  the  escapement  motion  can 
be  thrown  out  of  action,  and  then,  when  the  stops  meet  the  tappet  levers,  the  machine  stops, 
and  no  feed  takes  place.  At  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1889.  the  machine  was  run  at  18  ft.  a 
minute  for  cutting,  and  144  ft.  a  minute  on  the  return  stroke. 

The  Hendey  Planer. — Fig.  2  shows  a  planing  machine  made  by  the  Hendey  Machine  Co.. 
of  Torrington,  Conn.,  which  embodies  many  new  improvements.     The  table  receives  back 


624 


PLANING   MACHINES.— METAL. 


and  forward  motion  from  an  open  and  cross  belt,  through  a  powerful  train  of   cut-gears 
and  rack.      The  proportion  of  belt  speed  to  speed  of  table  is  44  to  1,  and  one  belt  shifts 

before  the  other.  The  feed 
is  obtained  by  an  oscillat- 
ing disk  controlled  by 
stops,  and  is  adjusted  by 
worm  and  worm  -gear. 
The  up-and-down  feed  can 
be  operated  from  either 
end  of  the  cross  head. 

OPEN-SIDE  IRON  PLAN- 
ERS.— The  open-side  planer 
is  in  no  sense  a  "  special " 
tool,  as  it  does  the  same 
work  as  the  ordinary  two- 
post  planers  of  equivalent 
size.  A  com  paratively 
small  "open-side "  tool 
will,  however,  plane  work 
which  would  necessitate  a 
larger  planer  of  the  regu- 
lar style. 
^^  To  drive  these  planers, 

Vthe  builders  use  the  Sellers' 
?  spiral  planer  motion.     The 

cross  beam  is  supported  by 
FIG.  2.— The  Hendey  planer.  a   brace  rigidly    bolted    to 

back   of   post.     This  post 

is  well  and  heavily  proportioned,  and  is  amply  strong  to  overcome  any  strain.     The  post 
takes  a  bearing  on  the  bed  equal  in  length  to  l£  times  the  amount  of  overhang  of  beam. 


FIG.  3. — Open-side  extension  planer. — View  showing  outer  post  removed. 

The  head  on  the  beam  has  automatic  feeds  in  all  directions.     The  beam  and  cross  rail  are 
raised  and  lowered  by  power.     The  builders  claim  that  there  is  less  vibration  at  end  of 


PLANING   MACHINES.— METAL. 


625 


the  beam  of  this  machine  than  there  is  in  centre  of  the  beam  of  a  two-post  planer.  The 
Open-side  Extension  Planer,  built  by  the  Detrick  &  Harvey  Machine  Co.,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  3.  This  style  of  planer  differs  from  the  standard  open-side  planer  in  that  it  has 
an  outside  post  and  long  beam.  This  post  is  adjustable  on  an  extension  bed  to  and  from 
the  platen.  Both  side  heads  can  be  used  simultaneously  on  a  wide  range  of  work  varying 
in  width,  while  the  long  beam  gives  a  corresponding  range  of  travel  to  the  horizontal  heads. 
If  it  is  desired  to  use  the  machine  for  work  which  will  not  pass  between  the  posts  at  their 
extreme  limit,  the  outer  post  may  be  entirely  removed,  and  by  running  the  beam  back  in  its 
housing,  the  tool  is  converted  into  a  standard  open-side  planer,  as  represented.  The 
general  design  of  extension  planer  is  similar  to  the  standard  open-side  machine,  except 
that  certain  parts  are  made  heavier  to  meet  the  increased  capacity,  and  to  accomplish  the 
additional  work  which  it  may  be  called  upon  to  perform.  With  these  planers  can  be 
furnished  an  attachment  designed  for  planing  segments.  In  this  case  the  beam  heads  are 
removed  and  placed  on  arms,  which  are  swivelled  from  main  saddles  to  side  saddles.  The 


- 


FIG.  4. — Open-side  planer  and  shaper. 


heads  with  automatic  feed  can  then  be  used  for  planing  angles  on  segments.  When  once 
set  at  desired  angle,  any  number  of  segments  can  be  planed  uniformly  and  accurately.  A 
centre  head  on  the  beam  may  be  used  simultaneously  with  above  to  face  off  the  joints  of  the 
segments.  The  Iron  Age  of  July  16, 1891,  describes  one  of  these  planers  built  for  the  Walker 
Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Cleveland,  O.,  for  planing  the  segments  of  large  pulleys  and  sheaves 
(its  size  being  such  that  all  the  segments,  even  of  the  largest  wheels,  can  be  planed  at  one 
setting),  as  follows  :  "The  machine  will  plane  120  in.  wide,  96  in.  high,  and  25  ft.  Jong. 
Combined  with  great  capacity  and  ability  to  do  work  10  ft.  wide,  the  tool  is  adapted  to  per- 
form work  of  half  that  width  as  economically  as  a  60-in.  planer.  The  planer  is  triple  geared, 
which  reinforces  the  already  powerful  spiral  gearing,  and  makes  the  tool  capable  of  taking 
several  heavy  cuts  simultaneously.  The  width  of  the  table  is  60  in. ,  and  depth  of  the  same 
through  the  Vs  14  in.  Bearing  on  the  V-ways  each  side  is  11  in.  The  depth  of  bed,  24  in. 
The  worm  has  an  axial  pitch  of  10  in.,  is  16  in.  long,  and  engages  in  a  rack  having  a  width 
of  9  in.,  and  2}  in.  pitch.  The  cross  heads  each  have  an  18-in.  bearing  on  the  beam,  and  the 
side  heads  a  15-iu.  bearing.  The  vertical  travel  of  the  main  head  is  14  in.,  while  that  of  the 
40 


626 


PLANING   MACHINES.— METAL. 


side  heads  is  9  in.     The  bevel  driving  gear  and  pinion  have  a  7-in.  face  and  IJ-in.  pitch. 
The  weight  is  140,000  Ibs." 

The  Richards  Open-side  Planer  and  Shaper. — Fig.  4  shows  a  36-in.  open-side  planer 
and  shaper  built  by  Pedrick  &  Ayer,  of  Philadelphia.  The  construction  and  general 
arrangement  of  parts  in  this  machine  are  somewhat  different  from  the  usual  style  of  planers 
and  shapers.  The  sliding  head  and  cutting  tool  are  supported  by  an  overhanging  or  extended 
arm,  moving  parallel  with  the  slotted  side  of  bed,  and  the  work  to  be  planed  remains  station- 
ary, being  fastened  to  the  plates  or  tables  as  may  be  required.  The  open  side  permits  the 
planing  of  large  and  difficult  pieces,  and  as  they  remain  at  rest  while  being  planed,  they  are 
easier  to  set  and  fasten  than  they  would  be  upon  a  moving  table  or  platen.  The  saddle  is 
moved  by  means  of  a  screw  and  pulleys,  with  shifting  belts,  and  has  a  quick  return.  For 
some  classes  of  work,  these  open-side  planers  have  advantages  over  the  ordinary  style  of 


FIG.  5.— Boiler-plate  planing  machine. 

planer.  Among  them  are  the  following  :  The  tools  move  over  the  work,  which  is  fixed. 
Large  pieces  and  small  ones  are  planed  at  the  same  speed.  There  are  flat  surfaces,  hori- 
zontal, vertical,  and  parallel  for  mounting  work,  so  pieces  of  any  shape  can  be  fastened  at 
once.  The  shifting  motion  is  such  that  the  tools  stop  with  the  same  accuracy  as  in  a 
shaping  machine.  By  removing  the  tables,  work  of  any  kind  can  be  planed.  Pieces  of  10 
tons  weight  have  been  planed  on  a  30-in.  machine.  The  heaviest  machines  can  be  used  for 
shaping,  and  run  with  a  2-in.  stroke,  without  shock  or  jar. 

PLATE-PLANING  MACHINES. — The  Niles  Boiler-plate  Planing  Machine. — Fig.  5  shows  a 
boiler-plate  planing  machine,  made  by  the  Niles  Tool  Works,  Hamilton,  0.  It  will  bevel 
the  edge  and  square  up  a  narrow  caulking  surface,  plane  plates  14  to  18  ft.  long  at  one  set- 
ting, and  is  arranged  to  plane  any  length  by  resetting  the  sheet.  There  are  two  separate 
tools  on  the  tool  post.  The  cut  is  taken  both  forward  and  back.  A  large  steel  screw  oper- 


FIG.  6. — Double  plate-planing  machine. 

ates  the  saddle.  Brackets  extend  out  from  the  back  of  the  bed,  carrying  rollers  for  sup- 
porting the  sheet  and  facilitating  handling.  A  heavy  clamping  bar  holds  the  plate 
securely  in  position.  The  bar  is  raised  and  lowered  by  screws  at  each  end.  No  intermediate 
screws  are  required,  hence  .the  operation  of  setting  is  quickly  accomplished.  The  driving 
pulleys  are  24  in.  diameter  for  a  2^-in.  belt,  and  strongly  geared  to  the  screw.  The  screw 
is  of  steel,  3^  in.  diameter,  2  in.  pitch,  and  is  supported  in  a  continuous  bearing,  preventing 
sag  or  deflection.  The  nut  is  of  extra  length  and  surrounds  three-fourths  the  diameter  of 
the  screw. 

Double  Plate-planing  Machine. — Fig.  6  shows  the  Niles  double  plate-planing  machine, 
which  is  designed  to  plane  on  two  adjoining  edges  of  plates  at  the  same  time.  When  plates 
are  to  be  squared  or  planed  to  bevel  shapes  it  is  of  great  convenience  to  be  able  to  do  this  at 
one  setting  of  the  plate.  In  the  single  plate  planers,  when  work  is  to  be  planed  on  the  end, 


PLANING   MACHINES.— METAL. 


627 


the  plate  must  be  set  by  reference  to  the  edge  of  the  table.  If  the  sheet  is  long  and  narrow, 
and  is  to  be  planed  to  any  other  angle  than  90°,  the  setting  becomes  a  difficult  matter  if  any 
degree  of  precision  is  required.  These  difficulties  are  obviated  by  the  use  of  double  plate 
planers,  and  at  the  same  time  the  work  is  performed  both  quicker  and  better.  The  front,  or 
long  side,  of  this  machine  is  similar  in  construction  to  the  single  machines.  It  has  a  tool 
carriage  54  inches  long,  driven  by  a  heavy  steel  screw,  and  carries  two  tool  heads  for  cutting 
in  both  directions.  One  of  these  heads  has  compound  and  angular  movement,  as  in  ordinary 
planers,  while  the  other  has  horizontal  movement  only.  The  end  bed  is  pivoted  at  the  right- 
hand  of  the  front  bed.  It  is  clamped  to  a  heavy  T-slotted  sole  plate,  and  can  be  adjusted  10° 
either  way  from  a  right  angle  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pinion.  In  this  movement  the  bed 
carries  with  it  a  T-slotted  table  for  holding  and  clamping  the  end  of  the  plate.  The  tool  car- 
riage is  driven  independently  in  the  same  manner  as  the  front  one.  It  has  one  tool  head 
only,  with  compound  and  angular  adjustment.  It  cuts  in  one  direction  only  and  has  quick 
return.  The  clamping  bar  is  a  heavy  box  girder  rigidly  secured  to  box  housings  bolted  to 
the  long  bed.  The  housings  are  overhanging,  so  that  plates  of  any  length  may  be  planed  by 
resetting.  The  clamping  bar  is  placed  at  sufficient  height  to  clear  the  end  tool  slide,  and  the 
work  is  held  by  screw  jacks.  A  wide  T-slotted  table  is  placed  at  the  back  of  the  machine, 
suitable  for  holding  large  plates  without  the  aid  of  auxiliary  tables.  Each  tool  carriage  is 
driven  and  operated  independently,  except  that  a  safety  belt-shipping  device  is  provided,  by 
means  of  which  the  front  tool  carriage  reverses  the  motion  of  the  end  carriage  whenever  there 
is  danger  of  a  collision  between  them. 

Rotary  Planers. — Figs.  7  and  8  show  two  forms   of  rotary  planing  machine,  made   by 
the  Betts   Machine  a 

Co.,  of  Wilming- 
ton, Del.  These 
machines  are  spe- 
cially designed  for 
facing  plane  sur- 
faces on  columns, 
chords,  etc.,  in  iron 
bridge  building,  ar- 
chitectural iron 
work,  and  many 
other  jobs  where 
large  numbers  of 
pieces  of  the  same 
kind  are  used;  on 
this  class  of  work 
they  have  advan- 
tages over  recipro- 
cating planers ;  i  n 
many  cases  the 

finished  work  can  be  removed  and  replaced  by  new  work  while  the  machine  is  still  facing  at 
the  opposite  end.  The  cutters  are  secured  in  a  heavy  plate  wheel,  banded  with  wrought  iron, 
and  driven  by  worm  and  worm-wheel;  this  plate  wheel  has  a  heavy  steel  spindle  and  is 
carried  in  a  travelling  head  on  the  bed  plate,  the  work  remaining  stationary.  They  have 


FIG.  7.— Rotary  planer  with  adjustable  cutters. 


FIG.  8.— Rotary  planer  with  movable  tables. 

automatic  variable  feeds,  and  the  heads  are  moved  back  by  an  independent  countershaft. 
In  the  machine  shown  in  Fig.  7  the  cutters  are  made  adjustable.  The  spindles  have  an 
end  adjustment,  so  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  moving  the  work  to  make  the  cut.  These 
machines  may  have  a  cutter  plate  with  fixed  cutters  put  upon  them,  in  place  of  the 
adjustable  cutters,  if  so  desired,  and  can  be  mounted  on  a  turn  table,  and  be  swivelled 
through  an  angle  of  90°  by  means  of  a  pinion  and  segmental  rack,  the  driving  being  so 
arranged  as  to  permit  this  movement.  This  feature  enables  the  pieces  to  be  faced"  off  at  any 


628  PLANING   MACHINES.— WOOD, 

angle,  and  saves  the  inconvenience  of  setting  the  work  at  an  angle  on  the  shop  floor,  thus 
economizing  room. 

Newton's  Pillow-block  Planing  Machine  is  shown  in  Fig.    9.      It  is  used  for  planing 


FIG.  9.— Pillow-block  planing  or  shaping  machine. 


stationary  engine  beds  to  admit  the  brasses,  and  has  an  automatic  feed  both  vertical  and 
horizontal,  with  a  range  from  the  finest  feed  for  roughing  to  a  coarse  feed  for  finishing. 
The  carriage  can  be  adjusted  to  set  the  work.  The  machine  will  admit  work  30  in.  high  by 
8  ft.  wide. 

PLANING  MACHINES.— WOOD.  In  considering  the  subject  of  planing  machinery, 
we  may  include  therein  machines  which  give  to  sawed  timber  proper  dimensions,  dressing 
it  on  ail  four  sides  at  once,  as  well  as  those  which  merely  give  it  a  true  surface ;  and  as  very 
many  of  those  machines  which  dress  it  on  from  two  to  four  surfaces,  and  give  it  its  finished 
width,  make  a  tongue  upon  one  edge  and  a  groove  in  the  other — matching,  as  it  is  called — 
we  must,  while  studying  and  describing  some  types  at  least  of  planing  machines,  study  and 
describe  the  matching  machine  also. 

It  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  as  regards  the  tools  which  work  upon  the 
wood,  they  may  be  held  either  in  cylinders  or  in  disks  ;  the  disks  being  represented  by  merely 
their  radii  and  the  cylinders  by  mere  lengthwise  lines  upon  their  periphery,  parallel  to  their 
axis.  Cylinder  machines  make  cuts  which  are  practically  straight  and  at  right  angles  to 
the  length  of  the  stick  and  to  its  direction  of  passage  through  the  machine.  The  disk  or 
arm  machines  make  cuts  which  are  practically  circular  arcs  bounded  by  the  edges  of  the 
stick.  In  the  first  class  we  consider  the  Woodworth  and  similar  cylinder  planers  ;  in  the 
second,  the  Daniel  Is.  Both  of  these  are  illustrated  and  described  in  a  former  volume  of 
this  work. 

The  Modern  Daniells  planer  is  built  entirely  of  iron  and  steel,  except  the  face  of  the 
table,  which  is  made  of  yellow  pine.  This  gives  the  machine  great  strength,  and  especially 
adapts  it  to  the  use  of  railway,  bridge,  and  car  builders,  who  require  to  take  large  lumber  or 
timber  cut  out  of  wind  or  to  reduce  it  to  square  dimensions.  As  made  by  J.  A.  Fay  &  Co., 
the  iron  frame  machine,  Fig.  1,  has  its  sides  cast  in  sections,  according  to  the  length 
of  machine  wanted.  The  ways  on  which  the  table  moves  are  cast  with  the  sides  and 
planed  to  fit  the  slides  of  the  table,  which  are  continuous,  and  form  a  good  bearing  at  all 
points.  The  table  is  made  to  travel  in  either  direction  under  the  cutters  by  a  self-acting 
motion,  and  it  will  plane  forwards  and  backwards.  The  carriage  has  a  dog  or  tail-screw  let 
into  the  back  end  of  the  platen,  so  as  to  come  below  the  surface,  and  is  operated  by  a  crank 
wheel.  The  main  spindle  is  properly  of  steel,  of  large  diameter,  and  running  in  long  bear- 
ings ;  the  arm  should  be  of  wrought  or  malleable  iron.  The  material  is  held  down  by  dead 
weights  or  guide  plates.  The  carriage  has  side  clamps  for  edging  up.  The  levers  for  start- 
ing, reversing,  or  stopping  the  motion  of  the  table,  with  the  hand  wheel  for  raising  and  low- 
ering the  cutters,  are  all  within  easy  reach  of  the  operator,  and  the  table  can  be  moved  by  a 
hand  wheel  when  the  machine  is  not  in  operation.  The  feed  works  have  three  changes  of 
feed,  admitting  of  planing  while  the  table  moves  in  either  direction.  The  rack  being 
beneath  the  table,  with  a  vertical  pinion,  there  is  no  danger  of  lodging  of  shavings,  nor 
tendency  to  raise  the  table  by  the  force  required  to  move  it.  The  main  driving  belt  is  not  a 
quarter-twist,  as  in  the  old  makes  ;  the  countershaft  being  attached  over  the  machine  to  the 
building  and  parallel  to  the  main  shaft,  thus  giving  a  straight  belt ;  and  the  driving  belt 


PLANING   MACHINES.— WOOD. 


629 


for  the  cutter  head  acts  at  a  right  angle  to  the  countershaft.  This  does  away  with  the  old 
vertical  countershaft,  and  the  annoyance  of  quarter-twist  belts,  and  the  tendency  of  the 
main  belt  to  draw  the  machine  out  of  line. 

A  machine  by  the  same  makers,  which  is  a  combination  of  the  Daniells  and  the  Wood- 
worth  planing  machines,  is  of  great  utility.  It  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  There  is  a  wooden  frame 
with  iron  housings  or  uprights  for  carrying  the  cylinder  and  frame.  The  planing  cylinder 
is  horizontal,  and  lipped  with  steel,  carrying  three  knives  and  running  in  long  bearings.  It 
is  supported  in  its  frame  upon  two  heavy  iron  standards  having  planed  surfaces,  upon  which 
it  is  gibbed  and  moved  vertically,  and  at  an  angle,  to  retain  the  driving  belts  at  the  same 
tension.  There  are  on  each  side  of  the  cylinder  adjustable  pressure  rollers  to  hold  the  lum- 
ber firmly  to  the  platen  ;  these  rollers  also  being  arranged  that  they  may  be  lifted  up  so  that 
there  will  be  no  pressure  when  planing  dimension  stuff  or  taking  lumber  out  of  wind.  The 
feed  rollers  when  not  in  use  may  be  moved  out  of  the  way  on  planed  slides.  They  are  con- 
nected by  expansion  gearing,  and  will  take  in  lumber  up  to  4  in.  thick.  When  used  for  sur- 
face planing  the  table  is  placed  with  its  end  under  the  cylinder  and  pressure  rollers,  and  the 
feed  rollers  moved  into  position.  The  platen  or  carriage  for  using  the  machine  as  a  Daniells 
planer  has  friction  feed  works,  with  changes  of  speed,  and  is  arranged  to  plane  while  the 


FIG.  1.— The  Fay-Daniells  planer. 

carriage  is  running  in  either  direction.  The  vertical  adjustment  of  the  cutting  cylinder  is 
sufficient  to  allow  stuff  up  to  24  in.  thick  to  be  dressed.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  feature 
of  the  Daniells  planer  which  is  retained  is  the  moving  carriage  or  platen  ;  the  cutting  being 
done  by  the  knives  upon  the  horizontal  rotating  cylinder,  whether  the  feed  be  by  rollers  or 
by  carriage.  A  modification  of  this  machine  dispenses  with  the  feed  rollers,  but  retains  the 
pressure  rollers  each  side  of  the  knife  cylinder  ;  although  provision  is  made  for  the  applica- 
tion of  power-driven  feed  rollers,  with  expansion  gear — and  in  this  case  the  carriage  remains 
stationary.  The  machine  is  rapidly  changeable  from  a  dimension  machine  to  a  wide  surface 
planer. 

The  special  peculiarity  of  this  class  of  machine  is  that  it  will  make  a  surface  good  enough 
for  glue-jointing,  while  it  will  plane  in  either  direction  of  the  carriage,  thus  greatly  adding 
to  its  capacity. 

In  some  timber  planers  the  cylinder,  instead  of  the  bed,  is  raised  and  lowered,  so  that  a 
train  of  rolls  in  stationary  stands  may  be  placed  at  each  end  of  the  machine ;  and  the  top  of 
these  timber  rolls  being*  but  a  trifle  lower  than  the  travelling  bed,  will  support  long  sticks 
while  being  fed  through  the  machine.  This  also  does  away  with  the  annoyance  and  delay  of 
adjusting  the  timber  rolls  every  time  the  size  to  be  planed *is  changed. 

A  double-cylinder  surface  planing  machine,  made  bv  J.  A.  Fay  &  Co.,  for  planing  two 
sides  of  material  at  once,  has  a  level  bed  with  vertical  adjustment  to  accommodate  material 
up  to  6  in.  in  thickness  ;  a  bearing  roller  at  the  front  of  the  bed  to  lessen  the  friction  of  the 
material,  and  four  positive  feed  rolls,  connected  by  gearing,  and  having  adjustable  weights 
for  varying  the  pressure.  There  are  also  delivery  rolls  which  have  spring  pressure.  All  the 
rolls  are  encased  to  protect  them  from  dust  and  shavings.  There  are  two  speeds  of  feed, 
each  of  which  is  stopped  and  started  by  a  lever  and  belt  tightener  acting  on  the  slack  side  of 


630 


PLANING   MACHINES.— WOOD. 


the  belt.  The  upper  cylinder  has  a  pulley  at  each  end  to  enable  two  belts  to  be  used  ;  and 
each  cylinder  carries  two  knives.  The  pressure  bars  on  each  side  of  the  upper  cylinder  are 
self-acting,  the  end  in  front  rising  and  falling  with  the  feeding-in  rollers,  and  always  retain- 
ing the  same  relative  position,  yet  allowing  the  roller  to  yield  to  any  variation  in  the  surface 
of  the  material  ;  the  bar  controlling  the  pressure  after  the  cut  of  the  upper  cylinder  being 
adjustable.  The  bar  following  the  cut  of  the  lower  cylinder  is  adjustable  to  meet  the  cut 
that  is  taken. 
In  the  S6-in.  double-surfacing  machine  shown  in  Fig.  3,  the  cylinders  are  large  and  slotted, 


PIG.  2. — Combination  planer. 


and  run  in  yoke  boxes.  There  is  a  bonnet  chip-breaker,  and  a  complete  set  of  pressure  bars 
which  have  every  desirable  adjustment.  The  lower  cylinder  may  be  set  for  any  desired  cut, 
and  the  end  of  the  bed  will  swing  down  to  admit  of  easy  access  to  the  head  for  sharpening 
or  setting  the  knives.  The  bed  is  raised  and  lowered  on  four  screws  by  hand  or  by  power  ; 
and  when  power  is  used,  an  adjustment  of  8  in.  is  accomplished  in  one  minute.  When  set 
to  proper  thickness,  the  lower  cylinder,  while  firmly  clamped  to  the  bed,  is  also  clamped  to 
the  sides  of  the  frame.  The  gears  on  the  feed  rollers  are  of  about  double  the  diameter  of  the 
latter,  giving  great  leverage.  Each  pair  of  feed-roll  boxes  is  connected  in  a  yoke  frame  to 


PIG.  3.— The  Rogers  double  surfacer. 

avoid  the  possibility  of  cramping,  and  all  links  are  hung  on  boxes  instead  of  on  roll  shafts. 
The  feed  is  driven  direct  from  the  top  cylinder,  through  two  feed  shafts  provided  with  cones 
giving  four  changes  of  speed. 

The  Smith  Double  Surfacer.  —In  a  26-in.  cabinet  double-surfacing  planer  made  by  the 
H.  B.  Smith  Machine  Co. ,  there  are  some  features  which  are  absent  from  some  others  of  the 
same  general  type.  Thus,  for  undersurfacing,  the  bed  is  supported  on  four  screws,  one  under 
each  nut  of  the  cutting  cylinder,  and  the  curved  pressure  bar  over  the  underhead  is  very 
rigid,  thus  giving  stiffer  and  truer  work  with  the  undersurfacing  head  than  would  be  the 


PLANING   MACHINES.— WOOD.  631 

case  without  these  features.  The  feeding-in  rolls  have  a  weighted  equalizing  bar  to  give  a 
parallel  lift  and  prevent  cross  strain  on  the  gears.  There  is  a  spring  device  to  overcome  the 
inertia  of  the  weighted  rolls  when  extra  thick  stock  is  being  entered,  and  to  lessen  liability 
of  breaking  the  weight  straps  or  bars. 

The  Goodell  &  Waters  Planer. — An  8-roll  timber-planer  made  by  Goodell  &  Waters, 
and  which  will  surface  up  to  26  in.  wide,  and  to  16  in.  thick,  and  square  timber  up  to 
these  dimensions,  will  also,  by  the  use  of  a  centre  guide,  surface  two  pieces  on  top,  bottom, 
and  outside  edge,  each  up  to  11  in.  wide,  at  one  operation.  The  feed  rolls  are  driven  by  a 
belt,  passing  around  idlers  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit  a  greater  range  of  thickness  of 
material  fed  than  is  possible  by  gears.  The  second  bottom  roll  is  yielding,  and  weighted  so 
as  to  raise  and  follow  the  irregularities  of  the  lumber. 

Flooring  Board  Planers.—  A  demand  having  arisen  for  machines  with  a  great  capacity 
for  planing  flooring  boards,  there  has  been  produced  a  number  of  machines  characterized  by 
very  fast  feed  and  great  capacity.  Another  type  in  which  the  limit  of  feed  has  not  been 
reached,  is  duplex,  planing  and  matching  two" separate  boards  at  one  operation,  so  that  its 
capacity  is  from  4,000  to  6,000  ft.  per  hour.  Its  work  consists  in  not  only  planing  both 
sides,  but  tonguing  and  grooving  both  edges  and  working  a  bead  or  rabbet  on  both  the 
boards.  The  machine  has  two  short  upper  cutting-cylinders,  axially  in  line,  and  two  duplex 
sets  of  feeding-in  rolls,  also  axially  in  line,  and  driven  by  gearing.  The  pressure  bars  before 
and  after  the  cut  of  the  upper  cylinders  are  duplex  ;  and  the  under  cylinder  has  also  duplex 
pressure  bars,  each  of  which  is  adjustable  vertically  independently  of  the  other,  or  both  may 
be  adjusted  together.  The  upper  cylinders  raise  and  lower  simultaneously  or  independently, 
as  desired,  so  that  the  machine  may  be  used  as  a  duplex  machine  working  two  boards 


FIG.  4.— Endless-bed  surface  planer. 

at  once,  or  as  a  single  flooring  machine  working  only  one  board.  The  matching  works  are 
duplex  and  work  the  edges  of  both  boards  at  one  operation  ;  being  adjustable  to  suit  the 
width  of  lumber  from  the  face  side  of  the  machine.  The  lumber  platen  has  a  duplex  board 
guide,  and  an  automatic  edge  feed  for  carrying  the  lumber  to  the  feed  rolls,  moving  the 
lumber  in  a  straight  line  to  the  first  receiving  feeding  rolls,  even  if  it  is  warped  or  crooked. 
The  feed  is  comparatively  slow,  thus  making  the  stuff  more  free  from  cylinder  marks  than 
if  capacity  was  got  by  fast  speed,  instead  of,  as  in  this  case,  by  having  two  complete  sets  of 
cutters  and  working  two  boards  at  once  at  comparatively  slow  feed  speed. 

In  some  makes  of  fast  flooring  machines  the  beading  cutter  heads  and  matcher  heads 
are  placed  between  the  first  and  the  second  pairs  of  rolls.  The  object  in  taking  the  beading 
knives  from  the  surfacing  cutter  heads  is  to  have  on  each  head  four  knives  instead  of  two. 
which  of  course  helps  to  do  rapid  work.  If  they  were  put  after  the  cutter  heads  instead  of 
before  them,  the  bead  would  be  more  apt  to  be  ragged  than  if  it  was  worked  first  and  any 
trifling  splintering  or  roughness  effaced  by  the  surfacing  cutters ;  such  defects  coming  out 
more  strongly  when  the  work  is  painted  than  while  it  remains  uncovered.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  when  the  matching  heads  are  placed  after  the  surfacing  cutters,  and  the  board  held  as 
firmly  as  it  should  be,  to  assure  good  matching  and  beading,  one  pair  of  smooth  rolls  cannot 
feed  the  board  to  or  deliver  it  from  the  machine ;  and  also  that  if  the  gauges  under  this 
arrangement  are  set  too  tight  when  matching,  the  lumber  will  show  the  marks,  which  is  very 
objectionable.  A  properly  constructed  and  operated  flooring-board  machine  should  deliver 
work  at  the  rate  of  100  ft.  per  minute:  most  of  those  now  at  work  do  only  from  50  to  60  ft. 
Messrs.  C.  B.  Rogers  &  Co.  have  brought  out  during  1891  a  planer  and'  matcher,  to  work 
15  in.  wide  and  6  in.  thick,  feeding  from  25  to  110  ft.  per  minute. 

In  a  matching  and  jointing  machine  made  by  the  Lane  Manufacturing  Co.  there  is  an 
adjustable  roll  which  holds  the  board  firmly  upon  the  beading  head,  preventing  springing  or 


632 


PLANING  MACHINES.— WOOD. 


trembling  while  the  end  of  the  board  is  passing  from  the  feeding-in  to  the  feeding-out  rolls; 
and  the  beading  head  is  fitted  with  saw-teeth  knives  which  remove  fuzz  from  the  edge  of  the 
bead. 

The  Vay  Endless-bed  Surface  Planer. — A  method  of  feeding  the  material  in  wood  planers, 
differing  from  the  hand,  carriage  or  platen,  and  pressure-roll  methods,  is  by  an  endless  bed, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  It  is  especially  desirable  for  green,  wet,  or  icy  lumber;  and  the  demand 
for  this  type  is  constantly  increasing  in  this  country.  There  is  an  endless  apron  or  bed  of 
slats  driven  by  heavy  gearing,  and  remaining  in  a  fixed  position  at  all  times.  The  lags  or 
strips  composing  it  are  of  cast-iron,  but  the  bearings  on  the  ways  are  plated  with  steel.  The 
cylinder  is  of  large  diameter,  lipped  with  steel,  and  carries  three  knives,  and  pulleys  for  two 
belts.  It  runs  in  self-oiling  bearings  in  a  cylinder  frame  which  is  raised  and  lowered  by  a 
hand  wheel.  A  weighted  pressure  bar  is  placed  before  the  cut,  as  is  also  a  pressure  roller 
supplied  with  springs  which  give  an  elastic  tension,  that  is  controlled  by  a  screw  and  hand 
wheel,  so  as  to  give  any  desired  pressure.  The  cylinder  frame  carrying  the  cutters  is  gibbed 
to  the  sides.  The  cylinder  and  pressure  bar  adjust  simultaneously  to  the  thickness  of  cut,  by 
a  single  movement  of  the  hand  wheel.  The  feed  is  started  and  stopped  by  a  binding  lever. 
A  development  of  this  machine,  of  much  heavier  build,  for  planing- mills,  bridge  work,  etc., 
has  a  stationary  cylinder  so  that  the  countershaft  may  be  either  on  the  floor  or  overhead,  as 
desired.  There  is  a  chip-breaker  for  holding  the  fibre  of  the  wood  during  the  process  of  cut- 
ting, and  a  pressure  roller  in  front  weighted  with  folding  levers  so  arranged  that  either  end 
will  work  independently  of  the  other,  which  is  desirable  on  unevenly  sawed  lumber.  This 


FIG.  5.— Endless-bed  surface  planer. 

allows  the  rollers  to  adjust  to  the  different  thicknesses  of  the  lumber  without  unduly  strain- 
ing any  of  the  parts  of  the  machine. 

The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  5  has  the  line  of  the  bed  in  a  fixed  position,  the  upper  and 
the  lower  cylinders,  and  the  pressure  bar  over  the  latter,  adjusting  simultaneously  to  suit  the 
thickness  of  the  timber.  The  upper  cylinder  carries  four  and  the  lower  one  three  knives, 
and  either  can  be  raised  or  lowered  when  running.  The  pressure  bar  over  the  lower  cylinder 
is  hinged,  and  can  be  swung  back  out  of  the  way  to  give  free  access  to  the  cutters.  There  is 
a  set  of  heavy  delivery  rollers  after  the  lower  cylinder,  driven  by  expansion  gearing,  and 
feeding  the  lumber  away  from  the  machine,  thus  relieving  the  strain  on  the  travelling  bed 
in  feeding  heavy  lumber.  There  are  two  speeds  of  feed,  40  and  60  ft.  per  minute.  The  feed 
rollers  are  ^broken  in  their  length,  so  that  either  one  wide  board  or  two  narrow  ones  of 
unequal  thickness  may  be  planed  at  once.  The  cylinders  have  chip-breakers.  A  uniform 
elastic  pressure  may  be  maintained  by  pressure  springs.  The  pressure  bars  before  the  cut  are 
sectional,  one  for  each  divided  roller,  and  are  raised  simultaneously  with  the  upper  cylinder. 

Other  JEndless-bed  Surfacers.—ln  a  machine  made  by  the  Egan  Co.  the  heads  instead 
of  the  bed  raise  and  lower  ;  the  upper  head  being  belted  from  each  end  and  raising  and 
lowering  from  the  working  end  of  the  machine.  Each  slat  of  the  bed  or  travelling  apron 
has  on  the  under  side  a  circular  wedge,  extending  between  the  two  bearings  to  give  stiffness; 
and  as  each  end  of  each  slat  passes  under  a  rib  of  the  full  length  of  the  bed,  it  is  impossible 
for  it  to  lift  it  into  the  cutter  head  even  when  planing  the  thinnest  stock.  The  pressure 
adjustment,  including  the  two  pressure  rollers,  is  raised  and  lowered  with  the  cylinder  to 
suit  the  thickness  of  the  material  being  planed.  The  lower  cylinder  has  a  pair  of  feeding- 
out  rolls. 

In  one  type  of  the  double-cylinder,  endless-bed  surfacer,  the  endless   bed   itself  extends 


PLANING   MACHINES.— WOOD.  633 

through  a  comparatively  short  portion  of  the  length  of  the  machine,  the  stock  being  fed  to 
it  from  a  plane  grated  table;  the  upper  cylinder  gets  the  first  cut  and  the  lower  one  next;  and 
after  the  second  cut  there  are  feeding-out  rolls,  broken  into  two  lengthwise  portions  so  as  to 
take  in  two  pieces  of  different  thickness.  One  desirable  feature  in  this  type  of  machine  is 
in  those  made  by  Hoyt  &  Bro.,  in  which  the  feed  rolls  and  their  operative  mechanism  are 
carried  by  a  swinging  bar  that  is  easily  swung  away  or  opened  like  a  gate,  giving  access  to 
the  cylinder  for  setting  or  sharpening  the  knives.  In  some  machines  the  sprocket  wheels  are 
made  to  move  the  bed  by  the  links;  in  others,  by  the  slats  themselves,  which  latter  is  by  many 
considered  preferable.  In  the  H.  B.  Smith  machine,  instead  of  the  pressure  bar  there  is  a 
roll  which  is  held  down  by  rubber  springs  to  reduce  friction. 

Jointers. — It  being  next  to  impossible  to  joint  the  edges  of  wood  perfectly  by  hand  tools, 
for  gluing,  such  work  is  usually  done  by  machinery,  both  by  reason  of  the  greater  perfection 
of  surface  and  on  account  of  the  decreased  cost.  The  stroke  jointer  is  a  very  simple  machine 
which,  while  taking  up  a  good  deal  of  room,  is  not  very  heavy,  and  is  very  simple  in  opera- 
tion. There  is  a  cast-iron  table,  borne  by  suitable  legs  or  pedestals,  and  through  the  top 
of  which  there  project  two  or  more  ordinary  planing  knives.  Along  this  table  there  vibrates 
lengthwise  a  frame  which  bears  the  piece  the  under  side  of  which  is  to  be  jointed.  The 
material  being  properly  clamped  to  the  carriage,  the  latter  is  given  lengthwise  motion  by  a 
pitman  driven  from  a  large  wheel  upon  a  separate  stand,  this  being  operated  by  hand  or  by 
power,  as  desired. 

The  hand-feed  planing  and  jointing  machine  will  plane  out  of  wind  ;  and  as  the 
amount  of  material  cut  away  is  controlled  by  hand  and  by  sight,  there  is  scarcely  any  kind 
of  planing  which  cannot  be  done  by  it  more  truly  and  with  less  labor  than  by  hand  work, 
and  in  one-tenth  of  the  time  required  thereby.  In  the  H.  B.  Smith  Co.'s  hand  planer  there 
is  within  the  framing  a  chute  which  delivers  the  shavings  in  the  rear  of  the  machine  and 
at  the  same  time  forms  a  cross  wedge  in  the  framing,  thus  increasing  the  rigidity  of  the 
machine. 

A  useful  machine,  which  is  a  combination  of  power  surfacing  machine  and  hand  planer, 
is  designed  to  save  the  expense  and  space  of  two  separate  machines  in  furniture  cabinets  and 
coffin  manufactories,  wherever  the  separate  machines  have  been  found  of  value.  The 
cylinder  is  arranged  so  that  planing  may  be  done  either  under  it,  by  feed  roller*,  or 
over  it,  by  hand.  When  arranged  to  do  the  former  it  will  surface  long  and  short  pieces 
up  to  24  in.  wide  and  6  in.  thick.  The  cylinder  has  three  knives  arranged  at  an  angle 
so  as  to  give  a  shearing  cut ;  thus,  in  connection  with  a  self-adjusting  pressure  bar  before  the 
cut,  avoiding  tendency  to  tear  in  cross-grain  lumber. 

Heavy  Planers. — It  is  for  some  reasons  best  for  planers  working  on  doors,  sash,  and  other 
articles  having  the  grain  of  the  wood  at  different  angles,  that  the  planer  head  be  at  an  angle 
of  45°,  giving  a  smooth  surface  regardless  of  knots  or  cross  grained  places  in  the  material 
being  worked. 

The  heavy  planer  and  smoother  shown  in  Fig.  6,  and  made  by  the  Egan  Co.,  is 
made  by  reason  of  the  desire  of  sash  and  door  makers,  and  others  producing  similar  classes 
of  work,  to  put  their  work  together  in  sections,  and  plane  the  latter  after  they  are  put 
together.  This  of  course  calls  for  a  wide  planer,  in  order  to  feed  the  stock  diagonally,  to 
preserve  the  edges  when  planing  the  cross  rails.  There  are  heavily  braced  double  or  cored 
sides  to  the  frame.  The  table,  which  is 
dove-tailed  in  the  frame,  raises  and  low- 
ers in  inclines  by  two  screws  and  a  cen- 
tre hand  wheel,  and  can  be  locked  at  the 
desired  height.  The  feed  consists  of 
four  large  feed  rolls,  all  driven  by  heavy 
gearing,  the  upper  front  one,  which  is 
fluted,  being  geared  on  both  ends,  giv- 
ing it  a  parallel  lift,  and  thus  allowing 
two  strips  of  any  kind  of  stock  to  be 
fed  through  the  machine.  All  four 
feed  rolls  are  weighted.  The  feed  of 
the  machine  is  taken  from  the  cylinder, 
so  that  if  the  speed  of  the  latter  in- 
creases or  diminishes,  the  feed  will  vary 
in  the  same  proportion.  The  pressure 
bars  each  side  of  the  cylinder  adjust 
to  the  circle  of  the  head,  to  prevent  FIG.  6. -The  Egau  heavy  planer, 

tearing  out  of  wavy  grained  or  knotty 

stock,  and  chipping  of  the  ends.  By  feeding  the  stock  in  diagonally  instead  of  having  a  diag- 
onal planer,  straight  belts  may  be  run  to  the  cylinder,  and  short  stuff  may  be  planed.  Such 
a  machine  is  specially  adapted  for  planing  framed  stock  where  straight  and  cross-grained 
wood  are  built  up  together. 

Planing  Clapboards. — In  the  manufacture  of  clapboards,  which  are  so  important  a  feature 
in  the  make-up  of  homes  in  a  new  country,  it  is  usual  to  employ  double  machines,  through 
which  two  boards  may  be  passed,  each  of  these  being  dressed  on  one  side  and  jointed  on 
two  edges,  while  passing  through  the  machine.  In  some  of  these  machines  the  bed  is  sta- 
tionary, and  the  stock  fed  along  by  rolls;  in  others  there  is  a  travelling  body;  and  in  yet 
others  there  is  a  combination  of  these  two:  there  being  at  first  a  travelling  bed  which  extends 


634  PLOWS. 


to  near  the  rolls,  and  then  a  short  stationary  bed  just  under  the  cutter  head;  then  beyond 
the  cutter  head  again  there  is  another  travelling  bed  for  feeding  out  the  material.  Where 
there  is  roller  feed  there  is  usually  one  set  of  rolls  for  feeding-in  and  another  set  for  feeding- 
out. 

In  designing  dimension  planing  machines  and  similar  tools  having  heavy  carriages  carry- 
ing large  timber,  it  is  not  usually  considered  safe  to  control  the  carriage  movement  by 
clutches,  and  for  such  work  shifting  belts,  or  a  friction  feed,  are  employed. 
'  Recent  Improvements  in  Planing  Machines. — In  the  construction  of  the  planing  machine 
of  the  present  day  makers  seem  to  have  arisen  to  the  fact  that  such  machinery  should  be 
massive  in  frame,  and  hence  are  giving  them  heavy  plate  sides  with  internal  ribs  ;  they 
also  plane  the  joints,  ream  the  holes,  turn  the  bolts,  and  in  every  other  possible  way  design 
and  construct  the  machine  to  do  accurate  work  at  high  speed  with  heavy  cut,  without  danger 
of  breaking  down  or  liability  to  lose  accuracy  of  work.  It  is  best  that  the  cylinders  of  planers 
and  matchers  and  surfacers  be  made  of  steel,  with  the  spindles  drawn  out  from  the  body  of 
the  forgings,  leaving  the  cylinders  and  the  spindles  in  one  solid  piece. 

In  some  planing  machines  the  lower  feed  rolls  are  double  the  diameter  of  the  upper,  their 
surface  speeds,  of  course,  being  the  same.  It  is  claimed  for  this  arrangement  that  it  gives  the 
lumber  a  better  base,  and  causes  it  to  enter  and  leave  each  pair  of  rolls  with  greater  smooth- 
ness. In  some  machines  the  gears  are  always  placed  on  the  "gauge"  side  of  the  machine, 
and  the  expansion  gear  on  the  front  side  of  the  roll,  so  that  the  driving  pressure  will  be  down- 
ward and  that  there  will  be  pressure  on  the  gauge  side,  which  is  by  some  thought  desirable. 

In  some  machines  for  planing  and  matching,  the  matcher  frames  and  spindles  are  dropped 
or  swung  down  to  change  from  working  flooring  to  surfacing;  in  others  the  change  is  made 
by  removing  the  matcher  heads  from  their  spindles,  thus  leaving  the  matcher  frames  and 
spindles  always  in  their  working  position.  In  operating  planing  and  matching  machines, 
good  usage  recommends  running  the  side  or  matcher  heads  against  the  feed,  as  it  takes  less 
power  than  the  opposite  way,  and  the  cutters  are  kept  in  order  longer,  not  coming  in  contact 
with  dirt  or  grit  which  may  be  on  the  edges  of  the  lumber.  In  some  machines  the  back  part 
of  the  bits,  which  follows  and  supports  the  cutting  edge,  is  of  circular  form,  to  conform  to  the 
radius  of  the  cylinder  which  carries  them. 

A  decided  improvement  in  the  way  of  safety  of  high-speed  planing  machinery  consists 
in  casing  over  the  gears  which  drive  the  feed  rolls  by  a  casting  conforming  to  their  outline, 
and  of  course  much  less  likely  to  damage  than  the  sheet-iron  or  tin  casing  that  is  some- 
times used,  but  which  is  not  found  often  enough  on  machines  of  this  class. 
Planters  :  see  Seeders  and  Drills. 

PLOWS.  Since  the  year  1880  the  improvements  made  in  the  plow  of  the  ordinary  type 
have  concerned  mainly  the  materials  and  manufacturing  methods.  Modifications  of  form 
have  been  limited  to  minor  details,  important  as  increasing  efficiency  and  durability,  without 
novelty  in  the  general  form.  Cast-steel  and  chilled  iron  have  been  liberally  adopted  for  the 

wearing  parts  of  plow  bottoms,  and  the  advan- 
tageous skilful  manipulation  of  these  materials  is 
naturally  confined  to  large  and  costly  establish- 
ments, in  which  alone  can  the  forming  and  polish- 
ing of  the  mould-board  be  done  with  due  preservation 
of  the  evenness  of  the  temper  and  conservation  of 
the  greatest  percentage  of  good  wearing  surface. 
The  hydraulic  process  of  "chilling"  is  the  most 
pronounced  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of 
plowshares  during  the  last  decade.  It  cheaply 
secures  uniformity  and  exactness  of  contour  and 
extreme  hardness  of  surface.  Fig.  1  shows  a  result 
of  one  of  the  applications  of  the  process.  In  this 
instance  the  under  skin  of  the  metal,  shown  white, 
is  chilled  to  extreme  hardness,  and  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  material  left  comparatively  soft  ;  so 
that,  in  plowing,  the  upper  face  of  the  share  wears 
FIG.  1.— Chilled  plowshare.  away  next  the  edge  enough  faster  than  the  under 

face  to  yield  a  continuously  sharpened  edge  of  the 

thin  chilled  skin,  avoiding  the  heavy  draft  of  a  "dull  share  without  the  need  of  the  usual 
frequent  visits  to  the  smith  to  have  it  sharpened.  Mr.  James  Oliver,  who  has  been  prominent  in 
the  introduction  and  manufacture  of  chilled-iron  plow  bottoms,  states  that  his  first  success 
was  in  using  hot  water  in  the  chills,  drying  the  moisture  in  the  foundry  flasks  and  preventing 
blow-holes.  His  next  success  was  in  ventilating  the  chills  by  introducing  grooves  along  the 
face  of  the  mould,  which  allowed  the  escape  of  the  gases  which  form  within  the  flask  when 
melted  iron  is  poured  in,  letting  the  liquid  metal  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  face  of  the 
chill  and  all  its  surface,  thus  removing  all  the  soft  spots  in  the  mould-boards,  and  leaving 
the  surface  smooth  and  perfect ;  but  that  his  crowning  success  was  in  the  use  of  the  anneal- 
ing process,  which  deprived  the  metal  of  its  brittleness.  Malleable  iron  is  now  used  for  the 
frog  of  the  plow.  It  unites  the  advantages  of  economical  manufacture  and  "  interchange- 
ability,"  owing  to  the  uniformity  easily  attained  in  malleable  iron  pieces,  every  frog  fitting 
all  plows  of  the  same  pattern  in  case  of  necessary  repairs.  Welded  frogs  or  those  forged 
from  wrought-iron  are  liable  to  spring  in  manufacture  or  in  use;  and  if  it  becomes  necessary 
to  supply  a  plow  with  a  new  land-side  or  mould-board  an  expert  smith  is  required  to  fit  the 


PLOWS. 


635 


new  parts.  With  the  malleable  iron  frog  an  unskilled  person  can  place  the  new  parts  with 
ordinary  home  tools.  Composite  metal  is  used  with  singular  success  for  the  share  and  breast 
of  plows,  made  by  superposing  molten  crucible  steel  in  a  layer  on  a  red-hot  malleable  founda- 
tion. The  ingots  thus  produced  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shares,  the  inner  layer  of 
soft  iron  permitting  the  tempering  of  the  share  hard  without  crackling  or  distortion.  Some 
of  the  best  plows  are  now  made  from  rolled  plates  of  cast-steel  highly  and  evenly  tempered 
and  exquisitely  polished.  Fine,  moist  earth  adheres  more  annoyingly  to  a  soft,  low-tempered 


FIG.  2.— Hand  plow. 

than  to  a  hard-tempered  surface  passing  through  it.  The  mould-board  particularly  should, 
therefore,  be  not  only  well  shaped  but  well  tempered  to  "scour"  and  prove  durable.  The 
large  permanent  plow  manufacturing  establishments  now  keep  stocks  of  duplicate  parts  for 
modern-made  plows,  readily  obtained  and  applied  even  years  after  the  plow  was  made.  Im- 
provement in  outline  also  marks  the  products  of  all  the  great  factories,  as  will  be  evident  by 
inspection  of  the  modern  hand  plow  (Fig.  2). 

Deere's  Riding  Plow  (Fig.  3)  is  a  light,  three- wheeled  implement  made  of  wrought  and 
malleable  iron  and  steel.  The  wheels  are  steel  and  carry  the  heel  of  the  land-side  clear  of  the 
furrow  bottom,  so  that  there  is  no  weight  except  on  the  wheels.  The  swing  of  the  tongue  to 


FIG.  3. — Deere's  riding  plow. 


right  or  left  unlocks  the  spindle  of  the  rear  furrow  wheel,  which  then  becomes  a  caster, 
admitting  of  a  square  turn  of  the  plow  at  corners.  When  the  horses  are  again  straightened 
out  this  wheel  returns  directly  aft  and  locks  itself  rigidly  in  line  with  the  furrow  until  again 
unlocked  by  the  swing  of  the*  tongue  at  the  next  corner."  The  plow  bottom  draws  by  a  steel 
beam  pivoted  to  the  front  of  the  frame,  and  is  thus  self-lining.  The  bottom  on  this  class  of 
plows  can  be  changed  to  suit  different  sorts  of  plowing.  In  opening  a  furrow  the  front 
furrow  wheel  is  lifted  and  held  up  by  a  suitable  lever.  The  depth  of  plowing  is  regulated  by 


636 


PLOWS. 


the  left-hand  lever.  The  amount  of  land  taken  is  regulated  by  adjustment  of  the  tongue 
slightly  toward  right  or  left  by  appropriate  means.  On  arriving  at  a  corner  the  end  of  the 
furrow  can  still  be  kept  down  to  standard  depth  by  raising  the  front  furrow  wheel  slightly 
at  the  moment  of  turning. 

Gale's  Riding  or  Walking  Plow,  illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  has  three  wheels  with  independent 
axles  to  all.  One  lever,  connected  with  the  land  wheel  by  a  spring,  regulates  the  depth  and 
insures  uniform  draft.  This  plow  can  run  very  close  to  fences  and  trees,  and  requires  no 
handling  at  corners,  and  has  a  lever  for  changing  the  amount  of  landing  without  stopping. 
The  rear  furrow- wheel,  a  caster,  takes  away  the  friction  from  the  bottom  of  the  land -side. 


PIG.  4.— Gale's  riding  or  walking  plow. 

Parlin  &  Orendorfs  Hillside  Combination  Right-hand  and  Left-hand  Plow  is  represented 
in  Fig.  5.  The  beam  is  swivelled  at  the  upright,  to  meet  this  end,  giving  double  wear  service 
and  a  more  efficient  action  of  share  and  mould-board  than  in  the  class  of  hillside  plows,  as 
formerly  made,  with  but  one  bottom,  shaped  to  run  both  ways. 

The  Canton  Tricycle  Plow.— The  land-side  is  discarded  in  this  plow  in  favor  of  inclined 
furrow  wheels.  The  implement  is  constructed  of  malleable  iron  and  steel.  The  inclined 
furrow  wheels  perform  the  function  of  the  land-side,  besides  carrying  weight.  With  the 
long  lever  the  plow-point  can  be  diverted  upward  to  run  out  of  the  ground  with  a  slight 
pressure  by  the  operator.  This  same  lever  controls  the  rolling  coulter  and  regulates  the 
depth  of  plowing.  The  short  lever  adjusts  the  land  wheel  to  make  the  plow  run  level  at  any 


FIG.  5. -Hillside  plow. 

given  depth.  A  stiff  rod  connects  two  arms,  one  on  each  furrow-wheel  spindle,  causing  them 
to  track  by  steering  the  rear  in  unison  with  the  front  wheel  as  the  horses  direct  the  latter  by 
the  swing  of  the  tongue. 

Decrees  "  Gilpin  "  Sulky-Plow  has  a  self-lifting  device,  introduced  in  1881.  The  setting  of 
a  lever  causes  the  draft  by  the  team  to  run  the  plow  out  of  the  ground.  The  same  lever  con- 
trols depth  of  work  and  levels  the  run  of  the  plow  by  means  of  the  arched  frame  with  doable 
eccentric  crank  axles,*so  that  when  one  wheel  is  raised  the  other  is  lowered,  and  the  plow  and 
driver's  seat  can  be  kept  always  level. 

A  construction  by  Deere  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.     Here  the  frame  is  a  steel  drop-forging  form 


PLOWS. 


637 


ing  the  standard  and  frog,  to  which  are  bolted  mould-board,  share,  and  land-side;  and  the 


PIG.  6.— The  Canton  tricycle  plow. 


plow  bottom  consists  of  but  four  pieces  bolted  together  and  rigidly  braced,  yet  with  few  bolts. 
The  beam  is  adjustable  at  the  butt  in  a  slot,  to  control  the  amount  of  land  taken,  instead  of 


FIG.  7. 

relying  on  the  usual  inexact  method  of  setting  the  draft-clears  at  one  side.  The  advance- 
mole  subsoil  plow  (Fig.  8),  is  an  English  double-bottom  implement  securing  deep  tilth,  ol 
special  advantage  in 
root  culture,  now  a 
growing  interest  in  the 
United  States.  The  sub- 
soiler  runs  in  advance 
and  one  furrow-width  to 
the  right  of  the  breast- 
plow,  which  latter  turns 
its  furrow  directly  over 
upon  the  subsoiled  strip, 
and  the  latter  is  never 
trodden  by  the  furrow 
horse  after  it  has  be- 
come pulverized,  the 
horse  traversing  the 
earth  while  it  is  yet 
solid.  For  turning 
headlands,  or  when  FIG.  8.— Subsoil  plow, 

travelling  out  of  work,  ,       , 

the  subsoiler  swings  up  by  a  pivot  and  withdraws  in  a  guiding  slide  under  the  plow  beam, 


638 


PLOWS. 


by  the  use  of  a  hand  lever.  When  the  lever  is  released  a  heel -claw  takes  the  ground  and 
instantly  points  the  share  downward  into  work,  the  strain  of  which  is  then  taken  by  an 
oblique  draft-chain.  Peculiarities  of  soil  and  an  extended  scale  of  cultivation,  particularly  in 
the  western  United  States,  have  called  out  changes  and  improvements  in  plows  to  meet  these 
special  conditions;  and  it  is  owing  to  these  new  conditions  that  most  of  the  innovations  have 
appeared.  There  the  tough  prairie  soil  demands  special  plows,  and  even  after  the  turned 
sod  has  rotted,  freedom  from  stones,  and  the  sticky  soil,  make^  high  polishing  necessary  in 
plowshares  and  mould-boards,  and  permit,  moreover,  the  cutting  of  wider  and  deeper  fur- 
rows, which  is  also  encouraged  by  the  level  character  of  the  land.  Because  of  these  con- 
ditions steam-plowing  is  exciting  increased  interest. 

STEAM-PLOWS. — The  system  of  drawing  gangs  of  plows  with  a  suitable  traction  steam- 
engine  is  favored  in  the  United  States  and  known  as  "the  American  System,"  to  distin- 
guish it  from  ' « the  English  System  "  of  drawing  the  gangs  of  plows  back  and  forth  across 
the  field  with  long  cables  wound  on  drums  revolved  by  stationary  steam-engines.  This 


—The  Price  plowing  outfit. 


preference  in  the  United  States  may  be  ascribed  mainly  to  the  greater  length  of  furrow  and 
more  level  character  of  the  land  in  the  regions  of  large  farming  operations,  where  steam- 
plowing  is  in  course  of  introduction  on  the  prairies  of  the  great  Mississippi  basin,  the  great 
plateaus  of  the  Northwest,  and  the  wide,  flat  valleys  of  the  Pacific  coast  country. 

Fig.  9  shows  the  Jacob  Price  plowing  outfit,  his  plowing  engine  drawing  four  gangs  of 
three  plows  each  at  the  California  State  Fair  of  1890.  made  by  J.  I.  Case,  of  Racine,  Wis. : 
weight  of  engine,  8i  tons,  the  twelve  plows  cutting  11  ft.  wide.  The  four  gangs  are  independ- 
ently attached  to  a  strong,  light  platform  running  on  casters,  and  the  lifting  lever  of  each 
gang  is  so  arranged  that  the  fireman  can  handle  it  from  the  run-board  of  the  platform  with- 
out descending  to  the  ground,  while  going.  The  platform  is  hooked  to  the  engine  at  only 
one  point,  and  the  whole  rig  is  designed  for  lightness  and  strength,  distributing  the  strains. 
In  this  class  of  steam- plowing  the  running  speed  is  from  2i  to4i  miles  an  hour,  according  to 
the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  number  of  plows  drawn.  'The  bearing  surfaces  of  the  three 
engine  wheels  are  extraordinarily  broad  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  engine,  and  pre- 


PLOWS. 


639 


vent  sinking  into  the  face  of  the  ground  even  on  soft  land.  On  ordinary  soft  prairie  or  past- 
ure land  they  leave  but  a  faint  impression.  The  two  driving-wheels  are  8  ft.  high,  with  26 
in.  of  face.  Large,  wide  wheels  allow  the  use  of  numerous  grouters  or  lugs  of  moderate  pro- 
jection, an  advantage  when  the  ground  is  hard  and  impenetrable,  instead  of  the  few  but  very 
prominent  grouters  requisite  on  the  smaller  traction  wheels  of  farm  engines  of  ordinary  type. 


res- 
ng a 


To  lighten  the  engine,  a  high-pressure  boiler  "with  thick  walls  is  used  under  heavy  steam  pr 
sure,  increasing  power  relatively  to  weight  of  engine  and  boiler  as  a  whole,  and  yieldin 
large  power  available  for  draft  in  excess  of  the  power  consumed  by  the  engine  in  propelling 
itself.    Fig.  10  is  a  side  view  of  the  latest  model  of  the  Jacob  Price  'field  locomotive,  specially 
designed  for  plowing,  thougli  available  for  other  mobile  or  stationary  work.     It  is  estimated 


640 


POTATO-DIGGER. 


at  70  horse-power.  It  performs  the  duty  of  forty  actual  horses  in  pulling,  besides  its  self- 
propulsion.  Driving-wheels  8  ft.  x  28  in.;  steering-wheel  5ft.  x!4in. ;  capacity  of  water- 
tank  500  gallons;  of  fuel-boxes  1,500  Ibs.  of  coal.  The  boiler  is  a  combination  of  the  upright 
and  horizontal  types,  with  a  working  pressure  of  150  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  driving  twin  engines 
having  piston  valves.  It  consumes  about  250  Ibs.  of  coal  per  hour.  Wood  may  be  used  for 
fuel  if  desired.  It  has  two  speeds,  the  plowing  speed  of  about  3  miles,  and  travelling  speed 
of  5  miles  per  hour.  Fig.  11  illustrates  Deere's  arrangement  of  steam-operated  plows  with  an 
ordinary  farm  traction  engine,  drawing  a  gang  of  five  plows;  duty,  1^  acres  of  land  per  hour 
with  engine  geared  to  make  a  speed  of  2i  miles  per  hour,  cutting  14-in.  furrows;  or  1^  acres 
of  land  per  hour  if  cutting  12-in.  furrows.  If  the  steering  wheel  of  the  engine  is  upon  the 


FIG.  11.— Traction  engine  and  plows. 

right-hand  side,  right-hand  plows  are  requisite  (and  vice  versa),  to  give  the  operator  an  unob- 
structed view  of  the  work  and  enable  him  to  preserve  a  uniform  land.  When  once  set,  the 
plows  require  no  attention  for  depth  and  land,  but  are  thrown  out  and  in  by  one  lever  at  the 
ends  of  furrows.  The  outfit  requires  two  attendants,  besides  a  boy  and  team  to  supply  fuel 
and  water.  The  land  should  be  fairly  free  from  obstructions  and  in  condition  for  plowing. 
Of  this  subject  it  may  be  stated  that  steam-plowing  has  passed  the  experimental  stage  in  the 
United  States,  but  is  still  in  its  early  period  of  application.  Economy  and  practicability  are 
demonstrated.  The  introduction,  though  a  fact,  is  not  yet  very  general;  but  it  is  a  mere 
question  of  time  when  the  plowing  of  large  areas  will  be  done  generally  by  power  other  than 
animal. 


Plug-and-Feather  Process  :  see  Quarrying  Machinery. 

Pneumatic  Dredge  :  see  Dredges  and  Excavators.     Gun  :  see  Gun,  Pneumatic. 


Ham- 


mer :  see  Hammers,  Power.     Stacker  :  see  Threshing  Machines. 

Polishing  :  see  Sash  Machines,  Sand-papering  Machines,  and  Wheel-making  Machines. 

POTATO-DIGGER.  In  their  present  best  forms  these  machines  are  of  very  recent 
development,  superseding  the  plow  type.  The  design  is  to  raise  the  roots  all  to  the  surface, 
clean  them  from  adhering  dirt,  and  leave  them  in  a  row  convenient  for  basketing,  yet  with- 
out marring  their  skins  or  bruising  them. 

The  Pruyn  Potato-digger,  Fig.  1,  does  not  turn  over  the  earth,  or  roll  the  tubers,  but 
raises  them  bodily  with  their  earth-bed  with  a  toothed  scoop, though  lifting  as  little  matter  as 
is  consistent  with  obtaining  all  the  crop.  The  lifted  mass  is  delivered  upon  an  elevator 
consisting  of  a  series  of  transverse  rods,  carried  by  endless  side-chains  up  the  surface  of 


POTATO-DIGGER. 


641 


a  grate  inclined  upward  and  backward,  and  having  open  slots  which  extend  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  elevator  movement.  At  the  rear,  or  delivery  end  of  the  elevator,  is  an 
agitator,  or  separator,  to  sift  out  and  drop  to  the  ground  any  remnants  of  dirt  which 
may  have  failed  to  screen  through  the  elevator  grate  bars.  The  elevator  speed  corresponds 
to  the  speed  of  travel  of  the  machine,  so  that  the  crop  is  lifted  high  enough  to  clean  it,  but 
otherwise  virtually  stands 
still  while  the  digging  appa- 
ratus glides  beneath  it,  leav- 
ing it  lying  on  the  ground 
under  which  it  has  grown. 
The  agitator  is  a  row  of  re- 
volving serrated  disks.  The 
rear  ends  of  the  elevated 
grate-bars  swing  freely,  and 
thus  avoid  wedging  and  catch- 
ing obstructions,  and  the 
agitator  disks  yield  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  dip  of 
the  scoop  is  adjustable  to  suit 
various  soils.  A  hand  lever 
adjusts  the  agitator  to  suit 
conditions  of  work.  To  avoid 
heavy  shocks,  the  degree  of 
lift  in  the  pull  by  the  team  is 
automatically  controlled  by 
a  spring  compressed  under 
a  regulating  nut  ;  thus  it  is 
claimed  an  access  of  draft  lifts  the  scoop-point  momentarily  if  any  earth-fast  obstruction  is 
encountered,  but  allows  it  to  sink  again  to  the  depth  adjusted  for  when  the  obstruction 

is  passed  over,  making  the  ma- 
chine available  even  on  somewhat 
stony  and  stumpy  ground.  Only 
chain  gearing  is  used,  placed  out- 
side the  driving-wheels.  No  wood 
is  employed  in  construction — the 
entire  machine  is  of  metal.  The 
draft  is  communicated  through 
two  large  curved  side  springs,  to 
relieve  machine  and  team  from 
sudden  jar.  The  machine  is  used 
not  only  for  digging  potatoes,  but 
other  root  crops  and  for  peanuts. 

Howard's  English  Root-digger, 
Fig.  2,  has  driving-wheels  with 
prominent  transverse  tractor  spuds 
on  the  face,  and  also  a  flange  to 
run  the  wheels  smoothly  on  hard 
roadways.  Just  over  the  stem  of 
the  shovel  a  series  of  forks  passes 
in  rotation,  adjustable  by  lever,  to 


Fie.  1.— The  Prayn  potato-digger. 


FIG.  2. — Howard's  root-digger. 


deliver  right  or  left.     A  hand  lever  in  front  regulates  upward  pressure  on  the  shovel,  or  may 


FIG.  3.— Deere's  root-digger. 

be  operated  to  throw  all  weight  on  the  driving-wheels  for  transport,  or  in  making  turns  at 
row  ends.     The  operator  steers  the  course  of  the  machine  by  a  tail -handle. 
41 


642 


POWER,    TRANSMISSION   OF,   ELECTRIC. 


Deere's  Root-digger,  Fig.  3,  depends  on  sifting  soil  from  the  unearthed  roots  between  rear- 
ward, upward  extending  rods,  agitated  by  a  knocker-wheel  which  is  rotated  by  contact  with 
the  ground. 

The  Hoover  Potato-digger,  Fig.  4,  is  chain  geared.     It  elevates  tubers  and  vines  together, 


FIG.  4. — The  Hoover  potato-digger. 

discharging  the  vines  on  the  left,  at  the  rear  of  the  elevator,  and  the  potatoes  straight  off 
behind  to  the  ground.     At  the  rear  of  the  elevator  is  a  back  rack,  having  a  fore-and-aft 

motion,  to  slide  the  tubers  backward  from  the 
vines  without  bruising  them,  and  it  may  be 
lowered  so  as  to  deliver  them  with  but  a  slight 
fall.  The  depth  of  digging  is  regulated  with 
a  hand  lever  by  the  operator,  without  halting. 
Four  horses  are  used.  A  duty  of  six  acres  or 
more  per  day  is  estimated.  Cog  Bearing  is  to  be 
avoided  in  machines  of  this  class,  since  the 
cloud  of  dust  produced  is  peculiarly  wearing 
on  such  mechanism. 

The  Triumph  Potato- digger,  Fig.  5,  has 
no  gearing,  either  cog  or  chain,  but  depends 
on  the  upward  motion  of  the  two  wheels  at 
their  rear  part.  They  are  armed  with  a  rack 
of  rods  to  receive  the  potatoes  and  trash 
from  right  and  left  mold-boards  of  the  dig- 
ging plough,  and  separate  them  by  agi- 
tation of  the  rods.  These  rods  are 
fixed  oblique  to  an  inner  rim  on  each  of  the 
two  wheels,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  slide 
the  potatoes  into  a  row  behind  the  ma- 
chine. It  is  claimed  to  be  suitable  for  two 
horses. 

POWER,  TRANSMISSION  OF,  ELECTRIC.— (For  Hydraulic  Transmission  of  Power,  see 
POWER,  TRANSMISSION  OF,  HYDRAULIC.  For  Mechanical  Transmission  of  Power,  see  BELTS. 
For  Transmission  by  Compressed  Air.  see  AIR  COMPRESSORS.  See,  also,  NIAGARA,  UTILIZATION 
OF.)  Dr.  Pacinotti,  in  June,  1864,  mentioned  the  fact  that  his  "  electro-magnetic  machine" 
could  be  used  either  to  generate  electricity  on  the  application  of  motive  power  to  the  arma- 
ture, or  to  produce  motive  power  on  connecting  it  with  a  suitable  source  of  current.  This, 
so  far  as  can  be  determined,  was  the  first  mention  of  the  now  so  well-known  principle  of  the 
reversibility  of  the  dynamo-electric  machine,  the  practical  utilization  of  which  implies  the 
electrical  transmission  of  mechanical  energy. 

The  principle  of  the  reversibility  of  dynamo-electric  machines  appears  to  have  been  per- 
ceived by  Messrs.  Siemens  about  1867,  but  it  was  not  heard  of  in  practical  application  until 
the  year  1873,  when  it  was  practically  demonstrated  by  MM.  Hippolyte  Fontaine  and  Brpguet 
at  the  Vienna  Universal  Exposition.  In  this  case  a  Gramme  machine  used  as  a  motor  to 
work  a  pump  was  run  by  the  current  produced  by  a  similar  machine  connected  by  more  than 
a  mile  of  cable,  and  put  in  motion  by  a  gas  engine.  This  was  the  first  instance  of  electrical 
transmission  of  mechanical  energy  to  a  distance. 

Theoretical  Considerations. — The  work  done  by  any  electric  motor  is  equal  to  the  product 
of  the  current  flowing  through  the  circuit  and  the  counter  electromotive  force  the  motor  has 


FIQ.  5.— The  Triumph  potato  -dijrger. 


POWER,   TRANSMISSION    OF,   ELECTRIC.  643 

set  up.  The  efficiency  of  transmission  is  as  the  ratio  of  the  electromotive  force  of  the 
generator,  E,  to  that  of  the  motor  (counter  E.M.F.),  e,  that  is,  efficiency  =%,.  As  this 

expression  does  not  contain  the  factor  of  resistance  of  the  line  or  machines,  Marcel  Deprez 
deduced  therefrom  that  the  electrical  transmission  of  power  is  independent  of  the  distance  of 
transmission.  Theoretically  this  assumption  is  correct,  but  in  practice  various  factors 
involved  make  its  direct  application  impossible.  According  to  M.  Deprez,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  same  useful  work,  whatever  be  the  length  of  the  line,  it  suffices  simply  to  vary 
the  electromotive  forces  of  the  machine  proportionally  to  the  square  root  of  the  resistance  of 
the  circuit.  In  other  words,  if  R  represents  the  resistance  of  the  circuit,  and  E  and  e. 
respectively,  the  electromotive  forces  of  the  machines,  and  in  such  a  circuit  we  obtain  useful 
work  at  the  motor  w,  then,  in  order  to  obtain  the  same  amount  of  work  with  other  values, 
R\  E],  e1,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  new  values  E1  and  e1  such  that  they  will  satisfy  the 
following  equations: 

E1       J~W 

E=V-R9 

W 
-& 

General  Data. — The  three  elements  of  electrical  transmission  of  power  are:  (1st)  The 
generators  which  are  placed  at  the  power  station  and  which  are  driven  by  the  water-wheel  or 
steam-engine  or  other  prime  mover ;  (2d)  the  copper  conductors  which  are  placed  on  poles 
like  telegraph  wires,  and  which  conduct  the  electric  current  from  the  generators  to  (3d)  the 
motors,  which  deliver  the  electrical  energy  to  all  kinds  of  machinery.  The  motors  are  either 
belted  or  geared  to  these  machines.  Ordinarily  electric  manufacturers  allow  for  motors  up 
to  20  horse-power,  1,000  watts  per  mechanical  horse-power,  indicating  75  per  cent,  efficiency 
of  the  motor  ;  from  20  to  50  horse-power,  900  watts  per  mechanical  horse-power,  indicating 
83  per  cent,  efficiency  of  the  motor;  over  50  horse-power,  830  watts  per  mechanical  horse- 
power, indicating  90  per  cent,  efficiency  of  the  motor.  A  similar  rule  will  hold  good  for 
generators.  Up  to  20  horse-power  the  output  in  electrical  horse- power  will  be  about  75  per 
cent,  of  the  mechanical  horse-power  applied  to  the  pulley.  From  21  to  50  horse-power  the 
output  in  electrical  horse-power  will  be  about  83  per  cent,  of  the  mechanical  horse-power 
applied  to  the  pulley.  Over  50  horse-power  the  output  in  electrical  horse-power  will  be 
about  90  per  cent,  of  the  mechanical  horse-power  applied  to  the  pulley.  746  watts  (one  watt 
=  ampere  x  volt)  equal  1  electrical  horse-power. 

By  placing  the  generator  and  motor  near  each  other,  assuming  no  loss  in  the  connecting 
wires,  we  get — 

One  hundred  per  cent,  mechanical  energy  delivered  at  generator  pulley. . .     100 
Loss  by  conversion  in  dynamo,  10  per  cent 10 

90 
Loss  by  reconversion  in  motor,  10  per  cent,  of  90 9 

81 

This  shows  that  out  of  100  mechanical  horse-power  applied  to  the  generator  pulley,  81 
mechanical  horse-power  should  be  recovered  at  the  motor  shaft  if  loss  in  the  conductors  could 
be  avoided.  This  efficiency  of  a  couple  of  electric  machines  connected  as  generator  and  motor, 
with  practically  no  loss  in  the  connecting  conductors,  is  often  called  the  "couple  efficiency." 

In  practice  the  generator  and  motor  are  so  far  apart  that  there  is  loss  of  electrical  energy 
in  overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  conductors.  This  loss  depends  upon  three  factors,  viz. : 
distance  between  generators  and  motors,  electric  pressure  at  generators,  and  size  of  copper 
conductors.  For  a  given  case  the  first  factor,  distance,  is  constant;  pressure  and  size  of  con- 
ductors are  variable  and  may  be  determined  at  will ;  therefore,  the  loss  in  the  conductors  may 
be  any  percentage  desired.  It  should  be  stated  that  only  "  complete  metallic  circuits"  are 
here  considered,  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  assumed  that  the  generator  is  connected  to  the  motor 
by  means  of  two  conductors.  "Earth  returns,"  which  are  mainly  used  in  electric  railway 
work,  are  not  considered. 

If  a  "couple  efficiency"  of  81  per  cent,  and  a  loss  of  say  10  per  cent,  in  the  conductors  is 
assumed,  there  will  be: 

Couple  efficiency 81.0 

Loss  in  the  wire,  10  per  cent,  of  81   8.1 

72.9 

Or  the  commercial  efficiency  of  the  transmission  system  from  generator  pulley  to  motor 
shaft  would  be  72.9,  or  almost  73  per  cent. 

Table  I.  (Badt's  Transmission  Handbook}  shows  the  relations  of  the  different  factors  of 
electrical  transmission  to  each  other,  assuming  an  efficiency  of  generators  and  motors  of  90 
per  cent,  (or  a  couple  efficiency  of  81  per  cent.),  and  losses  in  the  conductors  varying  from  0 
per  cent,  to  50  per  cent. 


644 


POWER,   TRANSMISSION   OF,    ELECTRIC. 


Efficiency  in  Electric  Power  Transmission. 
TABLE  I. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

• 

Mech.  H.  P. 
required  at  motor 
shaft. 

N. 

El.  H.  P.   to  bo  trans- 
mitted to  motoi. 

Per  cent,  loss  in 
conductor. 

El.  H.  P.  required  in 
generator. 

Mech.  H.  P.  to  be  de- 
livered at  generator 
pulley. 

Efficiency  of 
whole  eystem  in 
per  cent. 

i-oo 

1-1111 

O'O           H 

I'llll 

J-2346 

8fOO 

•oo 

1-1111 

i-o 

1-1228 

1-2470 

80-19 

•oo 

I'llll 

2-0 

1-1337 

1-2597 

79-38 

•oo 

I'llll 

3-0 

1-1454 

1-2727 

78-57 

•oo 

1-1111 

4'0 

1-1574 

1-2860 

77'76 

•oo 

1-1111 

5-0 

1-1696 

1-2995 

76-95 

•oo 

I'llll 

6'0 

1-1721 

1-3134 

76-14 

•oo 

1-1111 

7-0 

1-1947 

1-3275 

75-33 

•oo 

1-1111 

8-0 

1-2077 

1-3419 

74-52 

•oo 

1-1111 

9-0 

1-2210 

1-3567 

73-71 

•oo 

1-1111 

10-0 

1-2345 

1-3717 

72-90 

•oo 

I'llll 

12'5 

1-2698 

1-4109 

70*88 

•oo 

1-1111 

15'0 

1-3072 

1-4524 

68-85 

•oo 

1-1111 

17-5 

1-3468 

1-4964 

66-83 

•oo 

I'llll 

20'0 

1-3888 

1-5447 

64-80 

•oo 

1-1111 

22-5 

1-4336 

1-5929 

62-78 

•oo 

1-1111 

25'0 

1-4815 

1-6461 

60-75 

•oo 

1-1111 

27-5 

1-53-^5 

1-7028 

58-73 

•oo 

I'llll 

30'0 

1-5873 

1-7636 

56-70 

•oo 

I'llll 

32-5 

1-6464 

1-8293 

54-68 

•oo 

1-1111 

35-0 

1-7094 

1-8993 

52-65 

•oo 

1-1111 

37'5 

1-7778 

1-9753 

50-63 

•oo 

1-1111 

38-3 

1-8000 

2-0000 

fO'OO 

•oo 

I'llll 

40-0 

1-8518 

2-0576 

48-60 

•oo 

1-1111 

42-5 

1-9323 

2-1470 

46-58 

•oo 

I'llll 

45'0 

2-0*01 

2  2446 

44-55 

•oo 

1-1111 

47-5 

2-1164 

2-3515 

42-53 

•oo 

1-1111 

50'0 

2-2222 

2-4622 

40-50 

Rules  for  the  Inter-relation  of  Electromotive  Force,  Current,  Distance,  Cross-section  and 
Weight  of  Copper  Conductor. — Frank  J.  Sprague,  in  a  lecture  on  the  "Transmission  of 
Power  by  Electricity,"  delivered  before  the  Franklin  Institute,  November  12,  1888,  lays 
down  the  following  important  rules  on  the  above  relations  : 

With  any  amount  of  energy  transmitted,  the  electromotive  force  and  the  current  irill  vary 
inversely. 

With  any  given  work  done,  loss  on  the,  line,  electromotive  force  at  the  terminals  of  the 
motor  and  distribution,  the  weight  of  the  copper  will  vary  as  the  square  of  the  distance,  its 
cross-section,  of  course,  varying  directly  as  the  distance. 

With  the  same  conditions,  the  weight  will  vary  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  electromotive 
force  used  ut  the  motor. 

With  the  same  cross-section  of  conductor,  the  distance  over  which  a  given  amount  of  power 
can  be  transmitted  will  vary  as  the  square  of  the  electromotive  force. 

If  the  weight  of  the  copper  is  fixed,  with  any  given  amount  of  power  transmitted  and  given 
loss  in  distribution,  the  distance  over  which  the  power  can  be  transmitted  will  vary  directly  as 
the  electromotive  force. 

With  any  given  work  done,  given  loss  on  the  line  and  electromotive  force  of  motor,  the 
number  of  circular  mils  of  the  conductors  will  vary  directly  as  the  distance.  Hence,  with 
given  conditions,  if  we  double  the  distance  we  must  also  double  the  ci-oss-section,  or  if  we 
treble  the  distance  we  must  treble  the  cross- section.  The  weight  of  a  foot  of  the  conductor 
of  course  increases  also  in  direct  proportion  to  its  cross-section.  If  we  therefore  double  botli 
cross-section  and  distance,  the  total  weight  of  the  conductor  will  be  increased  four-fold,  or 
if  we  treble  both  cross  section  and  distance,  the  total  weight  of  the  conductor  will  be 
increased  nine- fold.  This  shows  that,  with  the  conditions  given,  the  weight  of  the  copper 
will  vary  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 

The  weight  and  cost  of  the  conductor  increase  in  direct  proportion  to  the  current.  In 
order  to  get  the  cost  of  the  conductor  very  low,  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  reduce  the  current 
strength  to  a  permissible  minimum.  As  a  definite  amount  of  electrical  energy  depends,  how- 
ever, on  the  product  of  current  and  electromotive  force,  the  electromotive  force  must  be 
increased  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  current  is  reduced,  which  shows  that  for  least  cost  of  con- 
ductor the  electromotive  force  of  the  motor  must  be  made  as  high  as  permissible. 

Conditions  of  Plant  for  Least  Operating  Expenses. — A  certain  percentage  of  electrical 
energy  must  be  lost  in  the  conductors ;  this  loss,  of  course,  involves  continuous  operating 
expense,  as  the  prime  mover  (steam,  water,  etc.)  and  the  electric  generator  must  produce  an 
additional  amount  of  energy  which  is  lost  in  the  conductors.  It  is  a  loss  in  a  commercial 
sense  only,  as  this  so-called  "  lost  "  energy  reappears  as  heat  in  the  conductor. 

This  loss  can  be  decreased  and  power  economized  by  using  conductors  of  greater  cross- 
section,  which,  of  course,  would  involve  a  greater  outlay  for  copper.  On  the  other  hand,  to 
reduce  the  first  cost,  we  should  employ  conductors  of  the  least  possible  cross-section .  Hence,  for 


POWER,    TRANSMISSION   OF,   ELECTRIC. 


645 


anygioen  case,  the  cheapest  in  the  long  run  will  be  a  certain  size  of  conductor  for  which  the  in- 
terest on  its  first  cost  plus  annual  cost  of  energy  wasted  in  the  conductor,  becomes  a  minimum. 

Sir  William  Thomson's  law  states  that,  The  most  economical  area  of  conductor  will  be 
that  for  which  the  annual  interest  on  capital  outlay  equals  the  annual  cost  of  energy  wasted. 

We  may  write  this  in  the  form  of  an  equation :  Annual  cost  of  energy  wasted  =  Interest 
on  capital  outlay  for  conductor. 

Tiie  cost  of  one  electrical  horse-power  hour  at  the  terminals  of  the  generator,  including 
interest  and  depreciation  on  the  building,  motive  power,  and  electric  generator,  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  horse-power  hours  per  year  wasted  in  the  conductor,  must  be  considered 
"cost  of  energy."  The  interest  on  capital  outlay  for  conductor  plus  allowance  for  repairs 
and  depreciation,  taken  for  the  year,  gives  the  other  side  of  the  equation.  Both  sides  of  the 
equation  added  together,  give  the  annual  cost  of  transmitting  the  electrical  energy. 

Gisbert  Kapp  (Electric  Transmission  of  Power)  remarks  very  pertinently  in  this  connec- 
tion: "  It  should  be  remembered  that  this  law,  in  the  form  here  given,  only  applies  to  cases 
where  the  capital  outlay  is  strictly  proportional  to  the  weight  of  metal  contained  in  the  con- 
ductor, la  practice  this  is,  however,  seldom  correct.  If  we  have  an  underground  cable,  the 
cost  of  digging  the  trench  and  filling  in  again  will  be  the  same,  whether  the  cross-sectional 
area  of  the  cable  be  one-tenth  of  a  square  inch  or  one  square  inch ;  and  other  items,  such  as 
insulating  material,  are,  if  not  quite  independent  of  the  area,  at  least  dependent  in  a  lesser 
degree  than  assumed  in  the  formula.  In  an  overhead  line  we  may  vary  the  thickness  of  the 
wire  within  fairly  wide  limits  without  having  to  alter  the  number  of  supports,  and  thus  there 
is  here  also  a  certain  portion  of  the  capital  outlay  which  does  not  depend  on  the  area  of  the 
conductor.  Hence  we  should  state  more  correctly  that  the  most  economical  area  of  conductor 
is  that  for  which  the  annual  cost  of  energy  wasted  is  equal  to  tlie  annual  interest  on  that  por- 
tion of  the  capital  outlay  which  can  be  considered  to  be  proportional  to  the  weight  of  metal  used. 

"Prof.  George  Forbes,  in  his  Cantor  lectures  on  'The  Distribution  of  Electricity,' 
delivered  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  1885,  called  that  portion  of  the  capital  outlay  which."  is 
proportional  to  the  weight  of  metal  used,  '  The  Cost  of  Laying  One  Additional  Ton  of 
Copper, ,'  and  he  showed  that  for  a  given  rate  of  interest  inclusive  of  depreciation,  and  a 
given  cost  of  copper,  the  most  economical  section  of  the  conductor  is  independent  of  the  electro- 
motive force  and  of  the  distance,  and  is  proportional  to  the  current.  Having  in  a  given 
system  of  electric  transmission  settled  what  current  is  to  be  used,  we  can,  by  the  aid  of  Sir 
William  Thomson's  law,  proceed  to  determine  the  most  economical  size  cf  conductor.  To 
do  this  we  must  know  the  annual  cost  of  an  electrical  horse-power  inclusive  of  interest  and 
depreciation  on  the  building,  prime  mover,  and  dynamo ;  we  must  know  what  is  the  cost  of 
laying  one  additional  ton  of  copper,  and  we  must  settle  in  our  mind  what  interest  and  depre- 
ciation shall  be  charged  to  the  line.  These  points  will  serve  to  determine  the  constants  of 
our  formulae,  and  then  the  calculation  can  easily  be  made/' 

In  order  to  facilitate  these  computations.  Professor  Forbes  published  some  tables.  Tables 
II.  and  III.,  calculated  by  Prof.  H.  S.  Carhart  on  the  basis  of  dollars  instead  of  pounds 
sterling,  are  here  given.  These  tables  have  been  calculated  in  such  a  way  that  when  the 
investigator  has  decided  upon  the  proper  allowance  to  be  made  for  cost  of  laying  one  addi- 
tional ton  of  copper  under  the  conditions  of  his  particular  plant,  the  percentage  of  allowance 
for  interest,  etc.,  he  can  then  determine  at  once  the  proper  size  of  conductors  to  employ. 
Thus,  in  Table  II.  he  follows  the  columns  headed  with  the  assigned  cost  of  conductors  until 
he  reaches  the  line  corresponding  to  percentage  allowed  for  interest,  etc.,  and  there  finds  a 
number.  With  this  number  he  turns  to  Table  III.,  and  starting  at  the  left,  on  the  line 
marked  with  the  number  expressing  the  cost  of  one  electrical  horse-power  per  annum,  he 
follows  along  to  the  right  till  he  comes  to  the  number  nearest  the  one  taken  from  Table  II. 
The  number  standing  at  the  head  of  the  column  in  which  he  finds  this  exact  or  nearest 
approximate  number  is  the  sectional  area  of  the  conductor,  in  square  inches  or  circular  mils 
required  to  carry  100  amperes  with  maximum  economy  under  the  conditions  assumed. 

TABLE  II. 
Cost  of  Laying  One  Additional  Ton  of  Copper.     (Carhart.) 


\s 

g 

g 

5 

£ 

o 

£ 

3 

S 

g 

g 

S 

g 

8 

8 

g 

<* 

3 

* 

% 

$ 

£ 

a 

I 

1 

a 

1 

a 

£ 

U 

<*? 

1 

R. 

°i 

^' 

^J. 

=*: 

£ 

#» 

ft 

t& 

&* 

& 

& 

030 

«  "33 

086 

ass 

"4C 

MB 

045 

048 

050 

055 

OGO 

065 

070 

075 

080 

090 

100 

110 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

03(5  03,1  i'4:2 

045  048'  051  054  057 

060  066 

072;  078 

084 

090 

096 

108 

120 

132  144 

168  192  216 

240 

042 

046 

•  >4'.f 

053056060  063J  067 

070:  077 

084  091 

006 

105 

112 

126 

140 

154|  16* 

196  224  252 

280 

048 

oca 

056 

060  064:068:  072i  076 

080  088 

096  104 

112 

120 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

224  256  288 

320 

u.-i  i 

059 

068 

068072077  081  086 

090  099 

108  117  126 

135 

144 

162 

180 

198  216 

2521  288  324 

360 

060 

065 

Old 

075080085'  090  095 

100:  110 

120  130!  140 

150!  160*  180  200  220  240  280'  320;  3601  400 

07-> 

078084090096102  108  114 

120  132 

144  156  16S 

ISO  192  216  240  264  288  336  384  432  480 

034  091 

098  105  112  119  126.  133 

140  154 

168  182  1% 

210;  224  252  280!  305  336  392|  448 

504 

560 

096!  104 

112 

IS 

12- 

136  144  152 

160 

176 

1921  208!  224 

240!  256|  288  320  352 

384 

448  512 

576 

640 

1C8  117 

126  135  144  153  162  171 

180 

19S 

216  234  252 

270^  288i  324  360;  396  432  504  576)  648 

720 

120  130 

140  150  160  170  180  190 

200 

220 

240  280  280 

300  320!  360 

400  440  480;  560'  640  720 

800 

150 

161 

175188200213  225  238 

250 

275 

300  325  350 

375|  400  450 

500 

550  600  700-  800!  900 

1000 

646 


POWER,   TRANSMISSION   OF,   ELECTRIC. 


TABLE  TIL 

Sectional  Area  for  100  Amperes  in  Square  Inches  and  Circular  Mils.     (Carhart.) 


Circular  Mils. 


Sq.  ins. 


o  v-« 
0.0  of 

s^r 

p. 


B6 

loo 

105 
110 
115 
12U 
125 
130 


291 


407  33' 


•13 


14 


240  202  172  148  129  114  101 


15 


349289242207178155 


283  241 1208  181 


it; 


136121 
1591141 


4651385  323  275  238  207;  182  161 
524!433l364!310i267J233  204181 
582J481 


18 


090  031  073  066  060  055  051  04 


•24 


•25 


043  040  037  035  032 


1081097:087  079!072i066  061  056|052;048  045  042  039  036  . . . 
126  113  102  092  084;077;071  065  060  056  052  048  045  042  040 


144 

162145!13l!ll8 


129,116|l05i096;088j08l|074  069  064  059  055  052  048J045  043 


34 


-as 


364  310671 233  204!  11  162  15  5  51!  048  045  ... 

404  344 ' 297  259  227  201  180  16114tt|132  120  110  101  093|086!080  074  (K!9;065  061  057J053  050J048 
640!529  445J379  327!285  250  22l!l98  177  160  145  132  121  111  |103  0951088  082  076:071  067  063  059  055  052 
698j577  4851413  356  310  273  24l|216  193  175  158  144  132  121  1121103  096  089  083|076  073  068  0041 060; 057 
757  625  526|448!386  336  295  2611234  209  190  171  156  143  131  1211112  104  0971090  084  079  074  069065:062 

QiK'^Q'KAttl/iQO  /MftiQAO  31«  9ft1  IQKO|99^  OTVUIfi^  1fi8 I1M  141  131   19n  119  1O4  OQ7  HQ1  MR  flan  H7f;!n7n  fHW 


172  158146  136126118110  103  097091  0861081 
182  167155  144134125: 116  109  102;096  091:086 


989  817  687  585  505  440  386  342  305  274  248  224  204187 

1047  865  727  620j534  466!409  888  888  290  262  237  216  198 

914  768  654:564  49^432  3831:341  306)277  251  228  209  192!l77|164  152  141  13l!l23  115  108J102  096  090 
808  689  594  51 7 1 455)403^59  322  291  264  240  220  202  186  172  160:148  138:129  121  114107  101  095 
723;624  543  477  423  377  339  306  277i252  231  212:195  181  168  156  145,136  127  119 :il2,106!lOO 
653  569  5001443  395  355  320;290:264  242  222  204  189  176  163  152  142  133  125;  118  1111105 
595  52:^463  413  371  335  3041276  253  232  214  198  184  171  159  149  139  131123;!  16  109 
546  4H3  431  387  349  317|288^64  242  223  207il92178166  155  145  136  128|12l!ll4 
503;449  403  364  330  301  275  253  233  215  200  186173!l62  151  1421341261119 
4671419  378:343j313|286  263  242j224:208;193;180  168157  148 i  139 1 1311124 


The  following  table  and  formulae  by  Kapp  (Cantor  Lecture,  Journal  Soc.  of  Arts,  July  3, 
10,  and  17,  1891)  contains  all  the  functions  entering  into  any  system  of  electric  transmission : 


A 

a, 

E, 

e, 

HP 

HP, 

c, 


m, 
G 

M 


Most  Economical  Current  for  Electric  Power  Transmission, 

Distance  in  miles. 

Section  of  conductor  in  square  inches. 

Terminal  volts  at  generator. 

Terminal  volts  at  motor. 

g  Brake  horse-power  required  to  drive  generator. 
n,  Brake  horse-power  obtained  from  motor. 

Current  in  amperes. 

Efficiency  of  generator,  90  per  cent. ;  efficiency  of  motor,  90  per  cent. 

Cost  in  £  per  electrical  horse-power  output  of  generator. 

Cost  in  £  per  brake  horse-power  output  of  motor,  including  regulating  gear. 
:  -QgHPg,    Cost  in  £  of  generator. 
=  mHPm,  Cost  in  £  of  motor  and  regulating  gear. 
18*2  Da,    Weight  in  tons  of  copper  in  line. 

Cost  in  £  per  ton  of  copper,  including  labor  in  erection. 

Cost  in  £  of  supports  of  line  per  mile  run. 

Cost  in  £  of  one  annual  brake  horse-power  absorbed  by  generator. 

Percentage  for  interest  and  depreciation  on  the  whole  plant. 


Fc 


Capital  outlay  =  ffL  +  mHPm  +Ds 


l-6JT/>*c8 

EC  -  S30HPn 


.=  A 


Annual  cost  per  brake  horse-power  delivered  =  q 


HP* 


the  current  which  would  be  required  if  the  line  had  no  resistance,  and 

a  JuJJ 


Then  the  most  economical  current  at  the  given  voltage,  E,  is : 
c  =  y  |  1-H/  1        ft 


_ 


POWER,    TRANSMISSION   OF,    ELECTRIC. 


647 


For  very  long  distances  the  term  under  the  square  root  approaches  unity,  and  the  most 
economical  current  the  value  2^  from  which  it  follows  that  under  no  circumstances  wSfit 
be  economical  to  lose  more  than  half  the  total  power  in  the  line 

Sprague  has  developed  some  very  interesting  formulae,  from  which  he  deduces  the  follow- 

With  fixed  conditions  of  cost  and  efficiency  of  apparatus,  the  number  of  volts  fall  to  qet  the 
minimum  cost  of  the  plant  is  a  function  of  distance  alone,  and  is  independent  of  the  electro- 
motive force  used  at  the  motor. 

With  any  fixed  couple  and  commercial  efficiency,  the  cost  of  the  wire  bears  a  definite  and 
fixed  ratio  to  the  cost  of  the  generating  plant. 

The  cost  of  the  wire  varies  directly  with  the  cost  of  the  generating  plant 

If  we  do  not  limit  ourselves  in  the  electromotive  force  used,  the  cost  per  horse-power  dettv- 
Yade  ee?ia^tof{hend'  touT*  **'  ^  "*'  andfor  a 9™en  c°™™ercial  efficiency,  absolutely 

By  the  aid  of  these  laws  and  Sprague's  formulse,  and  assuming 

K=  Cost  in  cents  of  bare  copper  wire  per  Ib.  delivered  at  the  poles  =    25 

a  =  Commercial  efficiency  of  motor *    =  -90 

b  =  Commercial  efficiency  of  generator ............ ...."]  *  *  ~  .93 

G=  Cost  in  dollars  of  generator  set  up,  per  electric  horse-power'deiiVered  atVts'terl 

minals  _     ** 

P  =  Cost  in  dollars  of  power  (water)  set  up  per  mechanical  horse-powier'  delivered  at 

generator  pulleys __    %- 

—the  accompanying  diagram,  Fig.  1,  has   been  constructed,  which  shows  the  commercial 


3600 

3SOO 


'3200 

J/00 
vJOOO 


*/00 
**00 
*5CC 

Z300 

2100 
2000 

1900 

1600 

•700 


1300 
IM0 
1)00 
IOP» 

9.0 

«X) 

7°° 
4oo 


ICOOO     20000 


Distance  in  feet 
FIG. 1. 


distances  and  YoltaSes  for  a  minimum  total  initial  cost  'of  a  transmis- 

As  with  fixed  conditions  of  cost  and  efficiency  of  apparatus,  the  number  of  volts  to  get 
e  minimum  cost  of  plant  is  a  function  of  the  distance  alone,  and  is  independent  of  the 


648 


POWER,    TRANSMISSION  OF,   ELECTRIC. 


electromotive  force  used  at  the  motor,  Table  IV.  can  be  calculated.     The  values  for  K,  a, 
b,  Q,  and  P,  are  assumed  as  before. 

TABLE  IV. 


Distance  in  feet  plus  G  per  cent. 
;  ,           sag. 

Volts  lost  in  conductor  for 
minimum  cost  of  plant. 

Distance  in  feet  plus  5  per  cent, 
sag. 

Volts  lost  in  conductor,  for 
minimum  cost  of  plant. 

1,000 

17-5 

18,000 

315 

2,000 

35 

20,000 

350 

3,000 

5-2-5 

25,000 

437'5 

4,000 

70 

30,000 

525 

5,000 

87'5 

35,000 

612-5 

6,000 

105 

40,000 

700 

7,000 

122-5 

45,000 

787-5 

8,000 

140 

50,000 

875 

9,000 

157-5 

60,000 

1,050 

10,000 

175 

70,000 

1,225 

12.000 

210 

80,000 

1,400 

i4;oco 

245 

90,000 

1,575 

16,000 

280 

100,000 

1,750 

Badt  (Electric  Transmission  Hand-Book)  expresses  the  principles  governing  the  minimum 
cost  of  a  transmission  plant,  in  the  following  rule  : 

For  minimum  initial  cost  of  plant,  and  assuming  certain  prices  per  horse-power  of  motors, 
generators,  and  power  plant  (all  erected  and  ready  for  operation),  and  assuming  a  certain  price 
per  pound  of  copper  (delivered  at  the  poles),  the  total  cost  of  the  plant,  excluding  line  con- 
struction, is  a  constant  for  a  certain  efficiency  of  the  electric  system,  no  matter  what  the  elec- 
tromotive force  of  the  motor  and  the  distance  may  be. 

At  a  given  efficiency  of  the  electric  system,  the  electromotive  force  of  the  motor  and  distance 
will  increase  and  decrease  in  the  same  ratio. 

This  rule  is  embodied  in  Table  V.,  from  which  it  will  be  seen,  for  instance,  that  the  cost 
of  plant  per  horse-power  delivered  by  motor  at  1,000  volts  and  25.000  ft.  distance,  and  at  an 
efficiency  of  56*4  per  cent.,  is  $205.82.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  cost  is  the  same  at  4,000 
volts,  100,000  ft.  distance,  and  the  same  efficiency  of  5(5-4  per  cent.  While  the  cost  and 
efficiency  in  both  cases  are  the  same,  with  an  electromotive  force  four  times  greater  we  can 
reach  four  times  the  distance. 


TABLE  V. 

Electric  Power  Transmission  Data  for  Minimum  Initial  Cost  of  Plant. 
(Per  mechanical  horse-power  delivered  by  motor.) 


(Badt.) 


BASIS  or 

CALCULATIONS. 

MOTOR. 

(90  per  ct.  effi- 
ciency.) 

CONDUCTOR.                         GENERATOR  . 

(Bare  copper.)                     ci^ncy  ) 

COST  IN  DOLLARS 

of    electric     plant,    ex- 
cluding line  erection. 

j 

S 

1 

i 

| 

1 

1 

d 

!Pn 

1 

1 

I 

I 

J 

| 

s 

•3 

e 

8 

£ 

S 

H 

2 

1 

t 

h 

<£ 
1 

*«5 

|s 

3 

E 

i 

S 

! 

ei 

fm 

S 

1 

PH 

3 

| 

I 

j 

I 

1! 

S 
2 
ft 

W 

I1 

td 
_i 

•4) 

fi 

I1 

i 

i 

S* 

% 

H 

S 

! 

1 

I 

5 

i 

D 

£ 

' 

i 
"90 

746 

V 

Per 

ct 

C.M. 

Wt. 
Ibs, 

•90 

1 

E  +V 

50 

e 

J^O- 

-|i 

5,000 
10,000 
16,000 

500 
500 
500 

68-9 
60-0 
51-9 

I'll 
I'll 
I'll 

1-492 
1-492 
1-492 

87  -5  14  -9  2032 
175-0  25-9J2032 
280-035-92032 

63-5 
127*0 
203-2 

1-291-45 
1-501-67 
1-741-93 

587-5 
675 
780 

50  15'87 
51)31-75 
505080 

58-54'  124-41 
67-50149-25 

78-04178-84 

36-28160-69 
41-67190-92 
48'17227-Ql 

5,000 
10,000 
16,000 
25,000 
35,000 

1,000 
1,000 
1,OOQ 

1,000 

1,000 

74-4  I'll 

68-9;!i-n 

63-3!  I'll 
66'4  I'll 

50-2  j  I'll 

0-746 
0-746 

0-746 
0-746 

87-5    8-1  101631.75 
175'0;14-9  1016    68'5 
280-021-9;1016il01-6: 
487'5  30-4  1016'158'7i 
612-538-01016222-2 

1-21  1-341087-5 
1-31  1-45  1175 
1-421-581280 
1-59  1-77  1437-  5 
1-79  1-99  1612'S 

50!  7-94  54-43  112-37 

50  15  '88  58'  78  124-66 
5025-4063-98139-38 
5039-6871-81  161  '49 
5055-5480-68  185*92 

33*60  145-97 

36-28  160-94 
39-49  178-87 
44-33205-82 
49*80235-72 

35,000 
70,000 

4,000 
4000 


70'2 
691 

I'll 
1-11 

0-1865 
0-1865 

612-513-3 
,1125     !23'4 

254 

9M 

55'6i  1-281-424612-51  50  13-90  57-60  121-59  i35'61i157-20 
111-1   1-451-61  52-25       50  27  '78  65'  82  148*10    40'32183-42 

100,000  4,000i56'4  'I'll      O'lS'iS 

!1750     '30-4[  2-i4'158'7"l  -59  1-77  5750       50  39'68  71'81  161'49  ^  44'33  205  '82 

REMARKS. 

G  =  Cost  of  generator  delivered  and  erected,  including  electrical  instruments,  per  electric  horse-power,  de- 
livered at  generator  terminals  =  $45.00. 

P=Cost  of  power  plant  (water)  erected,  per  mechanical  horse-power,  delivered  at  generator  pulleys  = 
$25.00. 

M  =  Cost  in  cents  of  bare  copper  wire  per  lb.,  delivered  at  the  poles  =  25  cents. 

The  annexed  comparative  table  shows  the  commercial  efficiency  of  four  different  systems 
of  transmission.     See  Table  VI. 


POWER,    TRANSMISSION   OF,    ELECTRIC. 


649 


TABLE  VI. 
Commercial  Efficiency. 


Distance  of   transmission. 

Electric. 

Hydraulic. 

Pneumatic. 

Wire  Rope. 

100m. 

•69 

•50                                   '55 

•96 

500m. 

•68 

•50 

•55 

•93 

1,000m. 

•66 

•50 

•55 

•90 

5,000m. 

•60 

•40 

•50 

•60 

10,000  m. 

•51 

•35 

•50 

•36 

20,000m. 

•32 

•20 

•40 

•13 

It  will  be  seen  that  for  distances  less  than  5  kilometres  (about  three  miles)  transmission 
by  wire  rope  is  more  economical  than  that  by  any  other  system.  For  distances  greater  than 
5  kilometres  the  electric  transmission  is  most  economical.  As  regards  capital  outlay,  the 
wire-rope  system  is  also  for  short  distances  more  advantageous  than  electric  transmission, 
the  limit  being  at  about  3  kilometres  (a  little  under  two  miles).  Beyond  that  the  electrical 
system  is  the  cheapest,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  annexed  Table  VII. 

TABLE  VII. 
Capital  Outlay  in  Pounds  Sterling  reduced  to  one  Horse-power.    (Kapp.) 


Maximum 
horse-power 
transmitted 

System  of  transmission. 

Over  a  distance  of 

100  m.                500  m. 

1,000m. 

sooom. 

1     10,000  m. 

90,000  m. 

5 

{Electric               

75 
41 
73 
6.5 

52 
30 
60 
5.1 

40 
16 
31 
1.8 

32 
14 
26 
1.1 

78 
66 
96 
31 

54 
45 
72 
23 

41 
21 
36 
72 

33 
20 
30 
43 

81 
97 
210 
61 

56 
65 
88 
47 

42 
30 
42 

14 

35 
28 
34 

84 

108 
358 
600 
305 

77 
220 
213 
231 

55 
91 
88 
G9 

45 
88 
67 

« 

142 

610 
1,090 
760 

103 
416 
369 
460 

69 
170 
147 
136 

59 
164 
109 
81 

210 
1,280 
2,060 
1,220 

,54 

806 
630 
925 

100 
325 
265 
272 

87 
310 
192 
162 

Hydraulic  

10  
50  
100 

Pneumatic  
Wire  Rope      

[  Electric 

J  Hydraulic  
")  Pneumatic  

(Wire  Rope  

(  Electric  
J  Hydraulic  . 

1  Pneumatic  
(  Wire  Rope  

(  Electric     

J  HvdranMc  

")  Pneumatic  
(Wire  Rope  

The  table  shows  that  for  short  distances  the  cost  of  electric  transmission  is  very  consider- 
able as  compared  to  that  of  the  other  systems.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  price  of 
dynamos  and  motors  have  been  rather  overestimated  in  the  above  table.  For  long  distances 
this  is  not  so  noticeable,  as  the  conductor  forms  the  more  important  item,  and  especially 
since  an  electric  wire  is  cheaper  than  an  equivalent  hydraulic  or  pneumatic  tube.  If  we 
compare  the  conductors  only,  we  find  that  for  the  transmission  of  10  horse-power,  a  copper 
wire  of  127  mils  diameter  [No.  10|  B.  W.  G.]  is  equivalent  to  a  water-pipe  of  3J  in.  diameter, 
or  to  an  air-pipe  of  31  in.  diameter,  or  to  a  wire  rope  of  -,56  in.  diameter.  The  proportion 
between  the  cost  of  these  conductors  calculated  for  equal  distances  is  as  1 -4  :  34 '8  :  27'  8  : 1. 
The  conductor  with  hydraulic  transmission  costs,  therefore,  twenty-five  times  as  much,  and 
with  pneumatic  transmission  it  costs  nearly  twenty  times  as  much  as  with  electric  trans- 
mission. These  figures  prove  that  as  far  as  capital  outlay  is  concerned,  the  electric  system 
has  the  greatest  advantage  where  the  conductor  is  long,  that  is,  where  the  energy  has  to  be 
transmitted  over  a  long  distance.  It  would,  however,  not  be  correct  to  compare  the  four 
systems  on  this  basis  alone.  The  comparison  must  be  made  on  the  question  of  capital  outlay 
combined  with  efficiency ;  in  other  words,  the  figure  of  merit  for  each  system  is  the  price 
which  has  to  be  paid  for  1  horse -power-hour  at  the  receiving  station.  The*  smaller  this  price, 
the  better  the  system.  A  glance  at  the  annexed  table  (see  Table  VIII.)  will  show  that  the 
cost  of  1  horse-power-hour  increases  in  all  systems  with  the  distance,  but  with  electric  trans- 
mission the  increase  is  not  so  rapid  as  with  the  other  systems.  The  table  also  shows  that  up 
to  a  distance  of  1,000  meters  [five-eighths  of  a  mile],  wire-rope  transmission  is  better  than 
electric  transmission,  but  above  that  limit  the  electrical  system  is  better.  Hydraulic  and 
pneumatic  transmission  are  in  some  few  cases  better  than  electric  transmission,  but  then  the 
wire  rope  is  again  better  than  either,  so  that  there  does  not  seem  to  be  a  field  for  the  applica- 
tion of  the  hydraulic  or  pneumatic  system,  except  in  cases  where  the  other  two  systems  are 
for  some  local  reason  inadmissible,  or  where  the  water  and  air  may  be  of  further  use  after 
the  power  has  been  obtained  from  them.  This,  for  instance,  is  the  case  with  the  pneumatic 
transmission  employed  in  the  building  of  tunnels.  Here  it  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  force 
air  to  the  end  of  the  workings  for  ventilating  purposes,  and  pneumatic  transmission  is 


650 


POWER,   TRANSMISSION   OF,   ELECTRIC. 


adopted  in  preference  to  any  other  system  which  would  require  some  special  ventilating 
plant  being  erected. 

TABLE  VIII. 
Price  in  Pence  of  One  Horse-power  Hour  obtained  at  the  Receiving  Station.     (Kapp.} 


. 

s 

Steam-power  transmitted  over  a  distance 

Water-power  transmitted  over   a  distance 

U 

a~a 

II 

A 

of 

of 

fil 

a  s 

a 

a 

a 

a 

_• 

a 

a 

a 

a 

"o  s  a1 

is  1 

1 

a 

a 

§ 

I 

a 

a 

§ 

I 

§ 

ir 

0. 

0? 

8 

1 

" 

» 

s 

I 

s 

~ 

0- 

0 

cT 

00. 

{Electric  .... 

2-25 

2-33 

2-41 

2-87 

3-29 

5-20 

•35 

•36 

•37 

•  44 

•52 

•84  ) 

5.... 

Hydraulic... 
Pneumatic.  . 

2-50 
2'70 

2'84 
2'96 

3-15 
3-30 

6-52 
5-25 

10'50 
9-53 

19-00 
16-72 

•29 
•40 

•38 

•47 

•48 
•58 

1'38 
1-27 

2'50 
2'40 

4-79  / 
4-45  t 

..3-80 

Wire  Rope.. 

1-13 

1-45 

1-88 

5-45 

10-40 

22-70 

•11 

•19 

•30 

1-25 

2'50 

4'86  ) 

{Electric  

1-98 

2'07 

2-14 

2-53 

3-10 

4-85 

•27 

•28 

•29 

•36 

•47 

•71) 

1  A 

Hydraulic... 

2-38 

2-55 

2'79 

5-08 

7'70 

14-30 

•25 

•30 

•37 

'95 

1-54 

3-17  ( 

O-f>9 

1U.  .  . 

Pneumatic.. 

2-54 

2-69 

2-87 

4-48 

6-25 

10-40 

•35 

•38 

•44 

•88 

1-42 

3-97  f 

•  •*   "O 

Wire  Rope.. 

1-12 

1-38 

1'70 

4-50 

8-50 

19-10 

•09 

•17 

•25 

•96 

1-91 

4-00  ) 

(Electric  

1-87 

1-94 

1-99 

2-28 

2-74 

4-25 

•23 

•24 

•26 

•29 

•31 

•55) 

50... 

J  Hydraulic... 
1  Pneumatic.. 

1-63 
2-02 

1-70 
2-11 

1-80 
2-18 

2'90 

2-87 

4-21 
3'54 

7-80 
5-30 

•15 
•22 

•18 
•24 

•22 

•28 

•46 
•44 

•76 
•65 

1-43 

i-os  r 

..1-02 

(Wire  Rope.. 

1-08 

1-18 

1-30 

2-54 

4'51 

11-10 

•09 

•11 

•13 

•38 

•w 

1-61  ) 

{Electric  

1-79 

1-85 

1-91 

2-18 

2-63 

4-08 

•20 

•22 

•23 

•26 

•32 

•50) 

1  Aft 

Hydraulic.  .  . 

1-6-2 

1-70 

1-78 

2-87 

4-15 

6-84 

•16 

•17 

•19 

•43 

•72 

1-14 

1UU.  .  . 

Pneumatic  .  . 

2-00 

2-01 

2-09 

2-63 

3'10 

4-50 

•22 

•23 

•24 

•36 

•48 

•33  ( 

.  .1  0« 

Wire  Rope.. 

1-07 

1-14 

1-22 

2-21 

3-83 

9'73 

•08 

•10 

•11 

•28 

•48 

1-19  ) 

Long-distance  Transmissions. — The  first  real  long-distance  electric  power  transmission 
was  carried  out  by  Marcel  Deprez  at  the  Munich  Exposition  of  1882,  with  two  Gramme 
machines  as  motor  and  generator.  These  were  placed  respectively  at  Munich  and  at  Miesbach, 
a  distance  apart  of  57  kilometres  (37  miles).  They  were  connected  by  an  ordinary  iron  tele- 
graph wire,  4£  mm.  in  diameter,  and  constituted  a  complete  metallic  circuit  of  114  kilo- 
metres (74  miles)  in  length.  The  resistance  of  the  line  measured  950*2  ohms;  that  of  the 
generating  machine  at  Miesbach,  453-4  ohms;  and  that  of  the  motor  at  Munich,  453'4. 

Speed  of  generator  at  Miesbach 1,611  revolutions. 

Intensity  of  current  at  Miesbach 0'519  ampere. 

Speed  of  motor  at  Munich 752  revolutions. 

Difference  of  potential  at  terminals  of  motor 850  volts. 

Work  measured  by  brake  at  motor 0*25  H.  P. 

From  these  data  the  following  values  were  calculated  : 

Difference  of  potential  at  terminals  of  generator 1,343  volts. 

Total  electrical  energy  at  Miesbach 1-13  H.  P. 

Total  electrical  energy  at  Munich 0'433  H.  P. 

Electrical  efficiency 38'9  per  cent. 

It  will  be  understood  here  that  this  efficiency  is  not  the  absolute  or  commercial  efficiency, 
but  the  electrical  alone. 

These  were  followed  by  other  experiments,  but  probably  the  most  important  of  M.  Deprez's 
transmissions  was  that  undertaken  by  him  in  1885  between  Paris  and  Creil,  a  distance  of  34 
miles.  The  line  consisted  of  a  lead-encased  insulated  copper  wire,  5  mm.  in  diameter,  and 
its  resistance  was  100  ohms.  The  generating  machine  was  situated  at  Creil.  It  had  two 
rings  revolving  in  two  distinct  magnetic  fields,  each  composed  of  eight  electro-magnets. 
Each  armature  had  a  resistance  of  16*5  ohms.  The  current  produced  by  this  machine  was 
utilized  at  La  Chapelle,  near  Paris,  by  two  receiving  machines,  situated  at  some  hundreds  of 
metres  from  each  other.  Each  possessed,  like  the  generator  described,  two  rings  ;  they 
were  each  of  0*58  metre  in  exterior  diameter  and  had  an  electric  resistance  of  18  ohms. 
In  a  note  presented  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  M.  Deprez  gave  the  results  of  experi- 
ments undertaken  with  these  machines,  and  they  are  quoted  below : 

First  Experiment. 

Generator.          Receiver. 

Speed  in  revolutions  per  minute 190  248 

Electromotive  force,  direct  or  inverse 5,469  volts.  4,242  volts. 

Intensity  of  current 7'21  amp.      7  21  amp. 

Work  in  field  magnets  (in  horse-power) 9'20  3*75 

Electrical  work  (in  horse-power) 53'59  41*44 

Mechanical  work  measured  with  the  dynamometer 

or  the  brake  (horse-power) 62-10  3510 


POWER,   TRANSMISSION  OF,   ELECTRIC. 


651 


Efficiency. 

Electrical 77  per  cent. 

Commercial  or  mechanical 47'7  per  cent. 

Second  Experiment. 

Generator.  Receiver. 

Speed  per  minute 170  277 

Electromotive  force 5,717  volts.  4,441  volts. 

Intensity  of  current 7*20  amp.  7"20  amp. 

Work  in  field  magnets 10*30  H.  P.  3'80  H.  P. 

Electrical  work 55*90     "  43'4    " 

Mechanical  work  (measured  with  the  dynamometer 

or  the  brake)    .* 61     "  40     " 

Efficiency. 

Electrical 78  per  cent. 

Commercial  or  mechanical 53'4  per  cent. 

In  October,  1887.  a  committee  of  experts  carried  out  a  series  of  tests  on  the  electrical 
transmission  plant  between  Kriegstetten  and  Solothurn,  Switzerland.  At  Kriegstetten, 
there  is  a  water-power  available,  representing  about  forty  actual  horse-power,  and  the  prob- 
lem was  to  carry  as  much  of  this  power  as  possible  to  a  mill  in  Solothurn,  the  distance  being 
5  miles.  There  are  at  Kriegstetten  two  generating  dynamos,  and  at  Solothurn  two  motors, 
coupled  up  on  the  three- wire  system.  Each  dynamo  weighs  3  tons  12  cwt.,  and  has  a 
Gramme  armature  20  in.  in  diameter  and  14  in.  long,  the  normal  speed  being  700  revolutions 
per  minute.  The  following  tables  give  the  results  of  these  tests  : 


I.  Electrical  Measurements. 


II.  Resistances  and  Loss  of  Pressure. 


Electromotive 
force. 

Terminal  pressure. 

Current  measured 
at 

Resistance  of 
machines. 

Line 

Pressure  lost  In 
line. 

ft. 

Genera- 
tors. 

Motors. 

Genera- 
tors. 

Motors. 

Genera- 
tors. 

Motors. 

Genera- 
tors. 

Motors. 

ance. 

Calcu- 
lated. 

Meas- 
ured. 

t?i 

1      1231-6 

988-6 

1177-7 

1041-2 

14-20 

14-17 

3-741 

3-716 

9-228 

130-9 

135-5 

+  7-5 

2 

1237-0 

1016-8 

1186-8 

1066-1 

13-24 

13  28 

3-741 

3-710 

9-228 

122-3 

120-7 

+  7-5 

3 

1836-5 

1575-4 

1753-3 

1656-1 

11-48 

11-42 

7-251 

7-060 

9-044 

103-7 

97-2 

+  3-2 

4 

2129-0 

1896-2 

2058-0      1965-1 

9-78 

9-79 

7-240 

7-052 

9*040 

88-4 

92-8 

4-3-2 

III.  Determination  of  Energy. 


IV.  Percentage  of  Efficiencies. 


Internal  electrical 
horse-power. 

Terminal  electrical 
horse-power. 

Actual  horse-power 

Electrical  effi- 
ciency. 

Commercial  effi- 
ciency. 

S>2 

No. 

Genera- 
tors. 

Motors. 

Genera- 
tors. 

Motors. 

Supplied 
to  gen- 
erators. 

Obtained 
from 
motors. 

Genera- 
tors. 

Motors. 

Genera- 
tors. 

Motors. 

Total  effl 
oftra 
slon. 

Remarks. 

1 

23-76 

19-03  !     22-72 

20-02 

26-15 

17-85 

90-7 

93-7 

86'8 

89-1 

68-3 

}     One 

|  s?enera- 

[•tor  and 

one 

2 

22-27 

18-34 

21-35 

19-23 

24-54 

16-74 

90-6 

91-3 

86-9 

87-1 

68-2 

j   motor. 

3 

28-64 

24-46 

27-34 

25-71 

W87 

23  21 

92-8 

94-8 

88-5 

90-3 

75-2 

)     Both 

l  genera- 

<_ 

}•  tors  and 

|     both 

4 

28-29 

25'2l 

27-37 

26-13 

30-87 

23-05 

91-6 

91-4 

88-7 

88-2 

74-6 

J  motors. 

II 

A.  L.  Rohrer,  of  the  Thomson-Houston  Electric  Co.,  has  applied  a  plan  for  a  large 
power  plant  by  which  5.000  horse-power  is  being  transmitted  a  distance  of  twelve  miles. 
The  diagram,  Fig.  2,  shows  the  arrangement.  By  this  arrangement,  the  generators  are 
coupled  mechanically  in  pairs  as  one  unit  on  one  shaft  driven  by  one  turbine,  and  elec- 
trically the  armatures  of  each  unit  are  connected  in  series.  Each  armature  has  a  potential 
of  2,500  volts.  This  gives  5,000  volts  for  each  unit  at  the  generating  station.  The  genera- 
tors are  separately  excited,  and  have  also  series  windings,  which  compensate  for  the  loss 
in  the  line.  At  the  receiving  station  there  are  the  same  number  of  units,  each  consisting 
of  two  similar  machines,  with  their  armatures  in  series,  and  their  fields  separately  excited, 
but  without  series  winding.  Each  receiving  unit  is  coupled  to  the  same  shaft  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  generating  unit.  At  the  generating  station  exciters  are  only  used  for  charg- 
ing the  fields,  while  at  the  receiving  station  exciters  are  used  in  connection  with  a  small 
storage  battery  which  is  necessary  to  start  the  first  unit.  The  mechanically  and  electrically 


652 


POWER,    TRANSMISSION    OF,    ELECTRIC. 


coupled  units  at  the  generating  station  are  united  electrically  in  parallel  in  one  system, 
by  an  equalizing  bar,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  It  seems  advisable  to  leave  the  storage 

battery  in  the  circuit  permanently,  to 
keep  the  fields  of  the  motors  fully  ex- 
cited, in  case  the  speed  should  drop. 
In  another  instance,  250  horse-power  is 
transmitted  a  distance  of  10  miles  with 
single  series-wound  units.  Each  ma- 
chine is  wound  for  a  potential  of  3,000 
volts,  and  for  this  purpose  a  special 
commutator  with  798  segments  was  con- 
structed. 

An  example  of  a  large  modern  trans- 
mission plant  is  that  erected  in  1890  for 
the  Schaffhausen  Spinning  Mills  in 
Switzerland.  This  example  is  not  only 
interesting  on  account  of  its  magnitude, 
but  because  it  has  been  planted,  so  to 
say,  into  the  very  stronghold  of  rope 
transmission,  namely,  at  the  Falls  of  the 
Rhine,  where  the  last  generation  of 
Swiss  engineers  carried  out  such  admi- 
rable work  in  teledynamic  transmission 
that  the  present  generation  can  only 
copy,  but  cannot  improve  upon  it. 

The  spinning  mills  are  on  one  side, 
and  the  generating  station  is  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  two  being  about  750  yards. 
In  the  generating  station  there  is  room 
for  five  350  horse-power  turbines,  of 

which  four  are  now  in  place,  but  of  these  only  two  are  as  yet  used  in  connection  with  the 
electric  power  transmission.  The  power  of  these  turbines  is  sold  to  the  spinning  company  at 
the  rate  of  $13.75  per  annual  horse-power  taken  off  the  rope  pulleys.  The  turbines  are 
horizontal  wheels,  and  their  vertical  axes  are  geared  by  bevel  wheels  with  the  rope  pulleys, 
by  which  motion  is  conveyed  through  cotton  ropes  to  the  two  generating  dynamos.  The 
latter  are  six-pole  machines,  each  designed  for  an  output  of  330  amperes  at  624  volts,  and 
in  regular  work  these  machines  are  coupled  parallel.  The  machines,  and,  in  fact,  the  whole 
installation,  with  the  exception  of  the  hydraulic  works,  were  designed  by  Mr.  C.  E.  L. 
Brown.  The  generating  station  contains  two  300  horse-power  dynamos,  which  are  over- 
compounded,  so  as  to  produce  a  constant  pressure  of  COO  volts  at  the  motor  station,  the  loss 
in  the  line  being  with  full  current  24  volts.  These  machines  have  series  wound  drum 
armatures,  running  at  200  revolutions  per  minute.  Their  more  important  electrical  data, 
as  well  as  those  referring  to  the  motors,  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Schaffhausen  Transmission  Plant. 


FIG.  2. 


Generators. 

Twin  Motor. 

Smr.ll  Motors. 

Number  of  machines                                                .... 

2 

1 

2 

Normal  horse-power 

390 

380 

60 

Number  of  poles  in  ma°Tiet  field               .          ... 

6 

6 

2 

Revolutions  per  minute 

300 

300 

350 

Terminal  voltage 

624 

600 

600 

Normal  current,  amperes                         .     .          

330 

500 

81 

Diameter  of  armature  inches 

47i 

42i 

981 

Length  of  armature  core,  inches  

20 

20£ 

22£ 

Radial  depth  of  armature,  core  inches                              

8 

7 

4f 

Section  of  armature  conductor  square  inches 

103 

078 

0287 

Number  of  armature  conductors        .          

316 

816 

540 

Number  of  commutator  segment"* 

153 

153 

90 

Loss  in  armature  resistance,  per  cent  

1-46 

1-52 

2'7 

7  500 

7  600 

15  800 

Shunt  resiatance,  ohms 

140 

343 

295 

Los?  in  shunt  excitation,  per  cent  ...      

1-35 

1-68 

Main  turns  per  magnet  ... 

6 

4 

Loss  in  main  excitation,  per  cent  

3 

2 

Type  of  armature  

Drum 

Drum 

Cylinder 

A  most  remarkable  example  of  electric-power  transmission  is  that  at  the  Chollar  mine, 
Virginia  City,  Nevada.  The  Nevada  Stamp  Mill  is  located  near  the  shaft  of  the  Chollar 
mine,  and  is  driven  by  water-power  from  a  reservoir  on  the  side  of  the  mountain,  which  was 
not  adequate  for  the  full  operation  of  the  machinery. 

At  the  1,650-ft.  level  of  the  Chollar  mine,  a  subterranean  chamber  was  excavated  out  of 


POWER,    TRANSMISSION   OF,    HYDRAULIC,  ETC.  653 

solid  porphyry,  for  the  reception  of  the  dynamo-electric  generators  and  water-wheels.  This 
chamber  is  50  ft.  in  length  and  25  ft.  in  width  and  12  ft.  in  height,  clear  of  all  timbers. 
From  the  tank  containing  the  waste  surface  water,  two  wrought-iron  pipes  are  led  to  the 
subterranean  chamber,  one  10  and  one  8  in.  in  diameter.  At  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  a  Y 
unites  these  two  pipes  into  a  single  one,  14  in.  in  diameter,  out  of  which  six  6-in.  pipes 
run  to  the  nozzles  of  the  water-wheels  provided  to  drive  the  large  Brush  dynamo-electric 
generators.  The  underground  electric  station  is  of  the  most  interesting  character.  The 
large  Brush  generators  are  adapted  to  the  conditions  by  a  few  mechanical  changes  from  the 
standard  pattern.  They  are  mounted  on  a  heavy  cast-iron  base,  and  are  provided  with  an 
extended  shaft  and  outer  bearing.  On  each  armature  shaft  and  between  two  bearings  a 
Pelton  water-wheel  is  mounted  and  inclosed  in  a  water-tight  cover.  The  water-wheel  is 
attached  to  the  armature  shaft  at  the  place  occupied  by  the  pulley,  and  a  coupling  is  pro- 
vided for  detaching  the  entire  end  of  the  shaft  carrying  the  wheel  from  the  other  end  carry- 
ing the  armature.  (See  WATER-WHEELS.) 

The  head  of  water  at  this  station  is  1,650  ft.,  and  the  waste  is  run  off  through  the  Sutro 
tunnel.  From  each  generator  the  current  is  led  by  conductors  through  the  shaft  to  the 
surface,  where  six  motors  are  driven,  and  the  power  utilized  in  supplementing  the  water- 
wheel  at  the  stamp  mill  above.  The  economic  value  of  this  arrangement  is  shown  by  the 
following  facts:  The  surface  wheel  alone  requires  312  miner's  inches  of  water  to  develop  power 
sufficient  to  drive  40  of  the  60  stamps  with  which  the  mill  is  equipped.  Moreover,  this 
amount  of  water  is  seldom  available.  Two  of  the  electric  motors,  working  in  addition  to  the 
surface  wheel,  will  perform  the  same  service  with  but  72  miner's  inches  of  water,  thus  effect- 
ing a  saving  of  about  77  per  cent.  The  net  commercial  efficiency  of  the  plant,  taking  into 
account  all  elements  of  loss,  including  that  in  the  conducting  wires,  is  about  70  per  cent. 
In  other  words,  70  per  cent,  of  the  power  applied  to  the  shafts  of  the  generators  in  the  under- 
ground chamber  is  delivered  for  work  at  the  main  shaft  in  the  mill. 

The  most  recent  example  of  long-distance  electric  transmission  is  that  carried  out  in  con- 
nection with  the  Electrical  Exhibition  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Germany,  1891.  A  water- 
power  of  300  horse-power,  situated  at  Lauffen  on  the  Neckar,  was  carried  over  three  wires  to 
Frankfort,  a  distance  of  112  miles,  at  a  potential  of  over  20,000  volts.  The  polyphase  system 
of  Nikola  Tesla  was  employed,  the  transformers  and  dynamos  being  constructed  by  the  Oerli- 
kon  Works,  Switzerland,  and  the  motors  designed  by  Dolivo-Dobrowolski,  of  the  Allgemeine 
Elektricitats  Gesellschaft,  Berlin.  The  report  of  the  tests  of  this  installation  has  not  yet 
(January.  1892)  been  published. 

[For  more  complete  discussion  and  descriptions  of  electric-power  transmissions,  reference 
may  be  had  to  the  following  works,  which  have  been  freely  quoted  in  the  above:  Electric 
Transmission  Handbook,  by  F.  B.  Badt;  Electric  Transmission  of  Energy,  by  Gisbert  Kapp, 
C.E. ;  Kritische  Vergleichung  der  Kraftuebertraguny  mit  den  Gebraencldichsten  Mechan- 
ischen  Uebertragungs  Systemen,  by  A.  Beringer;  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery,  by  Prof.  S.  P. 


Thompson  ;  The  Electric  Motor  and  Its  Applications,  by  T.  C.  Martin  and  Joseph  Wetzler; 
Elect ric  Motors,  by  F.  J.  Sprague  (late  Ensign  U.  S.  N.),  a  paper  read  before  U.  S.  Naval 
Institute,  Annapolis.  May  16.  1887;  Tlie  Transmission  of  Power  by  Electricity,  by  F.  J. 
Sprague,  a  lecture  delivered  before  the  Franklin  Institute,  November  12,  1888 ;  Some  Appli- 
cations of  Electric  Transmission,  by  F.  J.  Sprague,  a  lecture  delivered  before  the  students  of 
Sibley  College  and  published  in  the  Scientific  American  Supplement,  July  20  and  27  and 
August  3,  1889  ;  the  papers  of  George  W.  Mansfield,  Richard  P.  Roth  well,  Francis  A. 
Pocock,  H.  C.  Spaulding.  and  others,  read  before  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engi- 
neers :  and  the  paper  of  H.  Ward  Leonard,  read  before  the  Association  of  Mining  Engineers 
of  the  Province  of  Quebec,  April  29,  1891 ;  and  an  article  by  the  same  author  in  The  Electrical 
Engineer,  September  2,  1891.  Also ' '  Cantor  Lectures  on  the  Electric  Transmission  of  Power," 
by  G.  Kapp,  Journal  Society  of  Arts,  July  3,  10,  and  17,  1891.] 

POWER,  TRANSMISSION  OF,  HYDRAULIC,  ETC.  (For  Electrical  Transmission  of 
Power,  see  POWER,  TRANSMISSION  OF,  ELECTRIC.  For  Mechanical  Transmission  of  Power,  see 
BELTS.  For  Transmission  by  Compressed  Air,  see  AIR  COMPRESSORS.  See  also  NIAGARA,  UTIL- 
IZATION OF.) 

HYDRAULIC  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER. — Transmission  of  power  for  lifting,  etc.,  by  water 
under  pressure  is  in  common  use  in  steel  works  and  other  large  manufactories,  bat  it  is  not 
generally  adopted  for  long  distances,  transmission  by  compressed  air,  by  steam-pipes,  or  by 
electricity  being  usually  preferred.  It  is,  however,  a  valuable  system  for  districts  in  cities 
where  there  is  much  lifting  to  be  done,  as  in  warehouses.  The  most  extensive  application 
of  this  system  is  that  made  by  the  London  Hydraulic  Power  Co.  Over  50  miles  of 
hydraulic  mains  have  been  laid  in  London,  embracing  nearly  the  whole  city.  Westminster, 
and  Southwark.  The  mains  laid  in  the  street  are  from  7  'in.  internal  diameter  to  2  in. 
They  are  chiefly  of  cast-iron  with  flanged  joints  and  packing  rings  of  gutta-percha.  The 
mains  are  kept  charged  by  powerful  pumping  engines.  The  reservoirs  of  power  consist  of 
capacious  accumulators,  loaded  to  give  a  pressure  of  750  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  producing  the  same 
effect  as  if  large  supply-tanks  were  placed  at  1,700  ft.  above  the  street-level.  The  water  used 
is  pumped  direct  f  rom'the  river.  The  hydraulic  power  is  supplied  direct  to  elevators,  presses, 
and  fire  hydrants  and  other  apparatus  of  similar  character,  without  the  use  of  any  engine  or 
power-producing  machinery,  but  the  hydraulic  pressure  can  also  be  used  for  driving  engines 
of  special  construction  in  the  same  way  as  steam  or  gas.  Hydraulic  engines  worked  from 
the  company's  mains  are  now  used  for  all  sorts  of  purposes,  such  as  coffee-grinding,  ventilating, 
working  eleVators  and  crushers,  driving  dynamos  and  general  machinery.  The  hydraulic 


654  PRESSES,    PRINTING. 

power  is  also  used  for  pumping  water  from  deep  wells  or  from  the  basement  of  a  building  to 
a  tank  on  the  roof,  or  for  the  drainage  of  cellars,  and  for  supplementing  the  deficiency  of 
pressure  from  the  water- works  mains. 

A  valuable  paper  on  waste  of  power  in  hydraulic  transmission,  by  Mr.  R.  G.  Elaine,  will 
be  found  in  Engineering,  May  22,  1891.     Mr.  Elaine  deduces  the  formula, 

T  T?* 

_, 

in  which  L  =  length  of  pipe  in  feet  ;  d  =  diameter  in  feet ;  E  —  horse-power  sent  into  pipe 
at  one  end,  and  p  =  equals  pressure  at  entrance  in  pounds  per  square  inch.  Values  of  the 
coefficient  '6367  A,  for  diameters  -£  in.  to  12  in.  are  as  follows  :  - 


Diameter. 

Coefficient. 

iin. 

•00955 

1 

•00637 

2 

•00478 
•  c\i  \  i«>n 

4 

lAM'&U 

•00395 

5 

•00382 

6 

•00369 

7 

•00868 

8 

•00357 

10 

•00350 

12 

•00344 

Example. — If  100  horse-power  are  sent  into  a  straight  pipe  one  mile  long  and  6  ins.  in 
diameter,  the  entering  pressure  being  700  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  find  the  power  wasted  in  trans- 
mission. 
Here 

„,      -00369  x  5280  x  1003 

W  =  700-  x  (.5)6  =1-82  horsepower. 

This  method  shows  how  to  calculate  the  power  wasted  in  friction  in  straight  pipes  of  any 
hydraulic  system.  There  are,  however,  certain  other  sources  of  Joss,  such  as  bends  in  the 
pipe,  roughness  of  its  inner  surface,  etc.,  which  cannot  well  be  taken  into  account,  making 
the  result  less  favorable  in  regard  to  the  efficiency  of  the  system.  In  connection  with  the 
energy  wasted  at  bends,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Weisbach's  Hydraulics,  or  to  the  article  by 
Professor  Unwin  on  "Hydromechanics"  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  Mr.  Elaine,  in 
Engineering,  June  5,  1891,  has,  with  the  above  method  as  a  basis,  worked  out  a  method  of 
calculating  the  most  economical  diameter  of  pipe  for  a  given  horse-power  and  distance,  and 
compared  the  efficiency  with  that  of  electric  transmission  under  certain  specified  conditions. 

The  Distribution  of  Heat  and  Power  by  Hot  Water  will  be  found  described  in  a  paper  by 
Mr.  A.  V.  Abbott,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  February,  1888.  This  system  was  tried 
in  Boston,  but  not  successfully.  Water  was  delivered  to  the  customers  at  a  temperature  of. 
400°  F.,  corresponding  to  250  Ibs.  absolute  pressure  to  the  square  inch.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  with  improvements  in  certain  details  and  situations,  this  system  may  prove  of  value 
and  importance. 

Transmission  of  Power  through  a  Vacuum. — This  system,  as  practiced  in  Paris  by  MM. 
Petit  and  Boudenott,  consists  in  maintaining,  by  means  of  exhausting  engines  working  at  a 
central  station,  a  reduced  pressure  in  the  mains  to  the  amount  of  as  nearly  as  possible  two- 
thirds  of  a  perfect  vacuum.  Service  pipes  from  the  mains  pass  into  the  premises  of  the  users, 
and  are  connected  with  the  motors;  and  work  is  thus  performed  by  the  difference  in  pressure 
between  the  atmosphere  and  the  vacuum  in  the  mains.  The  exhausting  engines  do  not  ex- 
haust direct  from  the  mains,  but  from  a  reservoir  serving  to  some  extent  as  a  regulator, 
from  which  the  mains  are  laid  either  under  the  streets  or  in  the  subways ;  and  the  motors 
are  started  or  stopped  by  simply  opening  or  closing  a  valve  on  the  service  pipe.  There  are 
three  exhausting  engines  of  about  90  horse-power  each ;  one  of  them  is  independent,  while 
the  other  two  can  be  coupled  together.  The  steam  cylinder  is  13|  in.  diameter  and  42  in. 
stroke,  and  works  with  a  boiler  pressure  of  85  ibs.  per  sq.  in.  The  exhausting  cylinder  of 
41  in.  diameter  is  in  the  same  line  with  the  steam  cylinder,  both  pistons  being  on  the  same 
rod.  Pressure  regulators,  indicators,  and  counters,  record  continuously  the  vacuum  in  the 
mains  and  the  revolutions  made  by  the  engines,  whereby  a  check  is  obtained  upon  the 
amount  of  power  supplied.  The  motors  are  made  in  three  sizes,  of  |  horse-power,  1  horse- 
power, and  1|  horse-power;  the  last  seems  to  be  the  maximum  that  can  be  worked  with 
advantage,  and  where  more  power  is  required  it  is  obtained  by  coupling  two  motors  together. 
The  present  length  of  the  exhaust  mains  from  the  central  station  is  about  a  thousand  yards. 

Press  :  see  Book-binding  Machines,  Glass-making,  Mills,  Silver,  and  Wheel-making 
Machines. 

PRESSES,  PRINTING.  The  Hoe  Rotary  Art  Press.— With  the  growth  of  magazines 
and  the  advance  of  their  artistic  character  has  come  the  demand  for  machinery  capable  of 
producing  the  highest  class  of  illustrated  work  at  great  speed,  and  it  is  to  meet  this  demand 
that  the  Hoe  rotary  art  press,  Fig.  1,  has  recently  been  constructed  for  the  illustrated  pages 


PRESSES,    PRINTING. 


655 


of  The  Century  Magazine.  This  is  the  first  machine  ever  made  on  the  rotary  principle  and 
designed  for  the  finest  quality  of  illustrations,  taking  the  place  of  the  Hoe  stop-cylinder 
presses,  on  which  this  grade  of  work  has  heretofore  been  done.  The  plates  used  are  electro- 
types of  standard  thickness,  bent  to  the  proper  curve  by  a  little  machine  furnished  for  the 
purpose.  Each  electrotype  plate  contains  a  page  of  the  magazine  and  is  locked  upon 
curved  blocks,  which  are  securely  fastened  upon  the  circumference  of  one  cylinder.  Sixteen 
form  rollers,  supplied  with  ink  from  two  fountains,  give  the  required  amount  of  ink  to  the 
plates.  The  plates  are  inked  with  delicacy  and  fullness  of  color.  The  sheets  of  paper,  each 
of  the  size  of  32  magazine  pages,  are  fed  to  the  machine  in  the  usual  way,  by  hand,  but 
by  four  feeders.  The  sheets  are  drawn  between  the  impression  cylinder  and  the  plate  cyl- 
inder, receiving  the  impression. 

After  passing  around  the  cylinders  they  are  carried  to  the  two  fly  deliveries,  one  above 
the  other,  each  of  which  throws  out  two  sheets  of  16  pages  each.  The  sheets  come  out  in  four 
separate  lots,  those  which  each  man  feeds  to  the  press  being  delivered  in  one  compartment. 
The  individual  work  of  the  feeder  is  thus  accurately  known. 

It  was  a  general  belief  not  long  since  that  the  finest  quality  of  illustrated  work  could  be 
done  only  on  hand  presses,  but  the  progress  in  the  development  of  cylinder  presses  has  made 
possible  a  high  order  of  illustration  at  a  much  greater  speed.  The  rotary  art  press  has  the 


FIG.  1.— The  Hoe  rotary  art  press. 

capacity  of  four  stop-cylinder  presses,  and  is  claimed  to  do  even  a  higher  quality  of  work  than 
the  stop-cylinder  presses. 

CotlrcWs  Improved  Two-color  Press  is  especially  designed  for  bag  printing  in  colors,  and 
is  applicable  to  many  other  styles  and  qualities  of  fine  printing.  The  press  is  a  two-roller 
drum-cylinder  machine,  to  which  is  attached  a  supplementary  cylinder  of  half  the  diameter 
of  the  drum.  It  is  constructed  to  admit  of  curved  stereotype  or  electrotype  plates,  and  is 
furnished  with  fountain  distributors,  etc.  There  is  also  a  patent  device  for  controlling  the 
momentum  of  the  cylinder.  In  all  cylinder  presses  (except  the  stop-cylinder)  there  is  more 
or  less  backlash  within  the  gearing,  arising  from  the  clearance  of  the  teeth,  and  from  the 
tendency  of  the  cylinder  to  maintain  its  velocity  while  the  bed  is  slowed  down  to  pass  the 
center.  To  obviate  this,  a  patent  device  for  controlling  the  momentum  of  the  cylinder  is 
used.  It  checks  the  momentum  of  the  cylinder  at  the  right  time,  keeps  the  gears  up  to  the 
working  sides  of  the  teeth,  and  harmonizes  the  regular  velocity  of  the  cylinder  to  the  irregu- 
lar velocity  of  the  bed,  relieves  the  gearing  of  all  unnatural  strain,  and*  accurate  register  at 
any  speed  is  thus  secured.  It  consists  of  a  brake-shoe  attached  to  the  framework  and  made 
adjustable  at  the  box.  The  brake-shoe  is  adjusted  to  engage  with  the  friction  face  secured 
to  the  cylinder  shaft,  with  sufficient  friction  to  gradually  check  the  momentum  of  the  cylin- 
der at  the  proper  time. 

The  Hoe  Century  Press. — The  illustrated  pages  of  a  magazine  form  but  a  part  of  the 
work  of  its  publication.  There  remain  the  plain  forms  and  advertising  pages  to  be  pro- 
duced, and  the  quantity  of  these  is  now  so  great  that  to  continue  to  print  them  on  the  ordi- 
nary cylinder  press  is-  no  longer  economical,  indeed  hardly  practicable.  To  meet  the  new  de- 


656  PRESSES,    PRINTING. 


mand,  the  Century  press  has  been  built.  The  arrangement  of  this  press  (see  Fig.  2)  is  similar 
to  the  Hoe  fast  newspaper  press,  but  the  plate  and  impression  cylinders  are  placed  nearly  on 
a  level,  and  at  a  height  that  makes  them  easily  accessible  to  the  pressman.  The  distribution 
is  effected  by  two  large  and  two  small  ink  cylinders  for  each  fountain,  with  an  adequate 
service  of  distributing  rollers.  The  inking  rollers  are  six  in  number,  with  an  additional 
composition  roller  for  cleaning  the  form.  The  plates  used  are  electrotypes  of  the  usual  thick- 
ness, viz. :  -fa  of  an  inch,  containing  each  one  page  of  the  magazine,  and  mechanically  bent 
to  the  requisite  press  cylinder.  The  plates  are  each  secured  upon  a  curved  iron  stereotype 
block,  locked  up  by  a  rack  and  pinion  in  the  usual  manner,  and  these  curved  blocks  are  in 
turn  fastened  securely  to  the  surface  of  the  plate  cylinders,  the  pages  being  placed  longitu- 
dinally. The  roll  of  paper  is  at  the  end  of  the  press  and  is  controlled  in  momentum  by  the 
usual  hand  brake.  From  it  the  web  is  drawn  by  tension  in  the  usual  manner  through  the 
printing  cylinders,  and  is  then  cut  into  transverse  sections,  containing  8  pages  on  each 
side,  or  16  on  the  two  sides.  These  sections  are  gathered  by  a  collecting  cylinder  in  pairs, 
one  above  the  other;  then  receive  a  transverse  fold  between  the  two  pages,  and  are  sent  alter- 
nately to  two  delivery  cylinders,  where  they  are  slit  longitudinally  and  delivered  on  two 
sets  of  traveling  belts,  in  signatures  of  8  pages  each.  The  machine  has  thus  a  capacity  of  8 
signatures,  or  64  pages,  at  each  revolution,  or  24,000  signatures  per  hour,  cut  and  folded, 
ready  for  the  binder. 

The  Novel  Press. — Similar  in   its  principle  of   construction  to  the   Century  press,  the 


FIG.  2.— The  Hoe  "  Century"  press. 

Novel  press  does  very  diffeient  work.  As  its  name  indicates,  it  was  built  expressly  for 
printing  novels,  and  was  specially  designed  to  produce  in  perfected  form  a  great  number  of 
pages  of  these  books  at  each  revolution  of  its  cylinders. 

The  plate  cylinders  are  of  the  size  to  contain  each  72  electrotype  plates,  each  plate 
representing  a  page  of  the  novel.  These  plates  are  of  the  usual  thickness  and  made  to 
fit  the  curve  of  the  cylinder.  The  web  of  paper  is  drawn  into  the  machine,  and  receives  its 
impression  on  both  sides.  As  it  approaches  the  delivery,  it  meets  a  cutting-blade  which 
separates  the  web  lengthwise  into  strips  the  width  of  two  pages.  The  strips  of  paper  are 
taken  up  by  the  collecting  cylinder  until  6  sheets  have  been  gathered.  They  are  then 
released  and  cut  by  rotary  knives  into  6  equal  parts  and  are  delivered  to  the  fly  in  signatures 
of  24  pages  each,  folded  to  one-page  size.  There  is  thus  delivered  at  each  revolution  a  com- 
plete novel  of  144  pages.  The  signatures  are  taken  from  the  fly  in  consecutive  order,  and 
are  immediately  ready  for  the  binder.  This  press  admits  only  of  144  pages.  If,  for  example, 
216  pages  are  required  for  a  novel,  the  plates  for  the  additional  72  pages  are  placed  on  the 
cylinder  together  with  72  pages  of  a  different  book.  Thus,  while  completing  one  novel, 
another  is  begun  in  the  same  operation  of  the  machine. 

The  capacity  of  this  press  is  18,000  signatures  of  24  pages  each,  or  3,000  complete  novels 
of  144  pages  each  per  hour. 

The  Hoe  Prudential  Press  (Fig.  3). — This  press  is  remarkable  for  the  variety  of  work 
it  will  do  and  for  the  great  number  and  simplicity  of  the  combinations  effected  by  the  folder. 
It  will  produce  at  great  speed,  sheets  of  8,  16,  32,  64,  and  128  pages,  delivering  the  signa- 
tures in  various  sizes  and  folded  in  pamphlet  form.  While  the  general  operation  of  the 
machine  is  similar  to  the  Hoe  newspaper  web  presses,  it  is  provided  with  2  distributing 
cylinders  and  7  distributing  rollers,  while  3  five-inch  inking  rollers  and  2  cleaning  rollers 
pass  over  the  form.  The  electrotype  plates  are  4  of  an  inch  thick,  are  bent  to  the  required 


PRESSES,    PRINTING. 


657 


curve  by  a  machine  for  the  purpose,  and,  being  held  in  place  on  the  cylinder  by  end-clips, 
thev  may  be  underlaid,  as  on  the  ordinary  flat-bed  press. 

'The  press  is  twice  the  width  of  the  paper  which  is  used,  the  whole  form  of  plates  being 
carried  on  one  cylinder.    One  side  of  the  web  is  printed  from  one  end,  or  half,  of  the  cylinder, 


FIG.  3.— Prudential  press. 

and  then  passes  around  a  V-shaped  transferrer,  and  back  again  to  receive  the  impression  of 
the  other  half  upon  its  reverse  side.  The  folder  delivers  the  sheets,  cut  and  counted  in  lots 
of  50,  in  the  sizes  and  at  the  rate  per  hour  given  below: 


Signatures. 

No.  Pages. 

Size  Page. 

8,000 

64 

7x4* 

8,000 

64 

44-  x  7 

16,000 

32 

7x41 

12.000 

32 

6x7 

8,000 

32 

9x7 

8,000 

32 

7x9 

4,000 

32 

14x9 

8,000 

16 

14x9 

16,000 

16 

7x9 

The  paper  is  drawn  from  a  roll  at  the  end  of  the  press,  presented  to  the  printing  cylinders 
in  the  manner  described,  and  after  being  perfected  it  passes  to  the  folding  machine,  where  the 
web  is  split  down  the  center  margin,  thus  producing  2  webs  of  one-half  the  width,  which  are 
transformed  by  collecting  and  cutting  cylinders  into  signatures  of  the  desired  number  of  pages, 
and  delivered  folded  in  the  variety  of  forms  and  speeds  indicated  above.  This  press  is  per- 
haps destined  to  revolutionize  the  printing  of  books  and  pamphlets,  as  its  great  capacity 
enables  it  to  do  the  work  of  a  dozen  two-revolution  cylinder  presses  and  an  equal  number  of 
hand-feed  folding  machines. 

The  Hoe  Prudential  Press  (Fig.  4)  is  made  with  flat  delivery,  when  desired,  specially 
adapted  to  a  variety  of  work  requiring  long  runs.  It  will  print  four  pages  of  various  widths, 
while  the  adjustable  knives,  by  which  the  paper  is  cut,  allow  a  variety  of  commercial  print- 
ing. It  is  also  provided  with  a  perforating  arrangement  by  which  coupon  work  may  be  done. 
Up  to  the  point  where  the  sheet  goes  to  the  folder,  this  machine  is  exactly  like  the  machine 
with  folder  attached,  as  first  described,  but  the  paper  is,  instead,  slit  longitudinally,  cut  trans- 
versely, and  collected  in  five  thicknesses  upon  a  cylinder  from  which  it  is  delivered  to  the 
sheet  flyer  and  laid  upon  the  table  at  the  rate  of  9,000  full-sized  sheets  per  hour.  When  it  is 
desired  to  print  on  only  one  side  of  the  web,  the  paper  roll  is  removed  to  the  other  side  or 
half  of  the  plate  and  impression  cylinders,  and  passes  between  them  only  once  and  then  direct 
to  the  collecting  cylinder  and  delivery,  one-half  of  the  impression  cylinder  being  without 
forms,  and  the  necessary  plates  being  "placed  on  the  end  of  the  cylinder  which  lies  in  the 
path^of  the  paper. 

CottreWs  Air-spring  Two-roller  Press. — This  drum-cylinder  press,  made  of  various  sizes, 
covers  the  necessities  of  a  large  share  of  work  done  in  nearly  every  printing  office.  This 
press,  and  also  the  two- revolution  press,  contains  Messrs.  Cottrell  &  Sons'  patent  air-spring 
with  governor  attachment,  which  bears  on  an  easy  cushion  for  the  bed,  and  can  be  readily 
adjusted  for  different  speeds.  This  air-spring  not  only  forms  a  cushion  to  arrest  the 

42 


658 


PRESSES,    PRINTING. 


momentum  of  the  bed  as  it  passes  the  center,  but  with  the  assistance  of  the  governor  and 
vacuum  valves  aids  in  starting  the  bed  on  its  return  movement,  and  relieves  the  gearing  of 
all  undue  strain.  By  the  governor  valve,  in  the  air-pipe  connected  with  both  of  the  hoi- 

low  piston  rods,  the 
amount  of  spring  pres- 
sure is  controlled,  the 
gate  being  kept  either 
wholly  or  partially 
open  or  closed,  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of 
the  governor  balls  as 
affected  by  the  speed 
of  the  press. 

The  Potter  Flat-bed 
Perfecting  Press  (Fig. 
5). — This  improved 
press  combines  the 
well-known  a  d  v  a  n  - 
tages  of  the  Potter  two- 
revolution  press  and 
the  perfecting  press, 
which  print  from  flat 
forms,  either  type  or 
plates,  a  high-grade 
work,  economically 
and  profitably. 

The  general  me- 
chanical movements  of 
this  press  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  Potter 
two- re  volution  press. 
The  driving  mechan- 
ism and  the  patented 
method  for  controlling 
the  raising  and  lower- 
ing of  the  cylinders 
and  regulating  the  im- 
pression, are  identical 
with  the  two-revolu- 
tion presses.  Some 
of  the  distinguishing 
points  of  this  press 
are: 

The  feeding  and 
cutting  device  for  roll 
feed:  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  engraving,  the 
paper  is  taken  from  a 
roll  at  the  end  of  the 
press  and  led  into  for- 
warding rollers,  which 
x\&  in  turn  carry  it  between 

x\  the  cutting  cylinders, 

thence  on  through  an- 
other pair  of  rollers, 
which  have  the  web 
under  full  control 
until  the  sheet  is  cut 
and  seized  by  the  grip- 
pers  of  the  feeding  cyl- 
inder. The  cutting 
and  feeding  mechan- 
ism, claimed  to  be  the 
only  one  by  which 
sheets  of  various  sizes 
can  be  cut  and  carried 
positively  to  the  grip- 
pers  :  the  changes  ne- 
cessary for  cutting 

sheets  of  different  lengths  are  easily  and  quickly  made,  all  gears  being  plainly  marked  so  as 
to  correspond  with  a  graduated  scale  on  the  frame.  By  this  means,  in  connection  with 
an  index  finger  on  the  adjustable  carriage  of  the  cutting  cylinders,  the  relative  position  of 
the  cutting  cylinders  to  the  feeding  cylinder,  as  the  size  of  sheet  is  varied,  is  easily  deter- 


PRESSES,    PRINTING. 


659 


mined  and  accurately  adjusted.  The  adjustable  carriage  of  the  cutters  allows  tapes  to  be 
dispensed  with,  and  ensures  positive  control  of  the  sheet  at  all  times.  The  press  is  not 
limited,  however,  to  roll  feed,  but  may  be  fed  by  hand  as  well  to  the  same  guides,  and  with 
no  change  of  mechanism  save  the  adjustment  of  a  simple  clutch.  The  registering  segments 
on  the  cylinders  not  only  engage  with  the  usual  racks  on  the  type-bed,  but  with  each  other 
at  each  revolution.  In  addition  to  this,  Messrs.  C.  Potter,  Jr. ,  &  Co.  have  a  newly  patented 
device  by  which  the  cylinders 
are  driven  at  all  times  in  full 
gear,  despite  their  rise  and 
fall,  which,  combined  with 
their  patent  bed  driving  rack, 
insures  accurate  register. 

The  distribution  is  that 
of  a  four-roll,  two-revolution 
press,  with  rack  screw,  table 
and  cylindrical  distribution. 
There  has  been  added  to  the 
regular  table  distribution  of 
the  four-roller  press,  the  vi- 
brating cylinder  and  riders  of 
the  stop  cylinder. 

Cottrell1  s  Two  -  revolution 
Press  (Pig.  6).— This  press 
embodies  a  patent  "front 
sheet  delivery,"  brought  out 
by  C.  B.  Cottrell  &  Sons.  It 
dispenses  entirely  with  the  fly, 
and  no  tapes  or  strings  are 
used  in  its  construction  or  op- 
eration. It  takes  the  printed 
sheet  from  the  cylinder  by 
grippers,  a  positive  motion, 
carries  it  rapidly  through  the 
air,  and  deposits  it  on  the  pile 
table,  printed  side  up,  over 
the  fountain.  It  requires 
no  adjustment  for  large  or 
small  sheets.  Another  great 
advantage  claimed  over  other 
methods  of  delivery  is  the 
convenience  with  which  the 
forms  and  rollers  can  be 
handled.  The  rear  of  the 
press  is,  of  course,  left  en- 
tirely unobstructed  for  the 
placing  of  forms.  The  deliv- 
ery is  placed  sufficiently  high 
above  the  bed  to  be  entirely 
out  of  the  way,  and  as  there 
are  no  tapes  or  strings  what- 
ever in  front  of  the  cylinder, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  forms 
may  be  placed  or  corrected 
and  the  rollers  easily  handled 
from  either  side  of  the  ma- 
chine. The  feed-board  is  so 
constructed  and  hinged  that 
it  may  be  lifted  entirely  away 
from  the  cylinder,  leaving 
free  access  to  the  whole  print- 
ing surface,  and  giving  ample 
room  from  either  side  of  the 
press  for  making  ready.  This 
press  also  has  a  "  power  back- 
ing-up  motion  and  a  trip," 
enabling  the  operator  to  throw  off  the  Impression  at  will,  or  to  roll  the  form  any  number 
of  times,  and  also  has  a  patent  reel  and  fly  delivery. 

The  Cottrell  Stop-cylinder  Press  contains  many  patented  improvements  which  are  distinct- 
ive features.  The  frame  is  cast  smooth  inside  and  out,  without  flanges.  The  bed  has  four 
bearings  under  the  impression  and  runs  upon  hardened  steel  rollers.  A  solid  girt  is  bolted 
to  the  bed-plate  crosswise  of  the  press,  and  extends  up  to  and  supports  the  tracks,  thus  making 
nearly  a  solid  mass  of  iron  directly  under  the  cylinder  in  line  with  the  impression.  The 
cams  for  operating  the  cylinder  have  been  considerably  enlarged,  thereby  imparting  an  easier 


660 


PRESSES,    PRINTING. 


motion  to  the  cylinder  when  stopping  and  starting.  This  change  admits  of  the  press  being 
run  at  a  much  higher  rate  of  speed.  The  feed  guides  have  been  removed  from  the  feed 
board  where  so  manv  disturbances  are  liable  to  affect  the  register,  and  have  been  placed 
in  the  cylinder  itself  and  revolve  with  it.  The  angle  of  the  feed  board  has  been  so  changed 


that  the  sheet  is  in  nearly  a  horizontal  position  when  fed  to  the  guides,  thus  preventing  any 
"  buckle  "  in  the  sheet  when  the  grippers  close  on  it.  This  press  is  also  arranged  with  the 
"  trip  at  will"  feature,  enabling  the  feeder  to  throw  off  the  impression  if  a  sheet  is  not  fed 
properly  to  the  guides,  also  enabling  him  to  roll  the  form  any  number  of  times  to  each 
impression.  By  means  of  a  reverse  motion,  the  feeder  is  able  to  "  back  up  "  the  press  with- 


PRESSES,    PRINTING. 


661 


out  leaving  his  position  on  the  platform.  The  patent  hinged  ink-roller  frames  admit  of  the 
vibrators  and  distributors  being  easily  raised  clear  of  the  form  rollers,  leaving  them  free 
for  removal.  The  whole  system  of  rollers  can  be  handled  at  one  side  of  the  press,  econo- 
mizing both  time  and  wear. 

Potter's  Newspaper  Press  (Fig.  7). — This  quarto  and  folio  press  takes  paper  from  a  roll, 
prints  from  stereotype  plates,  and  cuts,  pastes,  and  folds,  as  may  be  desired,  at  the  rate  of  from 
10,000  to  12,000  eight-page 
newspapers  an  hour,  or 
double  that  number  of  four- 
page  papers  an  hour.  The 
printing  machine,  folder  and 
delivery  mechanism  are  all 
contained  in  a  single  frame. 
The  web,  printed  on  both 
sides,  leaves  the  second  im- 
pression cylinder  and  passes 
directly  into  the  cutting  and 
folding  cylinders  ;  or  it  may 
pass  over  a  turning  bar  and 
be  turned  laterally  into  the 
folding  and  cutting  cylin- 
ders, and  thence  to  the  vi- 
brating folder,  whence  the 
folded  papers  are  delivered 
into  the  packing  box,  from 
which  they  may  be  readily 
taken  by  the  pressman. 
When  an  eight-page  paper 
is  to  be  printed,  the  web  is 
split  in  the  center  and  each 
half  of  the  web  is  turned 
round  separate  turning  bars, 
so  that  the  two  webs  are 
brought  one  under^the  other, 
and  in  this  shape  the  super- 
imposed webs  are  led  to  the 
cutting  and  folding  cylin- 
ders as  before.  From  the 
nature  of  the  machine,  and 
by  a  slight  change  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  mechan- 
ism, any  variety  of  product 
can  be  produced.  Thus,  the 
papers  may  be  folded  once  or 
twice;  and  being  folded  twice 
longitudinally,  may  be  fold- 
ed crosswise;  and  by  dupli- 
cating the  cylinders  for 
dividing  the  web,  folio  sheets 
can  be  delivered  from  the 
press  as  readily  as  can 
quartos 

A  Web  Perfecting  Press, 
built  by  Messrs.  Cottrell  & 
Sons,  for  the  Youth's  Com- 
panion newspaper,  employs 
a  novel  shifting  tympan. 
The  press  prints  from  a  web 
of  paper  that  is  led  between 
the  first  type  cylinder  and 
the  impression  cylinder,  and 


thence  in  contact  and  be- 
tween a  second  type  cylinder 
and  a  second  impression  cyl- 
inder, which  latter  is  twice 
the  circumference  of  the  first. 
The  second  impression  cylin- 
der carries  two  sets  of  tympans.  These  tympans  consist  of  a  web  of  fabric  held  by  rolls  in 
the  cylinder,  which  are  shifted  automatically  over  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  the  length  of 
a  sheet  every  50  or  100  impressions,  thus  presenting  an  entirely  fresh  offset  surface.  The 
time  at  which  the  automatic  shifting  of  the  tympan  occurs  may  be  regulated  to  suit  the 
matter  being  printed,  and  the  extent  to  which  offset  occurs  in  practical  use.  From  the 
second  impression  cylinder  the  web,  printed  on  both  sides,  is  led  to  a  traveling  gripper  band, 


662 


PRESSES,    FEINTING. 


which  in  turn  leads  the  web  between  a  pair  of  cutting  cylinders  to  sever  it  into  sheets,  and 
the  grippers  of  the  band  take  the  sheet  from 'the  cutting  cylinders  and  at  the  proper  time 
release  it  so  that  it  may  be  deposited  with  the  pile  on  the  piling  table. 

TJw  Hoe  Single  Web  Perfecting  Press  has  two  form  cylinders,  each  carrying  four  pages  of 

a  newspaper,  print- 
ing two  complete 
copies  of  a  four- 
page  paper  at  each 
revolution — s  peed, 
24,000  per  hour— or 
the  eight  plates 
many  be  so  arranged 
on  the  two  cylinders 
as  to  print  one  eight- 
page  paper  at  each 
revolution— s  peed, 
12,000.  Papers  are 
delivered,  folded, 
and  counted  auto- 
matically. 

The  Hoe  Three- 
page-wide  Press  has 
two  form  cylinders, 
each  carrying  three 
plates  lengthwise  of 
each  cylinder  and 
two  around  it.  The 
following  produc- 
tions result:  From  a 
two-page-wide  web, 
printing  from  only 
four  plates  on  each 
cylinder,  24,000 
four-page  or  12,000 
eight- page  papers 
per  hour.  From  a 
three-page- wide  web, 
printing  the  whole 
width  of  the  ma- 
chine, 24.000  six  - 
page  or  12,000 
twelve-page  papers 
per  hour;  eight  and 
twelve-page  papers 
resulting  from  the 
gathering,  by  means 
of  the  Hoe  collecting 
cylinder,  of  2  four- 
page  and  2  six-page 
papers  respectively, 
containing  different 
matter.  On  this  ma- 
chine the  six-page 
papers  are  made  by 
s  1  i  1 1  i  n  g  the  web, 
after  being  printed 
on  both  sides,  and 
turning  the  result- 
ant one  -  page  -  wide 
web  by  means  of 
"turning  bars" 


placed  at  the  proper 
angle,  and  so  di- 
recting it  under  the 
two-page  wide  web, 
just  before  it  enters 
the  folder,  that  the 
single  sheet  is  folded 

inside  of  the  two-page-wide  one  and  secui  id  down  the  center  margin  of  the  latter  by  a  line 

of  paste.    This  three-ply  web  is  cut  transversely,  folded,  and  delivered  exactly  as  a  four-page 

paper  would  be. 

The  Hoe  Double  Stereotype  Perfecting  Press  has  eight  stereotype  plates  on  each  of  the 

two  form  cylinders  ;  four  plates,  lengthwise  each  cylinder,  and  two  round  the  circumference 


PRESSES,    PRINTING.  663 


This  machine  has  twice  the  capacity  of  the  Hoe  single  stereotype  press  above  referred  to, 
and  in  addition  can  print  six  or  twelve-page  papers  at  the  same  speed  and  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  three-page-wide  machine  by  using  a  three-page-wide  roll  of  paper.  Its  total  capacity 
is  48,000  four-page  papers  per  hour,  24,000  six  or  eight-page  papers  per  hour,  12,000  twelve 
or  sixteen -page  papers  per  hour. 

The  Hoe  Supplement  Presses  are  composed  of  a  regular  double  press,  with  a  single  three- 
page-wide  or  second  double  press  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  a  folder  receiving  the  product  of 
both.  Either  press  can  be  run  at  partial  (as  well  as  full)  capacity,  by  means  of  narrow  paper 
rolls,  and  its  product  associated  with  that  of  the  other  machine,  or  they  can  be  disconnected 
and  run  separately. 

The  Hoe  Double  Supplement  Press. — The  main  press  is  similar  to  the  double  press  already 
described  (which  see)  and  has  the  same  capacity,  viz. :  24,000  four,  six,  or  eight-page  papers, 
or  12,000  twelve  or  sixteen-page  papers  per  hour.  The  supplement  press  is  similar  in  capacity 
to  the  single  press  already  described.  It  has  a  capacity  of  24,000  four-page  or  12,000  eight- 
page  papers. 

Each  press  has  its  roll  of  paper,  and  upon  the  main  press  roll  of  all  these  supplement 
presses  runs  the  Hoe  automatic  tension  brake  for  graduating  the  feed  of  the  paper  to  the 
exact  speed  of  the  machine,  producing  a  constant  and  uniform  tension.  Total  capacity 
of  this  machine,  24,000  eight,  ten,  or  twelve-page  papers  per  hour  ;  12,000  sixteen  or  twenty- 
four-page  papers  per  hour. 

The  Hoe  Three-page-wide  Supplement  Press. — The  main  press  is  similar  to  the  double 
press.  The  supplement  press  is  of  the  capacity  of  the  three-page-wide  machine,  each  press 
being  equipped  with  rolls  of  paper  of  suitable  width.  Total  capacity:  36,000  eight- page 
papers  per  hour;  24,000  ten.  twelve,  or  fourteen-page  papers  per  hour;  12,000  sixteen, 
twenty,  and  twenty-four  and  twenty-eight-page  papers. 

The  Hoe  Quadruple  Press  (Fig.  8). — Main  press  and  supplement  press  of  the  same  ca- 
pacity, each  being  equal  to  a  double  press  machine.  Two  rolls  of  papers  used,  and  total 
capacity,  48,000  four,  six,  or  eight-page  papers  per  hour;  24,000  ten,  twelve,  fourteen,  or 
sixteenlpage  papers;  12,000  twenty,  twenty-four,  twenty-eight  or  thirty-two-page  papers 
per  hour,  all  carefully  folded  together,  and  pasted,  if  desired.  All  of  the  folders  of  these 
newspaper  machines  are  arranged  to  automatically  count  their  product  in  lots  of  twenty- 
five  or  fifty,  in  convenient  shape  for  handling. 

The  Hoe  Sextuple  Press  (see  full-page  plate). — This  is  a  gigantic  machine,  probably  the 
largest  in  the  world,  and  unapproached  in  number  of  combinations  or  speed  of  delivery. 
Its  capacity  is  estimated  at  96,000  four  or  six-page  papers,  72,000  eight-page  papers,  48,000 
ten  or  twelve,  36,000  sixteen,  24,000  fourteen,  twenty,  and  twenty-four.  This  machine,  when 
running  at  full  capacity,  prints  from  three  rolls  of  paper,  each  about  70  in.  wide,  and  the 
perfected  web  is  received  into  a  double  folder.  Besides  the  great  variety  of  pages  possible  in 
the  Hoe  machinery,  all  their  foregoing  presses  are  so  arranged  that  the  pages  may  be 
increased  or  diminished  by  one  or  more  columns. 

Such  is  the  perfection  to  which  the  accessory  machinery  has  been  brought  (for  producing 
the  curved  stereotype  plates  for  use  upon  these  machines)  that  a  plate  can  be  completed  in 
about  seven  minutes  from  the  time  the  stereotypers  receive  the  page  set  up  in  type,  and  addi- 
tional and  duplicate  plates  may  be  cast  at  tlie  rate  of  one  per  minute  thereafter.  Mechan- 
ism is  also  supplied  whereby  the  insetting  of  supplemental  or  additional  pages  can  be  readily 
accomplished  at  will,  thus  conforming  to  the  exigencies  of  modern  newspaper  requirements. 

Delivery  Mechanism,  or  Folders. — In  applying  the  principle  of  rotary  printing,  the  chief 
difficulty  has  been  found  in  the  designing  of  devices  which  would  successfully  handle  the 
stream  of  papers  issuing  from  the  printing  cylinders,  and  with  some  makers  this  is  yet  prac- 
tically an  unsolved  problem.  The  folders  were  either  so  complicated  and  delicate  as  to  be 
constantly  getting  out  of  order  or  meeting  injury  from  "  chokes  "  of  paper,  or  were  so  inac- 
curate when  driven  at  high  speed  as  to  be  useless.  Until  very  recently  the  folders  were  filled 
with  striking  blades  for  striking  the  paper  in  a  center  margin  and  forcing  it  downward  into 
the  bite  of  rollers  beneath  them,  thus  producing  a  fold.  Large  numbers  of  tapes  were  used 
to  guide  the  papers  through  the  various  pathways,  which  introduced  another  element  of 
uncertainty,  for  the  least  atmospheric  change  would  affect  their  tension.  Messrs.  Hoe  &  Co. 
have  conceived  and  carried  into  execution  the  idea  of  giving  every  portion  of  the  folders  a 
rotary  movement,  driving  by  a  positive  motion  in  due  relation  with  the  printing  mechanism, 
so  that  every  revolution  of  the  printing  cylinders  would  actuate  the  folders  in  accurate  time 
with  them.  So  perfect  are  the  results  they  have  obtained  that  in  place  of  the  former  neces- 
sity for  having  several  folding  mechanisms  of  huge  dimensions  to  handle  the  product  of  one 
set  of  printing  cylinders,  in  the  machines  of  their  manufacture  one  small  folding  device 
receives  the  total  output  of  two  or  more  complete  presses. 

The  Homer  Lee  Power  Plate-printing  Machine. — A  few  years  ago  Mr.  Homer  Lee,  an 
expert  in  the  engraving  and  printing  art,  after  a  long  series  of  experiments,  finally  introduced 
a  plate-printing  machine  operated  by  steam  power  as  in  ordinary  printing  presses,  in  which 
the  engraved  plate  was  mechanically  inked  and  wiped  ready  for  the  impression.  This  press, 
omitting  the  wiper  cloths,  resembles  the  well-known  form  of  printing  press  termed  "stop 
cylinder."  wherein  after  the  impression  takes  place  the  impression  cylinder  comes  to  a  stop 
during  the  feeding  of  the  next  sheet  to  its  grippers,  while  the  bed  is'traveling  back  idly  to 
be  inked  preparatory  to  moving  forward  again.  The  frame  of  this  press  is  extended  upward 
so  as  to  provide  bearings  over  the  travel  of  the  bed  for  the  rolls  carrying  the  wiping  cloths. 
These  cloths  extended  from  one  roll  down  under  what  is  termed  a  pad,  and  then  upward  to 


664 


PRESSES,    PRINTING. 


another  -roll ;  the  rolls  being  intermittently  moved,  one  to  unroll  a  small  portion  of  the  cloth, 
and  the  other  to  roll  up  a  like  portion,  thereby  presenting  a  fresh  wiping  surface  below  the 
pad.  There  are  a  number  of  these  pads  extending  transversely  across  the  machine  so  as  to 
bear  the  cloths  upon  the  plate  as  the  latter  travels  beneath  them.  These  pads  were  given  a 
constant  transverse  reciprocating  motion,  so  that  the  cloths  were  rubbed  over  the  surface  of 
the  inked  plate  as  the  bed  moves  forward  into  the  plane  of  impression  with  the  cylinder.  The 
plate  is  kept  constantly  heated  by  gas  jets  burning  below  the  bed  ;  and  in  some  cases  one  or 
more  of  the  wiping  cloths  is  dampened  by  passing  the  cloth  through  a  water  trough,  the 


amount  of  water  absorbed  thereby  being  regulated  by  a  squeezing  roll  ;  and  finally  the  last 
pad,  or  the  one  nearest  the  impression  cylinder,  has  or  may  have  its  cloth  omitted  and  the  chalk 
applied  to  its  under  surface  so  as  to  give  the  final  polish  to  the  plate  just  before  printing  ; 
the  cloth  also  in  some  cases  is  employed  with  this  pad,  and  in  this  case  the  cloth  has  chalk 
automatically  applied  to  it  instead  of  to  the  pad.  The  sheets  to  be  printed  are  fed  by  a  girl 
from  the  usual  feed-board  to  the  grippers  of  the  impression  cylinder,  and  after  being  printed 
upon  are  delivered  in  the  usual  manner. 

This  flat-bed  plate-printing  machine  has  met  with  great  success  in  printing  many  difficult 


PRESSES,   DRAWING. 


665 


plates  entirely  automatic,  and  has  lately  been  used  by  the  United  States  Government  with 
great  success  for  printing  the  cigar  and  beer  internal  revenue  stamps,  which  are  considered  a 
very  severe  test  on  the  automatic  inking  and  wiping  features  of  the  machine. 

The  art  of  plate  printing  by  machinery  was  still  further  improved  by  the  introduction  by 
Mr.  Homer  Lee  of  his  rotary  machine  illustrated  in  Fig.  9.  In  this  machine  the  plate  is 
carried  by  one  of  the  cylinders,  over  which  the  wiping-pads  are  arranged,  the  other  cylinder 
being  the  impression  cylinder,  with  grippers  for  carrying  the  sheet  ;  and  the  smaller  cylinder 
is  the  delivery  cylinder,  also  having  grippers  which  take  the  printed  sheet  from  the  impression 
cylinder,  and  thence  by  the  tapes  and  fly  frame  is  delivered  onto  the  delivery  table  printed 
side  uppermost.  This  machine  embraces  all  the  various  adjustments  of  the  parts  necessary 
to  obtain  any  variation  in  inking,  wiping,  impression,  and  heating  of  the  plate  the  printer 
may  desire.  *  The  pads,  in  some  respects  similar  to  the  pads  in  the  other  machine,  are  also 
rendered  adjustable,  so  that  they  may  exert  any  degree  of  yielding  pressure  upon  the  plate, 
and  any  portion  of  the  pad  is  equally  capable  of  adjustment,  so  that  the  wiping  of  the  plate 
is  absolutely  within  the  control  of  the  pressman.  Two  of  the  pads  reciprocate  transversely 
across  the  plate  as  in  the  other  machine,  and  the  other  two  have  an  elliptical  motion  across 
the  plate,  this  motion  imitating  the  hand-wiping  operation  to  perfection.  The  cloths  are 
carried  by  the  rolls  arranged  at  the  top  of  the  machine,  and  are  carried  down  beneath  the 
wipers  and  back  up  to  the  winding-up  rolls.  In  this  machine  the  unwinding  rolls  are 
mounted  loosely  so  as  to  revolve  to  unwind  a  portion  of  the  cloth  when  it  is  drawn  upon  by 
the  winding-up  rolls,  which  are  all  moved  in  unison,  step  by  step,  but  to  different  extents,  if 
necessary,  by  a  reciprocating  longitudinal  bar  that  carries  short,  adjustable  inclines,  which 
move  under  their  respective  pawls,  and  thus  rotate  the  connected  ratchets  and  thence  the 
winding-up  rolls.  This  rotary  machine  has  been  used  recently  in  printing  postal  notes  for 
the  United  States  Government,  and  has  printed  in  one  week  as  many  as  70,000  sheets,  size 
18  x  18  in.,  containing  8  postal  notes  with  their  stubs,  which  is  considered  by  persons  familiar 
with  the  difficulties  of  plate  printing  by  power  as  a  most  credible  showing. 

PRESSES,  DRAWING.  SHEET  METAL.— Toggle  Drawing  Presses.— The  most  impor- 
tant recent  improvement  in  drawing  presses  is  the  perfecting  of  an  arrangement  for  operat- 
ing the  blank-holder  by  means  of  toggles,  which  entirely  dispenses  with  cams  of  any  descrip- 
tion. Two  rock  shafts 
are  placed  across  the 
back  and  front  of  the 
frame,  to  which  the 
blank-holder  yokes  are 
connected  by  toggle 
links.  These  rock 
shafts  are  opera  ted  from 
a  crank  on  the  outer 
end  of  the  main  shaft, 
by  a  peculiar  system  of 
link  work,  which  im- 
parts, through  the 
blank-holder,  a  much 
more  uniform  pressure 
to  the  blank  than  can 
be  maintained  in  cam 
drawing  presses.  The 
strain  arising  from  the 
pressure  put  upon  the 
blank  is  transferred 
through  the  straight- 
ened toggles  directly  to 
the  frame  of  the  press, 
instead  of  falling  on 
the  main  shaft,  thus 
relieving  entirely  the 
bearings  from  all  fric- 
tion and  wear  due  to 
the  blank  holding.  Bet- 
ter and  smoother  work, 
with  fewer  wasters, 
greater  durability,  and 
less  consumption  of 
power,  are  the  princi- 
pal advantages  gained 
through  this  toggle 
movement. 

In   presses    of    this 

type,  made  by  the  E.  W.  Bliss  Co.,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  the  main  frame  of  the  usual  sizes  is 
made  of  a  single  casting.  The  main  shaft  is  of  forged  steel,  with  a  crank  slotted  out  to 
operate  the  plunger.  This  plunger  is  guided  on  the  inside  of  the  blank-holder  slide  and 
connected  to  the  crank  by  a  pitman  with  steel  adjusting  screw,  provided  with  right  and 


FIG.  1. — Toggle  drawing  press. 


666 


PRESSES,   DRAWING. 


left-hand  ratchet  collars  for  quickly  adjusting  same.     The  adjustment  of  the  blank-holder 
is  made  by  means  of  four  steel  screws.      In  the  larger  sizes,  power  is  communicated  to  the 

back  shaft  through  a 
powerful  friction 
clutch,  which,  in  con- 
nection with  the  au- 
tomatic brake,  places 
the  movements  of  the 
press  entirely  under 
the  control  of  the  op- 
erator, so  that  the 
press  can  be  stopped 
and  started  instantly 
at  any  point  of  the 
stroke. 

Fig.  1  shows  one 
of  the  smaller  sizes  of 
press  made  by  the  E. 
W.  Bliss  Co.  This 
press  is  adapted  for 
operating  double-ac- 
tion dies  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brass,  tin, 
and  other  sheet-metal 
shells  not  exceeding 
3£  in.  in  diameter  or 
1^  in.  in  depth.  This 
includes  a  large  vari- 
ety of  lamp  and  burn- 
er work,  tin  boxes 
and  covers. 

Manufacturers  of 
metal  goods  of  various 
kinds  have  discovered 
that  many  articles 
which  have  heretofore 
been  produced  by 
casting  them,  or  by 
expensive  processes  of 
forging,  can  be  made 
by  the  process  of  cold  drawing,  provided  the  proper  machine  is  constructed,  and  the  tools 


FIG.  2.— Toggle  drawing  press. 


1       I  I 

PIG.  3.— Toggle  press.    Elevation. 


I-     i1        1 
FIG.  4.— Front  elevation. 


used  with  it  are  made  with  due  regard  to  the  behavior  of  the  metal  worked  in  the  drawing 
press.      Many  comparatively  thin  and  light  articles,  which  have  heretofore  been  cast,  are 


PRESSES,    DRAWING. 


667 


now  being  drawn  out  of  sheet  metal,  and  the  drawing  process  is  found  to  have  so  many 
advantages  peculiar  to  itself  that  the  limits  within  which  it  is  applied  are  constantly  being 

A  recent  example  is  afforded  by  the  machine  shown  in  Fig.  3,  designed  and  built  by  the 


tached  for  driving,  and  in  many  of  its  features  of  construction.  Pig.  2  gives  a  general  view 
of  the  machine,  and  Figs.  3  to"  8  show  some  of  the  details  of  construction  and  method  of 
operation  ;  Fig.  3  being  a  side  view;  Fig.  4  a  front  view  from  the  left  of  the  machine;  Fig. 
5  a  sectional  plan ;  and  Fig.  6  a  side  view  from  the  right  of  the  machine. 

The  machine  consists  essentially  of  a  heavy  base  in  two  parts,  upon  one  of  which  is  the 
upright  engine  for  driving,  and  the  clutch  mechanism,  while  from  the  other  portion  rise  the 

uprights  upon  which  are  the 
guides  for  the  blank-holder,  and 
which  support  the  crank  shaft  and 
other  mechanism  seen  at  the  top 
of  the  machine.  The  uprights 
are  connected  at  the  top  by  a 
heavy  beam,  which  crosses  from 
one  to  the  other  above  the  crank 
shaft.  They  are  not  subjected 
to  tensile  stress  during  the  work- 
ing of  the  machine,  this  stress  be- 


ing borne  by  the  four  bolts,  b,  b, 
b,   b,   Fig.    5,    which   are    5    in. 


FIG.  5.— Toggle  press.     Plan. 


diameter,  and  pass  through  the 
uprights  from  the  base  of  the  ma- 
chine to  the  top,  nuts  being  fitted 
at  top  and  bottom.  The  engrav- 
ing shows  the  machine  with  the  die  removed,  but  it  will  be  understood  that  this  is  secured 
to  the  base  of  the  machine  between  the  uprights,  and  may  be  of  any  desired  form  for  the 
work  to  be  done,  and  blanks  up  to  60  in.  by  38  in.  can  be 
worked.  At  the  four  corners  of  the  uprights  are  the  guides 
for  the  blank-holder,  B  (Figs.  4  and  5),  these  guides  being 
formed  in  part  by  the  plates,  c,  c,  c,  c.  which  are  bolted  tc 
the  uprights.  To  the  inner  sides  of  the  blank-holder  are 
secured  by  heavy  bolts  the  two  guides,  g,  g,  upon  which  the 
punch-slide  works.  The  latter  slide  derives  its  motion 
from  the  crank  shaft,  C,  Fig.  3,  which,  driven  at  a  uniform 
speed  by  means  of  the  large  gear,  G,  imparts  to  this  slide  a 
motion  analogous  to  that  of  the  piston  of  an  engine. 

At  the  left  of  the  machine,  attached  to  the  crank  shaft, 
is  the  crank,  A  (Fig.  4),  which  by  means  of  the  connection. 
D.  gives  vertical  motion  to  the  sliding  piece,  E,  which 
works  upon  the  angle  guide,  F.  At  the  top  of  the  sliding 
piece,  E,  and  at  either  side,  are  connected  the  short  links, 
H  (Fig.  8),  by  which  motion  is  imparted  to  the  cranks,  I 
(Fig.  4).  these  in  turn  actuating  the  two  auxiliary  crank 
shafts,  J,  J,  which  pass  along  at  either  side  of  the  main 
shaft.  C,  and  by  means  of  the  cranks,  K,  K,  and  their  con- 
nections, give  motion  to  the  blank-holder  slide.  These 
various  connections  operate  to  make  the  "dwell"  of  the 
blank-holder  shown  by  the  diagram,  Fig.  7,  at  the  time  the 
sliding  piece,  E,  is  at  and  near  the  upper  limit  of  its  motion, 
and  while  the  slide  carrying  the  punch  is  near  the  lower 
limit  of  its  motion,  which  is  when  the  actual  drawing  of  the 
blank  is  being  done.  The  diagram,  Fig.  7,  at  the  left  shows 
the  positions  of  the  various  parts  when  the  sliding  piece,  E, 
is  at  its  lowest  point,  and  the  blank-holder  raised  to  its  ex- 
treme height,  while  the  diagram  at  the  right  shows  the  various  positions  when  the  dwell  of 
the  blank-holder  is  just  beginning,  the  small  movement  of  the  sliding  piece  E,  during  this 
period,  acting  simply  to  swing  the  connections,  H.  H,  upon  their  centers,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  but  producing  no  perceptible  movement  of  the  blank-holder,  while  the  cranks, 
K,  K,  and  their  connections  being  in  the  same  straight  line,  which  is  the  line  of  thrust, 
the  moving  parts  are  relieved  of  all  strain,  thus  avoiding  undue  wear,  and  making  the 
full  power  of  the  machine  available  at  this  time,  just  when  it  is  needed  for  the  punch. 
One  object  in  making  the  piece,  E,  so  heavy  is  that  it  may  act  as  a  counterbalance  for  the 
other  moving  parts.  In  operation,  the  blank,  which  has  previously  been  punched  or  trimmed 
to  the  desired  size  and  shape,  is  placed  over  the  die,  and  the  blank-holder  then  first  descends 
in  advance  of  the  punch  until  it  rests  upon  the  blank,  and  exerts  a  heavy  pressure  all  around 
its  outer  edge.  The  punch  then  descends  and  forces  the  middle  portion  of  the  blank  into 
the  die,  drawing  the  metal  out  from  between  the  face  of  the  die  and  blank-holder,  which 


FIG.  6. — Toggle  press.    Elevation. 


668 


PRESSES,    FORGING. 


FIG.  7. — Press  diagram. 


by  its  pressure  prevents  any  kinking  or  buckling  of  the  sheet.     It  is  important  to  secure 

even  pressure  all  about  the  blank,  and  this  is  provided  for  by  making  the  blank-holder  in 

two  parts,  and  putting  in  the  four  screws,  a,  a,  a,  a,  one  of    which  being  placed   at  each 

corner  of  the  blank- holder,  and  provided  with 
suitable  nuts,  the  pressure  can  be  made  uni- 
form all  over  the  face  of  the  die.  These 
screws  serve  also  for  the  vertical  adjustment 
of  blank-holder  to  suit  different  dies,  the 
range  of  adjustment  provided  for  being  8  in. 
The  punch  can  also  be  adjusted  vertically  by 
turning  the  shaft  carrying  the  pinion,  d  (Fig. 
4),  which  engages  with  the  bevel  gear  shown, 
this  bevel  being  at  the  bottom  of  a  large 
screw  which  affects  the  movement  by  means 
of  a  slide  ;  the  four  bolts,  shown  above  the 
pinion  and  on  either  side  of  the  shaft,  bind- 
ing all  tightly  together  when  the  proper  adjust- 
ment has  been  made,  so  that  no  alteration  can  take  place  without  first  loosening  them. 

The  extent  of  this  movement  is  6  in.     The  long  connecting-rod  at  the  left  of  the  machine, 

and  extending  from  near  the  top  to  the  bottom,  gives 

motion  to  the  device  within  the  base,   by  which  the 

blank  is  forced  up  out  of  the  die  when  released  by  the 

blank-holder.     The   main  crank   shaft,    C,    is  11   in. 

diameter,  the  gear  which  is  keyed  to  it  at  the  right 

being   7   ft.    7   in.    diameter,  12  in.   face,  and   4  in. 

pitch.      It  is  driven  by  a  pinion  on  the  intermediate 

shaft,  the  large  intermediate  gear  being  driven  by  a 

pinion,  which  is  not  keyed  directly  to  the  engine  crank 

shaft,  but  to  a  sleeve  which  forms  a  portion  of  a  Hill 

friction  clutch,  by  which  the  motion  of  the  press  is 

controlled,  a  small  movement  of  the   lever   starting 

or  stopping   the  press    promptly  and  smoothly,    the 

clutch  being  so  arranged  that  the  movement  of  the 

lever  which  releases  it  applies  a  brake,  which  promptly 

arrests  the  motion,  and  thus  the  press  can  be  handled 

with  the  greatest  facility. 

The  engine  is  of  simple  construction,  has  a  plain 

slide  valve  with  throttling  governor,  and  has  the  crank- 
pin  for  actuating  the  valve  fixed  to  a  disk,  which  is 


FIG.  8.— Toggle  press.    Details. 


at  the  end  of  a  return  crank  attached  to  the  main  wrist-pin.  The  disk  is  so  mounted  upon 
the  return  crank  that  when  the  engine  is  turned  in  either  direction  by  hand,  the  disk  so 
adjusts  itself  by  turning  on  its  center  that  the  valve  is  set  for  running  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  engine  has  been  turned,  without  any  further  attention  being  required.  The 
cylinder  of  the  engine  is  12  x  14  in.  and  it  is  designed  to  run  250  revolutions  per  minute, 
which  gives  the  machine  a  speed  of  5  strokes  per  minute,  the  gearing  being  proportioned  50 
to  1.  The  press  stands  about  14  ft.  high  and  weighs  about  60  tons. 

PRESSES,  FORGING.  Hydraulic  Forging.— Mr.  W.  D.  Allen,  in  a  paper  read  before 
the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  in  1891,  describes  as  follows  a  hydraulic  forging  press  which  has 
been  in  operation  some  time  in  England,  and  has  proven  to  be  a  most  efficient  and  useful 
tool.  In  this  press  the  force  pump  and  the  large  or  main  cylinder  of  the  press  are  in  direct 
and  constant  communication.  There  are  no  intermediate  valves  of  any  kind,  nor  has  the 
pump  any  clack  valves,  but  it  simply  forces  its  cylinder  full  of  water  direct  into  the  cylinder 
of  the  press,  and  receives  the  same  water,  as  it  were,  back  again  on  the  return  stroke.  Thus, 
when  both  cylinders  and  the  pipe  connecting  them  are  full,  the  large  ram  of  the  press  rises 
and  falls  simultaneously  with  each  strpke  of  the  pump,  keeping  up  a  continuous  oscillating 
motion  ;  the  ram,  of  course,  traveling  the  shorter  distance,  owing  to  the  larger  capacity  of 
the  press  cylinder. 

The  press  and  pumps  are  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  The  top  and  bottom  portions  of  the 
framing,  A  A,  are  alike.  The  main  columns,  B  B,  are  hollow.  The  large  press  cylinder, 
D,  is  fitted  and  held  in  the  top  frame ;  the  anvil  block  rests  in  the  bottom  frame.  E  is 
the  main  ram.  F  is  a  steam-cylinder  with  piston,  the  piston-rod  of  which  is  attached  to  the 
shank  of  the  ram.  Gr  is  a  cross-head  working  in  guides,  thus  preventing  the  ram  from 
turning  round. 

The  force  pumps  are  "  duplex,"  the  ends  or  faces  of  the  two  plungers,  H  H,  advancing 
and  receding  to  and  from  each  other  simultaneously  at  each  stroke.  They  work  into  opposite 
ends  of  the  pump,  L  This  cylinder  is  simply  a  strong  tube.  The  two  plungers  are  worked 
by  a  three-throw  crank,  J,  the  two  side  throws  of  which  are  on  exactly  opposite  centers  to 
the  middle  throw.  The  two  side  throws  give  motion  to  the  plunger  furthest  from  the  crauk, 
in  which  case  the  strain  exerted  is  a  pull,  whilst  the  middle  throw  gives  motion  to  the  plunger 
nearest  to  the  crank,  and  the  strain  is  a  thrust  or  push.  As  before  observed,  a  free  communi- 
cation is  at  all  times  maintained  between  the  pump  cylinder  and  the  press  cylinder.  This  is 
done  through  the  pipe,  K,  and  when  all  are  full  of  water  and  the  engine  working,  an  ascend- 
ing and  descending  motion  is  imparted  to  the  press  ram  at  each  revolution  of  the  crank,  the 


PRESSES,    FORGING. 


669 


descending  motion  being  given  by  the  press  plungers,  H  H.  advancing  toward  each  other  and 
forcing  the  contents  of  the  pump  cylinder  into  the  press  cylinder,  the  ascending  motion 
taking  place  by  means  of  the  steam-piston,  which,  on  the  return  stroke,  raises  the  ram,  and 
forces  the  water  back  on  to  the  pump  plungers  as  they  recede  from  each  other ;  so  that  as 
long  as  there  is  no  waste  of  water  by  leakage,  and  its  quantity  is  not  increased  or  decreased, 
the  press  ram  will  continue  to  oscillate  at  the  same  distance  from  the  anvil,  and  could  only 
operate  on  work  of  that  exact  size.  The  ram  has  therefore  to  be  raised  or  lowered  to  suit  the 
various  requirements  of  work  in  hand,  and  to  effect  this  a  source  of  supply  of  water  under  a 
pressure  of  about  250  Ibs.  has  to  be  provided,  which,  when  admitted  into  the  press  cylinder, 
has  sufficient  force  to  overcome  the  power  of  the  steam  in  the  steam -cylinder,  sending  the 
steam  back  into  the  boilers.  By  this  means  the  ram  is  rapidly  brought  down  any  required 


FIGS.  1  and  2.— Hydraulic  forging  press. 


distance;  on  the  other  hand,  the  power  of  the  steam  immediately  raises  the  ram  upon  the 
water  being  allowed  to  escape. 

The  valve  used  for  the  rapid  admission  and  escape  of  water  becomes,  therefore,  rather  an 
important  feature,  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  It  consists  of  a  cylindrical  facing,  having  a 
hollow  cylindrical  valve  or  plunger,  working  endwise  through  hydraulic  leathers  :  at  each 
end  of  this  valve  or  plunger  very  fine  slits  are  sawn  lengthwise  through  its  sides  or  walls,  for 
allowing  of  the  admission  and  escape  of  water,  by  moving  the  valve  endwise  until  the  fine 
slits  pass  the  hydraulic  leather  ;  the  set  of  slits  at  one  end  of  the  valve  being  for  the  admis- 
sion of  water,  *and  those  at  the  other  for  the  escape.  L  is  the  casing  bored  through  and 
fitted  with  hydraulic  leather,  shown  in  section.  M  is  the  inlet,  N,  the  outlet,  and  0,  a 
passage  into  the  pipe,  K.  The  valve  is  capable  of  being  easily  moved  endwise.  It  is  hollow, 
with  a  solid  division  in  the  center,  the  hollow  portion  forming  a  sort  of  cup  on  each  side  of 
the  solid  part,  and  through  the  side  walls  of  these  cups  the  fine  slits  are  cut.  When  it  is 
desired  to  bring  the  press  ram  down,  the  valve  is  moved  endwise  to  the  left  until  the  fine 
slits  pass  the  hydraulic  leather, 
and  a  passage  is  thereby  opened 
from  the  inlet,  .If,  through  the 
slits,  and  water  is  admitted  into 
the  passage,  0,  and  then  on  to 
the  pipe,  K,  and  the  ram  at 
once  descends.  When  it  is  desired 
to  raise  the  ram  the  valve  is  raised 
to  the  right,  and  water  passes  out 
through  the  other  set  of  slits,  and 
away  by  the  outlet,  N,  and  the 
ram  at  once  ascends  by  the  action 
of  the  steam.  At  the  time  the 
slits  pass  the  leather  the  low  pres- 
sure only  is  in  operation,  and  at 
the  moment  of  impact  of  the  ram 
upon  the  work  the  valve  is  always 
in  its  neutral  position,  the  position  PIG.  3.— Forging  and  bending  machine. 


670 


PRESSES,  HAY   AND   COTTON. 


shown  in  the  diagram,  the  plain  body  of  the  central  portion  of  the  valve,  with  a  cup  leather 
on  each  side,  being  all  that  is  exposed  to  the  great  pressure. 

The  press  ram  makes  a  stroke  of  2£  in.,  and  its  diameter  is  30  in.,  so  that  at  a  pres- 
sure of  3  tons  per  sq.  in.  (deducting  the  area  of  the  shank)  we  have  a  power  of  1,700 
tons. 

A  Forging  and  Sending  Machine,  of  novel  form,  made  by  Williams,  White  &  Co.,  of 
Moline,  111.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  cut  shows  it  as  arranged  with  dies  for  bending  arch 
bars  for  freight  cars.  The  machine  is  a  horizontal  press,  of  massive  proportions,  adapted 
to  be  used  with  a  great  variety  of  forms  and  dies  which  can  be  changed  at  pleasure.  The 
cross-head  moves  back  and  forth  on  the  bed.  The  pitmans  are  driven  by  wrist-pins  attached 
to  the  main  gears,  of  which  there  are  two— one  on  each  side  of  the  bed.  By  this  method  both 
ends  of  the  cross-head  move  the  same  distance  in  the  same  time. 

Forging  Compressed  Steel  for  Guns,  Shafts,  etc. — In  order  to  overcome  the  want  of 
soundness  in  steel  when  cast 'and  forged  in  large  masses,  Sir  Joseph  Whitworth,  at  his 
works  near  Manchester,  Eng.,  introduced  the  system  of  consolidating  the  steel  ingots 
while  fluid  under  hydraulic  pressure,  and  then  forging  them  on  a  mandrel  by  a  hydraulic 
press. 

A  gradually  increasing  pressure  up  to  6  or  8  tons  per  sq.  in.  is  applied,  and  within  half 
an  hour  or  less  after  the  application  of  the  pressure  the  column  of  fluid  steel  is  shortened  1| 
in.  per  foot,  or  one-eighth  of  its  length;  the  pressure  is  then  kept  on  for  several  hours, 
the  result  being  that  the  metal  is  compressed  into  a  perfectly  solid  and  homogeneous 
material. 

The  same  system  has  been  recently  adopted  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  and  Steel  Works, 
U.  S.  A.,  and  by  a  number  of  works  in  England.  Open-hearth  steel  is  generally  used.  The 
mode  of  working  is  thus  described  by  E.  H.  Carbutt,  in  his  presidential  address  before  the 
Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  May,  1887  : 

An  ingot  of  the  requisite  size  up  to  65  tons  is  cast  either  round,  or  square,  or  hexagonal, 
according  to  the  views  and  experience  of  each  steel  maker.  The  hexagonal  form,  with  sides 
slightly  curved  concave,  is  preferable,  because  the  sides  can  then  follow  the  shrinkage  of 
the  material  in  cooling,  and  thus  prevent  internal  rupture  of  the  metal.  The  ingot,  being 
upright  during  casting,  is  cast  longer  than  necessary,  so  as  to  get  the  effect  of  a  head  to 
allow  for  the  steel  shrinking  as  it  cools ;  the  head  is  afterwards  cut  off  in  a  lathe.  The 
ingot  in  cooling  drives  the  carbon  to  the  center,  so  that  when  cold  it  is  found  that 
although  the  steel  on  the  outside  is  mild  enough  for  a  gun  forging,  the  center  is  hard  enough 
for  tool  steel,  containing  0'8  per  cent,  of  carbon.  This  hard  center  is  then  bored  out  of  the 
ingot,  until  the  test  shows  that  the  inside  of  the  annular  ring  contains  the  same  percentage 
of  carbon  as  the  outside.  The  center  being  bored  out  allows  an  internal,  as  well  as  an  exter- 
nal, examination  of  the  ingot.  The  hydraulic  press  is  then  brought  into  play  on  the  annular 
ring,  with  the  full  advantage  of  being  able  to  forge  on  a  mandrel.  The  amount  of  material 
which  is  cut  off  and  bored  out  of  the  ingot  is  so  large  that  it  leaves  the  forging  only  one-half 
to  two-thirds  the  weight  of  the  ingot.  This  loss  of  material  accordingly  adds  to  the  cost  of 
the  forging. 

The  hydraulic  forging  presses  vary  in  power,  working  at  2^  to  3  tons  pressure  per  sq.  in., 
and  having  steel  cylinders  from  35  to  40  in.  diameter,  with  4£  to  7^  ft.  stroke.  In  several  of 
them  the  head  which  contains  the  cylinder  is  movable,  so  that  in  forging  a  large  mass  the 
cylinder  is  lifted  up  and  only  a  short  stroke  is  necessary.  The  presses  are  worked  direct  by 
large  pumping  engines,  without  the  intervention  of  an  accumulator,  the  engines  running  only 
while  the  press  is  at  work.  The  cranes  all  have  an  arrangement  for  turning  the  porter-bar, 
so  that  the  forging  is  rotated  between  the  blows  of  the  press.  There  can  be  no  question  that 
the  introduction  of  the  hydraulic  forging  press  has  been  a  great  means  of  overcoming  the 
difficulty  of  making  large  steel  forgings.  The  pressure  is  so  great  and  so  equal  throughout 
that  the  steel  in  the  center  of  the  ingot  is  worked  at  the  same  rate  as  the  outside  ;  that  is, 
while  an  ordinary  steam  hammer  would  draw  the  outside  only  and  leave  the  centre  un- 
worked,  thus  bringing  about  internal  strains  in  the  steel,  the  press  acts  on  the  whole  mass 
equally  throughout. 

PRESSES,  HAY  AND  COTTON,    Hay-baling  presses  are  operated  by  steam-power  or  by 


The  Dederick  press. 


FIG.  2. 


horses,  and  are  made  in  some  variety,  but  all  on  the  plan  of  compressing  small  charges  in 
detail  consecutively  into  a  long,  horizontal,  square-cornered  box  by  strokes  of  a  reciprocating 


PRESSES,  HAY   AND   COTTON. 


671 


PIG.  4.— Hay  bale. 


traverser.  Fig.  1,  which  represents  the  Dederick  press,  shows  the  bale  begun,  the  traverser 
shot  home,  an  overlap  of  hay  from  the  charge  last  before 
pressed,  and  a  fresh  charge"  in  the  hopper  above.  Fig.  2 
shows  the  traverser  withdrawn,  the  overlap  of  hay  folded 
down  by  the  spring  top  to  level  the  top  face  of  the  bale, 
and  the"  fresh  charge  of  hay  rammed  down  to  receive 
the  next  stroke  of  the  traverser.  Fig.  3  is  a  section 
of  the  bale  of  hay  as  it  may  be  peeled  from  the  end  of  a 
completed  bale  convenient  for  feeding.  Fig.  4  is  a  com- 
plete bale  ready  to  ship.  While  the  bale  is  compressed 
in  the  press-box  of  the  machine,  several  metal  ties 
or  bale  bands  are  passed  around  it  lengthwise,  but 

transversely  to  its  series  of  layers,  and  along  grooves  on  the  inner  faces  of  the  com- 
pressing surfaces  of  the  movable  bulkheads  in  the  press-box,  and  the  ends  are 

then  looped  and  fastened  to  retain  the  mass  in  a 

firm  parallelepiped  of  convenient  size  and  dense 

enough  to  load  railway   cars   to   their   weight 

capacity.     Numerous  ingenious  bale  ties  have 

been  invented  for  this   purpose.     One  of   the 

latest  and  best  devices  is  that  devised  by  Mr.  J. 

Wool  Griswold,  and  manufactured  by  Griswold 

Bros. ,  of  Troy,  N.  Y.    The  bale  band  is  of  wire, 

having  in  one  end   an  eye  in  which  is  received 

thimble-fashion  a  V-shaped  saddle.     After  the 

band  is  put  around  the  bale,  the  end  is  passed 

through  the  saddle.     When  strain  is  applied, 

the  wire  jams  in  the  angle  of  the  saddle,  and  at 

the  same  time  the  saddle  being  compressed  in 

the  eye,  closes  tightly  upon  the  wire.     Fig.  5  is 

an  improved  form  of  hay  press  constructed  of 

steel.     The  loose  hay  is  introduced  as  fast  as  a 

man  can  pitch  it  into  a  self-feeder,  and,  when  tied,  is  emitted  at  the  open  end.     The  duty  is 

claimed  as  20  or  30  tons  a  day,  according  to  power  applied.    In  the  Whitman  hay-baling  press, 

the  plunger  rebounds  automatically  after  each  operative  stroke.     The  horse  makes  a  tour  to 


FIG.  5.— Hay  press. 


FIG.  6.— Hay-baling  press. 


press  each  charge  of  hay.    The  latter  is  introduced  by  an  attendant,  when  the  trap-door  (seen 
in  Fig.  6),  on  top,  automatically  falls  open.     The  plunger,  automatically  released  by  a  latch, 


FIG. 


Cotton-baling  press. 


FIG.  8. 


is  thrown  back  to  initial  position  by  the  expansive  force  of  the  compressed  hay,  providing 
an  empty  space  in  the  press-box  for  receipt  of  a  fresh  charge.     The  bales  may  be  made  any- 


672 


PROJECTILES. 


where  from  1  ft.  to  5  ft.  long.  With  one  horse  6  tons,  or  with  two  horses  8  tons,  may  be 
baled  in  a  day.  The  bales  made  by  these  presses  load  and  stow  with  economy  of  labor  and 
space,  and  hi  use  the  layers  of  hay  are  neatly  separable.  Recent  rapid  adoption  of 
high-speed,  reliable  hay-baling  presses 
has  caused  a  decided  change  in  methods 
of  handling  the  great  hay  crop  of  the 
country,  by  making  it  an  extremely  avail- 
able shipping  commodity,  extending  areas 
of  consumption,  and  steadily  shifting 
areas  of  production  westward  in  the  [[  \- 

United  States,  to  the  prolific,  grass- 
growing  prairie  regions  where  the  broad, 
level  stretches  of  land  are  peculiarly 
suited  to  the  use  of  machinery.  ^  FlG-  ^.-Cotton-baling  press. 

Cotton  Press. — Dederick   makes  a  press  on  the  same  detail  ramming  plan,  for  baling 

cotton  on  the  home  plantation 
or  elsewhere.  Its  operation 
is  exhibited  in  Figs.  7,  8,  and 
9.  It  does  away  with  the  usual 
necessity  of  re-pressing  for 
ocean  shipment,  as  it  produces 
extraordinarily  condensed 
bales,  straight -edged  and  flat- 
sided,  without  bilge  or  any  ex- 
pansion when  released.  As 
compared  with  cotton  treated 
by  the  customary  pressing  and 
repressing,  claims  are  made 
that  the  fiber  of  the  cotton 
pressed  in  the  Dederick  press  is 
less  crushed,  as  the  detail  com- 
pression  admits  of  a  lower 
maximum  of  pressure,  and 
that  the  work  is  more  rapidly 
doneand  is  less  expensive.  The 
capacity  of  a  press  is  400  or 
more  of  "  quarter  "  bales  daily. 
The  average  weight  of  a  bale 
is  125  Ibs.,  and  measurement 
12  x  15x30  in. =5,400  cub.  in. 
The  ordinary  500-lb.  bales,  to 
be  equally  condensed,  would 
measure  but  21,600  cub.  in., 
whereas  they  are  stated  as  a 
matter  of  fact  to  exceed  33,000 
cub.  in.,  average,  even  after  re- 
pressing. It  should  be  added 
that  the  new  quarter  bales  come 


PIG.  10.— The  "quarter" 


apart,  when  opened  at  the  mill,  in  sections  suitable  for  the  picker.  They  may,  if  desired,  be 
ejected  by  the  press  directly  into  sacks  or  covers.  Fig.  10  illustrates  size  and  shape  of  a 
"  quarter"  bale  in  comparison  with  a  man. 

PROJECTILES.  (See  also,  ARMOR;  ORDNANCE;  GUN,  PNEUMATIC.)  Material.— A  little 
more  than  twelve  years  ago  chilled  cast-iron  projectiles  were  considered  all  that  could 
be  desired  for  work  upon  the  wrought-iron  armor  of  that  period,  and,  in  fact,  an  extensive 
series  of  experiments  made  in  England  tended  to  prove  that  against  this  type  of  armor  the 
chilled  iron  was  fully  equal  to  the  steel  shell  in  normal,  while  it  was  slightly  superior  in 
oblique  fire.  These  experiments  also  included  tests  of  chilled-iron  projectiles  against  steel 
plates,  with  the  result  of  a  decision  being  reached  that  "steel  shell  are  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  attack  of  steel-faced  armor."  France  and  Germany  were  the  earliest  in  the  field 
with  steel  armor-piercing  projectiles. 

In  the  first-named  country  several  concerns  are  engaged  in  shell  making,  each  practicing 
some  special  mode  of  treatment,  or  using  some  particular  chemical  combination.  At  Terre 
Noire,  for  example,  the  steel  is  oil  hardened,  but  not  forged,  and  the  quality  varies  in  dif- 
ferent projectiles,  being  softest  in  the  largest  calibers;  but  the  degree  of  hardening  varies 
also,  so  that  the  final  product  possesses  nearly  the  same  degree  of  hardness  in  all  cases.  St. 
Chamond  projectiles  are  generally  made  of  crucible  steel,  forged,  and  oil  hardened;  but  here 
the  quality  of  the  steel  is  the  same  for  all  calibers,  and  the  hardening  process  differs.  That 
for  the  34-cmt.  shell  is  described  as  follows:  The  projectile  is  brought  to  a  cherry-red  heat 
throughout,  plunged  in  oil,  and  kept  immersed  until  cold;  it  is  then  brought  again  to  a 
cherry-red  and  dipped  in  cold  water  as  far  as  the  front  band,  where  it  is  kept  eight  or  ten 
minutes;  finally  it  is  wholly  immersed  in  oil  until  cold. 

Krupp  projectiles  are  of  crucible  steel,  and  the  final  process  is  oil  hardening ;  it  is  said 
that  a  file  will  not  bite  anywhere  on  the  surface.  The  use  of  steel  has  lately  been 


PROJECTILES.  673 


extended  to  the  manufacture  of  common  and  shrapnel  shell  also ;  the  thickness  of  the  shell 
walls  is  thereby  greatly  reduced,  while  retaining  all  the  strength  of  the  cast-iron  projectile, 
so  that  the  interior  capacity  for  bursting  charge  or  bullets,  and  consequently  the  efficiency 
of  the  shell,  has  been  correspondingly  increased.  The  projectiles  are  generally  made  of  cast- 
steel,  but  in  England  the  difficulty  of  procuring  sound  small  castings  led  to  the  introduction 
of  forged  steel  for  the  smaller  calibers,  and  the  superiority  of  these  over  the  cast-steel  ones 
was  so  marked  that  they  are  now  made  for  all  calibers. 

In  this  country  cast-iron  shell  have  been  produced  with  facility  at  the  various  government 
establishments  for  a  number  of  years.  The  efforts  to  obtain  cast-steel  shell  were  long  unsuc- 
cessful, the  first  samples  being  all  rejected  on  account  of  imperfections  in  castings.  For  the 
past  two  years,  however,  the  specimens  submitted  have  passed  inspection,  and  the  certainty 
of  the  necessary  supply  is  now  guaranteed.  An  attempt  has  also  been  made  to  produce 
chrome  steel  of  domestic  make  suitable  for  armor-piercing  projectiles,  but  nothing  altogether 
satisfactory  resulted  until  quite  recently.  Now  it  is  thought  that  in  the  Carpenter  projectiles, 
by  adopting  methods  of  manufacture  that  originated  in  this  country,  rather  than  those  that 
are  used  in  France,  the  requirements  of  the  French  standard  have  not  only  been  reached 
but  surpassed.  The  armor- piercing  projectiles  are  all  carefully  turned  and  gauged,  which 
renders  them  very  much  more  expensive  than  common  shell. 

Armor-piereing  Projectiles.— The  armor-piercing  projectiles  of  the  Holtzer  and  Firminy 
processes  have  been  used  in  all  of  the  principal  armor-plate  trials,  and  are  still  considered 
imequaled  by  England,  France,  Russia,  and  Spain.  With  these  sharp-pointed  projectiles 
the  only  object  sought  has  been  penetration  on  normal  impact,  and  but  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  effects  of  blows  delivered  at  sharp  angles.  The  most  important  tests  of 
such  effects  were  carried  out  several  years  ago  at  the  naval  ordnance  proving  ground  with 
projectiles  having  heads  of  various  shapes,  but  as  yet  the  results  have  apparently  been  put  to 
no  practical  use.  The  decided  results  obtained  at  late  armor  trials  have  caused  some  little 
discussion  as  to  the  practicability  of  using  flatter-headed  projectiles  for  oblique  attack  on 
armor. 

The  devices  used  for  securing  rifling  have  undergone  various  changes  during  recent  years, 
as  the  muzzle-loading  methods  have  been  forced  to  give  way  to  the  more  modern  breech 
loaders.  Studded  projectiles  having  buttons  or  flanges,  which  followed  the  grooves  in  the 
gun,  were  very  popular  abroad,  whereas  in  this  country  we  preferred  expanding  rings  at  the 
base  of  the  projectile.  These  rings  carried  an  annular  groove  in  which  the  powder  gases 
acted  in  such  a  manner  that  they  forced  the  outer  portion  of  the  ring  into  the  rifling  grooves, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  caused  the  ring  itself  to  more  closely  grasp  the  shell.  In  breech  load- 
ing guns  there  is  a  band  of  soft  metal  about  the  projectile  which  makes  it  a  little  larger  in 
diameter  than  the  caliber  of  the  gun ;  the  powder  gases  force  this  band  to  take  the  grooves, 
and,  by  this  means,  the  twist  is  imparted  to  the  projectile. 

Projectiles  against  Armor. — It  is  worthy  of  note  that  with  the  improvement  of  the  steel 
projectile,  the  steel  face  of  compound  armor  became  more  and  more  hardened,  and  carbon 
was  added  until  there  was  40  per  cent,  more  used  in  1888  than  had  formerly  been  thought 
necessary.  When  the  Holtzer  projectiles  were  tried  in  England,  in  March,  1887,  the  excellent 
results  obtained  were  claimed  to  be  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  plate  was  of  inferior 
quality,  and  a  new  trial  came  off  in  October  of  the  same  year,  the  target  being  the  best  16-in. 
compound  plate  that  could  be  made.  It  was  in  fact  the  second  half  of  the  plate  that  had  so 
successfully  withstood  the  attacks  of  Firminy  projectiles  in  the  early  part  of  the  year.  The 
projectile  weighed  714  Ibs. ;  the  plate  was  broken  into  two  parts,  and  cracks  were  devel- 
oped all  over  its  surface.  When  removed  from  the  target- backing  the  shell  was  intact,  and 
so  little  deformed  that,  apparently,  it  could  have  been  fired  again.  A  Palliser  shot  fired 
under  similar  conditions  to  a  Holtzer  was  shattered  into  fragments. 

A  lot  of  300  Holtzer  6-in.  shell  were  fired  at  Shoeburyness  against  a  Brown  9-in.  compound 
plate.  The  first  shell  perforated  the  plate  without  further  injury  than  a  slight  cracking  in 
the  head;  the  second  failed  to  get  through,  and,  breaking  off  at  the  front  band,  rebounded 
12  yards.  As  the  requirements  were  that  test  shell  should  pass  through  a  9-in.  compound 
plate  practically  undeformed,  the  lot  was  rejected.  A  former  lot  had,  however,  passed  the 
test,  as  did  some  Holtzer  steel  projectiles  fired  against  Creusot  plates  5.5  in.  thick. 

Early  in  1888,  projectiles  13.5  in.  in  caliber,  weighing  1,250  Ibs.,  were  fired  against 
Cammell  plates  18  in.  thick.  The  first  shot  against  this  plate  was  a  Firminy  shell  and  was 
completely  broken  up.  A  St.  Chamond  projectile  was  fired  against  a  Brown  plate  during  the 
same  series  of  trials,  and  was  also  broken  up.  Firing  against  a  Brown  9-in.  plate  was  tried 
later  in  the  same  year,  Firminy  6-in.  shells  being  used.  The  two  test  shells  passed  through 
the  plate  and  were  but  slightly  cracked  and  deformed.  An  armor-piercing  trial  with  St. 
Chamond  12-in.  projectiles  took  place  in  Russia;  the  plate  was  of  the  Wilson  patent,  but 
made  in  Russia.  Although  the  plate  was  fractured,  the  shot  did  not  get  through;  the  point 
barely  pierced  the  plate,  leaving  the  base  projecting  from  the  other  side,  the  surface  of  the 
projectile  being  badly  cracked  in  all  directions. 

In  1890  there  were  two  important  trials  of  projectiles  versus  armor:  the  first  in  this  country 
at  Annapolis,  and  the  second  at  Ochta,  in  Russia.  At  the  former  the  energy  of  the  6-in. 
Holtzer  armor- piercing  projectile  was  a  little  more  than  sufficient  to  just  perforate  the  steel 
plate.  The  other  two  plates  used  were  a  nickel-steel  and  a  compound  armor.  There 
were  twelve  6-in.  100-lb.  projectiles  fired,  four  at  each  plate,  with  the  following  results  : 
The  first  shot  fired  at  the  steel  plate  was  not  materially  injured,  its  base  projected  6'5  in. 
from  the  plate;  the  second  penetrated  but  rebounded,  and  was  found  to  be  shortened  10  of 
43 


674  PKOJEOTILES. 


an  inch;  the  third  did  the  same,  and  was  shortened  .14  of  an  inch  ;  the  fourth  acted  in  the 
same  manner,  but  was  broken  up.  The  compound  plate  let  the  first  three  through  without 
injury  to  the  projectiles,  but  the  fourth  broke  after  perforation.  The  body  of  the  first  shell 
fired  at  the  nickel-steel  remained  in,  but  the  rear  enu  rebounded;  the  second  remained  intact 
in  the  plate  ;  the  third  the  same,  excepting  that  the  base  projected  4 -5  in.;  while  the  fourth 
broke,  leaving  its  head  in  the  plate,  the  rear  portion  rebounded.  A  fifth  shot  was  fired  at 
each  plate,  the  projectile  being  an  8-in.  Firth-Firminy.  The  one  fired  at  the  steel  plate 
penetrated,  rebounded,  and  broke  in  three  pieces.  The  nickel-steel  let  the  projectile  enter, 
but  broke  it  5*25  in.  from  the  face  of  the  plate,  part  of  the  head  remaining  in  the  hole.  The 
shell  fired  at  the  compound  plate  was  recovered  entire,  but  was  shortened  0-24  in. ;  much  of 
the  plate  was  damaged,  the  hardened  front  portion  was  scaled  off  in  a  number  of  large  and 
small  pieces. 

In  the  Ochta  trials  the  first  two  projectiles  used  were  of  poor  quality,  but  the  last  three 
were  excellent,  and  a  comparison  with  their  performance  against  a  Vicker's  plate  and  the 
Schneider  steel  plate  at  Annapolis  shows  that  in  the  former  the  points  of  the  three  projectiles 
penetrated  7,11,  and  4  in.  beyond  the  back  of  the  plate,  while  in  the  latter  the  penetrations  of 
the  four  6-in.  projectiles  beyond  the  back  of  the  plate  were  respectively  2 '75,  2  4,  2'0,  and  2 '4 
in.  Against  the  nickel-steel  10-in.  plate  the  Holtzer  6-in.  shot  first  fired  penetrated  9  in., 
and  rebounded,  broken  in  two  ;  the  second  penetrated  8|  in.,  and  rebounded,  broken  in  three 
pieces;  the  third  went  in  ll|in.,  and  rebounded  unbroken;  while  the  fourth  entered  9|  in. 
and  broke  in  two.  The  first  at  the  compound  plate  entered  13*2  in.  and  remained  entire  in 
the  hole ;  the  second  did  likewise ;  the  third  perforated  plate  and  backing,  and  was  found 
unbroken  817  yards  to  the  rear  ;  and  the  fourth  was  intact  933  yards  to  the  rear.  The  two 
nickel-steel  plates  differed  somewhat  in  constitution,  containing  unequal  proportions  of  nickel, 
which  will  account  for  the  different  effect  upon  the  projectiles. 

The  most  important  struggle  between  armor  and  projectiles  in  this  country  took  place 
in  1891  at  the  new  naval  proving  grounds  at  Indian  Head,  on  the  Potomac  River.  In 
this  the  plates  were  of  domestic  manufacture,  and  a  portion  of  the  projectiles  used  were 
also  made  in  this  country.  Six  plates  were  used,  four  6-in.  and  one  8-in.  projectile  being 
fired  at  each  plate  under  circumstances  similar  to  the  trials  already  referred  to.  The 
general  result  to  the  projectiles  was  in  the  main  like  that  of  the  trials  at  Annapolis,  and  a 
positive  proof  was  given  of  our  ability  to  improve  on  original  designs  and  to  obtain  in  this 
country  all  the  armor-piercing  shell  that  we  need. 

The  Carpenter  projectiles  are  made  of  chrome-steel,  after  the  Firminy  process;  that  is,  all 
of  the  patents  covering  that  process  were  purchased  for  use  in  this  country  ;  but  something 
better  was  expected,  as  the  conditions  of  the  armor  were  changed  first  from  steel  to  nickel- 
steel,  and  then  from  the  ordinary  methods  of  hardening  to  the  adoption  of  the  Harvey  system." 
Consequently  experiments  were  started  in  hardening  the  head  of  armor-piercing  shell,  and 
departures  were  as  a  natural  sequence  found  necessary.  The  tempering  does  not  run  to  the 
same  extreme  throughout  the  shell,  as  the  thinner  walls  about  the  powder  chamber  would 
not  stand  the  treatment  and  maintain  the  desired  degree  of  efficiency  ;  the  head,  and  as  far 
down  as  the  chamber  will  admit,  are  treated,  and  the  projectiles  have  thus  far  answered  every 
demand.  They  are  delivered  in  lots  of  100  each,  two  out  of  every  lot  being  taken  as  samples. 

Common  steel  shell  are  being  made  by  two  different  processes,  one  in  which  they  are 
pressed  into  shape  by  means  of  dies,  and  the  other  by  the  use  of  electric  welding.  In  the 
former  the  shell  are  made  from  a  cylindrical  billet  of  steel,  which  is  heated  and  put  through 
a  series  of  dies  and  presses,  which  hollow  it,  draw  the  sides  of  this  cup-shaped  hollow  to 
form  the  powder  chamber,  point  it,  leaving  a  hole  at  the  apex  for  the  insertion  of  the  fuze  ; 
shape  the  powder  chamber  inside ;  and  when  the  operation  is  finished  nothing  remains  but  to 
cut  the  screw-thread  for  the  receipt  of  the  fuze.  These  projectiles  can  be  turned  out  in  any 
quantities  desired,  and  at  a  far  less  cost  than  the  armor-piercing  type  which  are  turned  by 
machinery.  The  method  above  described  has  been  in  use  abroad  for  some  years,  but  the 
machinery  as  adopted  in  this  country  has  undergone  considerable  change  from  the  original. 

The  Wheeler -Sterling  Shell. — A  new  armor-piercing  steel  shell,  named  the  Wheeler-Ster- 
ling, and  hardened  by  a  process  that  is  at  present  kept  a  secret,  has  recently  given  such 
excellent  results  that  a  number  of  the  projectiles  are  being  made  for  naval  use.  A  6-in.  shell, 
weighing  100  Ibs.,  was  recently  fired  through  a  high-carbon  steel  armor  plate  ll|  in.  thick. 
The  shortening  after  this  severe  ordeal  was  but  0*38  in.,  and  the  enlargement  0*23  in.  The 
point  was  not  at  all  distorted,  nor  was  there  a  scratch  to  mar  the  surface  from  point  to  base. 
This  is  the  first  American  armor-piercing  shell  made  after  an  American  patent  and  process, 
and  the  result  is  quite  remarkable. 

Rapid-fire  Projectiles. — The  projectiles  for  rapid-fire  artillery,  besides  being  made  by 
the  well-known  methods  of  making  shell  and  shrapnel,  are  now  made  also  by  the  electric 
welding  process.  Iron  tubing  is  cut  in  suitable  lengths,  and  to  this  are  welded  steel  heads 
and  bases.  Experiments  on  the  proving  ground  with  projectiles  of  this  type  have  proved 
them  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  ;  and  it  is  now  thought  that  the  larger-calibered 
shell  for  ordinary  service  can  be  made  by  the  same  method.  The  rapidity  and  compara- 
tive cheapness  with  which  shells  made  in  this  way  can  be  turned  out  recommend  the  pro- 
cess, which,  at  present,  bids  fair  to  displace  all  other  methods  of  manufacturing  ordinary  shell 
and  shrapnel  for  quick-fire  guns.  (See  WELDING,  ELECTRIC.) 

Hotchkiss  Projectiles. — The  Hotchkiss  guns  are  furnished  with  ammunition  made  espe- 
cially for  their  guns,  and  it  is  of  three  kinds  :  Cast-iron  shell,  steel  shell,  and  case-shot. 
The  two  former  have  the  same  general  appearance,  and  are  of  the  cylindrical  ogival  type  ; 


PROJECTILES. 


675 


the  point  of  the  steel  shell  is  sharply  pointed,  and  the  fuze  is  inserted  in  the  base  ;  the  cast- 
iron  shell  has  a  percussion  fuze  fitted  to  the  front  end,  which  is  truncated  to  form  a  seat.  A 
number  of  grooves  are  cut  around  the  body  of  the  projectile,  and  over  these  is  forced  a  sheet- 
brass  belt.  When  the  gun  is  fired  this  belt  is  forced  into  the  grooves,  and  gives  the  rifling 
motion  to  the  projectile.  Both  classes  of  shell  are  shaped  with  great  care  and  turned  true  ; 
those  of  steel  are  tempered.  The  case-shot  consists  of  a  shell  of  thin  brass  filled  with  lead 
balls,  the  intervening  spaces  being  filled  with  sawdust. 

Calibers  and  Projectiles,    U.  S.  Guns. 


"S3 

! 

f 

>> 

V- 

Nature  of  Gun. 

I 

a. 

§ 

P 

^=® 

* 

0 

1 

| 

5^5 

1 

1 

f 

3 

I 

1 

I 

I 

|l| 

0 

* 

*?- 

Breech-loading  Rifles. 

In. 

Lbs. 

Ft. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ft.  sec. 

Ft.  tons. 

In. 

4-in  Mark  I                

4 

3,380 

13'7 

12-14 

33 

2,000 

915 

7-18 

4-in.  Rapid  Fire  

4 

3,400 

13-7 

12-14 

33 

u 

5-in.  Mark  I  

5 

6,190 

13  5 

26-29 

60 

" 

1,660 

8-67 

5-in.  Rapid  Fire  

5 

7,000 

17-4 

28-30 

50 

2,250 

1,754 

9-00 

6-in  Mark  I 

6 

10,775 

15'8 

50 

100 

2,000 

2,773 

10*27 

6-in.  Mark  II  

6 

10,900 

45-48 

6  in.  Mark  III.,  30  cals.... 

6 

10,800 

16'3 

44-47 

M 

41 

M 

M 

6  in.  Mark  III.,  35  "    

6 

11,554 

18-8 

** 

M 

2,080 

2,990 

10-86 

6-in.  Mark  III.,  40  "    

6 

13,370 

21-3 

M 

M 

2,150 

3,204 

11-38 

8-in  Mark  I 

8 

27,600 

21'5 

105 

250 

2,000 

6,932 

14-51 

8-in.  Mark  1  

8 

28,800 

115 

M 

8-in.  Mark  II  

8 

29.100 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

44 

8-in.  Mark  III.,  35  cals...  . 

8 

29,400 

25-4 

** 

(i 

M 

7,498 

15-61 

8-in.  Mark  III.,  40    "    .... 

8 

34,000 

28-7 

" 

M 

2,150 

8,011 

16-10 

10-in.  Mark  I.,   30  cals.  ... 

10 

.       57,500 

27-4 

225-224 

500 

2,000 

13,864 

18-75 

10-in.  Mark  I.,  35     "    

10 

f    60,660  | 
\    63,100  f 

30-5 

" 

" 

2,080 

14,996 

19-83 

10-in.  Mark  II..  30     "    

10 

56,400 

27-4 

" 

" 

2,000 

13,864 

18-75 

10-in.  Mark  II.;  35     "    

10 

61,900 

31-2 

" 

u 

2,100 

15,285 

20-10 

12-in  Mark  I                

12 

101,300 

36'8 

425 

850 

n 

25,985 

24-16 

13-in   Mark  I 

13 

135,500 

40'0 

550 

1100 

M 

33,627 

29-66 

High-explosive  Projectiles. — In  addition  to  the  dynamite  gun  projectiles  (see  TORPEDOES) 
there  have  been  numerous  experiments  made  to  devise  a  method  for  the  safe  projection  of 
high  explosives.  In  1887  experiments  were  made  at  Sandy  Hook  with  steel  shell  of  service 
pattern,  but  provided  with  a  large  base  opening  for  convenience  of  loading  ;  the  weight  of 
each,  including  the  bursting  charge  of  2  '3  Ibs.  of  dynamite,  was  about  122  Ibs.  The  weight 
of  powder  charge  was  23  Ibs.  The  Graydon  method  of  charging  shell  consists  in  subdividing 
the  bursting  charge  into  small  pellets,  each  enclosed  in  a  separate  envelope,  which  is  treated 
with  paraffine.  The  interior  of  the  shell  is  carefully  lined  with  asbestos.  The  fuze  is  com- 
posed of  a  funnel-shaped  vessel  of  sheet  metal,  having  its  large  end  in  contact  with  or  close 
to  the  front  wall  of  the  projectile,  while  its  rear  end  sits  over  the  fuze  proper,  a  cylindrical 
tube  filled  with  powder  and  armed  in  front  with  a  percussion  cap.  Seven  rounds  were 
fired  at  a  section  of  a  wrought-iron  turret,  14  in.  in  thickness,  and  made  up  of  two  7-in.  plates  ; 
each  of  these  was  divided  horizontally  into  two  sections,  so  disposed  as  to  break  joints.  The 
shell  were  successfully  fired  from  the  gun,  and  serious  damage  was  inflicted  on  the  target ; 
especially  was  this  the'  case  in  the  third  round,  when  penetration  and  disruptive  effect  on  the 
target  were  combined.  This  system  has  since  undergone  a  series  of  trials  in  England  and 
France,  where,  on  account  of  there  being  neither  special  gun  nor  special  projectile  required, 
it  has  attracted  considerable  attention. 

The  Smolianinoff  shell,  charged  with  high  explosive,  was  fired  from  a  100-pounder  Parrott 
rifle  at  the  Sandy  Hook  proving  grounds  in  November,  1887.  The  weight  of  empty  shell  in 
the  first  two  rounds  was  89  Ibs.,  and  the  weight  of  explosive  was  4'6  Ibs.;  in  the  last  round 
the  shell  weighed  82  Ibs.,  the  explosive  4'1  Ibs.  The  explosive  consists  of  80  per  cent,  of 
nitro-glycerine,  and  it  is  claimed  that  it  is  insensible  to  shock,  either  in  the  gun  or  against  a 
target  of  earth  or  stone,  and  that  a  detonating  fuze  is  required  to  explode  it.  The  weakness 
of  the  cast-iron  shell  used  in  the  three  rounds  that  were  fired,  and  also  the  shape  of  the  head, 
which  was  adapted  to  a  nose-fuze,  precluded  any  possibility  of  penetrating  the  target,  which 
was  like  the  one  above  described.  The  firing  was  successful  in  the  respect  that  no  damage 
was  done  to  the  gun. 

The  Snyder  explosive  consisted  of  94  per  cent,  nitro-glycerine,  and  6  per  cent,  of  a  com- 
pound of  collodion,  gun-cotton,  camphor,  and  ether ;  it  is  exploded  by  mere  percussion 
against  any  hard  and  solid  body,  and  it  seems  to  be  wholly  within  the  power  of  the  manipu- 
lator to  prevent  premature  explosions.  The  gun  employed  in  the  experiments,  that  took 
place  under  direction  of  the  Turkish  war  department,  was  a  6-in.  rifled  field-piece.  The 
target,  erected  at  a  distance  of  220  yards,  was  composed  of  twelve  1-in.  steel  plates,  welded 


676 


PULVERIZERS   AND   HARROWS. 


together,  and  backed  by  oak  beams ;  the  charge  of  explosive  was  10  Ibs.  Ten  shots  were 
fired  without  accident  of  any  kind,  and  without  damage  to  the  gun,  the  target  being  com- 
pletely  destroyed  by  one  of  the  shots. 

In  1883,  in  Germany,  a  patent  was  obtained  for  the  construction  of  a  shell  to  be  charged 
with  high  explosive,  but  nothing  in  the  way  of  experiments  was  done  with  the  projectile, 
which  was  of  special  construction,  and  in  1885  a  patent  was  secured  for  a  new  process  of 
loading,  which  could  be  applied  to  shell  of  service  pattern.  The  wet  gun-cotton  used  in 
this  is  in  the  form  of  prismatic  grains,  made  by  cutting  up  the  ordinary  compressed  disks, 
and  to  the  charge  of  wet  are  added  about  200  grams  of  dry  cotton.  Space  being  reserved  for 
the  fuze  and  detonator,  melted  paraffine  is  poured  over  the  charge,  filling  in  all  its  inter- 
stices, and,  as  it  cools,  forms  the  charge  into  a  solid  mass.  Over  200  shell  have  been  fired 
from  an  8.8-cmt.  gun  without  accident,  and  with  complete  explosion.  Charges  of  16  kilograms 
have  been  successfully  fired  from  the  15-cmt.,  and  the  experiments  have  since  extended  to 
the  28-cmt.  mortar.  In  March,  1888,  a  98-kilogram  projectile,  loaded  with  gun-cotton  and 
22  kilograms  of  powder,  was  fired  from  a  21-cmt.  Krupp  gun.  The  shell  perforated  a 
12-cmt.  compound  plate,  its  60  cmts.  of  oak  backing,  and  only  burst  when  it  entered  an 
earthen  wall  at  the  rear  of  the  target.  (See  ARMOR  ;  GUN,  PNEUMATIC  ;  ORDNANCE,  and 
TORPEDOES.) 

Projectiles,  Dynamite  :  see  Torpedo. 
Propeller  :  see  Engines,  Marine. 
Puff  Mill  :  see  Clay-working  Machinery. 

PULVERIZERS  AND  HARROWS.  The  "pulverizers"  constitute  connecting-links 
between  the  plow  and  the  harrow,  and  are,  indeed,  loosely  termed  harrows  ;  but  the  action 

of  those  with  obliquely  revolving  disks  cuts 
and  turns  the  earth  after  the  manner  of  the 
ordinary  plow,  rather  than  by  raking  and 
scratching  it  like  the  harrow  proper.  The  ten- 
dency of  the  revolving-disk  "harrow"  to 
encroach  on  the  province  of  the  common  breast 
plow  is  illustrated  by  Clark's  cutaway  disk 
machine,  Fig.  1,  which  cuts  a  furrow  40  in. 
wide  and  may  be  run  as  much  as  7  in.  deep. 
It  lifts  the  soil,  inverts  it,  and  effectually 
aerates  it.  Each  of  the  revolving  members  is 
a  24-in.  notched  disk,  dished,  and  sharpened  at 
the  edges,  and  behind  each  is  suspended  a 
spring-steel  moldboard  to  turn  each  furrow  or 
cut.  Stationary  cleaning-knives  are  added,  to 
scrape  any  adhering  dirt  from  the  disks.  A 
sharp  revolving  disk  land-side  precedes  each  of  the  notched  disks  which  act  as  shares.  The 
land-sides  do  also  the  work  of  coulters.  A  long  beam  is  used,  supported  at  its  front  end  by 
a  16-in.  caster.  The  plow-heads  are  supported  and  gauged  by  two  24-in.  carrier-wheels  on  a 
hinged  axle  governed  by  a  hand  lever  at  the  right.  The  depth  of  cut  of  the  land-sides  is 
governed  by  a  hand  lever  on  the  beam.  The  lever  at  the  left  adjusts  the  inoldboards.  The 
original  disk-harrow  was  furnished  simply  with  a  gang  of  revolving  circular  dished  disks. 
The  change  of  the  form  of  the  disks,  in  the  implement  under 
consideration,  by  cutting  away  portions  at  regular  intervals 
so  as  to  leave  merely  the  five  or  six  spade-like  blades  on  each 
rolling  member,  has  given  this  class  of  machine  a  new  impulse 
of  usefulness.  Thus  made,  the  blades  "scour"  better  than 
before  in  all  soils,  but  are  comparatively  free  from  the  fault  of 
trailing  the  soil  into  ridges,  and  leaving  a  dead-furrow  or 
gulley  at  the  center  line  of  travel  or  the  two  outer  edges, 
according  as  the  disks  are  set  on  an  inward  or  outward  gather. 
The  implement  is  suitable  for  stubble-plowing  and  all  free- 
working  soils,  also  hard  adobe  and  clay,  but  not  for  stiff 
sod  or  very  sticky  soils.  It  does  not  need  the  heavy  weighting 
required  by  the  solid  disk  machines,  especially  on  sod  lands, 
fields  that  have  been  plowed  some  months  previously,  or  corn, 
wheat,  or  other  grain-stubble  lands.  Four  horses  are  advan- 
tageously used.  Where  this  class  of  machine  is  used  on  such 
land  the  tilth  is  better  than  that  of  the  ordinary  plow,  and 
consumes  far  less  time.  The  cutting  edge  of  a  round  disk  of 
the  customary  size  is  some  50  in.,  and  some  50  ft.  of  cutting  edge  must  therefore  be  pressed 
into  the  earth  at  each  revolution  ;  while  the  "  cutaway  "penetrates  the  earth  with  only  some 
22  ft.  of  cutting  edge,  and,  therefore,  with  considerably  greater  ease.  In  working  say  4  in. 
deep,  each  circular  disk  must  have  an  incisory  bearing  of  some  15  in.  per  revolution,  making 
15  ft.  of  incisory  bearing  for  a  twelve-disk  machine;  but  the  "cutaway"  machine,  with 
the  same  number  of  disks  and  depth  of  work,  has  less  than  8  ft.  of  incisory  bearing  ;  this 
diminishes  the  draft,  and  yet  the  disks,  by  their  troweling  action,  chop  the  soil  into  finer  frag- 
ments. In  the  Clark  cutaway  pulverizer,  six  shovel-blades  enter  the  earth  at  each  revolu- 
tion of  each  member,  making  nearly  a  quarter  turn  to  stir  the  earth  laterally  four  inches, 
crumbling  it  quite  finely.  Clark's  disk  is  shown  separately  in  Fig.  2. 


FIG.  1.— Cutaway  disk  pulverizer. 


FIG.  2.— Cutaway  disk. 


PULVERIZERS   AND   HARROWS. 


677 


All  harrows  of  the  rotating-disk  class  are  subject  to  a  considerable  amount  of  side  pres- 
sure on  each  disk,  which  accumulates  at  the  rearward  hanger,  causing  a  severe  friction  there. 
For  this  hanger,  the  Keystone  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Sterling,  111.,  make  for  their  machine 


FIG.  3.— Ball  bearing. 


PIG.  4.— The  Acme  harrow. 


of  the  same  class  the  ball  bearing  exhibited  in  Fig.  3  (shown  with  side-plate  removed),  which 
diminishes  the  wear  and  eases  the  draft. 


FIG.  5. — Bradley's  harrow. 

The  "  Acme  "  harrow  (Fig.  4.)  includes  the  functions  of  clod-crushing  and  pulverizing 
plowed  ground.     The  front  cutters  are  deflected  to  one  side,  and  the  rear  cutters  to  the  other, 


FIG.  6.— Gale's  harrow. 


to  neutralize  tendency  to  ridge  the  soil.  The  angle  of  the  cutters  is  adjustable,  and  they  are 
reversible,  doubling  their  service.  Bradley's  steel  lever-harrow  (Fig.  5)  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  improvement  by  which  the  entire  harrow-frame,  connected  throughout  by  a  series  of 
pivoted  rods,  is  manipulated  by  levers  to  incline  the  pitch  of  the  teeth  backward,  thus  chang- 


678 


PULVERIZEKS   AND   HARROWS. 


ing  the  implement  from  a  stirring  to  a  smoothing  harrow,  or  causing  the  removal  of  any 
gathered  trash  from  the  teeth. 

Another  form  of  the  same  class  of  lever-harrows  is  shown  in  Fig.  6,  and  is  strongly  made 
of  pipe  passing  loosely  through  transverse  flat  girts,  each  piece  of  pipe  being  connected  by 
an  arm  pivoted  to  a  horizontal  bar,  in  turn  pivoted  to  the  hand  lever  for  adjusting  the  pitch 
of  the  teeth.  A  lever-harrow  by  the  Ray  Implement  Co.,  shown  in  Fig.  7,  has  a  bearing 


FIG.  7. —The  Ray  harrow. 

shoe  at  the  corner  of  each  section.      In  transporting  this  harrow,  when  it  is  not  desired  to 

operate  it,  the  teeth  are  thrown  back  horizontally  by  the  lever,  and  the  corner  shoes  take  the 

ground  as  runners.    The  H.  P.  Deuscher  Co.  makes  a  harrow  with  sledge  runners  so  arranged 

as  to  carry  the  implement  folded  and  reversed  when  transporting  it  not  in  use.     The  class  of 

harrows  represented  by  the  Kalamazoo  spring- 
tooth  harrow  (Fig.  8)  is  not  only  adapted  by 

the  yielding  teeth  to  land  that  is  obstructed  by 

earth-fast  stones  and  other  objects,  but,  owing 

to  the  vibratory  action  of  the  helix  spring-teeth, 

pulverizes  the  soil  thoroughly,  shakes  it  up  and 

leaves  the  dirt  in  a  loose  condition,  shaking  out 

weeds  and  grass  upon  the  surface,  leaving  them 

exposed  to  the  sun  to  wilt  and  die.    In  operation 

the  flattened  frame  pieces  hold  down  the  sods 

and  clods,  while  the  teeth  cut  deeply  through 

instead  of  rolling  them  up.     Each  tooth  has  a 

bead  punched  up  near  the  heel,  which  matches 

a  cast-iron  socket  on  the  harrow  frame.      The 

socket  is  made  with  a  rib  which  matches  a  slot 

in  the  harrow  frame,  and  has  side  flanges  to 

prevent  the  tooth  from  swinging  to  either  side. 

The  tooth  is  held  to  the  socket  by  a  steel  clip. 

The  same  class  of  harrow  is  sometimes  iron- 
plated  on  the  bottom  surface  of  the  frame  to 

promote  durability,  and  sometimes  made  with 

the  frame  entirely  of  iron  or  steel,  corrugated 

longitudinally  to  render  it  rigid.     The  teeth  are 

also  sometimes  made  with  the  heel  prolonged  and  continuing  the  normal  curve,  so  that  as 

the  points  wear  away  the  depth  of  cut  can  be  maintained,  and  the  service  of  the  teeth  in- 

»  creased  by  changing  the  point  of  attach- 
ment nearer  to  the  extremity  of  the 
heel  as  occasion  may  require.  Fig.  9 
is  the  Hoosier  pressure-harrow,  with  a 
hand  lever  attached  to  a  rock-shaft  hav- 
ing a  series  of  arms  controlling  the  depth 
of  cut  by  means  of  connecting  rods.  The 
teeth  are  fitted  with  springs  at  the  heels, 
permitting  them  to  yield  to  avoid  break- 
age. By  removing  or  folding  up  the 
middle  tooth,  the  harrow  is  used  as  a 
corn  cultivator,  the  dragbar  support 
being  high  enough  to  pass  over  the  grow- 
ing corn.  Fig.  10  exhibits  the  Bench  & 
Dromgold  method  of  securing  the  flat 
class  of  spring-tooth  on  a  steel-frame 
harrow.  The  tooth  is  riveted  to  a  malle- 
FIG.  9.  -The  Hoosier  pressure-harrow.  able  iron  hub  with  ratcheted  sides,  and  a 

bolt  passes  through  the  frame  pieces  of 

the  harrow,  and  two  circular  plates  with  crown  ratchets  to  engage  the  hub  ratchets      As  the 

tooth  wears  away  and  shortens  at  the  point,  the  hubs  may  be  correspondingly  rotated  by 


FIG.  8.— Spring-tooth  harrow. 


PUMPS,    KECIPROCATING,  679 

loosening  the  bolt  and  then  retightening  it,  to  maintain  the  normal  depth  of  cut,  so  as 

greatly  to  increase  the  service  of  the  teeth  before  exhausting  all  their  available  spring  action. 

The  grubber  (Fig.  11)  is  distinguished  by  a  pair  of  side  carrier- wheels  and  a  lead- wheel. 


FIG.  10.— Spring  tooth.  FIG.  11.— Grabber. 


These  wheels  merely  limit  the  depth  of  cut  by  the  teeth  as  long  as  the  hand  lever  is  latched 
back ;  but  when  the  lever  is  released,  the  advance  of  the  teeth  lifts  the  teeth  from  the  ground, 
and  loads  the  machine  bodily  upon  the  wheels. 

PUMPS,  RECIPROCATING.  The  Worthington  High  duty  Pump.— One  of  the  most 
important  recent  inventions  in  pumping  machinery  is  that  of  the  high-duty  attachment  to 
the  Worthington  duplex  pumping-engine,  by  which  engines  of  the  direct-acting,  reciprocating 
type,  without  fly-wheels,  may  be  caused  to  store  up  energy  during  the  first  part  of  the  stroke, 
to  be  given  out 'toward  the  end  of  the  stroke,  and  so  utilize  the  advantages  of  expansion  in 
the  steam-cylinders  to  the  highest  degree.  This  improvement  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  J.  T. 
Holloway,  in  a  paper  presented  to  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  (Trans., 
vol.  xi.).  Fig.  I  shows  a  sectional  elevation  of  a  compound  direct-acting  steam-pump,  hav- 
ing attached  to  it  what  has  been  called  the  high-duty  attachment.  To  ordinary  compound 
direct-acting  steam-pumps,  as  usually  built,  there  is  attached  a  plunger-rod  which  projects 
through  the  outer  end  of  the  pump  chamber,  and  around  which  there  is  the  usual  stuffing- 
box  for  packing  the  same.  On  the  end  of  this  plunger-rod  is  fastened  a  cross-head,  which 
moves  in  guides  bolted  on  the  outer  end  of  the  pump.  On  this  cross-head  and  opposite 
to  each  other  are  semi-circular  recesses.  On  the  guide  plates  are  cast  two  journal  boxes, 
one  above  ar.d  one  below  the  plunger-rod,  both  equidistant  from  it,  and  at  a  point  equal 
to  the  half  stroke  of  the  cross-head.  In  these  journal  boxes  are  hung  two  short  cylinders 
on  trunnions,  which  permit  the  cylinders  to  swing  backward  and  forward  in  unison  with  the 
plunger-rod.  Within  these  swinging  cylinders  are  plungers,  or  rams,  which  pass  through 
a  stuffing-box  on  the  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  on  their  outer  ends  they  have  a  rounded  pro- 
jection which  fits  in  the  semi-circular  recesses  in  the  cross-head;  and,  consequently,  as  the 
cross-head  moves  back  and  forward,  it  carries  with  it  these  two  plungers,  which  in  turn  tilt 
the  cylinders  back  and  forward  on  their  trunnions.  These  swinging  cylinders  are  called 
"  compensating  cylinders/'  and  they  are  filled  with  the  fluid  being  pumped. 

The  pressure  on  the  plungers  within  the  compensating  cylinders  is  produced  by  connect- 
ing these  cylinders  through  their  hollow  trunnions  with  an  accumulator,  the  ram  of  which  is 
free  to  move  up  and  down  as  the  plungers  of  the  compensating  cylinders  move  in  and  out. 
The  accumulator  used  is  of  the  differential  type;  it  has  below  a  small  cylinder  filled  with 
water  or  oil,  within  which  its  plunger  moves,  while  above  it  has  a  larger  cylinder  filled  with 
air,  and  within  which  there  is  a  piston-head  which  fits  closely  to  the  cylinder,  and  is  at  the 
same  time  attached  to  the  top  of  the  plunger  in  the  lower  cylinder. 

By  this  arrangement  it  will  be  seen  that  the  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  plunger  or 
ram  of  the  accumulator  will  be  the  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  piston-head  in  the  upper 
cylinder  multiplied  by  the  difference  between  the  area  of  the  piston-head  and  the  lower 
plunger.  This  difference  of  areas  is  a  matter  of  calculation,  based  upon  the  particular  service 
for  which  the  pump  is  constructed.  The  pressure  in  the  air-cylinder  is  controlled  by  the 
pressure  in  the  main  delivery  pipe  of  the  pump,  as  it  is  connected  to  that  pipe.  This  con- 
nection with  the  main  has  another  very  important  use,  as  the  power  exerted  by  the  com- 
pensating cylinders  is  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  power  used  in  driving  the  pump  plunger 
at  the  latter  part  of  its  stroke  and  it  will  be  seen  that  if  for  any  cause,  either  by  the  break- 
ing of  the  main  or  otherwise,  the  load  is  entirely  thrown  off  the  pump,  the  plunger  cannot 
make  a  disastrous  plunge  forward,  for  the  reason  that  the  steam  in  the  steam-cylinder  is,  by 
reason  of  its  expansion,  too  low  in  pressure  to  drive  it,  while  the  fall  of  pressure  in  the  main 
has  robbed  the.  accumulating  cylinders  of  their  power. 

Test  of  a  Worthington  High-duty  Engine. — Fig.  2  shows  a  set  of  three  duplex  com- 
pound direct-acting  pumping-engines,  built  by  Henry  R.  Worthington  for  the  Artesian 
Water  Co.,  Memphis,  Tenn.  The  engines,  each  of  which  is  of  10,000,000  gallons  capacity, 
and  works  against  a  head  of  250  ft.,  are  essentially  the  same  in  principle  as  the  horizontal 
engines  built  by  the  same  firm,  but  are  modified  to  suit  the  different  conditions.  The  high- 
pressure  cylinders  are  placed  on  top,  and  are  30  in.  diameter,  the  low-pressure  cylinders 


680 


PUMPS,   RECIPROCATING. 


PUMPS,    RECIPROCATING. 


681 


PUMPS,   KECIPROCATING. 


FIG.  a.— Worthington  compound  direct-acting  pumping-engines. 


PUMPS,    RECIPROCATING.  683 

steam  and  water  ends,  their  plungers  being  connected  directly  to  the  main  piston-rods.  Below 
the  compensating  cylinders,  and  inside  the  frames,  is  a  balancing  device  on  each  piston-rod, 
which  exactly  balances  the  weight  of  the  reciprocating  parts.  This  consists  simply  of  a 
cylinder  through  which  the  piston-rod  passes,  and  is  provided  with  a  piston  to  fit  the  cylinder, 
stuffing-boxes  being  provided  at  each  end  above  and  below.  Below  this  piston  is  water, 
which,  as  the  piston  descends,  is  forced  out  of  the  cylinder  through  a  pipe  against  a  pressure 
of  air,  this  air  pressure  forcing  the  water  back  into  the  cylinder  again,  and  lifting  the  weight 
of  the  reciprocating  parts  during  the  up-stroke.  The  pressure  of  air  for  this  is  restored  to 
the  proper  amount  by  means  of  the  auxiliary  compressor,  when  it  becomes  reduced  through 
leakage. 

Engine  Test. — Cylinder  diameters  :  high-pressure,  30  in. ;  low-pressure,  60  in. ;  water,  27 
in.  Length  of  stroke:  nominal,  4  ft.;  average  during  trial,  4'1625  ft.  Average  steam 
pressure  at  engine,  105-16  Ibs. ;  average  pressure  in  force  main,  95'67  Ibs.;  average  vacuum  in 
suction  main,  2'38  Ibs. ;  pressure  equivalent  to  difference  between  the  two  gauges,  26-13  Ibs.  ;net 
load  on  plungers,  per  sq.  in. ,  124'18  Ibs. ;  mean  effective  pressure :  high-pressure  cylinder,  48-82 
Ibs.;  low-pressure  cylinder,  14*666  Ibs.  Average  piston  speed  per  minute,  133 '3  ft.;  net  work 
done  in  the  24-hour  test,  26,779,100,000  ft.  Ibs.;  duty  per  1,000  Ibs.  feed  water,  117,325,000 
ft.  Ibs. ;  capacity  in  24  hours,  as  calculated  from  plunger  displacement,  11,202,000  gallons. 
Average  indicated  horse-power  developed  by  steam  cylinders,  605 '83  horse-power  ;  horse- 
power calculated  from  work  done,  563'5  horse-power;  efficiency  of  engine,  93  per  cent.;  dry 
coal  actually  burned  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour,  1  '74  Ibs. ;  pounds  of  water  evaporated 
from  feed  at  153  26°  F.  to  steam  at  110'06  Ibs.,  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour,  15'70  Ibs. 

The  Gaskill  Pumping -engine,  made  by  the  Holly  Manufacturing  Co.,  Lockport,  N.  Y., 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

On  a  heavy  iron  bed-plate  are  mounted  two  pumps,  and  in  direct  line  therewith  two  low- 
pressure  steam-cylinders,  with  the  piston-rods  of  the  low-pressure  steam-cylinders  connected 
to  the  piston-rods  of  the  pumps.  Between  the  pumps  and  steam-cylinders  are  placed  two 
beam  supports,  which  carry  the  beam  shafts  and  beams,  the  lower  end  of  the  latter  being 
connected  to  the  cross-heads  of  the  low-pressure  cylinders  by  means  of  links.  On  the  top  of 
the  pumps  are  placed  the  main  shaft  bearings,  which  support  the  shaft,  fly-wheel,  and  cranks, 
the  latter  being  keyed  to  the  shaft  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  On  the  top  of  the  low- 
pressure  steam-cylinders  are  mounted  the  two  nigh-pressure  steam-cylinders,  with  their 
centers  in  the  same  horizontal  plane  as  the  center  of  the  main  crank  shafts.  Two  cross- 
heads  for  the  high-pressure  steam-cylinders  are  connected  by  means  of  links  to  the  upper 
ends  of  the  beams,  and  the  beams  are  in  turn  connected  by  means  of  connecting-rods  to  the 
crank-pins.  From  the  high-pressure  steam-cylinders  heavy  cast-iron  girders  extend  to  the 
pillow  blocks.  On  the  inner  end  of  each  of  the  beam  centers  an  arm  is  keyed,  from  which 
the  air-pumps  are  driven.  The  valves  of  the  steam-cylinders  are  operated  by  means  of 
eccentrics  keyed  on  a  shaft,  which  is  at  right  angles  with  and  driven  by  the  main  shaft 
through  small  bevel  gears.  The  admission  valves  to  the  high-pressure  steam-cylinders  are 
of  the  double-beat  puppet  pattern,  so  arranged  as  to  open  at  the  proper  time  and  to  close  at 
any  desired  point  of  the  stroke.  The  exhaust  valves  from  the  high-pressure  cylinders  serve 
also  as  admission  valves  to  the  low-pressure  steam-cylinders,  and  are  of  the  ordinary  slide- 
valve  type,  and  are  set  so  as  to  remain  open  somewhat  less  time  than  is  required  to  make  a 
complete  stroke.  The  exhaust  valves  from  the  low-pressure  cylinders  are  also  plain  slide 
valves,  operating  in  the  same  manner  as  the  high-pressure  exhaust  valves.  The  plungers 
are  arranged  to  work  through  glands  in  the  centers  of  the  pumps,  and  are  accessible  from 
the  covers  at  the  ends  of  the  pump  cylinders.  The  pump  valves  are  placed  on  horizontal 
plates  below  and  above  the  line  of  the  plunger  travel.  The  glands  above  mentioned  divide 
the  valves  of  one  end  of  the  pump  from  those  of  the  other  end,  at  the  center  of  the  valve 
plates. 

Test  of  a  Gaskill  Pumping -engine. — The  following  is  condensed  from  a  report  by  Prof. 
D.  M.  Greene,  of  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  of  a  test  made  by  him  of  the  Gaskill 
Duplex  Compound  Engine,  at  Saratoga  Springs,  in  1889  : 

The  principal  dimensions  of  the  engine  and  pumps  are  as  follows  :  Diameter  of  high- 
pressure  cylinders,  27  in.  Diameter  of  low-pressure  cylinders,  54  in.  Diameter  of  pump 
plungers,  25  in.  Stroke  of  steam-pistons  and  pump  plungers,  40  in.  Diameter  of  high- 
pressure  piston-rods  (steel),  3 '5  in.  Diameter  of  low  piston-rods  (2)  (steel),  4'5  in.  Diameter 
of  pump  rods,  5  in.  Diameter  of  crank  shaft  (fagoted  iron),  12 '5  in.  Diameter  of  hub  of 
crank,  22 -5  in.  Depth  of  crank,  11  in.  Diameter  of  crank-pins  (steel),  7*5  in.  Length  of 
crank-pins  (steel),  9  in.  Length  of  beam  between  centers,  63  in.  Length  of  upper  beam  pin, 
14  in.  Diameter  of  upper  beam  pin,  6  in.  Length  of  lower  beam  pin,  6  in.  Diameter  of 
lower  beam  pin,  6  in.  Diameter  of  fly-wheel,  16  ft.  Depth  of  rim  of  fly-wheel,  16  in.  Width 
of  face  of  fly-wheel,  14  in.  Weight  of  fly-wheel,  about  23,000  Ibs. 

The  clearance  space  in  all  of  the  cylinders  is  small,  and  is  taken  at  2*7  per  cent,  and  3 
per  cent,  in  the  high-  and  low-pressure  cylinders,  respectively.  The  pumps,  which  are 
double-acting,  are  each  fitted  with  700  "  Troy"  valves,  each  of  about  1|  in.  diameter  and 
3  in.  lift.  At  each  end  of  each  pump,  therefore,  there  are  175  induction  and  175  eduction 
valves,  giving  an  aggregate  valve  opening  for  the  reception  and  discharge  of  the  water  equal 
to  more  than  0  •  6  of  the  effective  area  of  the  pi  unger.  The  loss  of  head  due  to  the  passage 
of  the  water  through  the  pumps  is  probably  not  greater  than  0  •  25  of  a  foot. 

Steam  is  furnished  to  this  engine  by  two  horizontal  cylindrical  boilers,  of  the  following 
proportions  :  Total  area  of  grate  surface,  66  sq.  ft.  Total  heating  surface,  (about)  2,866 


684 


PUMPS,   RECIPROCATING. 


sq  ft.  Total  area  of  cross-section  of  tubes,  7 '18  sq.  ft.  Total  area  of  chimney  flue,  8-33 
sq.  ft.  Ratio  of  heating  surface  to  grate  surface,  43.42.  Ratio  of  grate  surface  to  area 
through  tubes,  9.19.  Ratio  of  grate  surface  to  area  of  chimney  flue,  7  92. 

The  following  average  values  are  obtained  from  the  records  of  the  test :  Mean  steam 


pressure  in  boilers,  per  gauge,  81-05  Ibs.  Mean  steam  pressure  at  engine,  per  gauge,  78-01 
Ibs.  Mean  steam  pressure  in  jackets,  per  gauge,  70 '075  Ibs.  Mean  water  pressure,  per 
gauge,  99' 565  Ibs.  Total  mean  pressure  on  pumps,  corrected,  103 '735  Ibs.  Mean  vacuum, 
per  gauge  on  condenser,  28  •  9  in.  Mean  vacuum,  per  gauge  on  engine,  27  •  87  in.  Mean 
temperature  of  feed  water,  203 -55°  P.  Mean  volume  of  water,  at  51°,  passing  the  meter  per 


PUMPS,    EECIPKOCATING. 


685 


hour,  88-014  cu.  ft.  Mean  revolutions  of  engine,  per  minute,  17 '04.  Mean  effective  area  of 
plunger,  481 '0575  sq.  in.  Mean  rate  of  coal  consumption,  per  hour,  600  Ibs.  Mean  rate 
of  consumption  per  hour  per  square  foot  of  grate,  9 '091  Ibs.  Mean  rate  of  evaporation  in 
boilers,  per  minute,  96-135  Ibs. 

Substituting  in  the  duty  formula  the  values  found,  for  the  duty.  117,936,698  ft.  Ibs., 
on  the  basis  of  the  assumed  evaporation  of  10  Ibs.  of  water  per  pound  of  coal,  this  result 
exceeds  the  guaranteed  duty,  105,000,000,  by  12-32  per  cent.,  or  by  nearly  one-eighth.  The 
duty,  b^sed  upon  the  actual  coal  consumption,  is  113,378,479  ft.  Ibs.  This  result  is 
7-98  percent,  greater  than  the  duty  guaranteed.  The  capacity  of  the  pumps  of  the  new 
Saratoga  engine  is  333 -2  U.  S.  gallons  per  revolution,  and  the  rate  at  which  water  was 
pumped  during  the  period  of  the  test  of  eighteen  hours  was,  therefore,  8,175,928  gallons  in 
24  hours,  at  a  piston  speed  of  113 -6, ft.  per  minute.  This  rate  is  something  more  than 
2  per  cent,  greater  than  required  by  the  contract,  while  the  pumps  were  operated  against 
a  pressure  3  •  73  per  cent,  greater  than  was  required.  The  quantity  of  water  actually  pumped 
during  24  hours,  against  a  pressure  of  103-575  Ibs.,  and  at  a  piston  speed  of  115  ft.  per 
minute,  was  8,277,354  U.  S.  gallons:  exceeding  the  contract  capacity  by  3 -47  per  cent, 
against  a  pressure  3*57  per  cent,  greater  than  was  required  by  the  terms  of  "the  contract. 

The  following  facts  have  been  deduced  from  the  steam  cards  :  Clearance  of  high-pressure 
cylinders  equivalent  to  fraction  of  stroke,  0'027.  Clearance,  low-pressure  cylinders,  fraction 
of  stroke,  0-030.  Mean  pressure  at  end  of  stroke,  both  low-pressure  cylinders,  7  •  7565.  Mean 
expansions  in  high -pressure  cylinders,  2-933.  Mean  expansions  in  low-pressure  cylinders, 
4-207.  Mean  expansion,  total,  by  pressures,  12*349  times.  Pounds  of  steam  entered  cylin- 
ders, per  minute,  87*348.  Of  this,  there  is  accounted  for  at  cut-off,  73 -95  per  cent.;  at  the 
end  of  stroke  in  the  high -pressure  cylinders,  78*82  per  cent.,  and  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  in 
the  low-pressure  cylinders,  89 '08  per  cent. 

Thus  it  appears  that  at  the  cut-off  there  was,  in  the  high-pressure  cylinders,  water 
constituting  26 '05  per  cent,  of  the  steam  and  water  which  entered  the  cylinders.  At  the  end 
of  the  stroke  in  the  high-pressure  cylinders,  there  appears  to  have  been  water  constituting 
21  •  18  per  cent,  of  the  water  and  steam  originally  entering  the  cylinders,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke  in  the  low-pressure  cylinders  there  was  water  constituting  10  •  92  per  cent,  of  the 
steam  and  water  which  originally  entered  the  cylinders. 

The  Corliss  Pumping -engine  at  Pawtucket,  R  /.—This  engine,  built  in  1878,  was 
described  in  Vol.  II.  of  this  work.  Numerous  tests  of  its  working  have  shown  that  it  has 
uniformly  given  a  remarkably  high  record  of  economy.  It  is  a  horizontal  cross  compound  en- 
gine, steam-cylinders, 
15  and  30|  in.  bore  ; 
water  cylinders,  10-52 
in. ;  stroke  of  all  pis- 
tons, 30  in. ;  clear- 
ance, high-pressure 
cylinder,  4  per  cent. ; 
low,  3*7  per  cent. 
Diameter  of  rods,  2| 
in.  Ratio  of  vol- 
umes of  cylinders, 
4-085.  Average  cut- 
off in  high-pressure 
cylinders,  one-fourth, 
and  in  low,  one-third. 
Jackets  envelop  the 
barrels,  but  not  the 
heads,  of  both  cylin- 
ders, and  steam  of 
full  boiler  pressure  is 
used  in  each  The 
heads  are  not  jack- 
eted, but  contain 
passages  leading  to 
and  from  the  ports. 
The  condensed  steam 
from  the  jackets  is 
pumped  into  the  feed 
pipe  at  a  point  be- 
tween the  boiler  and 
hot  well.  The  con- 
densed steam  col- 
lected in  the  receiver 
is  received  in  a  trap, 
and  continuously 
pumped  through  a 
heater  placed  in  the 
chimney  flue,  and 
PIG.  4. —The  Allis  compound  pumping-engine.  thence  returned  to  the 


686 


PUMPS,   RECIPROCATING. 


top  of  the  receiver.      Out  of  a  total  of  about  155  Ibs.  thus  circulated  per  hour,  in  actual 

work,  one-third  only  is  evaporated  and  returned  to  the  receiver  as  steam;  the  other  two-thirds 

gradually  accumulates  in  the  receiver  and  is  blown  to  waste  every  three  hours. 

In  June,  1889,  a  test  of  this  engine  was  made  by  Prof.  James  E.  Denton,  who  says  con- 

cerning  it :  The  boiler  evaporates  8'88  Ibs.  of  water  from  104°  F.  into  steam  of  127  Ibs. 

pressure  with    anthracite    coal 

yielding  14  per  cent,  of  ashes  at  5 

Ibs.  rate  of  combustion,  and  9 '35 

Ibs.  of  water  from  104°  F.  with 

Georges  Creek  bituminous  coal 

yielding  10  per  cent,  of  ashes  at  5 

Ibs.  rate  of  combustion.  The  en- 
gine performs  a  horse-power  of 

work  in  its  steam-cylinders  with 

a  consumption  of  13-75  Ibs.  of 

steam  per  hour.     Taking  into 

account  the  percentage  of  ashes, 

the  performance  of  the  boiler  is 

practically  the  maximum  econ- 
omy to  be  expected  or  gotten 

from  boilers,  while  the  steam 

consumption  of   the  engine  is 

also    unexcelled,    as    even    the 

most  approved  marine  engines 

of    the    triple-expansion    type, 

using  steam  at  1 50  Ibs.  pressure, 

have  yet  to  produce  a  record  of 

steam  consumption  lower  than 

15  Ibs.  of  steam  per  hour  per 

horse- power.       The     combined 

efficiency  of  the  boilers  and  en- 
gines give  a  horse-power  in  the 

steam-cylinders  with   1'54  Ibs. 

of  anthracite  coal  consumed  per 

hour,  and  1'48  Ibs.  bituminous 

coal  consumed  per  hour.    Out  of 

a  horse-power  produced  in  the 

steam-cylinders,  95  per  cent,  is 

available  to   force   water,   only 

about  5  per  cent,  being  re- 
quired to  overcome  the  friction 

of  the  mechanism  and  operate 

the  air-pump.     In  this  respect 

also  the  engine  is  an  extraordi- 
nary piece  of  apparatus.  It  re- 
sults from  all  of  the  foregoing 
that  the  duty  per  100  Ibs.  of  coal 
was  for  anthracite  coal,  124,- 
750,000  ft.  Ibs.,  and  the  duty  per 

100  Ibs.  of  coal  was  for  bituminous  coal,  127,350,000ft.  Ibs.  These  figures  are  for  the  actual 
evaporation  of  the  boilers  as  given  above.  This  engine  made  an  average  duty  record  for 
the  entire  year  1888  of  124,512,184  ft.  Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.  of  coal  used. 

Allis' s  Compound  Vertical  Pumping -engines. — Figs.  4  and  5  illustrate  a  pumping- 
engine  constructed  by  E.  P.  Allis  &  Co.,  of  Milwaukee,  for  the  city  of  Milwaukee.  The 
low-pressure  cylinder  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  wrought-iron  framework,  and  directly  central 
over  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  which  is  on  a  level  with  the  engine-room  floor,  the  pistons  of 
the  two  cylinders  being  connected  by  two  piston-rods.  The  rod  for  operating  the  bucket  and 
plunger  pump  is  fastened  to  the  high-pressure  piston  and  extends  through  a  stuffing-box  in 
the  bottom  head  to  the  bucket  and  plunger  pump  placed  in  the  pump  pit.  By  this  means 
all  the  steam-cylinders  are  coupled  solidly  to  the  pump  plunger.  Both  steam-cylinders  are 
steam-jacketed  and  furnished  with  a  device  for  regulating  the  point  of  cut-off  and  speed 
of  the  engine.  The  following  are  the  principal  items  of  interest  from  a  test  trial :  Duration 
of  trial,  48  hours  ;  steam  pressure  in  engine  room,  74'81  Ibs.;  vacuum  by  gauge,  26 '25  in.; 
water-pressure  gauge,  62'02  Ibs. ;  total  head,  including  suction  lift,  67'29  Ibs. ;  revolutions  of 
engine  per  minute,  25'51  ;  piston  speed  per  minute,  255'10  ft.;  coal  consumed,  32,395  Ibs.; 
duty  in  foot  pounds  per  100  Ibs.  of  coal  consumed,  104,820,431.  The  test  was  made  under 
the  ordinary  every-day  conditions,  and  the  actual  weight  of  coal  consumed  was  charged  up 
without  deductions  of  any  kind.  This  engine  raised  12,000,000  gallons  150ft.  high  in  24 
hours. 

Reynolds'  Screw  Pumping-engine. — One  of  the  most  novel  forms  of  pumping-engine  that 
have  been  built  in  recent  years  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  6,  designed  by  Mr.  Edwin  Reynolds, 
superintendent  of  theE.  P.  Allis  Co.,  for  flushing  the  sewer  tunnels  of  the  city  of  Milwaukee. 
The  pump  is  a  form  of  propeller-wheel,  with  screw-shaped  blades.  This  is  mounted  in  a 


PIG.  5.— The  Allis  compound  pumping-engine. 


PUMPS,  RECIPROCATING. 


687 


cast-iron  circular  housing  or  casing  set  in  the  brick  walls  of  the  tunnel.  The  wheel  is  keyed 
to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  Reynolds  vertical  compound  condensing  engine.  Bearings  for 
supporting  the  outer  end  of  the  shaft  are  formed  in  the  wheel  casing.  In  tests  of  the  engine 
the  duty  was  computed  from  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  through  the  tunnel,  and 
the  total  amount  of  coal  fired  to  the  furnaces,  without  deductions  or  allowances  of  any 
kind.  The  quantity  of  water  discharged  was  determined  by  injecting  bright  carmine  color- 
ing matter  into  the  center  of  the  water  current  in  the  tunnel  and  noting  the  time  elapsing 
before  the  coloring  appeared  at  the  discharge  outlet,  2,534  ft.  distant.  These  tests  were 
repeated  to  establish  a  fair  average  of  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  per  revolution  of  the 


FIG.  6.— Reynolds'  screw  pumping-engine. 

engine  when  running  at  52  revolutions  per  minute.  The  results  of  the  official  trial  were  as 
follows:  Date  of  trial,  December  1st  and  2d,  1888.  Duration  of  trial,  24  hours;  average 
steam  pressure  by  gauge,  102  Ibs. ;  average  vacuum  by  gauge,  26  in. :  average  revolutions 
per  minute,  51 '845  ;  cubic  feet  of  water  raised  3 '049  ft.  per  revolution,  788'32  ;  loss  of  action 
in  wheel,  due  to  head  and  friction,  13'28  per  cent.;  efficiency  of  wheel,  87'56  per  cent,; 
total  coal  fired  to  furnace,  14,750  Ibs.;  total  water  fed  to  boilers,  109,890  Ibs.;  temperature 
of  feed  water,  120'62°  F.;  water  evaporated  per  Ib.  coal,  7-45  Ibs.:  duty,  water  raised  per 
100  Ibs.  coal  used,  75,944,424  ft.  Ibs.;  duty,  water  raised  per  1,000  Ibs.  steam  used,  101,- 

'Geared  Mine  Pump.— Fig.  7  shows  type  of  pumping-engine  built  by  E.  P.  Allis  &  Co., 
and  used  for  pumping  out  mines.     The  top  of  the  "  bob  "  is  shown  projecting  through  the 


688 


PUMPS,   RECIPROCATING. 


floor  ;  this  is  made  to  fit  any  location  or  conditions.  The  rods  connecting  the  "bob  "  with 
the  pumps  and  crank  are  made  any  size  or  length,  depending  on  the  depth  of  the  shaft  and  its 
distance  from  the  engine  ;  these  rods  are  supported  by  trucks  and  rollers  or  carrier  arms  as 
desired.  The  common  design  of  single-acting  Cornish  pumps  is  usually  adopted  for  this 
service.  The  pumps  are  driven  by  a  Reynolds  Corliss  engine,  by  means  of  a  shrouded  step 


PIG.  7.— The  Allis  geared  mine  pump. 

tooth  pinion  and  gear  of  such  proportions  that  the  engine  will  run  at  a  fair  rate  of  speed 
while  the  pump  plungers  move  at  a  slow  speed  when  running  at  rated  capacity. 

Electric  Pumps. — The  numerous  applications  of  electricity  to  pumping  purposes  which 
have  been  made  during  the  last  five  years  simply  amount  in  most  cases  to  the  attachment  to 
any  form  of  pumping  machine  of  an  electric  motor.  Quite  recently  such  applications  have 
been  made  to  heavy  pumping,  as  for  water- works,  deep  mines,  etc.  In  the  latter  the  power  is 
transmitted  from  the  electric  generator  on  the  surface  to  the  motor  at  the  bottom  of  the  mine 


PIG.  8.-  Electric-motor  pump. 

through  copper  wires  or  rods,  thus  dispensing  with  the  cumbrous  reciprocating  pump-rods 
used  in  the  Cornish  system  of  mine  pumps,  or  with  the  steam  pipes  used  with  direct-acting 
steam-pumps.  Fig.  8  illustrates  an  electric  motor  applied  to  a  duplex  water- works  pumping- 
engine.  The  motor  is  of  the  Edison  vertical  type,  arranged  with  insulated  pinion,  etc.  The 
water  end  of  the  machine  is  the  usual  water- works  type,  having  composition  plungers  work- 


PUMPS,    ROTARY. 


689 


ing  through  composition  sleeves.  The  suction  valves  being  placed  below  and  the  discharge 
valves  above  the  plungers,  gives  the  room  necessary  for  a  very  large  amount  of  valve  area 
and  water  passages.  This  reduces  the  friction  of  the  water  as  it  passes  through  the  pump 
to  a  minimum.  There  is  a  connection  between  the  discharge  of  the  pump  (immediately  under 
the  air  chamber)  and  the  suction -chamber  with  a  gate  valve  on  same  ;  the  object  "of  this 
arrangement  is  that  when  starting  up  the  pum ping-engine  the  pressure  on  the  pump  can  be 
taken  off  the  valves  by  letting  the  water  flow  back  into  the  suction.  The  check  valve  on  the 
discharge  nozzle,  which  is  necessary  to  this  arrangement,  is  not  shown  by  the  illustration. 

Duty  Trials  of  Pumping-engi nes. — A  committee  of  the  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers, 
appointed  in  1890  to  report  on  a  method  of  duty  trials  of  pum  ping-engines,  recommended 
that  the  old  unit  of  duty  per  100  Ibs.  of  coal  be  abolished,  and  a  new  unit  of  1,000,000  heat 
units  be  used  in  its  place.  This  corresponds  to  the  heat  obtained  from  100  Ibs.  of  coal  which 
develops  10,000  heat  units  per  Ib.  The  committee  give  full  and  explicit  directions  as  to  the 
method  of  making  the  various  observations,  as  to  the  arrangement  and  use  of  instruments,  and 
other  provisions  for  the  test.  The  complete  report  is  published  in  Vol.  XI.  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E., 
and  it  should  be  carefully  studied  prior  to  making  preparations  for  a  test. 

PUMPS,  ROTARY.  *  Centrifugal  Pumps.—  A  paper  by  John  Richards,  of  San  Francisco, 
published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  February,  1888,  con- 
tains much  valuable  information  on  the  subject  of  centrifugal  pumps.  We  abstract  from  it 
as  below: 

Elsewhere  it  has  not  been  common  to  recommend  centrifugal  pumps  for  high  lifts,  and 
they  have  been  considered  less  economical  than  piston  pumps;  but  the  opinions  hitherto 
entertained  regarding  them  have  been  much  modified  by  their  work  in  California.  A  head 
of  100  ft.,  however,  for  a  centrifugal  pump  to  work  against  is  a  very  different  thing  from  a 
head  of  only  10  ft. :  the  impact  or  mechanical  push  of  the  vanes,  which  is  a  very  important 
factor,  diminishes  as  the  head  increases,  and  as  the  speed  of  the  tips  of  the  vanes  exceeds 
that  of  the  water  in  the  volute  casing.  When  the  head  exceeds  40  ft. ,  efficiency  declines 
rapidly,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as  to  outweigh  the  great  economic  advantages  of  centrif- 
ugal pumps  for  heads  up  to  100  ft.  or  even  more.  For  lifting  water  from  the  gravel  strata 
in  California,  four  kinds  of  centrifugal  pumps  have  been  employed,  namely:  firstly,  the  com- 
mon make  with  open  vanes  revolving  in  a  plain  volute  casing;  secondly,  wheels  with  shielded 
or  encased  vanes,  the  water  being  drawn  in  at  the  center  and  discharged  from  the  circum- 
ference ;  thirdly,  compound  pumps  with  two  or  more  wheels  acting  in  succession  upon  the 
water  during  its  passage  through  the  pump  ;  and,  fourthly,  balanced  pumps  receiving  the 
water  at  one  side,  whence  it  is  deflected  in  an  easy  curve  to  the  circumference  by  a  conical 
disk  on  which  are  formed  the  vanes.  These  various  forms  of  the  centrifugal  pump  may  be 
regarded  as  phases  of  development,  adapted  in  some  cases  for  particular  objects,  but  generally 
reverting  from  encased  vanes,  compound  or  double  wheels,  and  other  features,  back  to  the 
original  simple  form  of  the  first  pumps  in  use  prior  to  1820.  The  wheels  with  encased  vanes, 
for  example,  have  been  a  feature  of  the  earlier  practice  with  most  prominent  makers.  These 
wheels  were  made  in  America  as  early  as  1831,  mainly  with  the  object  of  partly  avoiding 
side  thrust  when  a  single  inlet  was  employed 

Centrifugal  Pumps  with  Open  Vanes.—  These  were  at  first  employed  for  lifts  up  to  30  ft., 
and  were  usually  arranged,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  at  the  bottom  of  rectangular  pits  sunk  to  the 

depth  required  for  bringing  the  pumps  within  suc- 
tion distance  of  the  water.  The  pits  have  often  to 
be  sunk  50  ft.  or  more  below  the  surface,  and  are 
usually  10  to  12  ft.  long,  and  4  to  6  ft.  wide.  The 
pump,  P,  is  driven  by  a  vertical  shaft,  which  is 
mounted  in  pivoted  bearings,  each  having  a  sup- 
ported collar  for  carrying  the  weight  of  the  shaft 
and  pump  wheel. 

Centrifugal  Pumps  with  Shrouded  or  Encased 


Vanes. — Nearly  all  makers  of  centrifugal  pumps  in 
California  and  elsewhere  have  at  first  followed  Sir 
Henry  Bessemer's  plan  of  more  than  30  years  ago 
(Proceedings,  1852),  employing  a  shrouded  wheel, 
in  which  the  sides  of  the  vanes,  F,  are  attached  to 
two  enclosing  disks  that  revolve  with  them,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  and  in  the  plan  of  the  wheel,  Fig.  3.  The 
difference  is  very  great  between  a  wheel  or  runner 
constructed  in  this  manner  with  closed  sides,  and 
an  open  wheel  without  enclosiug  disks  attached  to 
the  vanes.  With  the  shrouded  wheel  a  water-tight 
joint  must  be  maintained  all  round  the  inlet  orifice, 
otherwise  the  water  would  only  circulate  through 
the  pump,  passing  from  the  circumference  back  to 
the  inlet.  Such  leakage  is  increased  by  the  pressure, 
which  at  all  points  on  the  sides  of  the  wheels  is  the 
same  as  in  the  discharge  pipe  or  at  the  discharge 
FIG.  1.— Centrifugal  pump  in  pit.  orifices  of  the  wheels.  The  skin  friction  of  the 

water  is  no  less  with  a  shrouded  wheel ;  the  water 

instead  of  being  driven  round  in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the  stationary  casing,  flows  through 
44 


rut 


690 


PUMPS,  EOTARY. 


the  wheels  as  it  does  through  the  pipes,  without  any  greater  skin  friction  in  passing  through 

the  wheel  than  for  an  equal   distance   in    the 
pipes ;  but  on  the  other  hand  there  is  an  equal 
skin  friction  of  the  outside  of  the  wheel  itself. 
The  latter  has  been  found  to  be  diminished  by 
having  a  considerable  thickness  of  water  inter- 
vening   between  the  outside   of    the   revolving 
wheel  and  the  in- 
side of  the  sta- 
tionary    casing. 
In    the     pump 
shown    there    is 
only  a  very  nar- 
now      clearance 
space  at  the  sides 
of    the    wheels ; 
but  here  unusual 
care    h  a  s    been 
taken     in    con- 
struction,     the 
wheel    being 
turned  and  made 
perfectly 


FIG.  2:— Centrifugal  pump.     Section. 


true 


after  being  keyed 
'  idle. 


FIG.  3.— Plan  of  wheel. 


on    the  spine 

The  resistance  greatly  increases  if  the  wheels  are  not  perfectly  true  ;  but  up  to  the  present 
time  the  data  respecting  friction  in  such  cases  are  meager.  As  the  water  enters  through  one 
side  only  of  the  wheel,  it  causes  a  thrust  in  that  direction  which  is  equivalent  not  to  the  force 
of  the  suction  only,  as  is  generally  supposed,  but  to  the  area  of  the  inlet  multiplied  by  the 
maximum  pressure  of  the  discharge.  The  pump  being  inverted,  with  the  suction  inlet  at  the 
top,  the  entering  water  flows  downward,  and  the  reactive  force  is  consequently  upward. 
The  upward  thrust,  which  in  most  cases  would  be  objectionable,  is  here  turned  to  practical 
account  for  supporting  the  weight  of  the  vertical  driving  shaft  and  the  pump-wheel.  The 
plan  of  inverting  the  pump  so  that  the  suction  enters  at  the  top  was  introduced  in  California 
by  the  writer  in  the  latter  part  of  1883,  and  was  then  believed  to  be  of  great  importance, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  supporting  the  vertical  driving  shafts  by  other  means  in  the 
deeper  pits.  In  the  case  of  one  pump,  completed  in  1886,  the  weight  of  the  shaft  and  its 
attachments  was  nearly  2,000  Ibs.  The  shaft  was  of  steel,  2\  in.  diameter,  and  ran  at  600 
revolutions  a  minute.  The  upward  thrust  was  sufficient  to  carry  this  shaft,  together  with 
some  additional  weight  which  was  found  necessary.  The  lift  was  90  ft. ;  inlet  of  pump,  10 
in.  diameter  ;  throat  of  discharge,  5  in.  diameter  ;  uptake  pipe,  10  in.  diameter.  This  problem 
of  thrust  upon  enclosed  wheels  taking  water  at  one  side  is  an  intricate  one.  If  the  rear  side 
of  the  wheel  is  exposed,  as  is  common,  to  a  pressure  equal  to  the  discharge,  the  thrust,  as 
already  stated,  is  equal  to  the  inlet  area  multiplied  by  the  discharge  pressure.  If  the  wheel 
is  shrouded  oh  one  side  only,  the  thrust  will  be  equal  to  the  whole  area  of  the  wheel  multi- 
plied by  the  discharge  pressure.  At  starting  there  is,  of  course,  no  upward  thrust  until  the 
pump  is  charged.  Provision  is,  therefore,  made  at  C  for  carrying  the  shaft  on  collars,  which 
are  already  required  for  steadying  the  revolving  wheel  laterally  in  the  pump  casing,  and  are 
so  arranged  as  to  support  the  shaft  vertically  for  a  short  time,  unassisted  by  the  water  thrust. 
The  collars  are  screwed  upon  the  shaft,  and  several  thin  washers  of  steel  are  inserted  between 
them  and  the  seat  which  carries  them.  They  run  in  a  pool  of  oil,  or  rather  oil  and  water, 
because  there  is  generally  a  small  pipe  leading  a  little  water  back  from  the  discharge  pipe, 
p,  to  the  thrust  box,  C.  The  joint  thus  formed  seals  the  pump,  taking  the  place  of  a  pack- 
ing gland.  The  suction  pipes,  tf  8,  are  shown  as  they  are  commonly  arranged,  for  branches 
leading  in  from  right  and  left ;  their  large  area  is  intended  to  be  equal  to  that  of  a  number 
of  branch  pipes,  and  to  keep  the  flow  in  all  at  a  uniform  rate  as  nearly  as  possible. 

Compound  Centrifugal  Pumps. — Two  of  the  main  problems  to  be  dealt  with  in  applying 
centrifugal  pumps  to  high  lifts  are  how  far  the  impact  or  mechanical  push  of  the  vanes  may 
be  disregarded  as  a  factor  in  the  pump's  duty,  and  how  the  bearings  and  driving  gearing  may 
be  maintained  in  proper  order  at  the  high  speed  required. 

Practically  the  speed  at  which  the  pump  should  be  driven  increases  as  the  square  of  the 
height  of  lift.  For  example,  the  circumferential  speed  of  the  revolving  wheel  for  a  lift  of  60 
ft.  will  be  at  least  six  times  as  fast  as  the  discharge  column  should  flow  ;  while  for  a  head  of 
80  ft.  the  circumferential  speed  for  the  same  flow  would  have  to  be  more  than  ten  times  that 
of  the  discharge  current.  It  is,  therefore,  seen  in  how  rapidly  increasing  a  degree  the 
revolving  wheel  must  overrun  the  flow  as  the  lift  increases  ;  and  how  rapidly  the  effect  due 
to  impact  or  mechanical  push  of  the  vanes  falls  off,  as  the  velocity  of  the  wheel  increases. 
For  lower  lifts  the  extent  of  overrunning  diminishes  in  the  same  degree,  and  the  gain  by 
impact  is  increased  accordingly.  It  is  easy  to  attain  high  efficiency  in  centrifugal  pumps 
working  against  a  low  head  ;  but  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  arrange  such  pumps  suitable  for 
working  in  the  deep  pits  in  California,  against  a  pressure  of  48  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  or  100  ft. 
total  lift,  and  to  secure  results  that  are  satisfactory.  Thus  far  it  has  not  been  possible  to 
make  experiments  for  determining  definitely  the  efficiency  attained  in  these  high  lifts.  From 


PUMPS,    ROTARY. 


691 


such  observations  as  have  been  made  it  would  seem  that  from  35  to  45  per  cent,  of  the  indi- 
cated power  has  been  realized  in  water  raised. 

Some  of  the  pits  at  first  made  were  too  narrow  to  admit  pumps  with  volute  casing  and  with 
a  single  wheel  large  enough  to  attain  the  required  speed.  In  such  cases  the  pumps  have  been 
compounded,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  so  as  to  reduce  the  speed  of  rotation  and  diminish  the  size 
of  the  wheels  and  casing.  In  the  compound  pump  here  shown,  with  two  revolving  wheels,  R, 
the  main  casing  is  made  in  five  parts,  consisting  of  three  hoops  or  rings,  and  two  intervening 
diaphragm  plates,  all  secured  together  by  external  bolts.  The  driving  shaft  from  the  top  of 
the  pit  is  coupled  to  the  pump  spindle  at  C.  A  charging  pipe.  P,  is  carried  down  from  the 
top  of  the  pit,  as  in  the  case  of  Fig.  1,  previously  described.  The  foot  of  the  delivery  main, 
M,  is  surrounded  by  an  annular  air  vessel,  A.  The  water  is  drawn  by  suction  into  the  top 
chamber,  7T,  whence  it  passes  downward  through  the  two  wheels  or  runners,  R,  and  out 
through  the  discharge  chamber  D,  the  delivery  valve  V,  and  the  rising  main,  M. 

The  two  shrouded  wheels  have  each  five  curved  vanes,  as  shown  in  the  plan,  Fig.  1.  The 
exact  shape  of  the  curves  is  believed  by  the  writer  to  be  a  matter  of  very  little  importance  in 
practice  ;  and  the  number  of  the  vanes,  whether  two  or  six,  does  not  make  much  difference 
in  a  high-speed  pump.  Curved  throat  pieces  and  tangential  tips  to  the  vanes  are  found  in 
such  cases  to  be  of  practical  value  so  far  only  as  they  tend  to  obviate  friction  and  consequent 
slight  loss  of  power.  The  diaphragm  above  the  upper  runner  is  a  plain  flat  plate  ;  but  the 
intermediate  diaphragm  between  the  two  runners  is  made  with  fixed  guide  blades  on  its 
upper  side,  for  leading  the  water  back  from  the  circumference  of  the  upper  wheel  to  the 
central  inlet  into  the  lower.  Besides  the  double  inlet  at  8  S,  two  more  inlet  orifices  are  pro- 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  4. 


Irrigating  machinery. — Compound  centrifugal  pump.    Details. 

vided  in  the  top  cover  at  1  /,  Fig.  6,  for  convenience  of  attaching  additional  suction  pipes  in 
different  cases ;  but  it  is  not  often  that  all  four  inlets  are  required.  The  delivery  valve  is 
arranged  to  swing  clear  of  the  ascending  column  of  water;  the  area  of  passage  is  here  con- 
tracted and  determines  the  pump's  capacity.  In  all  other  parts  the  area  of  passage  is  made 
much  larger.  Except  for  avoiding  concussion  from  the  water  in  stopping  the  pump,  the 
air-vessel.  A,  may  seem  superfluous  in  a  continuously  acting  pump  ;  but  it  is  not  so,  and  air- 
vessels  are  now  applied  by  the  writer  in  all  cases  for  deep  pumping.  The  seat  of  the  delivery 
valve.  V,  is  raised  so  as  to  leave  an  annular  space  all  round  it,  for  catching  any  gravel 
deposited  in  the  valve  chamber ;  this  space  is  commonly  made  much  larger  than  shown  in 
the  drawing.  The  bottom  bearing  of  the  pump  spindle  at  B,  Fig.  4,  is  simply  a  hole  bored 
in  the  base  plate.  There  is  no  strain  upon  it  when  the  wheels  are  carefully  balanced.  It  is, 
of  course,  exposed  to  sand  and  gravel,  but  these  do  not  seem  to  have  much  effect  upon  bear- 
ings of  steel  running  in  cast-iron  ;  either  the  sand  is  at  once  pulverized  and  washed  out,  or 
in  some  other  way  attrition  is  prevented.  Similarly  the  throats  of  the  inlet  orifices  in  the 
revolving  wheels  do  not  seem  to  wear  after  they  have  worn  themselves  out  of  contact. 

Balanced  Pump  with  Single  Lateral  Inlet.  — In  Figs.  8  and  9  is  shown  the  construction  now 
adopted  by  the  author  for  pumps  with  a  single  inlet  at  one  side,  a  form  most  suitable  for  the 
requirements  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  essential  in  many  cases.  The  drawing  shows  a  pump 
of  12-in.  bore  arranged  for  a  head  of  30  ft.  The  wheel  consists  of  a  curved  disk,  D,  shaped 
so  as  to  deflect  the  water  gradually,  from  the  center  to  the  circumference.  On  the  face  of 
the  disk  are  formed  the  vanes,  U  and  V,  of  unequal  area.  On  the  back  of  the  disk  are  also 
vanes.  JV.  Holes,  C,  are  made  through  the  disk,  so  that  any  water  passing  over  the  circum- 
ference may  circulate  in  this  way.  An  equal  or  nearly  equal  centrifugal  action  is  thus  set 


692 


PUMPS,   ROTARY. 


up  on  each  side  of  the  disk,  and  there  is  no  axial  thrust,  the  pump  being  balanced  in  the 
same  way  as  though  there  were  double  inlets,  one  at  each  side.  In  this  arrangement  the 
suction  pipe  is  easily  removed,  and  can  be  hoisted  vertically  clear  of  the  pump.  The  water 
passages  are  also  more  free,  and  of  large  area  until  the  disk  is  reached.  In  order  to  guard 


FIG.  8.— Side  elevation. 


FIG.  9.— Section. 


Balanced  centrifugal  pump. 


FIG.  10. — Bulkhead  pumps. 


the  spindle  bearing  from  sand  and  grit,  the  packing  is  placed  at  P,  inside  the  main  bearing 

J3,  which  acts  also  as  a  gland  for  compressing  the  packing.      This  arrangement  is  now 

employed  in  all  the  various  modifications  of  centrifugal  pumps  from  the  author's  designs, 

and  in  working  permits  no  leak  of 
either  air  or  water,  and  the  pack- 
ing seldom  needs  renewal.  The 
pumps  are  characterized  by  great 
I  |  JL.. •.:--•.• -A  steadiness  of  running,  and  an 
absence  of  the  pulsation  or  jar 
common  with  free  or  open  vanes, 
or  with  shrouded  wheels.  Such 
jar  is  often  caused  by  an  obtuse 
or  imperfectly  formed  throat- 
piece  at  T,  especially  with 
shrouded  wheels,  the  radial 
flow  being  interrupted  at  that 
point. 
Bulkhead  Pumps. — In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  plan  of  a  pair  of  centrifugal  pumps  arranged 

for  driving  the  water  through  a  bulkhead  against  a  head  varying  from  nothing  to  10  ft.    The 

pumps  are  submerged  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  require  no  charging,  and  consequently  no  valves 

are  necessary.     The  area  of  the  two  discharge  nozzles  is  150  sq.  in.  each,  and  the  quantity  of 

water  delivered  is  500,000  to  800,000  gallons  an 

hour.    This  arrangement  is  the  least  expensive  that  .  •-•" "•••». 

can  be  adopted  for  land  drainage  or  irrigation  ;  it 

was  suggested  by  a  Dutch  engineer  who  had  erected 

similar  works  in  Java,  and  has  been  found  in  every 

way  satisfactory.    The  embankment  is  cut  through, 

and  a  strong  timber  bulkhead,  A,  is  erected  across 

the  gap.     The  pumps,  P  P,  are  placed  immediately 

behind  the  bulkhead,  with  their  discharge  nozzles 

projecting  through  it.      Flap  valves  opening  out- 
ward are  hung  over  the  discharge  nozzles  at  D,  to 

prevent   back-flow  through  the  pumps  when  not 

working  ;  in  dry  seasons  they  are  sometimes  opened 

for  letting  water  flow  through  for  irrigation.     The 

vertical  pump  spindles  are  driven  by  bevel  gearing 

from  a  horizontal  shaft.     The  engine.  E,  is  single 

acting,  with  two  cylinders  of  10  in.  diameter,  and 

its  speed    is    300  revolutions    per   minute.      The 

machinery  shown   in   Fig.  10  was  erected  during 

1885,  on  the  Sacramento  River,  75  miles  from  San 

Francisco,  for  draining  tule  lands. 

The  average  head  in  this  case  being  only  from  3  to  5  ft.,  it  was  considered  that  the  water 

could  be  driven  more  by  direct  push  than  by  centrifugal  force.     The  pu  raps  were  constructed 


FIG.  11. — Centrifugal  pump.     Detail. 


PUMPS,    ROTARY. 


693 


FIG.  12. — Lawrenct 


accordingly  with  smooth  iron  vanes,  bolted  to  a  square  extension  on  the  pump   spindle,  as 

shown  in  Fig.  11. 
The  throats  of  the 
suction  inlets  were 
made  very  sharp, 
and  brought  in  as 
close  as  possible  to 
the  inner  tips  of 
the  vanes.  In  the 
writer's  opinion 
the  effect  would 
have  been  much 
the  same,  or,  per- 
haps, even  better, 
if  the  volute  casing 
had  been  replaced 
by  the  ordinary 
concentric  casing. 
When  a  good  tur- 
bine water-wheel 
will  realize  a  duty 
of  70  to80  percent, 
by  the  direct 
pressure  of  the 

water,  there  seems  no  reason  why  a  centrifugal  pump,  considered  as  a  turbine- wheel,  acting 
in  the  reverse  manner, 
should  not  utilize,  in 
some  near  proportion, 
the  power  applied  to  it 
for  moving  and  raising 
water.  The  writer  is 
not  aware  whether  any 
investigations  have  been 
made  in  this  direction  ; 
but  there  appears  to  him 
to  be  a  close  analogy  be- 
tween the  two  cases,  at 
least  for  low  heads. 

The  Lawrence  Cen- 
trifugal Pump.  — Figs. 
12  and  13  show  a  cen- 
trifugal pump  built  by 
the  Lawrence  Machine 
Works,  Lawrence,  Mass. 
The  base  and  shaft  sup- 
ports are  cast  separate. 
The  latter  being  bolted 

to  the  base,  enables  one  to  remove  the  pulley  or  babbitt  the  boxes  without  disturbing  the 
other  parts'  of  the  pump.     Larger  sizes  are  constructed  with  two  covers,  so  that  the  relative 


FIG.  13.— Lawrence  centrifugal  pump.    Section. 


FIG.  14.— Dow's  positive-piston  puinj 


694 


PUNCHING   MACHINES. 


position  of  suction  and  discharge  can  be  easily  changed,  by  removing  the  bolts  that  hold 
cover  to  volute  and  turning  the  latter  around  as  many  bolt  holes  as  desired  ;  or  may  be 

changed  from  a  right  to  a  left  hand 
pump,  or  vice  versa,  by  turning  the 
volute  face  about,  and,  of  course,  the 
disk  changed  about  on  the  shaft  also 
to  correspond.  A  test  made  in  1890  by 
Mr.  George  H.  Barrus  of  a  24-in.  Law- 
rence centrifugal  pump  in  Montreal 
gave  a  result  of  61 '3  percent,  efficiency. 
ROTARY  PISTON  PUMPS. — Dow's  Posi- 
tive-Piston Pump,  as  built  by  the  Ken- 
sington Engine  Works,  Philadelphia, 
is  shown  in  Figs.  14,  15,  and  16.  This 
pump  produces  suction  and  forcing  by 
the  rotary  movement  of  a  piston.  The 
work  is  done  in  two  annular  chambers, 
surrounding  an  internal  cylinder,  and 
separated  by  a  central  partition.  In 

Fio.  15.-Section  through  pump  chamber,  Dow'«  positive-       each  of  these  chambers  moves  a  single 
piston  pump.  piston  with  its  supporting  wings,  mak- 

ing the   pump  duplex   in   its   action. 

The  pistons  are  so  placed  that  a  balance  of  all  the  parts,  and  of  the  fluid  moving  through  them, 
is  maintained.  The  suction  is  central,  passing  through  the  internal  cylinder  which  is  at- 
tached to  and  revolves  with  the 
main  shaft.  This  cylinder  supports 
the  pistons,  and  has  openings  be- 
hind them,  between  their  strength- 
ening wings.  Screw  propeller- 
shaped  blades  lead  to  these  open- 
ings, through  which  the  fluid 
passes  drawn  by  action  of  the  pis- 
tons, which,  in  their  travel,  cause 
a  suction  in  the  same  manner  as 
with  a  reciprocating  plunger,  the 
ends  of  the  annular  chambers  be- 
ing completely  closed  by  the  abut- 
ment cylinder,  which  is  in  close 
contact  and  revolves  in  equal  time 
with  the  piston  cylinder,  the  clos- 
ing being  aided,  when  necessary 
for  very  high  heads  or  use  as  a  FIG.  16.— Section  through  suction,  Dovv's  positive-piston  pnmp. 
fire  pump,  by  packing.  The 

movement  of  the  fluid  is  aided  as  it  flows  through  the  internal  cylinder  from  the  center  out- 
ward to  the  annular  chambers  by  the  suction  blades,  and  by  centrifugal  force.  Whilst  the 
suction  is  taking  place  continuously  behind  the  pistons,  the  contents  of  the  chambers  before 
them  are  being  continuously  forced  through  the  discharge  pipe  in  a  freely  open  course,  and 

in  a  tangent  to  the  action  of  the  pis- 
tons. The  discharge  is  entirely  unob- 
structed (and  equal  tothe  displacement) 
except  while  the  pump  is  being  used 
upon  air  alone  as  in  obtaining  suction, 
when  to  control  the  great  elasticity  of 
air,  two  hinged  valves,  one  for  each 
chamber,  are  dropped  upon  their  seats 
in  the  discharge  opening  ;  upon  the 
current  being  established,  these  valves 
are  raised  and  held  completely  out  of 
it,  they  being  no  longer  necessary .  The 
gears  are  used  only  to  secure  synchro- 
nous motion  to  the  abutment  and  piston 
cylinders,  all  the  power  for  the  work 
accomplished  being  applied  directly  to 
the  pistons  through  the  main  shaft.  The 
case  is  made  air-tight  through  the  use  of 
stuffing-boxes.  The  moving  parts  have 
no  frictional  contact  with  the  case,  or 
with  each  other,  and  the  wear  is  almost 
entirely  confined  to  outside  journals, 
and  therefore  readily  controlled. 

Pumps,  Steam  Fire  :  see  Engines, 
Steam  Fire. 

PUNCHING  MACHINES.   Reduc- 
FIG.  i.—  Reducing  couplings.         •  ing  Couplings  for  Punches. — Fig.  1  il- 


PUNCHING   MACHINES. 


695 


lustrates  a  system  of  reducing  couplings,  manufactured  by  the  Pratt  &  Whitney  Co.,  by  which 


FIG.  2.  —Multiple  punch. 


punches  of  short  lengths  and  small  diameter  can  be  adjusted  to  stocks  made  for  larger 
punches.     Heretofore  the  changing  of  punches  of  large  diameters  for  smaller  ones  has  neces- 


FIG.  3. — Automatic  spacing  punch. 

sitated  the  use  of  stocks  of  various  sizes  and  lengths.      With  the  use  of  the  coupling,  one 
stock  will  do  for  many  lengths  and  diameters. 


696 


PUNCHING   MACHINES. 


The  distance  from  point  of  punch  to  coupling  is  the  same,  whether  long,  short,  or  regular 
coupling  is  used. 

Multiple  Punch.— Fig.  2  shows  a  machine  built  by  the  Long  &  Allstatter  Co.,  of  Hamilton, 
0.,  for  punching  long  rows  of  holes  at  one  stroke.  The  gang-punch  and  die  can  be  quickly 


- : ' ' —  1 — 


FIG.  4.— Punch  and  etraightener. 

removed  for  changing.      The  cut  shows  machine  set  to  punch  a  5-ft.  row  of  60  one-quarter- 
inch  holes  through  one-quarter-inch  metal. 

Automatic  Spacing  Punch. — Fig.  3  shows  an   automatic  trimmer,   beveler,  spacer,  and 


FIG.  5.— Multiple  and  I-beam  punch. 

punch,  made  by  the  same  company.  It  is  designed  to  trim,  bevel,  space,  and  punch  the  holes 
in  boiler  and  other  plate  work.  The  sheet  is  fastened  to  the  table  and  fed  past  the  tools, 
which  trim  and  bevel  the  edge,  and  automatically  space  and  punch  the  holes.  The  spacing 
is  adjustable.  The  table  has  quick  hand  motion  in  addition  to  the  power- feed  motion. 


PUNCHING   MACHINES. 


697 


Combined  Punch  and  Straightener.—Fig.  4  shows  a  horizontal  beam  punch  combined 
with  a  straightener,  also  made  by  this  company.  The  main  driving  shaft,  acting  through  a 

c^^^Hik_  bevel  gear,  drives  the  large 

horizontal  wheel  which 
through  a  cam  shaft  drives 
the  sliding  head,  one  end  of 
which  carries  the  punch,  and 
the  other  a  straightening  block 
or  die.  The  machine  is  de- 
signed for  bridge,  girder,  and 
general  beam  work,  and  will 
punch  holes  in  1?  in.  plate 
and  straighten  15-in.  beams. 
The  straightening  die  is  ad- 
justable while  in  motion. 

M u Itiple  and  I-Beam 
Punch. — Fig.  5  shows  a  heavy 
multiple  and  I-beam  punch 
made  by  the  Long  &  Allstatter 
Co.,  for  punching,  at  one 
stroke,  one  or  more  holes  in 
the  flanges  or  two  beams  at 
once.  It  is  designed  for 
bridge  and  girder  work,  etc., 
and  receives  beams  12  to  20  in. 
deep.  It  can  be  used  for  gen- 
eral flat  punching  without 
removing  the  special  die- 
blocks. 

Beaudry's  Duplex  Punch- 
ing and  Shearing  Press. — 
Fig.  6  represents  a  press  made 
by  Alex.  Beaudry.  It  has 
two  plungers  on"  one  crank 
shaft,  so  connected  that  either 
plunger  may  be  worked  inde- 
pendently, or  they  may  be  run 
together,"  or  either  may  be 
used  as  a  shears  or  press  or 
punch,  while  the  other  is  in 
use  for  the  same  or  other  pur- 
poses. 

The  Hill e s  &  Jones 
Punch. — Fig.  7  represents  a 
horizontal  punch,  made  bv 

FIG.  6—Dnplex  punching  and  shearing  press.  mUes  &  j£nes  Co.,  of  Wil- 

mington, Del.  It  has  a  deep  throat  or  jaw  that  can  be  used  for  flanges  as  well  as  plain 


FIG.  7.— Horizontal  punch. 


punching.      The  gearing  and  fly-wheel  being  below  the  top  of  the  machine,  leaves  it  per- 
fectly clear,  so  that  flanges,  heads,  or  crooked  furnace  plates,  as  well  as  bent  angle-iron,  may 


698 


PYKO-ENGRAVING. 


FIG.  1.— Oil  purifier. 


be  punched  from  either  the  inside  or  outside.  This  is  a  convenient  tool  for  punching  brace 
or  stay-bolt  holes  in  locomotive  boilers.  Plates  that  are  already  bent  and  fitted  up  can  be 
taken  down  and  every  hole  punched,  thus  saving  the  time  spent  in  drilling  or  cutting  holes 
by  hand.  The  hand  wheel  is  used  for  placing  the  center  of  the  punch  to  the  center  mark  on 
the  work  before  throwing  in  the  clutch  ;  in  this  way  punching  can  be  done  as  true  and  cor- 
rectly as  drilling.  The  stripper  is  adjustable  for  all  thicknesses  of  iron. 

Purifier  :  see  Heaters,  Feed-water,  Milling  Machinery,  Grain  and  Oil  Purifiers. 
PURIFIERS,  OIL.— The  Grosche  &  Biglcr  Oil  Purifier,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  used  for 
taking  dirt  out  of  oil  after  it  has  been  used  in  lubricating  ma- 
chinery. The  action  of  the  purifier  is  based  on  the  relative  dif- 
ference in  the  specific  weight  of  oil 
and  water.  The  oil  is  placed  in  the 
upper  chamber  and  runs  through  the 
center  tube,  below  the  water,  passes 
around  the  steam  coil,  and  now  being 
somewhat  diluted  by  being  warmed, 
will  drop  its  impurities,  and  after  go- 
ing once  more  down  through  cham- 
ber, again  up  through  chamber,  once 
more  through  water,  then  through  the 
discharge  pipes,  it  will  finally  gather 
above  the  water-line  ready  for  use. 
The  blow-off  pipe  answers  as  an  outlet 
for  any  gases  that  may  form  ;  it  will 
also  prevent  overflowing  by  discharg- 
ing any  rising  or  overheated  oil  back 
into  reservoir.  The  steam-pipe  serves 

to  blow  out  and  clean  the  whole  apparatus  from  time  to  time,  as 
well  as  to  warm  the  oil. 

The  Baker  Oil  Filter  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  oil  enters  at  the 
bottom,  passes  into  a  body  of  water,  and  floats  upward  through  the 
chamber  of  filtering  material,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  and  settles  above 
the  water.  Centrifugal  machines  especially  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose are  commonly  used  for  extracting  oil  from  filings,  shavings,  etc. 
PYRO-ENGRAVING.— A  new  process  of  engraving,  which 
consists  in  tracing,  by  means  of  an  incandescent  point,  upon  wood, 
leather,  bone,  ivory,  fabrics,  etc.,  designs  which,  varied  in  tone, 
depth,  and  tinting,  through  a  carbonization  more  or  less  complete, 
and  more  or  less  pronounced,  produce  extremely  varied  and  re- 
markable effects  in  the  hands  of  the  artist.  The  pyro-gravure 
apparatus,  devised  by  Mr.  Perier,  consists  at  present  of  three  principal  parts,  viz. :  an  air 
reservoir,  a  carbureter,  and  a  thermo-tracer. 

The  air  reservoir  consists  of  an  iron  plate  cylinder,  G  (Fig.  1),  which  enters  an  annular 
receptacle,  A  JS,  so  as  to  lighten  the  apparatus.     This  cylinder,  which  is  lifted  in  order  to 

fill  it  with  air,  contains  enough  of  the  latter  to  last 
for  an  hour's  work.  It  suffices,  then,  to  raise  it 
once  per  hour,  an  operation  that  may  be  per- 
formed without  much  labor.  While  it  is  being 
raised,  the  air  enters  through  the  valve,  E.  The 
cylinder  descends  by  its  own  weight  and  exerts 
upon  the  air  a  pressure  that  may  be  made  to  vary 
within  certain  limits  by  charging  the  cylinder 
with  weights  that  vary  in  heaviness  according  as 
it  is  desired  to  give  the  thermo-tracer  a  more  or 
less  elevated  temperature. 

The  air  compressed  by  the  cylinder  escapes 
through  the  tube,  J  (Fig.  1,  No.  2),  and  divides 
into  two  parts.  One  of  these  enters  the  carbu- 
reter, D  (which  consists  of  a  vessel  containing  a 
sponge  saturated  with  a  hydro-carburet — alcohol, 
wood,  naphtha,  benzine,  etc.),  makes  its  exit  at 
K,  and  reaches  the  thermo-tracer  through  a  very 
flexible  rubber  tube.  The  other  portion  of  the 
air  flows  directly  to  the  tracer,  in  order  to  keep  its 
handle  cool.  To  this  effect  the  thermo-tracer  is 
provided  with  a  hollow  wooden  handle,  around 
which  circulates  the  air  forced  directly  by  the 
reservoir,  aud  the  discharge  of  which  is  regulated 
by  a  cock  situated  above  the  carbureter,  so  as  to 
prevent  waste,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  to  assure  sufficient  cooling.  The  thermo-tracer  is  a 
simple  metallic  tube,  to  which  is  screwed  the  platinum  tube,  H,  raised  to  incandescence.  The 
enlarged  part  contains  an  aperture  through  which  escape  the  products  of  combustion,  which 
latter  takes  place  at  the  pointed  extremity  of  the  platinum  tube. 


Fiu.  2.— Oil  filter. 


PIG.  l.—Pyro-engraving  apparatus. 


QUARRYING    MACHINERY. 


699 


Tracers  of  varying  sizes  and  contours  can  be  screwed  on.  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
work  to  be  done,  and  the  effects  produced  may  thus  be  varied. 

QUARRYING  MACHINERY.  The  most  important  improvement  in  quarrying  appli- 
ances made  within  the  decade  is  the  general  adoption  of  the  channeling  process,  which  has 
been  rendered  possible  by  the  improvements  made  in  channeling  machines.  The  channeling 
process  is  a  means  by  which  artificial  seams  are  made  in  the  quarry  for  the  purpose  of  releas- 
ing masses  of  stone.  An  intelligent  and  proper  use  of  the  channeling  process  does  not  in- 
volve the  cutting  up  of  stone  in  blocks  as  ice  is  harvested,  but  its  use  is  to  release  a  large 
mass  or  bed  in  such  a  way  that  by  the  action  of  plugs  and  feathers,  wedges,  or  by  blasting, 
the  stone  may  be  entirely  freed  in  the  quarry.  It  is  only  while  cutting  out  the  key  block  that 
all  four  sides  of  a  block  of  stone  are  channeled.  If  there  is  a  free  bed  on  the  bottom — that  is, 
if  the  stone  is  laid  in  layers  deposited  one  upon  the  other-r-it  is  simply  necessary  to  channel 
around  the  walls  of  the  quarry,  because  by  means  of  the  plug  and- feather  process,  or  by 
blasting,  the  blocks  of  stone  may  be  sheared  on  the  bed.  Where  there  are  no  free  beds  the 
channels  are  cut  around  the  walls  and  directly  across  the  quarry  in  parallel  rows. 

The  Wardwett  Channeler,  illustrated  and  described  under  "  Quarrying  Machinery,"  Vol. 
II.  of  this  work,  having  come  into  extensive  use,  is  manufactured  in  at  least  half  a  dozen 
different  factories  in  different  sections  of  the  United  States.  The  general  design  and  con- 
struction have  not  materially  changed,  the  improvements  which  have  been  made  being 
onlv  matters  of  detail. 

'The  Bryant  Channeler,  Fig.  1,  is  constructed  on  the  bas  s  of  the  Ward  well  machine,  but 
differs  in  the  method  by  which  the  work  is  accomplished,  and  contains  several  useful  improve- 
ments. The  principle  is  differ- 
ently applied  from  the  Ward- 
well,  for  while  the  side  arms  of 
the  Ward  well  are  bifurcated,  or 
forked,  working  with  one  rub- 
ber between  the  forks  and  one 
on  top,  with  stirrups  to  shackle 
them  together,  in  this  machine 
the  lever  consists  of  two  arms 
opposing  each  other,  working 
on  a  common  fulcrum,  with 
rubbers  or  steam  cushions  on 
both  sides  of  fulcrum  working 
freely,  without  stirrups.  The 
cups  holding  the  rubbers  may 
be  moved  at  more  or  less  dis- 
tance from  the  fulcrum,  thus 
admitting  close  adjustment  to 
the  elastic  condition  of  the  rub- 
ber or  variation  of  the  blow. 
The  levers  are  hung  on  a  mov- 
able fulcrum,  being  placed  in 
a  hanger,  which  may  be  raised 
or  lowered  by  means  of  a  screw, 
and  retained  in  position  by 
guides  which  are  bolted  to  the 
frame.  This  admits  of  the 
feeding  of  drills  down  as  the  cutting  proceeds,  and  also  of  the  dropping  of  levers,  without 
the  compression  on  the  rubbers.  When  both  gangs  are  running  on  a  60  or  100-ft.  run,  the 
operator  is  enabled  to  keep  the  machine  in  continuous  motion  until  he  has  sunk  15  or  20 
in.  The  guides  for  the  clamp  as  arranged  for  limestone  are  similar  to  those  used  in  the 
Wardwell,  with  the  exception  that  they  are  continuous  from  bottom  to  top  and  admit  the 
drills  being  brought  down  till  the  top  clamp  touches  the  bottom  clamp.  The  propelling  end 
of  the  lever  is  operated  from  the  main  shaft  by  a  disk  connected  by  a  sliding  box  and  movable 
wrist-plate.  This  changeable  wrist-plate  admits  a  change  of  stroke  from  4  to  8  in .,  and  may 
be  placed  on  the  center  when  it  is  only  wanted  to  operate  one  side.  The  propelling  gear  is 
operated  by  a  reverse-motion  friction  clutch  on  the  crank  shaft  geared  to  a  shaft  that  connects 
with  both  'sets  of  trucks  by  worms  and  worm  gears.  This  arrangement  holds  the  machine 
at  any  point  when  working  on  a  slope.  The  friction  clutch  is  not  so  positive  as  to  force  the 
machine  against  an  obstruction,  but  will  slip  when  the  pressure  comes  too  hard  on  it.  It  will 
work' on  an  incline  of  1  ft.  in  10  with  safety.  Where  the  incline  is  too  steep,  a  drum  on  one 
of  the  axle-trees  is  used  of  the  same  size  as  the  tread  of  the  wheel,  with  a  wire  rope  attached 
to  it,  and  made  fast  to  a  plug  at  the  upper  end  of  the  cut.  This  is  wound  upon  the  spool  going 
up,  and  unwound  coming  down,  making  a  positive  feed.  Four  cutters  are  used  in  a  gang  of 
drills  in  sandstone.  The  two  outside  drills  are  chisel-shaped  points,  cutting  at  right  angles 
with  the  channel.  The  two  inside  drills  cut  diagonally  across  the  channel.  The  speed  on 
the  track  is  three-quarters  of  an  inch  at  every  stroke,  and  may  be  200  revolutions  with  both 
sides  working  all  the  time.  With  the  four  drills  the  bottom  of  the  channel  is  kept  smooth 
and  free  from  "frogs."  The  frame  is  constructed  of  channel  steel  and  steel  I-beams, 
bracketed  together  with  malleable  iron  brackets  and  boiler  rivets. 

Some  recent  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  Bryant  channeler,  notably  a  sliding 


FIG.  1.  —The  Bryanr  channeler. 


700 


QUAKE YING   MACHINERY. 


box  for  holding  the  gibs,  and  which  admits  of  their  being  dropped  into  a  pocket  so  that  the 
arm  holds  them  in  their  place,  and  if  they  break  they  cannot  get  out  01  place.  The  old 
method  was  to  hold  the  gib  in  the  box  by  an  enlarged  head,  which  was  liable  to  break,  result- 
ing in  the  dropping  of  the  gib  into  the  cut.  By  means  of  the  improved  gib  box  on  the 
Bryant  channeler  it  has  been  found  advantageous  to  use  gibs  made  of  hard  wood.  These 
have  proved  to  be  much  better  and  more  durable  than  brass.  The  wooden  gibs  absorb  the 
oil  and  make  but  little  noise  ;  they  wear  as  long,  arid  cost  very  much  less  than  brass.  The 
importance  of  the  wooden  gib  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Cleveland  Stone  Co.,  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  which  has  a  large  number  of  channeling  machines  in  use,  using  brass  gibs,  pay  about 
$600  per  year  for  gibs.  Another  improvement  is  a  steam  cushion  instead  of  a  rubber  one. 
For  this  purpose  a  6-in.  cylinder  5^  in.  long  is  used.  Steam  is  admitted  from  the  boiler, 
through  a  small  opening  into  the  cylinder.  This  forces  the  piston  out  to  the  mouth  of  the 
cylinder,  where  it  is  held  by  lugs  from  going  further.  When  the  pressure  comes  on  the 
piston,  it  forces  the  steam  back  into  the  boiler,  but  the  pressure  comes  so  quickly,  and  the 
opening  is  so  small,  that  but  little  escapes. 

The  Saunders  Direct-acting   Channeling  Machine,  designed  by  the  writer,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2.     Steam  is  supplied  through  hose,  and  a  back  screw  is  arranged  so  that  the  engine 


FIG.  2. — The  Saunders  channeling  machine. 

and  cutting  tools  may  be  tipped  backward  for  use  in  what  is  known  as  "side-hill  work."  A 
standard  Ingersoll  "  Eclipse"  rock  drill  of  large  size,  6  in.  diameter  of  cylinder,  is  used,  the 
machine  being  specially  constructed  for  channeling  purposes.  Instead  of  a  regular  rubber 
buffer  in  the  front  head  a  dozen  or  more  plate  washers  are  used.  The  piston-rod  carries  a 
cross-head  to  which  are  attached  a  gang  of  cutting  tools.  The  whole  is  mounted  in  a  vertical 
position  upon  an  adjustable  cast-iron  support  known  as  a  quadrant  piece,  which  rests  upon 
a  shaft  bearing  upon  a  carriage,  which  moves  upon  four  wheels.  The  cutting  engine  is 
mounted  on  a  shell  piece  in  a  similar  manner  as  rock  drills  are  mounted,  and  is  fed  forward 
as  the  cutting  progresses.  This  shell  piece  serves  also  as  a  guide  for  the  cross-head,  thus 
preventing  the  channeling  bits  from  turning. 

The  distinguishing  features  of  this  machine  are  that  it  is  direct  acting  ;  that  is,  the 
cutting  tools  being  attached  rigidly  to  the  piston,  the  blow  is  dealt  directly  by  the  steam 
pressure  in  the  cylinder  and  without  any  intervention  of  crank  shafts,  levers,  or  springs. 
The  feed  motion  of  the  carriage  upon  the  track  is  operated  by,  and  dependent  upon,  the 
engine  which  strikes  the  blow.  The  piston  in  its  upward  stroke  is  made  to  rotate  a  pawl 
piece  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  and  this  rotation  is  conveyed  through  gears  to  the  axles  of 


QUARRYING  MACHINERY. 


701 


the  car,  and  it  is  thus  fed  through 
traction  upon  the  rails.  This  feed 
motion  is  imparted  to  the  car  on  the 
upward  stroke  of  the  piston  only  ; 
the  car  remains  stationary  when  the 
blow  is  struck.  There  is  thus  an 
intermittent  feed  motion,  and  the 
drills  are  moved  a  definite  distance 
in  the  cut  at  every  stroke,  thus  chip- 
ping its  channel  and  not  powdering 
it,  as  is  the  case  with  other  machines. 
This  feed  averages  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  per  stroke.  The  strokes 
average  240  per  minute.  The  cut- 
ting tools  are  made  adjustable  to 
any  angle,  to  the  right  and  left,  and 
forward  and  backward.  The  ma- 
chine is  thus  capable  of  making 
transverse  and  side-hill  cuts,  and 
does  what  is  known  as  cutting  out 
the  corners  in  quarrying.  The  ma- 
chine has  but  two  quick  moving 
parts:  the  piston,  with  cutting  tools 
attached,  and  the  valve.  The  stroke 
varies  about  6  in.  in  length,  running 
from  2  to  8  in.  This  is  done  by  the 
peculiar  construction  of  the  piston 
and  valve.  The  engine  and  cutting 
tools  are  fed  downward  as  the  cut- 
ting proceeds,  and  the  drills  can  cut 


FIG.  3. — Sullivan  channeling  macnine. 


a  channel  18  in.  in  depth 
without  unclamping  or 
stopping  the  machine.  By 
a  stop-valve  placed  in  the 
lower  steam-port  the  blow 
can  be  regulated  so  that  it 
will  strike  with  only  a 
light  touch,  or  with  a  blow 
of  8,000  Ibs.  in  force. 

The  Sullivan  Chan- 
neling Machine. — Fig.  3 
illustrates  the  Sullivan 
channeler  with  boiler 
mounted.  This  is  also  a 
direct-acting  machine, 
having  no  levers  or 
springs,  and  the  cutting 
tools  are  attached  rigidly 
to  the  piston-rod  of 
the  engine.  This  chan- 
neler is  also  made  on 
the  screw- frame  pattern 
without  boiler,  the  steam 
being  supplied  from  a 
stationary  boiler  through 
flexible  tubing.  An  in- 
dependent engine  is  used 
to  feed  the  carriage  along 
the  track  ;  thus  the  en- 
gine that  does  the  cutting 
is  not  used  for  the  feeding. 
The  feed  engine  is  a  com- 
mon upright  engine  of 
New  York  safety  steam- 
power  pattern.  It  re- 
volves a  shaft  on  the  end 
of  which  is  a  gear  which  is 
used  to  rotate  the  axles  of 


FIG.  4.— The  Wardwell  channeling  machine. 


702 


QUARRYING   MACHINERY. 


the  carriage.  The  engine  which  carries  the  cutting  tools  has  a  valve  movement  which  is 
operated  by  bell-crank  levers  connected  with  the  cross-head.  The  cutting  tools  abut  against 
the  cross-head,  and  are  clamped  by  three  separate  clamps.  Piping  and  swivel  joints  are 
used  in  place  of  steam  hose.  The  movement  of  the  carriage  is  reversed  either  by  a  hand 
lever  or  by  an  automatic  adjustment  suspended  under  the  car,  which  bears  against  an  abut- 
ment bolted  to  the  rail. 

The  Wardwell  Side-hill  Channeling  Machine,  made  by  the  Steam  Stone  Cutter  Co., 
of  Rutland,  Vt.,  is  represented  in  Fig.  4.  This  is  a  single-gang  machine  of  the  Wardwell 
pattern,  and  is  shown  mounted  on  its  track  on  the  bed  of  the  quarry.  It  is  adapted  for  cut- 
ting either  vertical  or  inclined  channels.  By  its  use  quarries  can  be  enlarged  by  carrying 
under  the  wall  channels,  or,  if  the  strata  or  vein  of  rock  is  inclined,  channels  can  be 
cut  to  follow  the  inclination  to  any  angle  down  to  45°.  The  operating  mechanism  and 
cutting  devices  are  mounted  upon  a  portable  sliding  carriage,  and,  by  means  of  a  long 
screw  shaft,  can  be  readily  adjusted  at  either  end  of  the  frame — thus  making  a  right  or 
left-handed  machine — thereby  enabling  it  to  cut  in  all  corners  of  a  quarry.  The  engine  is 
attached  to  the  standard  that  gives  direction  to  the  gang  of  cutters,  and  motion  is  com- 
municated to  the  cutter  by  means  of  two  levers,  the  upper  ends  of  which  are  pivoted  to 
the  cross-head  of  the  engine,  and  their  lower  ends  are  connected  by  links  to  the  lower  clamp 
block  which  holds  the  cutters. 

The  Baunders  Bar  Channeler,  designed  by  the  writer,  and  manufactured  by  the 
Ingersoll-  Sergeant 
Rock  Drill  Co.,  is  rep- 
resented in  Figs.  5  and 
6.  The  distinctive  dif- 
ference between  this 
machine  and  others  is 
that  no  track  is  used, 
but  the  engine  carrying 
the  cutting  tools  is  fed 
back  and  forth  upon 
bars  which  rest  upon 
end  supports.  It  is  a 
combined  rock  drill, 
quarry  bar,  and  chan- 
neling machine,  and 
will  do  both  drilling 
and  channeling.  As  a 
channeler  it  does  not 
cut  by  putting  in  holes 
and  broaching  the  par- 
titions between  them, 
but  makes  a  continuous 
channel,  moving  in  the 
direction  of  the  cut 
while  striking,  this 

movement  being  automatic  ;  but  instead  of  moving  on  a  track  it  moves  upon  parallel 
bars. 

The  chisels  or  cutters  are  of  the  regular  pattern  with  the  diagonal  bit,  and  the  speed  of 

the  machine  is  equal 
to  the  piston  speed  of 
a  regular  rock  drill  of 
the  same  size  when 
used  to  put  in  a  hole ; 
hence  its  great  cut- 
ting capacity.  The 
cutters  are  directly 
under  the  center  of 
the  piston-rod,  and  are 
separated  from  the 
piston  by  a  dowel 
shank  of  less  diameter 
than  the  piston-rod, 
which  prevents  break- 
age of  the  piston-rod. 

The  machine  puts 
in  a  round  hole  at  each 
end  of  the  bar,  thus 
forming  the  limits  of 
the  channel  to  be  cut. 
After  this  is  done,  by  a 
very  simple  and  quick 
change,  the  channeling 
bits  are  attached  and  are  reciprocated  automatically  between  these  holes.  The  importance 


FIG.  5.— Saunders  bar  channeler.    Vertical. 


FIG.  G,— Saunders  bar  channeler.    Horizontal. 


QUARRYING   MACHINERY. 


703 


of  these  holes  will  readily  be  seen  in  that  they  complete  the  channel  to  the  full  depth  at  the 
bottom,  without  what  ,is  usually  known  as  "running  off,"  and  without  requiring  any  hand 
labor  at  the  end  of  the  cut.  After  the  channel  is  completed  to  the  full  depth,  and  for  the 
full  length  of  the  bar  (which  is  about  10  ft.),  the  whole  machine  is  barred  along  ten  feet  fur- 
ther and  one  hole  is  put  in,  the  channel  being  continued  up  to  this  hole.  The  movement  of 
the  bar  is  very  much  facilitated  by  shoes  fastened  on  each  leg.  The  legs  are  adjustable 
so  as  to  take  all  angles  and  to  adapt  themselves  to  any  irregularity  of  the  surface  of  the 
quarry.  The  machine  is  shown  doing  vertical  channeling  in  Fig.  5,  and  by  revolving  90° 
may  be  applied  to  do  horizontal  channeling,  in  Fig.  6.  Horizontal  channeling  is  confined  to 
work  where  vertical  channeling  is  not  sufficient  to  remove  the  blocks.  It  is  obviously 
more  expensive  to  cut  a  channel  horizontally  than  to  cut  it  vertically,  because  in  vertical 
channeling  we  have  the  benefit  of  the  weight  and  inertia  of  the  cutting  tools. 

In  adapting  the  bar  channeler  to  the  making  of  channels  upon  inclined  floors,  a  counter- 
weight is  employed,  which  hangs  over  a  pulley  at  the  top  of  an  upright  piece  which  is  fixed 

to  the  end  of  the 
machine.  It 
serves  to  enable 
the  feeding  en- 
gine to  carry  the 
cutting  tools  up 
and  down  hill 
while  at  work. 
This  machine  is 
used  to  channel 
slate,  several  of 
them  being  at 
work  in  the  slate 
quarries  near  Ban- 
gor,  Pa.  Their 
cutting  capacity 
in  slate  is  from 
75  to  150  sq.  ft. 
of  channel  per 
day. 

Figs.  7  and 
8  illustrate  the 
form  of  quarry 
bar  largely  used 
in  quarries  for  the 
purpose  of  drill- 
ing a  line  of  holes  for  plug-and-feather  work.  This  bar  is  also  used  to  a  limited  extent  for 
drilling  holes  for  blasting  purposes.  Several  forms  of  bars  are  in  use,  some  of  them  being 
made  of  angle  iron,  but  the  simplest  is  that  shown  in  the  cut,  which  is  made  of  a  piece 
of  extra  heavy 
wrought-iron  pipe, 
turned  in  a  lathe 
and  provided  with 
a  rack  riveted  to 
it  running  longi- 
tudinally. The 
bar  is  mounted 
upon  end  pieces, 
which  are  in  turn 
provided  with 
swivel  connections 
in  which  are  insert- 
ed four  legs  or  sup- 
ports. These  legs 
are  adjustable  in 
length  and  in 
angle,  so  that  the 
bar  may  be  placed 
on  irregular  floors. 
A  rock  drill  is 
mounted  upon  the 
bar  with  a  car- 
riage which  is  pro-  FIG.  8.— Plug-and-feather  bar.  Horizontal, 
yided  with  a  pin- 
ion and  crank.  The  operator  by  turning  the  crank  moves  the  drill  to  any  point  along  the  bar. 
In  quarries  and  in  stone-yards  it  is  frequently  noticed  that  a  number  of  men  are  employed 
to  drill  small  holes,  from  3  to  6  in.  deep,  in  large  blocks,  for  the  purpose  of  splitting  up  the 
blocks  into  sizes  for  the  market.  In  granite,  a  great  deal  of  this  work  is  done  by  hand.  This 
can  be  done  by  machinery  about  ten  times  as  fast,  and  at  much  less  expense. 


PIG.  7.— PI ug-and-f earner  bar.    Vertical. 


704 


QUARRYING   MACHINERY. 


A  small  drill  is  mounted  on  a  light  weight-bar,  the  whole  resting  upon  two  large  blocks 
of  stone,  thus  making  a  gallows  over  a  section  of  track.  A  truck  of  home-made  construction, 
with  perforated  wheels,  carries  the  block  of  stone  and  moves  under  the  gallows.  The  wheels 
are  so  perforated  that  a  quarter  turn  with  a  crowbar  moves  the  truck  just  far  enough  to  sepa- 
rate one  hole  from  the  other.  This  is  usually  about  6  in.  The  operation  is  very  simple,  two 
men  only  being  required,  one  to  run  the  drill  and  the  other  to  move  the  truck.  It  is  simply 
necessary  to  turn  on  the  steam,  drill  a  hole,  wind  the  steel  out  of  the  hole,  moving  the  truck, 
and  so  on  until  the  entire  line  of  holes  is  drilled.  The  drill  is  then  moved  along  the  bar  and 
another  line  of  holes  is  put  in.  In  granite,  these  machines  have  recorded  holes  3  or  4  in. 
deep  in  three-quarters  of  a  minute  each.  It  is  moved  and  started  in  another  hole  in  less  time. 
It  will  put  in  about  100  lineal  ft.  of  hole  in  a  day,  and  will  do  the  work  of  about  ten  men.  Two 
drills  may  be  used  on  one  bar.  The  bar  may  be  mounted  on  upright  wooden  frames  instead 
of  on  legs,  thus  giving  a  lateral  movement  and  a  larger  drilling  area. 

In  broach  channeling,  a  line  of  holes  is  driven,  leaving  a  dividing  wall  of  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  between  the  holes.  When  these  holes 
are  completed  to  the  depth  and  extent  required,  the 
rotation  pawls  are  released,  and  the  drill  is  made  to 
break  down  the  dividing  walls  by  means  of  a  broach,  and 
without  rotating  the  piston. 

The  Diamond  Channeling  Machine  is  represented 
in  Fig.  9.  This  is  the  only  machine  used  for  stone 
channeling  other  than  the  percussive  machines  herein- 
before described.  In  some  cases  no  boiler  is  placed  on 
the  machine,  thus  enabling  the  drill  spindle  to  be 
tipped  backward.  Diamond  channeling  machines  have 
been  largely  used  in  the  Vermont  Marble  Quarries, 
where  progress  has  been  made  to  a  depth  of  400  ft. ,  fol- 
lowing a  vein  under  the  hill.  Their  extreme  adaptability 
to  any  angle,  and  the  fact  that  the  carriage  does  not 
move  on  the  track  while  the  machine  is  working,  gives 
it  a  special  value  in  angular  quarries  and  places  where 
the  floor  is  not  level  or  regular.  The  track  upon  which 
the  machine  is  mounted  is  made  of  a  special  rail,  on  one 
side  of  which  is  a  rack ;  the  car  moves  in  this  rack  through 
a  pinion,  and  by  means  of  a  hand  crank  the  machine  is 
moved  a  definite  distance  after  each  hole.  Holes  are 
drilled  on  the  line  of  the  proposed  channel  in  the  same 
manner  as  diamond  drills  are  operated.  A  stationary 
engine  revolves  a  spindle  on  the  end  of  which  is  a 
diamond  bit.  This  bit  differs  from  that  used  for  pros- 
pecting in  that  it  is  solid  instead  of  cored  out,  so  that 
it  bores  the  hole  and  discharges  the  cuttings  to  the 
full  diameter  of  the  hole.  The  bits  are  usually  about  If-in.  in  diameter,  and  the  holes  are 
drilled  close  together,  leaving  a  slight  space  between,  which  is  afterwards  bored  out  by  the 
same  bit  through  a  guide  piece  which  follows  in  an  adjacent  hole. 

Fig.  10  illustrates  a  special  tripod  carrying  a  drill  for  putting  in  lewis-holes.    This  tripod 

is  of  the  regular  pattern,  except  the  center  bar,  which  car- 
ries the  drill,  is  extended  in  length,  and  is  perforated  with 
a  slot  1\  in.  long,  which  allows  the  drill  clamp  to  move  6 
in.,  to  cover  the  centers  of  three  parallel  holes,  3  in.  each, 
center  to  center.  When  the  three  holes  are  finished,  a 
broach  is  inserted  in  place  of  the  drill  without  moving  the 
tripod,  and  the  lewis-hole  finished  by  broaching  down  the 
partitions.  This  obviates  the  difficulty  of  breaking  down 
the  partitions  in  the  old  plan  of  diverging  holes,  as  shown 
in  the  right  side  of  Fig.  11. 

GADDING  MACHINES. — A  quarry  gadder  is  a  machine 
by  which  holes  are  inserted  into  the  side  of  the  bench  for 
the  insertion  of  plugs  and  feathers,  by  means  of  which 
the  blocks  are  separated  in  the  quarry.  Fig.  12  illustrates 
a  gadding  machine,  designed  by  the  writer  of  this  paper, 
and  made  by  the  Ingersoll -Sergeant  Drill  Co.  This  ma- 
chine is  used  for  putting  a  series  of  holes  on  a  true  line  in 
stone,  for  the  insertion  of  plugs  and  feathers  for  breaking 
up  the  blocks.  It  is  used  in 
connection  with  the  channel- 
ing machine  in  what  is  called 
"  lofting,"  or  breaking  from 
the  floor  of  the  quarry  into  the 
.cut  made  behind,  and  for 
breaking  the  stone  in  sections 
by  a  series  of  horizontal  holes 
driven  into  the  side  of  the 


FIG.  9.— Diamond  channeler. 


FIG.  10. -Tripod  drill. 


SPECIAL TRIPOD.''        REGULAR f 
FIG.  11. 


QUARRYING   MACHINERY. 


705 


bench.  In  marble  quarries,  where  it  is  desired  to  separate  the  "  stock,"  these  holes  are  placed 
on  the  line  of  the  "  riving  bed."  or  with  the  dip  of  the  marble.  The  machine  consists  of 
the  improved  Ingersoll  "Eclipse"  rock  drill,  mounted  upon  and  made  to  traverse  longitu- 
dinally a  standard  or  post,  which  is  fixed  through  trunnions  at  its  lower  end  to  a  cast-iron 
bed-piece  or  car,  and  which  is  made  to  swing  in  a  vertical  plane  from  a  perpendicular 
position  to  a  nearly  horizontal  one.  The  drill  is  pivoted  to  a  saddle,  which  is  raised  or  lowered 

on  the  standard  by  means  of  a 
chain,  which  passes  over  a  pulley 
at  the  top  and  around  a  shaft, 
which  is  turned  by  a  crank.  The 
saddle  is  fixed  at  any  desired  point 
on  the  standard  by  means  of  a  taper 


gib,  which  is  tightened  or  loosened 
bv  " 


FIG.  12. — Gaddiiig  machine. 


)y  the  throwing  up  or  down  of  a 
handle  in  the  side  of  the  saddle. 
The  car  moves  along  the  floor, 
without  a  track,  and  is  fixed  in 
position  by  means  of  corner  pins, 
which  are  driven  into  the  floor  and 
set  by  set-screws.  The  machine 
will  put  in  holes  close  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  quarry,  in  a  horizontal 
position  along  the  bench,  into  the 
roof,  or  perpendicularly  into  the 
floor,  as  desired.  These  varied  po- 
sitions are  effected  by  swinging  the 
drill  on  its  pivot  with  the  saddle, 
and  by  adjustment  of  the  standard. 
Where  it  is  desired  to  use  water  in 
the  holes  during  the  drilling,  a  tank 
is  placed  on  the  bench,  in  a  position 
about  6  ft.  above  the  drill,  and 
through  a  small  hose  water  is 
siphoned  into  a  nozzled  pipe,  which 
is  fixed  to  the  shell,  and  which 
points  to  the  hole,  remaining  in  a 
fixed  position,  with  the  nozzle  a 
few  inches  from  the  orifice.  Where  the  bench  is  6  ft.  or  more  in  height,  it  is  best  to  use  a 
tie-rod  or  brace  while  putting  in  the  top  holes.  This  rod  is  attached  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  standard  at  one  end,  and  is  driven  into  the  cut  beyond  the  bench  at  the  other,  and  will 
thus  resist  the  thrust  of  the  drill.  The  record  of  this  machine  in  marble  is  300  lineal  ft.  of 
2-ft.  holes  in  a  clay  of  ten  hours.  It  requires  twenty  seconds  to  remove  from  a  2-ft.  hole 
and  place  the  drill  in  position  to  begin  another.  The  ma- 
chine will  put  in  a  hole  3  ft.  in  depth  without  stopping. 

The  Diamond  Gadding  Machine  is  represented  in  Fig. 
13.  The  machine  is  placed  upon  a  platform  on  trucks  ar- 
ranged to  run  upon  a  track.  When  adjusted  for  work  it 
may  be  braced  by  the  pointed  legs  shown.  The  boring 
apparatus  is  attached  by  a  swivel  to  a  perpendicular  guide- 
bar.  This  guide-bar  is  secured  to  the  boiler  behind  it, 
which  forms  the  main  support  of  the  machine.  Upon  the 
guide-bar  the  boring  apparatus  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at 
pleasure,  for  the  purpose  of  boring  a  series  of  holes  in  a 
perpendicular  line  if  desired.  Upon  the  swivel  the  boring 
apparatus  may  be  turned,  so  as  to  bore  in  any  direction 
within  the  plane  of  the  swivel-plate.  The  illustration 
shows  the  drill-rod  or  spindle  placed  near  the  base  of  the 
machine,  and  so  as  to  bore  horizontally.  At  one  end  of  the 
spindle  is  the  drill-head,  armed  with  carbons,  and  supplied 
with  small  apertures  or  outlets  for  water.  At  the  other  end 
of  the  spindle  is  attached  a  hose  for  supplying  water  to  the 
drill-head.  A  rapid  revolving  movement  is  communicated 
to  the  drill-spindle  by  the  gears  shown.  The  speed  and  feed 
movement  may  be  regulated  by  the  operator  with  reference 
to  the  hardness  or  softness,  coarseness  or  fineness,  of  the 
material  to  be  bored  ;  and  the  feed  movement  may  be  in- 
stantly reversed  at  pleasure. 

Channeling -machine  Sits. — All  percussive  channeling 
machines  carry  a  gang  of  cutters  bolted  together,  and  in 
every  case  the  bits  or  points  are  chisel-shaped,  some  of  them 
having  straight  edges  and  others  diagonal  ones.  The  cutting 
tools  are  in  the  shape  of  gangs,  instead  of  being  in  solid  bars,  because  they  are  more  readily 
handled  and  transported  to  the  blacksmith  shop,  and  because  the  breakage  of  a  bit  is  adjusted 
45 


FIG.  13. — Diamond  gadding  machine. 


706  QUARRYING   MACHINERY. 

by  replacing  only  one  bar  in  the  gang.  A  3-d rill  gang  is  used  with  the  bar  channeler,  and 
sometimes  with  the  track  channelers  in  sandstone,  or  very  soft  material.  The  5-driii  gang 
is  used  with  track  channelers.  The  bits  of  the  gang  for  channeling  differ  somewhat  accord- 
ing to  the  stone.  For  marble  and  limestone  the  points  taper  sharply,  as  shown  in  the 
figures.  In  sandstone  the  points  are  more  blunt,  with  heavy  edges,  so  as  to  prevent  wear  01 
gauge.  It  is  also  advisable  in  some  kinds  of  sandstone  to  curve  the  cutting  edge  of  the  bit — 
that  is,  to  make  it  convex,  and  thus  prevent  wearing  of  the  gauge  to  a  taper  and  "  sticking." 
Sticking  is  a  troublesome  feature  in  sandstone  quarries,  because  the  bit  wears  away  the 
gauge  rapidly.  The  object  of  the  diagonal  bit  is  to  maintain  a  level  bottom  to  the  channel. 
Without  it  the  channel  would  be  "  rutted."  The  edge  of  the  diagonal  bit  cuts  away  what 
is  known  as  the  "frog."  This  frog  is  formed  by  glancing  of  the  straight  bit,  it  not  being 
perfectly  rigid,  especially  in  deep  cuts.  The  edge  of  the  diagonal  bit  strikes  the  frog  diag- 
onally across  the  top,  and  thus  cuts  it  away.  In  very  deep  channels  it  is  sometimes  advisable 
to  use  an  extra  clamp  down  in  the  cut,  or  above  it,  directly  under  the  cross-head,  in  order  to 
prevent  springing  of  the  bars. 

Steel  gang  channeling  machines,  cut  in  marble  from  75  to  125  sq.  ft.  of  channel  per 
day  of  10  hours  ;  in  oolitic  limestone  and  in  sandstone  from  150  to  400  sq.  ft.  In  marble 
channeling  is  done  at  from  10  to  25  cents  per  sq.  ft.,  equivalent  to  from  3  to  5  cents  per 
cub.  ft.  of  stone  quarried.  In  oolitic  limestone  and  sandstone  the  cost  is  about  one-half 
these  figures. 

The  Plug-and-Feather  Process  is  distinctly  an  American  invention,  the  old  system  being 
a  trench  in  the  stone  with  a  wedge  for  splitting.  There  are  many  advantages  in  the  plugs 
and  feathers  over  wedges.  Less  stone  is  wasted,  because  the  plug-and-feather  process  requires 
only  a  hole  of  small  diameter  while  the  wedge  process  involves  a  trench  several  inches  wide 
at  the  top.  The  plug  is  a  common  piece  of  steel,  wedge-shaped.  The  feathers  are  made  of 
half-round  iron,  drawn  down  to  a  point  which  is  bent  over.  When  the  hole  has  been  drilled 
to  the  required  depth,  the  feathers  are  first  inserted,  then  the  plug  is  driven  down  between 
them ;  thus  a  tension  is  exerted  on  the  walls  of  the  hole  for  the  full  depth  of  the  feathers. 
It  is  obviously  important  in  breaking  up  a  block  of  stone  that  the  break  be  true.  With  the 
wedge  process  the  force  is  exerted  only  at  the  top,  hence  the  stone  is  apt  to  break  irregularly, 
while  with  the  plugs  and  feathers  holes  are  drilled  sometimes  to  the  full  depth  of  the  stone, 
and  the  plugs  and  feathers  inserted  for  almost  the  full  depth  of  the  hole  ;  thus  a  straight  and 
true  break  is  made.  The  plug-and-feather  process  has  followed  the  use  of  rock  drills  on 
quarry  bars.  Until  recent  years  the  wedge  process  was  used  in  the  Ohio  sandstone  quarries, 
and  almost  universally  in  Europe,  but  plugs  and  feathers  have  been  adopted  in  progressive 
quarries. 

Quarrying  by  Wire  Cord. — This  method  is  exclusively  employed  at  two  marble  quarries 
in  Belgium,  and  is  also  in  use  for  quarrying  various  descriptions  of  stone,  including  granite, 
in  several  countries  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  not  only  subdividing  blocks, 
but  also  sawing  large  masses  out  of  the  solid  rock.  For  this  purpose  a  cord,  barely  \  in.  in 
diameter,  composed  of  three  mild  steel  wires,  is  made  to  travel  at  about  13  ft.  per  second, 
while  the  diameter  is  reduced  and  the  speed  slightly  increased  as  the  length  of  cut  decreases 
for  subdivision  of  the  blocks.  The  twist  of  the  cord  causes  it,  while  running,  to  turn  upon 
itself,  thus  becoming  worn  evenly  over  its  whole  surface,  so  that  eventually  it  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  single  wire,  but  little  larger  than  those  which  originally  composed  the 
cord.  It  is  then  incapable  of  carrying  along  the  sand  and  water,  but  may  still  be  used  for 
fencing  and  a  variety  of  purposes.  Before  being  worn  out,  however,  a  cord  150  yds.  long 
is  capable  of  cutting  to  a  depth  of  nearly  70  ft.  in  15  blocks,  or  of  producing  about  500  sq. 
ft.  of  sawn  surface  in  marble.  In  a  block  of  marble  15  ft.  long  the  rate  of  the  cut  is  14  in. 
per  hour,  and  in  granite  about  1  in.  One  endless  cord,  guided  by  grooved  pulleys,  may  be 
made  to  cut  at  several  different  places,  provided  they  be  not  too  close  together  ;  and,  as 
there  is  so  little  surface  in  contact,  a  very  small  amount  of  motive  power  is  required  to  drive. 
The  tension  is  maintained  by  a  weighted  truck  on  the  incline,  and  the  feed  is  given  by  an 
endless  screw,  rotated  automatically  in  stone  of  uniform  texture,  or  by  hand  when  irregular- 
ities are  anticipated. 

The  Knox  System  of  Blasting  in  Quarries. — The  purpose  of  the  Knox  system  is  to  re- 
lease dimension  stone  from  its  place  in  the  bed  by  so  directing  an  explosive  force  that  it  is 
made  to  cleave  the  rock  in  a  prescribed  line, 
and  without  injury.  The  system  is  also  used 
for  breaking  up  detached  blocks  of  stone  into 
smaller  sizes.  A  round  hole  is  first  drilled — 
Fig.  14.  A  reamer,  shown  in  end  view  in 
Fig.  14,  and  in  elevation,  Fig.  15,  is  inserted 
in  the  hole  in  the  lino  of  the  proposed  fracture,  FIG.  14.  -Details  of  Knox  system.  Reamer, 

and  made  to  cut  two  V-shaped  grooves,  A,  B. 

Fig.  16  is  a  section  of  the  drill  hole.  The  charge  of  powder  is  shown  at  C,  the  air  space  at 
B,  and  the  tamping  at  A. 

Let  us  assume  that  we  have  a  blue-stone  quarry  in  which  we  may  illustrate  the  simplest 
application  of  the  Knox  system.  The  sheet  of  stone  which  we  wish  to  shear  from  place  has 
a  bed  running  longitudinally  at  a  depth  of,  say,  10  ft.  One  face  is  front,  and  a  natural  seam 
divides  the  bed  at  each  end  at  the  walls  of  the  quarry.  We  now  have  a  block  of  stone,  say 
50  ft.  long,  with  all  of  its  faces  free,  except  one — that  opposite  and  corresponding  with  the 
bench.  One  or  more  Knox  holes  are  put  in  of  such  depth  r.nd  distance  apart,  and  from  the 


QUARRYING   MACHINERY. 


707 


FIG.  15.— Knox  reamer. 


bench,  as  may  be  regulated  by  the  thickness,  strength,  and  character  of  the  rock.  No  man 
is  so  good  a  judge  of  this  as  the  quarry  foreman,  who  has  used  and  studied  the  effect  of 
the  Knox  system  in  his  quarry.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  drill  the  holes  round  and 

in  a  straight  line.  In  sandstone  of  medium  hard- 
ness these  holes  may  be  situated  10  ft.,  12  ft,  or  15 
ft.  apart.  If  the  bed  is  a  tight  one — that  is,  where 
it  is  not  entirely  free  at  the  bottom — the  hole  should 
be  run  entirely  through  the  sheet  and  to  the  bed, 
but  with  an  open  free  bed  holes  of  less  depth  will 
suffice. 

The  reamer  should  now  be  used  and  driven  by 
hand.  Several  devices  have  been  applied  to  rock 
drills  for  reaming  the  hole  by  machinery  while  drilling — that  is,  efforts  have  been  made 
to  combine  the  drill  and  the  reamer.  Such  efforts  have  met  with  only  partial  success.  The 
perfect  alignment  of  the  reamer  is  so  important  that  where  power  is  used  this  point  is  apt 
to  be  neglected.  It  is  also  a  well-known  fact  that  the  process  of  reaming  by 
hand  is  not  a  difficult  or  a  slow  one.  The  drilling  of  the  hole  requires  the 
greatest  amount  of  work.  After  this  has  been  done  it  is  a  simple  matter  to 
cut  the  V-shaped  grooves.  The  reamer  should  be  applied  at  the  center  of 
the  hole — that  is,  the  grooves  should  be  cut  on  the  axis  or  full  diameter  of  the 
hole.  The  gauge  of  the  reamer  should  be  at  least  H  times  the  diameter  of  the 
hole.  While  driving  the  reamer  great  care  should  be  taken  that  it  does  not 
twist,  as  the  break  may  thereby  be  deflected.  Ream  until  you  can  do  so  no 
further— that  is,  ream  to  the  full  depth  of  the  hole.  The  hole  is  now  ready 
for  charging.  First  insert  the  powder,  which  should  be  a  low  grade  of  explo- 
sive. Do  not  use  dynamite.  Black  powder,  Judson  powder,  or  other  explo- 
sives which  act  slowly,  are  preferable.  No  definite  rule  can  be  laid  down 
as  to  the  amount  of  powder  to  be  used,  but  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that 
as  little  powder  should  be  used  as  possible.  The  powder  must,  of  course,  be 
provided  with  a  fuse,  or,  preferably,  a  fulminating  cap.  It  is  well  to  insert 
the  cap  about  the  middle  of  the  cartridge. 

After  the  charge  the  usual  thing  to  do  is  to  insert  tamping,  but  in  the  Knox 
hole  the  tamping  should  not  be  put  directly  upon  the  powder,  but  an  air  space 
should  be  left,  as  shown  at  B.  Fig.  16.     The  best  way  to  tamp,  leaving  an  air 
space,  is,  first  to  insert  a  wad,  which  may  be  of  oakum,  hay,  grass,  paper,  or 
other  similar  material.      The  tamping  should   be  placed  from    6  to  12   in. 
below  the  mouth  of  the  hole.      In  somo  kinds  of  stone  a  less  distance   will 
suffice,  and  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  as  much  air  space  as  practicable 
should  intervene  between  the  explosive  and  the  tamping.       Care  should  be       FIG.  id.— 
observed  in  tamping  not  to  destroy  the  wires  which  connect  with  the  explo-       Dri11  hole- 
sive,  but  the  tamping  should  be  made  secure  so  that  it  will  not  blow  out.     The  hole  is  now- 
ready  for  blasting.      If  several  holes  are  used  on  a  line  they  should  be  connected  in  series 
and  blasted  simultaneously.      The  effect  of  the  blast  is  to  make  a  vertical  seam  connecting 
the  holes,  and  the  entire  mass  of  rock  is  sheared  several  inches  or  more. 

The  philosophy  of  the  Knox  blast  is  simple,  though  a  matter  of  some  dispute.  Mr.  Knox 
gives  the  following  explanation  : 

"  The  two  surfaces,  a  and  b,  Fig.  14,  being  of  equal  area,  must  receive  an  equal  amount  of 
the  force  generated  by  the  conversion  of  the  explosive  into  gas.  These  surfaces  being  smooth, 
and  presenting  no  angle  between  the  points,  A  and  B,  furnish  no  starting  point  for  a  fracture, 
but  at  these  points  the  lines  meet  at  a  sharp  angle,  including  between  them  a  wedge-shaped 
space.  The  gas  acting  equally  in  all  directions  from  the  center  is  forced  into  the  two  oppo- 
site wedge-shaped  spaces,  and  the  impact  being  instantaneous,  the  effect  is  precisely  similar 
to  that  of  two  solid  wedges  driven  from  the  center  by  a  force  equally  prompt  and  energetic. 
All  rocks  possess  the  property  of  elasticity  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and  this  principle 
being  excited  to  the  point  of  rupture  at  the  points  A  and  B,  the  gas  enters  the  crack  and  the 
rock  is  split  in  a  straight  line,  simply  because  under  the  circumstances  it  cannot  split  any 
other  way." 

It  is  doubtless  true  that,  notwithstanding  the  greater  area  of  pressure  in  a  Knox  hole,  the 
break  would  not  invariably  follow  the  prescribed  line  but  for  the  V-shaped  groove,  which 
virtually  starts  it.  A  bolt,  when  strained,  will  break  in  the  thread,  whether  this  be  the 
smallest  section  or  not,  because  the  thread  is  a  starting  point  for  the  break.  A  rod  of  glass 
is  broken  with  a  slight  jar,  provided  a  groove  has  been  filed  in  its  surface.  Numerous  other 
instances  might  be  cited  to  prove  the  value  of  the  groove.  Elasticity  in  rock  is  a  pronounced 
feature,  which  varies  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  but  it  is  always  more  or  less  present.  A 
sandstone  has  recently  been  found  which  possesses  the  property  of  elasticity  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  it  may  be  bent  like  a  piece  of  steel.  When  a  blast  is  made  in  the  Knox  hole  the 
stone  is  under  high  tension,  and,  being  elastic,  it  will  naturally  pull  apart  on  such  lines  of 
weakness  as  grooves,  especially  when  they  are  made,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  the  Knox  sys- 
tem, in  a  direction  at  right  angles  with  the  lines  of  least  resistance. 

Our  previous  illustration  of  a  break  by  the  Knox  system  was  its  simplest  and  best  appli- 
cation. An  identical  case  would  be  one  where  a  large  and  loose  block  of  stone  was  split  up 
into  smaller  ones  by  one  or  more  Knox  holes.  But  those  who  use  this  system  do  not  confine 
it  to  such  cases  alone.  Horizontal  holes  are  frequently  put  in,  and  artificial  beds  made  by 


708 


RAILROAD,  CABLE. 


FIG.  17.— Knoxhole. 


"  lofting."  In  such  cases,  where  the  rock  has  a  "  rift  "  parallel  with  the  bed,  one  hole  about 
half  way  through  is  sufficient  for  a  block  about  15  ft.  square,  but  in  "liver"  rock 
the  holes  must  be  drilled  nearly  through  the  block,  and  the  size  of  the 
block  first  reduced.  A  more  difficult  application  of  the  Knox  system, 
and  one  requiring  greater  care  in  its  successful  use,  is  where  the  block 
of  stone  is  situated  as  in  the  case  hereinbefore  cited,  except  that 
both  ends  are  not  free,  one  of  them  being  solidly  fixed  in  the  quarry 
wall.  A  simple  illustration  of  a  case  of  this  kind  is  a  stone  step  on  a 
stairway  which  leads  up  and  along  a  wall.  Each  step  has  one  end  fixed 
to  the  wall  and  the  other  free.  Each  step  is  also  free  on  top,  on  the  bot- 
tom, and  on  the  face,  but  fixed  at  the  back.  We  now  put  a  Knox  hole  in 
the  corner,  at  the  junction  of  the  step  and  the  wall.  The  shape  of  the  Knox  hole  is  as 
shown  in  Fig.  17. 

It  is  here  seen  that  the  grooves  are  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  and  the  block  of  stone 
is  sheared  by  a  break  made  opposite  the  bench,  as  in  the  previous  case,  and  an  addi- 
tional break  made  at  right  angles,  and  at  the  fixed  end  of  the  block.  Sometimes  a  corner 
break  is  made  by  putting  in  two  of  the  regular  straight  Knox  holes  in  the  lines  of  the  pro- 
posed break,  and  without  the  use  of  the  corner  hole. 

RAILROAD,  CABLE.  The  wire-cable  system  of  street  railways  was  first  put  into  use 
in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  in  1873,  when  the  Clay  Street  Hill  Railroad  was  constructed  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  plans  of  Mr.  Andrew  S.  Hallidie.  Practical  employment  has  proved  that 

the  system  possesses,  among  others, 
advantages  which  may  be  summa- 
rized as  follows :  The  steepest  grades 
are  as  easily  worked  as  levels ;  the 
cars  may  be* stopped  instantly  at  any 
point  on  the  line,  and  started  with 
promptness  and  ease  ;  the  speed  is 
uniform,  and  any  rate  maybe  estab- 
lished that  is  desired  ;  the  method 
of  working  is  noiseless  and  even  ; 
cleanliness  of  the  track  is  secured  ; 
a  capacity  of  increase  is  obtainable 
at  any  time  an  increased  carrying 
capacity  may  be  required,  and  there 
is  freedom  from  snow  blockade. 

The  Cable  System  of  the  Pacific 
and  National  Railway  Companies  is 
based  upon  the  patents  of  Hallidie, 
Hovey,  Paine,  Root,  and  others,  and 
is  now  employed  in  San  Francisco, 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  many  other 
cities,  and  also  on  the  East  River 
Bridge,  between  New  York  and 
Brooklyn.  It  consists  simply  of  an 
endless  wire  rope  placed  in  a  tube 
(having  a  narrow  slot  from  £  to  J 
in.  wide),  beneath  the  surface  and 
between  the  rails,  maintained  in  its 
position  by  means  of  sheaves,  wheels, 
or  rollers.  The  rope  is  kept  con- 
tinuously in  motion  by  a  stationary 
steam-engine  at  either  end  of  the 
line,  or  at  any  convenient  point  be- 
tween the  two  extremes.  A  gripping 
attachment  at  the  end  of  a  vertical 
steel  rod  connected  with  the  car, 
and  passing  through  the  narrow 
slot  in  the  tube,  transmits  the  mo- 
tion of  the  cable  to  the  car.  The 
speed  at  which  the  car  moves  is  de- 
termined by  the  rapidity  of  the 
cable,  and  this  is  regulated  by  the 
revolutions  of  the  driving-wheel  at 

The  cable  is  grasped  and  released  at  pleasure,  and  the  movement  of 
The  car  or  cars  (there  may  be  any  number  used  together) 


FIG.  1. — Cable  railroad  car. 


the  stationary  engine, 
the  car  controlled  by  one  man. 

start  without  shock  or  jar,  and  are  stopped  instantly  at  any  point  more  readily  than  a  horse- 
car,  and  hence  are  less  liable  to  accidents.  The  system  can  be  adapted  to  any  grade  or 
curvature,  even  to  turning  the  corner  of  a  street  at  acute  angles  of  limited  radius.  A  variety 
of  different  forms  of  gripping  attachments  or  '  •  grips  "  have  been  devised .  The  typical  variety 
used  on  the  Clay  Street  Hill  Railroad  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  A  vertical  slide,  Fig. 
1,  works  in  a  shank,  and  is  moved  up  and  down  by  a  screw  and  hand-wheel.  The  small 
upper  screw  going  down  through  the  large  hollow  screw  operates  it.  At  the  lower  end  of 


RAILKOAD,  CABLE. 


this  slide  is  a  wedge-shaped  block.  The  wedge  actuates  two  jaws  horizontally,  which  open 
and  close  according  to  the  direction  in  which  the  slide  is  moved,  closing  when  the  slide  is 
moved  upward.  These  jaws  have  pieces  of  soft  cast-iron  placed  in  them,  which  are  easily 
removed  when  worn  out.  These  pieces  of  iron  are  of  proper  shape  and  size  inside  to  grip 
the  rope  when  they  are  closed  over  it.  On  both  sides  of  these  jaws  and  attached  to  them 
are  four  small  pulleys.  These  pulleys  are  held  by  means  of  rubber  cushions,  sufficiently 
in  advance  of  the  jaws  to  keep  the  rope  off  from  the  jaws  and  at  the  same  time  to  lead  the 
rope  fairly  between  them,  allowing  it  to  travel  freely  between  the  jaws  when  they  are 
separated,  without  touching  them.  When  it  is  required  to  grip  the  rope,  this  slide  is 
drawn  up  by  means  of  the  small  screw  and  hand  wheel,  before  described,  and  the  wedge 
at  the  lower  end  closes  the  jaws  over  the  rope,  at  the  same  time  forcing  back  the  small  guide 
sheaves  onto  the  rubber  cushions.  The  shank,  containing  the  slide,  etc.,  is  enclosed  and 
retained  in  cast-iron  slides  attached  to  the  body  of  the  car,  and  a  wrought-iron  standard, 
having  a  large  nut  at  its  upper  end,  in  which  the  large  hollow  screw  works.  The  grip  is 
raised  and  lowered  bodily  through  the  opening  in  the  tube  from  above  the  surface  of  the 
street  to  the  rope  in  the  tube  by  means  of  the  hand-wheel  and  nut  working  on  the  large 
hollow  screw  referred  to.  The  grip  is  secured  to  a  skeleton  or  trac- 
tion-car called  a  dummy.  The  dummy  is  coupled  to  the  passenger 
cars  at  the  bottom  of  the  incline  and  uncoupled  at  the  top,  and  vice 
versa.  At  first  the  connection  between  the  dummy  and  car  was  made 
by  means  of  spiral  springs,  to  prevent  any  jar  in  starting  up  ;  but 
this  was  soon  found  unnecessary.  The  arrangements  made  at  the 
bottom  of  the  incline  for  keeping  the  rope  at  the  proper  tension,  and 
taking  up  the  slack,  prevent  any  noticeable  jar  in  starting.  As  before 
stated,  the  rope  is  constantly  in  motion,  running  between  sheaves 
placed  in  the  tube.  The  slot  of  the  tube  is  on  one  side  of  a  vertical 
line  drawn  through  the  center  of  the  tube  ;  and  referring  to  Fig.  3  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  foot  of  the  gripping  attachment  projects  on  one 
side,  giving  it  an  L-shape,  enabling  the  jaws  to  pass  under  and  over  the 
rope  sheaves  in  tube.  In  order  to  stop  the  car,  the  jaws  of  the  grip- 
ping attachment  are  slightly  opened  ;  when  they  release  the  rope  the 
guide  sheaves  take  it,  and  the  car  stops.  In  another  form  of  grip  used 
on  the  Sutter  Street  Railroad,  San  Francisco,  the  motion  of  the  grip- 
ping jaws  is  vertical,  instead  of  horizontal,  and  the  rope  is  taken 
up  and  released  at  the  side.  In  order  to  run  upon  or  off  the  rope  at 
the  termini  of  the  road,  the  track  and  slot  diverge  from  or  converge  to 
the  line  of  the  rope.  Levers  are  used  for  operating  the  jaws  instead 
of  the  screw. 

The  particulars  concerning  a  number  of  cable  roads  are  given  in 
the  table  appended  to  this  article.  The  construction  of  the  Market 
Street  Railroad  in  San  Francisco  possesses  many  points  of  interest. 
The  foundation  for  the  road-bed  and  track  rests  upon  concrete  piers 
extending  to  a  depth  of  10  ft.  or  more  below  the  surface  of  the  street. 
These  piers  have  a  width  of  5  ft.,  and  are  1(3  in.  thick,  and  are  placed 
about  9  ft.  apart.  The  track  and  tube  of  this  road  are  made  into  a  single  rigid  structure 
by  connecting  the  rails  and  slot-irons  by  yokes,  and  uniting  the  whole  by  employing  con- 
crete. The  main  tie  or  yoke  connecting  the  opposite  rails  is  formed  of  old  railroad  T-rail, 
bent  in  proper  shape  head  down.  It  embraces  the  tube,  and  has  fast- 
ened to  the  ends  suitable  chairs  or  plates,  to  which  the  rails  are  secured. 
From  the  lower  part  of  the  curved  yoke  extend  upward  two  supports 
for  the  slot-irons.  The  lower  ends  of  these  are  sufficiently  separated 
to  form  the  necessary  width  for  the  tube.  Tie-rods  connect  these 
supports  with  the  main  yokes  through  the  chairs.  The  two  rails, 
slot-irons,  and  yoke  are  then  all  connected  rigidly  together  as  one. 
Car  and  dummy  are  united  in  one  vehicle,  34  ft.  long  over  all,  and 
supported  on  two  four-wheel  pivoted  trucks.  The  rear  truck  carries 
the  track-brake,  which  is  between  the  wheels  on  each  side.  In  addi- 
tion there  are  the  usual  wheel-brakes.  The  forward  truck  carries  the 
grip  and  hand  levers.  A  rod  connects  the  rock  shaft  of  the  track- 
brakes  with  the  hand  lever  on  the  forward  truck. 

The  grip  in  use  on  this  road  is  worked  by  a  lever,  and  it  is 
formed  of  two  frames,  one  sliding  inside  the  other.  The  outer  one 
is  secured  to  the  grip-bar  on  the  forward  truck  by  bolts,  and  carries 

the  lower  jaw,  while  the  inner  frame,  which  slides  up  and  down  upon'the  outer  one,  car- 
ries the  upper  jaw,  the  quadrant,  the  operating  lever,  and  adjusting  mechanism,  and  is  held 
in  place  by  guide  plates  extending  across  the  inside  frame,  and  between  which  it  slides.  The 
frame  carrying  the  jaws  passes  through  the  slot  directly  down  alongside  the  cable  without 
offset.  The  grip-bar,  on  which  these  parts  are  mounted,  is  secured  and  supported  by  a 
frame  on  the  running  gear  or  truck,  and  not  on  the  car  itself.  The  car  body  therefore  can 
be  mounted  on  springs  without  any  of  the  spring  motion  being  imparted  to  the  grip,  and 
through  it  to  the  cable.  In  the  way  in  which  this  grip  is  arranged  all  the  parts  liable  to  get 
out  of  order  are  accessible,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide  pits  in  which  to  examine  them. 
When  the  car  is  at  a  standstill  the  cable  passes  along  over  the  chilled-iron  grooved  rollers 


FIG.  2.— Grip. 


710 


EAILROAD,   CABLE. 


at  each  end  of  the  lower  die.  The  lever  operating  the  grip  is  then  inclined  forward.  When 
the  gripman  desires  to  start  the  car,  lie  draws  the  hand  lever  back.  This  action  moves  the 
inner  frame  downward,  carrying  with  it  the  upper  jaw  or  die.  This  die  consists  of  a  piece 
of  brass  secured  in  the  lower  end  of  the  sliding  part.  The  lower  die  is  a  shorter  piece  of 
brass  fitted  lengthwise  between  the  two  rollers.  This  is  arranged  with  set-screws  to  be  raised 
to  take  up  wear.  The  upper  die  is  longer  than  the  lower,  and  as  it  is  forced  down  by  the 
inner  frame,  it  rests  on  the  moving  cable,  and  pushes  or  presses  it  tight  on  the  rollers  before 
pressing  it  on  the  lower  die.  Gradual  motion  is  thus  imparted  to  the  car,  without  jerk  or  jar. 
A  still  further  downward  motion  of  the  upper  die  forces  the  rope,  or  cable,  onto  the  lower 
die,  the  cable  being  thus  held  tightly  between  the  dies.  A  reverse  motion  of  the  lever  raises 
the  frame  and  upper  die,  and  releases  the  cable,  and  allows  it  to  run  through  freely  without 
imparting  any  motion  to  the  car.  The  action  of  the  brakes  then  stops  the  car. 

The  heavy  traffic  and  the  great  length  of  the  cables  on  these  lines  have  rendered  necessary 
the  use  of  cables  1-$  in.  in  diameter,  which  are  larger  than  those  first  used.  Their  weight  is 
about  21  Ibs.  per  ft.  The  rope  runs  21  hours  per  day,  at  a  speed  of  about  8  miles  per  hour, 
the  rate  of  speed  for  the  cars,  including  stoppages,  being  about  7£  miles  per  hour.  Every 
30  ft.  along  the  road  is  a  grooved  supporting  pulley,  15  in,  in  diameter,  over  the  flanges. 
These  pulleys  are  the  rope-carriers.  Over  each  of  them  is  a  plate,  which  may  be  removed  to 
allow  of  oiling,  etc. 

In  switching  to  and  from  the  branch  lines,  it  is  necessary  to  release  the  cable  from  the 
grip  while  in  motion,  the  car  then  passing  around  the  curve  and  switching  onto  the  cable  of 
the  other  line.  In  switching  from  the  main  to  one  of  the  branch  lines,  in  case  the  cable  has 
not  been  released  by  the  grip,  a  safety  apparatus,  working  automatically,  closes  the  switch 
and  compels  the  car  to  keep  on  the  main  line,  when-  the  car  is  stopped  and  backed  on  to  the 
branch  line,  thus  avoiding  accident  to  both  grip  and  cable.  At  the  termini  of  the  various 
lines,  turn-tables  30  ft.  in  diameter,  having  two  sets  of  tracks  laid  thereon,  are  provided  for 
turning  the  cars,  and  are  revolved  by  the  power  of  the  moving  cable.  At  the  water-front 
terminus,  where  the  cars  of  all  the  lines  concentrate,  extra  tracks  are  laid  converging  into  the 
main  track,  and  the  cars  of  the  various  lines  are  run  upon  their  respective  tracks,  as  the 
table  rotates.  The  speed  of  the  table  at  this  point  is  so  increased  as  to  meet  the  dispatch 
required.  There  are  three  power  stations  on  the  lines  of  this  railway.  A  plan  of  the  main 
station  is  given  in  Fig.  4. 

The  form  of  grip  used  on  the  Chicago  City  Railway  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  5. 
the  mechanism  are  as  follows  :  A,  grip  lever ;  £,  lever  handle  ;  C, 

lever  rod  ;  D, 


The  parts 


lever  dog;  E, 
lever  dog 
spring;  F, 
quadrant  ; 
upper  Gr,  ad- 
justing head  ; 
lower  &,  ad- 
justing shoe  ; 
H,  lever  set- 
screw  ;  /,  ad- 
justing screw; 
t7,  grip  links  ; 
K,  grip  beam  ; 
L,  grip  shank; 
•  M,  grip  plate  ; 


P,  spools  ;  Q,  roller  journals  ;   R,  grip  rollers  ;  8,  cable. 

The  Los  Angeles  Cable  Railway  is  one  of  the  longest  in  the 
world,  having  about  21  miles  of  single  track  worked  from  three 
power  stations.  The  gauge  is  3  ft.  6  in.,  and  the  rails,  which  are 
of  steel,  40  Ibs.  to  the  yard,  are  carried  on  iron  sleepers.  The 
channel  in  which  the  cable  travels  is  made  of  cement  concrete, 
J  and-  the  slot  rails  on  the  top  are  of  steel,  and  weigh  40  Ibs.  per 
yard.  The  works  on  this  line  are  of  considerable  interest,  and 
include  three  viaducts,  while  the  curves  are  numerous.  One  of 
the  viaducts  carries  the  line  over  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway  Co.'s  yards.  A  remarkable 
feature  about  it  is  that  the  road  is  supported  on  single  columns,  and  is  believed  to  be 
the  only  instance  in  existence  where  two  tracks  are  thus  carried,  although  in  certain  parts  of 
the  elevated  railway  structure  in  New  York  a  single  track  is  thus  supported.  The  length  of 
this  viaduct  is  1,535  ft.,  of  which  50  ft.  at  each  end  are  occupied  by  concrete  approaches,  and 
the  remaining  1,435  ft.  represent  the  length  of  the  metal  work.  The  viaduct  affords  no 
thoroughfare  except  for  the  cable  cars,  and  in  fact  no  other  vehicles  could  travel  over  it, 
as  the  roadway  is  all  open  work.  The  height  from  the  ground  to  the  rail  level  is  25  ft.  9  in., 
and  the  width  between  hand  rails  is  25  ft.  The  ruling  span  is  50  ft.  ,  but  there  are  two  spans 
of  55  ft.,  three  of  40ft.,  one  of  30  ft.,  and  one  of  20  ft.  The  main  trusses  are  of  the  Warren 
type,  4  ft.  deep,  and  weighing  100  Ibs.  per  running  ft.  There  are  two  curves  on  the  viaduct, 
each  of  60  ft.  radius  to  the  center  line,  and  at  these  points  there  are  braced  posts  to  take 


RAILROAD,  CABLE. 


711 


the  strain,  and  the  tracks  are  also  carried  on  double  posts  at  these  points,  as  well  as  at  the 

approaches,  as  a  precautionary  measure. 

The  entire  length  of  the  straight  surface  tracks  of  the  cable  line  is  99,?28  ft. ;  of  the 
viaducts,  4,250ft.;  of  bridges,  2,124  ft.;  of  curves,  2,010  ft.; 
and  of  the  pits,  562  ft.;  making  a  total  of  108,274  ft.  of 
track,  or  rather  over  20^  miles,  and  the  construction  required 
1,444  tons  of  track  and  slot  rails,  and  2,919  tons  of  iron 
sleepers. 

As  already  stated,  there  are  three  power  stations  on  the  sys- 
tem, all  similar  in  arrangement.  The  engines  are  com- 
pound, the  high-pressure  cylinder  being  £6  in.  in  diameter, 
and  the  low-pressure  42  in.  in  diameter;  the  stroke  is  48  in. 
They  are  intended  to  develop  TOO  horse-power  at  a  speed  of 
75  revolutions  per  minute.  The  high  and  low-pressure  cylin- 
ders are  set  side  by  side,  and  the  distance  between  centers  is  10 
ft. ;  the  total  length  of  built-up  crank  shaft  is  £  in.  over  14ft. 
The  fly-wheel  is  14  ft.  in  diameter,  with  rim  of  14  in.  face  by 
18  in.  deep,  and  weighs  36,000  Ibs.  The  first  driving  shaft  of 
the  winding  machinery  is  18  ft.  2|  in.  long,  with  two  journals 
at  the  ends,  and  one  at  the  center  between  the  driving  rope 
pulleys.  In  the  bosses  of  these  pulleys  the  shaft  is  swelled  to 
16  in."  in  diameter.  The  rope  wheels*  which  are  two  in  num- 
ber, are  6ft.  1|  in.  pitch  diameter;  they  are  made  in  halves 
and  are  each  grooved  for  fourteen  2  in.  cotton  ropes,  the  power 
transmitted  to  the  driven  wheels  by  a  system  of  endless  rope 
by  gearing.  The  large  or  driven  rope  wheels  on  the  main 


FIG.  5.— Grip. 


of  the  engines  being 
transmission  instead  of 
rope  shaft  are  25  ft.  in  diameter,  built  up 
of  ten  segments  each,  with  a  hollow  boss 
in  one  piece,  and  ten  hollow  arms  of 
elliptical  section.  The  shaft  which  car- 
ries these  wheels  is  1C  ft.  1-V  in.  long,  the 
diameter  in  the  boss  of  the  wheels  being 
19|  in.  This  shaft  is  coupled  at  each  end 
to  the  winding  shafts,  which  are  11  ft. 
10£  in.  long,  17  in.  in  diameter  in  the 
center,  and  15  in.  at  the  bosses  of  the 
overhung  rope  drums.  These  latter  are 
mounted  on  each  end  of  the  winding 
shaft,  and  each  has  two  grooves  for  2-in. 
cotton  ropes,  their  diameter  measured  to 
the  center  of  the  rope  being  15  ft.  They 
drive  two  other  rope  wheels  or  "idlers," 
which  are  mounted  on  their  own  shaft. 
These  idlers  are  of  1  in.  less  diameter 
than  the  driving  rope  drums,  and  the 
purpose  of  this  is  always  to  keep  the  cot- 
ton ropes  taut,  so  that  the  cable  itself 
may  not  have  to  perform  any  of  the  work 
of  rotating  the  idler  wheels,  the  necessary 
amount  of  slip  required,  as  these  slightly 
smaller  wheels  gain  on  the  drivers,  being 
provided  for  in  the  clutches  with  which 
the  cable  drums  are  driven.  The  cable 
drums  are  loose  on  the  extended  bosses 


FIG.  6.—  Duplicate  cable  railroad. 


of  the  rope  wheels,  and  are  held  to  these  wheels  by  friction  disks,  which  are  tightened  up 
by  eight  screws  and  hand  wheels  in  each  drum.  The  cable  drums  on  the  winding  shaft  are 
13  ft.  in  diameter,  with  five  grooves  each  for  1£  in.  cable,  and  those  on  the  driven  shaft  are 
of  the  same  diameter,  but  with  four  grooves  in  each.  The  cable  speed  corresponding  to  75 
revolutions  per  minute  of  the  engines,  is  8^  miles  an  hour. 

The  Miller  or  ^.m^rican  System  of  Cable  Hallways  is  constructed  by  the  American  Cable 
Railway  Co.  of  Xew  York,  and  is  based  upon  the  designs  of  Mr.  D.  J.  Miller.  The  principal 
characteristic  of  this  system  is  the  use  of  duplicate  cables  laid  parallel  to  one  another  through 
the  tube  on  either  side  of  the  slot,  and  so  arranged  at  the  driving  station  that  if  one  cable 
or  its  machinery  should  become  disabled,  the  second  rope  can  be  brought  into  immediate  use. 
Each  system  is  entirely  independent  of  the  other  by  reason  of  this  duplication.  The  follow- 
ing advantages  are  claimed  :  Besides  operating  the  road  uninterruptedly/the  motive  power  is 
more  durable,  as  ample  time  can  be  allowed  for  close  inspection  and  needed  repairs,  thereby 
prolonging  the  life  of  both  cable  and  machinery.  Roads  operated  by  duplicate  cables  can 
run  steadily  twenty-four  hours  per  day.  while  with  but  one  rope  this  is  not  possible,  as  some 
time  must  be  devoted  to  examination  "and  repairs.  This  system  is  in  use  in  New  York  City 
on  the  Tenth  Avenue  road,  where  the  cables  are  worked  independently  in  the  following 
manner  : 

At  the  point  where  the  cable  is  first  carried  into  the  conduit,  sheaves  4  ft.  in  diameter 


712  RAILROAD,    CABLE. 


(called  elevating  sheaves)  are  used  to  elevate  the  rope  to  a  line  where  it  may  be  received  into 
the  gripper.  The  sheaves  are  placed  in  a  frame  having  trunnions  at  the  ends,  on  which  the 
wheel  tilts.  See  Fig.  6.  This  tilting  is  accomplished  by  a  horizontal  lever  moving  in  a  ver- 
tical plane,  and  is  operated  by  the  grip  as  the  car  passes.  The  normal  line  of  the  elevating 
sheave  is  in  the  line  of  the  travel  of  the  grip,  and  as  the  car  approaches  the  grip  rides  on  a 
horizontal  lever,  which  is  depressed  by  the  movement  and  weight  of  the  grip,  and  in  turn 
tilts  the  sheave. .  The  grip  then  passes,  the  sheave  resumes  its  former  position,  and  the  cable 
is  laid  between  the  grip  jaws.  The  cable  having  been  thus  received  into  the  gripper  at  the 
starting  point,  is  carried  to  the  end  of  the  line,  passing  freely  through  the  grip  jaws  in  bring- 
ing cars  to  a  standstill. 

The  carrying  pulleys  are  arranged  in  vaults  located  at  distances  35  ft.  apart.  A  trans- 
verse yoke  holds  the  track  and  slot  rails  in  place.  It  has  a  long  and  flat  face,  resting  on  foun- 
dations which  are  independent  of  the  conduit  construction.  The  pulleys  are  mounted  in  pairs. 
The  duplicate  cables  are  carried  around  grooves  at  different  elevations.  A  conical  wheel  with 
spiral  grooves  pays  the  outer  cable  (when  in  use)  down  and  out  to  its  normal  line  after  the 
passage  of  the  grip.  The  grip  is  arranged  on  the  front  end  of  the  car,  and  is  provided  with  a 
stationary  and  a  movable  jaw.  At  each  end  of  the,  jaws  is  a  pair  of  small  carrying  pulleys, 
for  supporting  the  cable  and  raising  it  from  the  grip  jaw  when  the  car  is  at  rest.  Spools  are 
mounted  at  each  end  of  the  jaws,  for  ejecting  the  cable,  in  case  the  rope  should  strand.  The 
grip  is  reversible,  and  the  cable  may  be  received  from  either  side.  The  mechanism  for  operat- 
ing the  jaws  is  attached  to  or  made  part  of  the  grip  car,  being  independent  of  the  grip  proper, 
and  the  grip  may  be  operated  from  either  end  of  the  car,  so  that  no  adjustment  of  the  jaws  is 
required  while  in  transit. 

The  construction  of  the  driving  machinery  is  as  follows  :  Each  pair  of  driving  drums  is 
operated  independently  through  the  medium  of  friction  clutch,  so  that  each  cable  may  be 
individually  set  in  motion  or  stopped.  The  driving  drums  have  grooves  varied  in  diameter 
to  meet  the  contraction  of  the  rope  as  it  is  relieved  of  the  strain  of  operating  the  road.  The 
incoming  cable,  having  the  whole  strain,  passes  into  the  first  groove,  and  when  relieved  of  a 
small  percentage  of  the  strain,  passes  to  the  second  groove.  The  latter  groove  allows  a  slight 
contraction  in  the  cable  to  take  place,  and  this  contraction  continues  throughout  the  succes- 
sion of  wraps. 

The  drums  are  tilted  in  opposite  directions  for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the  cable  direct  into 
the  grooves  when  two  or  three  wraps  are  made,  whereas  were  it  not  for  this  tilting  of  the 
drums  the  rope  would  be  carried  diagonally  from  one  drum  to  another,  causing  much  trouble 
by  cutting  the  grooves  and  wearing  the  cable.  The  principal  improvement  is  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  gearing  to  meet  the  angle  of  these  drum  shafts  ;  the  shafts  being  tilted,  the  gears 
have  straight  teeth,  while  the  intermediate  and  also  the  driving  gears  have  angular  teeth 
which  meet  the  line  of  the  straight  tooth  of  the  tilted  gear. 

After  being  wrapped  around  the  drums,  as  stated,  the  cables  pass  to  the  tension  wheel, 
which  is  on  a  car,  and  traverses  a  track  in  rear  of  the  driving  machinery,  and  then  it  is 
carried  out  into  the  street  again. 

On  the  Tenth  Avenue  Cable  Road,  of  New  York  City,  two  Wright  engines,  28  x  48,  are 
employed.  The  driving  drums  have  five  grooves  each,  and  are  about  12  ft.  in  diameter  ;  the 
first  groove  on  the  first  drum  being  the  largest.  The  first  groove  on  the  second  drum  is  *  in. 
less  in  circumference,  and  all  other  grooves  are  reduced  successively  in  the  same  ratio.  Each 
pair  of  driving  drums  has  an  independent  pair  of  driving  gears,  and  in  the  center  between 
the  drums  a  pair  of  8  x  8  upright  engines  are  located.  These  engines  are  used  to  move  the 
rope  slowly  for  examination,  to  take  out  an  old  cable  or  put  in  a  new  one,  and  also  are 
utilized  when  repairs  are  made  to  the  main  machinery. 

It  is  found  that  with  cables  of  about  4  miles  in  length  that  there  is  a  movement  of  the 
tension  car  of  from  4  to  5  ft.,  so  that  from  8  to  10  ft.  of  rope  must  be  disposed  of  every  few 
minutes.  An  automatic  variable  tension  device  is  provided,  decreasing  or  increasing  the 
tensile  strain  on  the  contraction  of  the  rope,  and  so  governing  the  movement  of  the  car. 

The  Brooklyn  Bridge  Cable  Road. — The  cable. railway  over  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  presents 
the  most  favorable  conditions  ever  encountered  for  this  mode  of  propulsion.  The  road  is 
comparatively  short  and  the  traffic  is  heavy.  The  track  is  separate  from  the  roadway,  so  that 
the  cable,  grip,  etc.,  need  not  be  sunk  in  a  conduit,  but  run  over  the  track  bed.  The  power 
plant  with  which  the  bridge  railway  began  business  eight  years  ago  was  a  modest  affair. 
One  set  of  winding  drums  and  a  pair  of  engines  sufficed.  The  work  required  rarely  exceeded 
200  horse-power.  In  1888,  the  increasing  traffic  demanded  additional  power,  and  an  entirely 
new  power  plant  was  put  in.  It  consists  of  three  Wright  engines,  one  30  in.  diameter  of 
cylinder  by  48  in.  stroke  of  piston,  the  second  26  in.  diameter  by  48  in.  stroke,  and  a  third 
22  in.  diameter  by  36  in.  stroke.  A  fourth  is  to  be  put  in,  38  in.  diameter  by  48  in.  stroke. 

During  the  hours  of  heavy  traffic,  the  work  calls  for  an  average  expenditure  of  energy 
equivalent  to  400  or  450  horse-power,  and  sometimes  this  runs  up  to  700  horse-power.  As  it 
takes  less  than  100  horse-power  to  run  the  machinery  and  cables,  it  is  evident  that  this  is 
the  most  efficient  cable  road  known,  only  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  power  being  absorbed  in 
running  the  cable  and  machinery,  while  in  street  roads  50  per  cent,  is  always  allowed  for 
this,  and  the  actual  percentage  so  expended  frequently  exceeds  that  figure.  The  variations 
in  the  power  exerted  are  sudden  and  enormous.  Sometimes  a  preponderance  of  trains  on 
the  down  grade  will  send  the  engines  racing  around  with  throttles  shut,  and  instead  of 
absorbing  power  will  give  it  out. 

The  cable-driving  apparatus  is  at  the  Brooklyn  end  of  the  bridge.     Two  sets  of  driving 


KAILROAD,  CABLE. 


713 


drnms  are  provided,  but  only  one  set  is  used  at  a  time.  The  other  stands  idle,  and  its  cable 
lies  on  the  ties  alongside  the  pulleys  on  which  the  live  cable  runs.  In  the  street  roads,  using 
duplicate  cables,  duplicate  sets  of  carrying  pulleys  are  provided,  because  the  men  cannot  get 
down  into  the  conduit  to  put  the  spare  cable  on  the  pulleys,  and  th-ow  the  other  one  off  when 
a  change  is  made.  This  simple  process  of  changing  cables  can  be  easily  carried  out  on  the 
bridge,  however,  as  there  is  no  cable  conduit. 

In  all  the  New  York  cable  roads  the  cable  is  driven  by  being  wrapped  around  two  1'Mt. 
drums,  placed  in  nearly  the  same  perpendicular  plane,  with  their  axes  about  20  ft.  apart.  It 
is  a  curious  fact  that  though  the  same  cable  runs  around  these  two  drums,  they  do  not  revolve 
at  the  same  speed.  In  the  bridge  cable  machinery  one  drum  lags  a  revolution  an  hour  be- 
hind the  other.  This  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cable  slips  or  creeps 
more  upon  one  drum  than  upon  the'other.  Some  engineers  th'nk  it  is  simply  due  to  the 
unequal  wearing  of  the  drums,  whereby  one  becomes  of  less  diameter  than  the  other.  Inas- 
much as  it  is  always  the  same  member  of  the  pair  that  lags,  the  first  hypothesis  would  seem 
nearer  the  truth.  In  the  bridge  machinery  this  is  provided  for  by  a  system  of  automatic 
gearing,  by  which  the  two  drums  are  geared  to  the  driving  shaft,  much  as  two  horses  are 
hitched  to'a  wagon  by  an  equalizing  bar. 

From  the  opening  of  the  bridge  railway,  September  24,  1883,  to  November  30,  1891, 
inclusive,  2?0,487,283  passengers  were  carried.  Of  the  delays  during  the  past  year,  54  per 
cent,  were  occasioned  by  a  failure  or  defect  in  some  of  the  several  parts  of  the  cable-hauling 
machinery,  and  the  other  46  per  cent,  by  causes  common  to  ordinary  railroad  transportation. 
The  grip  mechanism  failing  to  act  was  the  cause  of  but  thirty  delays,  amounting  alto- 
gether to  2  hours  and  57 £  minutes  out  of  the  7.300  hours  during  which  the  cable  was  in  motion. 

Six  cables  have  been  used  on  the  bridge,  the  two  now  in  operation,  and  the  four  that  have 
been  worn  out  and  thrown  away.  The  following  table  gives  the  statistics  in  regard  to  them : 


Term  of  service. 


Cable 

Condition. 

Days. 

Years. 

Miles  hauled. 

Ton  miles  hauled. 

tons  hauled. 

No.  1... 
No.  2  
No.  3  
No,  4  

Worn  out. 
Worn  out. 
Worn  out. 
Worn  out. 

1.140 
607 
393 
356} 

3-123 
1-636 
1-077 
0-977 

228,329 
120,232 
82:099 
74,111 

22,142,706 
25,492,892 
20,395,073 
18,923,467 

97- 
212-03 
248-42 
255-3 

No.  5  
No    6 

In  use. 
In  use. 

267* 
187 

0-758 
0-512 

58,881 
39,980 

16.746,912 
12,506,413 

284-1 

312-80 

The  last  column  gives  the  average  strain  on  the  cable  during  use,  and  of  course  the  ton 
miles  are  obtained  by  multiplying  the  weight  pulled  by  the  number  of  miles  through  which 
it  was  pulled.  As  the  speed  of  the  cable  is  constant,  and  also  the  distance  traveled  by  each 
car  between  taking  up  and  releasing  the  cable,  it  is  evident  that  the  number  of  car  trips  per- 
formed on  any  one  cable  will  vary  as  the  figures  in  the  ton  mile  column.  These  are  nearly 
constant.  Cable  No.  1,  which  ran  the  extraordinary  distance  of  228,329  miles,  was  gripped 
and  released  only  a  few  more  times  than  cable  No.  4,  which  ran  74,000  miles — about  the 
average  life  of  a  cable  on  a  street  railway.  So  it  may  be  that  the  principal  factor  in  the  de- 
struction of  a  cable  is  the  pinching,  crushing  action  of  the  grip  jaws  closing  on  it.  and  not 
its  sliding  through  the  grip  or  turning  around  corners.  Of  course  this  pinching  action  of  the 
bridge  grip  is  greater  than  that  of  the  ordinary  street-car  kind,  for  the  bridge  cars  are 
heavier,  and  the  area  of  contact,  being  merely  tha't  of  the  point  of  tangency  between  a  circle 
and  a  straight  line,  is  less. 

The  Broadway  Cable  Road,  of  New  York  City. — At  the  present  time  of  writing,  a  road 
5.17  miles  long  is  being  built  in  New  York  City,  extending  from  the  Battery  to  Fifty-ninth 
Street.  The  track  is  set  upon  cast-iron  yokes,  which  also  hold  the  slot  rails  and  encircle  the 
ends  of  the  sections  of  the  sheet  steel  cable  conduit.  The  yokes  are  27i  in.  high  to  top  of 
lugs,  and  23  in.  to  rail  seat.  The  distance  between  the  yokes  is  4  ft.  6  in.  They  rest  upon, 
separate  foundations  of  concrete,  which  are  45  in.  long,  18  in.  wide,  and  6  in.  deep.  The 
conduit  in  which  the  cable  runs  is  formed  of  sheet  steel  sections,  with  a  backing  of  concrete. 
The  pits  in  which  the  carrier  sheaves  are  located  are  42  in.  deep  and  31.]  feet  apart.  The 
slot  rail  is  formed  of  two  like  but  oppositely  arranged  Z-shaped  parts,  leaving  between  them 
a  groove,  through  which  the  grip  extends  from  the  car  down  into  the  conduit,  where  it 
engages  the  cable.  The  slot  rails  are  braced  at  frequent  intervals  by  wrought-iron  rods  pass- 
ing through  the  tram  rails  and  through  the  slot  rails.  The  entire  "construction  is  designed 
to  be  permanent.  The  yokes  which  support  the  tracks  weigh  about  550  Ibs.  each  ;  the  tram 
rails  weigh  91  Ibs.  per  yard,  and  the  slot  rails  weigh  67  Ibs.  per  yard.  Each  was  specially 
designed  for  this  work.  The  gauge  of  the  track  is  4  ft.  8£  in.,  and  the  distance  from  center  to 
center  of  the  tracks  below  Thirty-fifth  Street  is  9  ft. ;  above  Thirty-fifth  Street  it  is  10  ft. 
The  diameter  of  the  cables  will  be  H  in.;  the  cable  drums  will  be  12  ft.  in  diameter  ;  the 
large  rope-driving  drums  will  be  32  ft.  in  diameter,  and  the  small  ones  10  ft.  and  7ft.  6  in. 
The  Corliss  engines  driving  these  drums  v>-ill  have  cylinders  36  and  33  in.  in  diameter,  with 
a  piston  stroke  of  60  in. 

The  following  table  of  information  relating  to  cable  roads  has  been  published  by  the 
Pacific  Cable  Railway  Co. 


714 


RAILROAD,    CABLE. 


ES,  CAL. 

econd  Street 
Cable  B.  B. 

| 

i,940  feet, 
ngle  track. 

feet  in  400. 

O 

:50  pounds. 

300  pounds. 

2  minutes. 

8 

3  of  each. 

s 

i 

0 

| 

1 
o 

.S 

I 

58  feet  per 
minute. 

fl 

CO 

02 

8 

*f 

of 

B 

e 

00 

2 

Templo  Stree 
Cable  Bailwaj 

43 
O 

.H 
1 

8,725  feet. 
Single  track 

.2 
| 

i 

•a 
c 

2,150  pounds 

10  minutes 

. 

6  of  each  . 

CO 

aj 

1 

5 

43 
O 

_c 

1 

»! 

CO 

eo 

o 

^ 

8 

00° 

• 

CO*-' 

i 

o! 

1 

8 

| 

T3 

C 

« 

llliili 

8 

pi 

|g 

> 

g. 

a 

! 

a 

f? 

i 

8 

§ 

ooiogocjro 

43 
y 

wS 

£.2 

QO 

h-} 

<N 

Q 

^ 

c;  cc  x  co  *  c^  oc 

C 

S  '""' 

2 

1 

" 

'* 

a*S*8«S; 

Tf 

II 

•-"- 

f^— 

B' 

a 

1 

S  * 

51 

3 

3 

£ 

"g 

s 

E 
g 

0 

tu  tS  cS  tS  tu  tS 

4i  Ol   Si   O   O>  4> 

a 

1 

1 

a 

1 

I 

a 

a 

=r 

2 

0 

05 

i 

£ 

§ 

H 

111 

a 
| 

*-^^ 

•  _r- 

S 

g 

38ldlo  B.  B. 

1 

m 

i 

ST 
a 
tS 

! 

1 
1 

OQ 
13 
C 

6  minutes. 

1 

s 

S 

o 

II 

inches  . 

ii 

0)  3 

•S.2 

£ 

£ 

«£ 

JH 

CO 

c 

wco 

CO 

S 

TO 

•^ 

£ 

00 

8 

• 

1  -     : 

"S 

1—  ( 

t"          : 

rrt 

73 

>•>  '** 

+^  ^j 

*3 

£ 

8 

^ 

C 

B 

—  ^ 

qj  4) 

o 

00 

1 

r 

1 

m 

of 

.S 

V 
§8 

7 

4,500  pou 

4,400  pou 

a 
2 

i 

1(5  week  c 
20Sund 

OJ 

1 

s 

353-100  in 

600  and  65 
per  min 

£ 

California  Street 
B  B. 

3  feet  6  inches. 

1 

1 
g 

7 

4,500  pounds. 

4,100  pounds. 

4  minutes,  average. 

' 

19  of  each  . 

y. 

I 

8,840  feet. 
17,055  feet. 

4^  and  4  inches. 

537  feet  per  minute. 

oJ 

1 

in 

. 

if 

i 

43 

tter  Street 
B.  B. 

"S 

in 

090  feet. 

.2 

ts 

1 
f 

1 

1 

I 
1 

'1 

of  each. 

O! 

1 

E-i 

Ill 

100  inch* 

a 

GT2 

'a 

I 

1-H 

4 

^ 

CO 

S3 

8 

I-  CC  O 

CO 

Oi 

CO 

TJ. 

CO 

a 

CO 

H« 

a 

oc 

3 
IPS 

inches. 

1 

s 

i 

00 

00 

1 

"5 
c 

1 

-*• 

"S 

o 

02 
4) 
43 
O 
C 

L- 

1 

3  feet  6 

§ 

1 
ts 

7 

1 

8 

ci 

a 

10 

B 

co 

& 

* 

O 

' 

CO 
CO 

o.a 

0) 

3 

: 

a 

^ 

a 

a  ; 

5 

E 

1  : 

•«! 

O 
1 

Gauge  of  Road  

1 

« 

Heaviest  grade  

Number  of  engines  c 
ployed  

Weight  of  empty  car. 

a 

•S 

^> 

o 
be 

I 

ft 

4) 
'O 

'o 

"a 
S 

c 

Average  number  of  TOL 
trips  per  day  ... 

Number  of  cars  and  di 
mies  employed  

Hours  run  per  day  

Number  of  wire  ropes 
use  .... 

Length  of  ropes  used. 

Circumference  of  \\ 
rope  

g  ' 

43 
_O     . 

"3 

Is 

02 

RAILROAD   CARS. 


715 


FIG.  1. — Pullman  vestibule. 


RAILROAD  CARS.  VESTIBULE  CARS. — The  Pullman  Vestibule  provides  a  continu- 
ous connection  between  contiguous  ends  of  passenger  railway  cars,  forming  an  entirely 

closed  passageway,  preferably  of  the  width  of  the  car 
platforms,  and  serving  at  the  same  time  as  a  vestibule 
lor  entrance  and  exit  to  the  respective  ends  of  the 
cars.  The  connection  is  made  of  flexible  or  adjusta- 
ble material,  so  as  to  constitute  a  loose  or  flexible 
joint  that  will  permit  of  sufficient  movement  of  each 
unit  car  in  travel.  Fig.  1  is  an  isometrical  perspective 
view  of  the  end  of  a  car,  and  Fig.  2  is  a  perspective 
view,  showing  portions  of  the  platform,  vestibule,  and 
buffer  mechanism,  and  Fig.  3  shows  the  complete 
car.  The  arch-plate,  a,  forming  the  open  end  of  a 
vestibule  extension  to  a  railway  car  when  not  coupled 
with  another  car  in  a  train,  and  which  sustains  the 
outer  edge  of  the  flexible  connection,  is  mounted  upon 
the  buffer-rod,  located  below  the  platform  of  the  car. 
The  buffer-spring,  m,  encloses  the  buffer-rod.  This  rod 
is  moved  outward  by  the  spring,  and  inward  by  the 
impact  of  an  adjoining  car  or  buffers  connected  there- 
with. Upon  it  is  mounted  a  cross-bar,  /,  in  such  man- 
ner that  it  can  move  out  and  in  with  the  buffer-rod,  and  at  the  same  time  oscillate 
upon  its  center  as  the  evener  of  a  wagon  does  upon- the  pole.  Two  rods,  s  s',  are 
attached  to  the  cross-bar,  I,  by  a  sort  of  ball-and- 
socket  joint  in  such  manner  that  the  cross-bar  may 
change  its  angle  to  horizontal  lines  drawn  perpen- 
dicular to  the  length  of  the  car,  while  the  rods,  ss' , 
always  remain  substantially  parallel  with  the  sides  of 
the  car.  These  rods  cannot  practically  move  in  any 
other  direction.  They  project  beyond  the  outer  cross- 
beam of  the  car,  and  are  there  pivoted  to  the  vertical 
buffer-plate,  n.  Obviously  this  buffer-plate  on  one 
car  can  not  have  its  acting  face  coincident  with  a 
similar  buffer-plate  on  an  adjoining  car  when  the  two 
cars  are  rounding  a  curve  unless  it  change  its  angle 
with  reference  to  a  longitudinal  line  passing  through 
the  center  of  the  car,  so  that  it  can  be  at  times  at 
right  angles  to  such  a  line,  and  at  times  at  various 
other  angles.  The  support  before  described  not  only 
permits  these  changes  of  angular  position,  and  the 
in-and-out  motions  of  the  buffer- bar,  but  prevents  its 
center  from  leaving  a  horizontal  longitudinal  line 
passing  through  the  center  of  the  car,  to  which  it  is 
attached,  so  that  the  center  of  the  buffer-bar  is  al- 
ways, whether  projected  or  shoved  in,  practically  in 
line  with  the  center  or  middle  of  the  platform. 

Two  cars  moving  in  a  train  vary  the  distance 
between  the  ends  of  their  respective  platforms,  and 
also  the  angles  that  one  of  these  ends  makes  with 

the    other,    and  there   is  a  gap    between   the  plat-        FIG.  2.— Pullman  vestibule  construction, 
forms.      To  close  this  gap  there  is  applied  to  each 

of  the  buffer-plates  before  described  a  foot-plate,  the  inner  edge  of  which  rests  upon  the 
top  of  the  platform  of  the  car,  and  slides  and  turns  upon  it  when  the  car  is  in  motion. 
Upon  the  ends  of  the  buffer-plate  is  mounted  an  iron  archplate,  a,  which  has  the  same  mo- 
tions as  the  buffer-plate,  and  is  restrained  in  the  same  manner. 

When  two  adjoining  cars  are  coupled,  the  arch-plates  on  each  car  abut  one  against  the 
other,  and  they  thus  abut  when  the  cars  are  upon  straight  lines  or  curves,  or  are  being 
started,  tending  to  separate,  or  are  stopping,  tending  to  come  nearer  together.  The  two 
arches  in  adjoining  cars  therefore  make  a  joint.  Each  arch-plate  has  attached  to  it  one 
edge  of  a  sheet  of  leather  or  other  flexible  material,  and  at  the  other  edge  this  is  attached 
to  the  stanchions.  In  the  spaces  between  the  stanchions,  on  the  same  side  of  the  platform, 
are  doors,  h  h'. 

The  upper  ends  of  the  arch-plates  are  supported  from  the  car  body  by  rods,  c  c'.  These 
rods  slide  in  guides  or  supports,  k  k',  and  are  forced  outward  by  spiral  springs,  1 1' .  The 
guides,  k  k,  are  bolted  to  the  framing  supported  by  the  stanchions,  and  the  rods,  c  c',  can 
move  in  and  out  together  or  independently,  but  can  not  practically  move  sidewise  or  in 
lines  which  are  not  parallel  to  a  line  passing  centrally  and  longitudinally  through  the  car. 
These  rois,  c  c',  have  the  same  motions  as  the  rods,  s  s',  below  the  platform,  and  as  they  are 
pivoted  to  the  arch-plate,  the  latter  is  so  supported  at  top  that  its  top  can  move,  and  is 
restrained  in  the  same  way  as  the  foot-plate,  the  buffer-plate,  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
arch- plate. 

The  Barr  Vestibule. — Fig.  4  is  a  section  through  the  end  of  the  car,  showing  the  face- 
plate and  the  parallel  motion  which  keeps  the  plate  always  parallel  with  the  end  of  the  car. 


716 


RAILEOAD    CARS. 


Fig.  5  shows  the  exterior  of   the  end  of  the  car  and  the  canvas  portion  of  the  vestibule, 
as  well  as  the  door  arrangements. 

The  general  features  of  this  vestibule  are  as  follows:  There  is  a  face-plate  which  is  carried 
outward  and  inward  at  the  bottom  of  the  second  buffer,  to  which  it  is  loosely  attached.  As 
the  bottom  moves  out,  the  top  is  also 
carried  out  an  equal  distance  by  means 
of  the  links  and  rod  connection  which 
form  the  parallel  motion.  There  is  an 
adjustment  in  the  connecting-rod  which 
regulates  the  position  of  the  face-plate. 

The  Cowell  Vestibule  is  shown  in 
Fig.  6.  The  main  feature  aimed  at  is 
to  so  construct  the  end  of  a  car  or  coach 
as  to  make  it  convertible  at  will  into 
either  a  vestibule  or  an  open  car.  To  ac- 
complish this,  the  ordinary  platform  and 
roof  projecting  over  the  platform  are 
supplemented  with  supports  for  the  roof 
made  to  serve  as  door  jambs,  and  double 
or  folding  doors  provided  for  each  side 
of  the  platform.  The  curtains  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  metallic  rim,  which  serves 
to  hold  them  in  place  and  support  the 
hood,  while  being  flexible  laterally  to  ac- 
commodate themselves  to  the  curves  of 
the  road.  When  the  vestibules  are  in 
use  and  it  is  desired  to  convert  the  car 
into  an  open  one,  the  only  requirement 
is  to  unlock  the  curtains,  when  each  re- 
cedes into  its  recess. 

STEEL  CARS. — The  Harvey  Steel  Box 
Car  (Fig.  7). — This  car  is  essentially  a 
steel  car,  but  it  has  a  wooden  floor  and 
lining.  Ths  center  sills  are  made  of 
12-in.  channels,  20  Ibs.  per  ft.,  placed  10 
in.  apart.  To  these  channels  are  riveted 
the  drawbar  attachment,  as  shown.  The 
renter  of  draft  is  on  a  line  with  the 
lower  flange  of  the  12-in.  channel ;  thus 
these  channels  form  not  only  a  strong 
compression  member  but  a  continuous 
draft  rigging  as  well.  The  intermediate 
sills  are  formed  of  two  6-in.  channels, 
each  weighing  7|  Ibs.  per  ft.  They  are 
placed,  as  shown,  with  their  flanges 
turned  inward  and  separated  just  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  a  -4-111.  bolt  to  pass  be- 
tween them.  They  are  held  from  sepa- 
rating laterally  by  means  of  clamps  above 
and  below,  through  which  the  bolts  pass. 
The  clamps  have  lips  on  the  ends  which 
turn  down  over  the  channels,  as  shown. 

The  side  sills  are  formed  in  the  same 
way  and  held  with  similar  clamps  and 
bolts,  but  the  flanges  are  turned  outward 
instead  of  inward.  On  top  of  the  chan- 
nels which  form  the  intermediate  and 
side  sills  are  placed  wooden  battens  held 
by  f  in.  bolts  which  pass  down  between 
the  channels.  To  these  battens  a  2f -in. 
floor  is  nailed.  To  further  stiffen  the  cen- 
ter sill  laterally,  strips  of  wood  are  nailed 
to  the  floor  on  each  side  of  the  sill.  The 
end  sills  are  formed  of  two  channels,  one 
in  front  of  the  other.  Between  these 
channels  pass  the  bolts  for  holding  the 
wooden  battens  to  which  the  floor  is 

nailed.  To  stiffen  the  end  sills  at  the  center  a  horizontal  plate  is  riveted  to  the  end  sills 
and  extends  outward  to  the  end  of  the  wooden  draw-bar  stop,  shown  in  the  plan  and  side 
elevation.  This  plate  acts  as  a  gusset  to  carry  the  buffing  blows  to  the  intermediate  sills.  It 
is  3  ft.  long,  f  in.  thick,  and  10  in.  wide.  The  body  bolsters  are  formed  of  two  6-iu.  chan- 
nels, 5  Ibs.  per  ft.,  arranged,  as  shown,  with  two  tension  members,  2  in.  x  1  in.,  with  T-ends 
extending  over  the  top  of  the  center  sills.  This  forms  a  strong  and  light  body  bolster,  which 


RAILROAD   CARS. 


717 


FIG.  4.— Barr  vestibule  construction. 


for  its  weight  will  carry  a  greater  load  than  any  bolster  of  the  ordinary  form.  To  give  this 
body  bolster  greater  carrying  capacity,  two  4-in.  I-beams  are  inserted  between  the  6-in. 
channels  and  the  sills.  These  extend  from  side  bearing  to  side  bearing  across  the  car. 

Thus  the  body  bolster  is  about  16  in. 
deep  at  the  center.  The  needle  beams 
are  made  of  5- in.  I-beams  extending 
across  the  car,  as  shown.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  lateral  braces  there  are 
also  intermediate  braces  formed  of 
4-in.  channels  bolted  to  the  sills.  The 
posts  are  formed  of  pressed  steel  of 
U-section  and  secured  by  strap  bolts 
at  top  and  bottom ,  which  pass  through 
the  sills,  the  top  sill  or  plate  being 
made  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  side 
sills,  but  5  in.  deep  instead  of  6  in. 
The  inclined  braces  are  made  of  angle 
iron  3  x  2  x  i,  and  the  tension  rods 
of  I  -in.  round  steel.  The  doors  are 
of  steel,  ingeniously  formed  into  a  stiff 
shape  without  the  use  of  angle  irons. 
This  is  probably  the  strongest  door  for 
its  weight  yet  made.  It  is  formed  of 
No.  16  steel,  riveted  with  fa  in.  rivets. 
The  end  door  is  of  similar  construc- 
tion and  mounted  on  suitable  slides. 
The  carlines  are  formed  of  No.  9  steel 
bent  to  a  U-shape  and  curved  to  con- 
form with  the  roof  of  the  car.  The 
U-shape  of  both  the  posts  and  the 
carlines  has  been  devised  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  the  wooden  strips  to 
which  the  corrugated  siding  and  roof 
is  nailed.  The  car  is  lined  through- 
out with  wood  and  covered  on  the 
outside  with  corrugated  steel,  No.  22 

B.  W.  G.  The  roof  is  No.  20  B.  W..G.  This  is  the  most  promising  steel  car  that  has  yet 
been  constructed  in  this  country.  (See  Railroad  Gazette,  September  18,  1891.) 

Standard  Truck. — The  general  construction  and 
leading  dimensions  of  the  standard  truck  designed 
for  the  N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  Railroad  are  as  follows: 

It  is  a  rigid  truck,  with  a  15-in.  channel  bar 
having  4-in.  flanges,  for  a  sand  plank.  The  bol- 
ster is  12  in.  wide  by  11  in.  deep,  and  is  trussed  by 
two  H-in.  round  rods.  This  bolster,  which  is  in- 
tended to  carry  about  35,000  Ibs.,  has  a  safe  work- 
ing strength  of  36,000,  so  that  the  margin  of  safety 
is  enough.  The  axles  are  M.  C.  B.  standard,  with 
3|-in.  x  7-in.  journals.  The  center  plate  is  of  cast- 
iron. 

CAR  WHEELS. — In  a  paper  read  before  the  Amer- 
ican Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Mr.  P.  H.  Griffin 
says: 

"The  best  section  of  wheel  depends  largely  on 
the  service  intended  and  upon  the  quality  and  char- 
acter of  the  wheel,  but  certain  lines  should  be  fol- 
lowed irrespective  of  these  two  conditions  on  all 
steam  roads.  The  strains  imposed  on  a  wheel  are 
of  two  kinds  :  the  first  consequent  on  load  carried 
and  speed  attained;  the  second  that  which  results 
from  the  use  of  brakes.  The  first  strain  multiplies 
the  second  in  a  definite  degree.  .  .  . 

"  It  does  not  follow  at  all  that  good  wheels  will 
be  made  because  a  pattern  of  proper  section  is  used. 
That  is  the  first  necessity  ;  the  second  is  the  method 
by  which  the  wheels  are  made.  The  manufacture 
of  car  wheels  is  hard,  laborious  work.  One  mun 
vrith  a  helper  will  turn  out  on  the  average  eighteen 
wheels  per  day.  The  work  is  done  almost  invariably  by  the  piece,  and  is  commenced  and 
finished  in  ten  hours  or  less.  Half  of  this  is  given  to  molding,  and  the  balance  to  casting. 
To  prepare  and  finish  eighteen  molds  in  five  hours  necessitates  doing  the  work  on  one  in  less 
than  twenty  minutes.  The  most  exacting  attention  to  every  detail  is  necessary  in  preparing 
and  melting  the  iron.  If  not  given,  it  may  not  always  produce  dangerous  conditions,  but  it 


CROSS.  SECTCN.  \_*    f\    \ 

FIG.  6.— The  Cowell  vestibule  construction. 


718 


RAILROAD    CARS. 


will  not  produce  perfect  ones.  Any  wheel  maker  who  cannot  furnish  test  bars  from  his  mix- 
ture, 1  in.  square,  and  that  will  carry  2,500  Ibs.  load  between  supporters  12  in.  apart,  is  not 
using  a  mixture  that  is  what  it  should  be;  and  if  such  bars  will  not  carry  2,000  Ibs.,  the 
wheels  are  positively  dangerous  for  use. 
After  the  wheel  is  cast  it  is  placed  in 
the  annealing  pit.  Properly  speaking, 
car  wheels  are  not  annealed  ;  they  are 
slowly  cooled,  for  the  reason  that  in  the 
process  of  manufacture  the  outer  part  of 
the  tread  is  cooled  and  set  at  a  degree  of 
heat  lower  than  that  existing  in  the  body 
of  the  casting  (this  on  account  of  the 
chilling  process),  and  the  entire  casting 
must  again  be  brought  to  a  uniform 
heat  and  cooled  evenly.  The  cooling 
pits,  as  they  may  be  "  properly  called, 
should  be  in  dry  ground.  If  dampness 
is  found  and  steam  is  seen  arising  from 
the  pits  while  the  wheels  are  cooling  or 
when  they  are  being  removed,  shrinkage 
strains  will  certainly  be  found  in  the 
wheels,  and  they  will  be  liable  to  break 
in  service.  When  such  conditions  ex- 
ist they  are  always  indicated  by  a  reddish 
color  on  the  wheels  when  cold.  The  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  specifications  under 
consideration  for  adoption  by  the  Master 
Car  Builders'  Association  accept  wheels 
that  do  not  vary  more  than  -3^  of  an  inch 
from  a  true  metallic  ring  placed  over 
them.  To  place  such  a  ring  over  a  cast 
surface  not  tooled  would  certainly  take 


^4  of  an  inch  all  around,  making  up  - 
or  £  of  an  inch.  All  things  considered,  to 
make  castings  weighing  £  of  a  ton  and 
over  true  to  -}Lg  of  an  inch  to  center  as 
they  come  from  the  foundry,  is  remark- 
ably good  practice.  On  the  question  of 
variation  in  diameters,  -,V  of  an  inch  is  a 
very  low  average.  Not  alone  the  original, 
but  the  condition  after  service  must  also 
be  considered.  Flange  wear  is  the  lead- 
ing cause  of  wheel  failure  to-day  in  every 
type  of  wheel,  and  it  has  grown  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  increase  in  load  and 
speed.  The  best  wheel  is  the  one  that 
will  not  break,  that  is  mechanically  per- 
fect, and  that  will  retain  its  original  con- 
ditions for  the  longest  time.  The  chilled 
wheel  can  be  made  to  fulfill  these  condi- 
tions and  have  a  total  of  600,000  in  every 
kind  of  service  without  one  case  of  break- 
age as  proof  of  possible  safety.  One-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  chilled  iron  will  give 
more  wear  than  six  times  that  quantity 
of  steel  found  in  any  steel  tire.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  steel  tempered  and 
hardened  into  cutting  tools,  and  steel  not 
so  treated,  are  very  different  things,  and 
that  the  latter  condition  is  always  the  one 
found  in  steel  tires.  Furthermore,  the 
life  of  a  steel  wheel  in  the  severe  service 
of  to-day  is  not  all  in  the  flat  surface  of 
the  tire  ;  it  is  largely  in  the  flange.  To 
provide  proper  flange  thickness  on  many 
steel  wheels,  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  tire  must  be  turned  off  and  thrown  away. 

The  author  believes  that  with  mechanical  conditions  such  as  they  should  be,  and  such  as 
can  be  maintained  without  difficulty  on  chilled  wheels,  the  cost  of  power  operating  traffic 
carried  over  them  can  be  decreased  from  15  to  20  per  cent.  The  cost  of  wheel  service  can  be 
decreased  from  25  to  50  per  cent.,  and  the  saving  in  wear  on  equipment  and  permanent  way 
will  be  in  like  proportions. 

The  Whitney  Contracting  Chill  for  Casting  Car  Wheels,  as  patented  in  1885  by  John  R. 
Whitney,  of  the  Whitney  Car  Wheel  Works,  Philadelphia,  consists  of  an  outer  retaining 


RAILROAD,   ELECTRIC.  719 


ring  and  an  inner  chilling  ring  united  to  each  other  by  webs  of  suitable  length  with  open 
air  spaces  between  them.  The  inner  ring,  forming  the  chilling  face,  is  from  l£  to  3  in.  or 
more  in  thickness.  It  is  divided  into  many  perfectly  separated  segments  in  the  process  of 
casting,  by  the  use  of  asbestos  cores.  The  cores  are  formed  of  two  thicknesses  of  thin 
asbestos  paper,  enclosing  a  sheet  of  blotting  paper  of  the  proper  thickness.  In  a  33-in.  chill 
there  are  more  than  one  hundred  of  these  cores.  The  segments  thus  formed  are  about  1  in. 
in  width,  whilst  the  kerfs  separating  them  are  not  more  than  >f0  in  wide,  which  is  very  much 
less  than  it  is  possible  to  produce  by  sawing,  especially  through  a  thickness  of  more  than  1  in. 
By  this  construction  the  outer  ring  is  prevented  from  becoming  either  quickly  or  intensely 
heated  by  the  molten  metal  of  the  wheel.  It  thus  retains  its  original  size  and  shape  and  acts 
as  a  buttress  from  which  the  segments  must  expand  inwardly.  At  the  same  time,  from  the 
well-known  fact  that  liquid  iron  expands  in  solidifying,  as  water  does  when  it  becomes  ice, 
the  metal  forming  the  wheel  expands  outwardly  as  it  becomes  solid,  or  is  "  chilled,"  and 
presses  firmly  against  the  advancing  segments.  As  these  then  become  more  and  more  heated 
by  this  close  contact,  the  kerfs  allow  them  to  expand  laterally  in  the  direction  of  the  circum- 
ference. By  careful  experiment  it  has  been  found  that  this  lateral  expansion  of  a  seg- 
ment 1  in.  in  width,  when  heated  to  redness,  is  Tfa  in.,  so  that  in  the  one  hundred  kerfs 
before  described  there  is  ample  provision  made  for  this  closing  in  of  the  circumference  with- 
out causing  any  strain  upon  the  chill  either  to  change  its  shape,  to  disintegrate  its  surface, 
or  to  break  it  in  two.  At  the  same  time  these  kerfs  are  so  narrow  that  they  make  no  injuri- 
ous ridges,  and  the  treads  of  the  wheels  are  practically  as  smooth  as  if  cast  in  solid  chills. 

The  Boies  Steel  Car  Wheel  is  built  up  by  two  corrugated  mild-steel  plates  bolted  to  a  cast 
hub,  and  to  an  internal  flange  on  the  steel  tire.  The  tire  is  shrunk  on  before  being  bolted  to 
the  plates.  The  inner  flanges  of  the  plates  are  also  shrunk  on  each  end  of  the  hub.  The 
corrugations  of  the  steel  plates  insure  an  elastic,  in  distinction  to  a  rigid,  resistance  between 
the  hub  and  the  tire. 

Rotting  Car  Wheels. — A  novel  machine  for  this  purpose  has  been  designed  by  Mr.  J.  R. 
Jones,  of  Philadelphia  (see  Railroad  Gazette,  October  9,  1891).  A  cast-steel  car  w'heel,  blank 
or  bloom,  having  the  hub  near  the  desired  proportions,  and  the  web  and  rim  thicker  than  is 
desired  in  the  finished  wheel,  is  placed  between  three  rolls— a  movable  driven  tread  roll  and 
two  side  rolls — one  of  which  operates  in  sliding  bearings  but  is  not  driven  ;  the  other  is 
driven  rotating  in  fixed  bearings.  The  movable  tread  roll  in  its  sliding  bearings  is  made  to 
approach  the  side  rolls  during  the  continuance  of  the  operation.  The  tread  roll  is  designed 
to  give  shape  to  the  tread  and  flange  of  the  wheel,  and  is  movable  by  means  of  hydraulic 
pressure  to  compress,  harden,  and  extend  the  wheel  to  any  desired  diameter  while  being 
supported  and  revolved  by  the  side  rolls.  The  side  rolls  operate  on,  compress,  and  harden 
the  web  of  the  wheel,  assist  in  revolving  the  bloom,  holding  it  in  position  to  be  acted  upon 
by  the  tread  roll.  One  of  these  side  rolls  runs  in  fixed  bearings  ;  the  other,  which  is  sliding 
on  bearings,  moved  by  means  of  hydraulic  pressure,  rolls  the  web  of  the  wheel,  elongates  it, 
hardens  and  compresses  the  metal,  moving  inward  toward  the  fixed  side  roll.  These  side 
rolls  are  of  greater  diameter  than  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  wheel.  During  the  operation 
the  metal  flows  outward  from  the  center  toward  the  rim  ;  at  the  same  time  the  tread  of  the 
wheel  is  elongated  and  increased  in  diameter  by  pressure  being  given  to  the  tread  roll.  The 
metal  of  the  hub  is  rolled  and  hardened  by  means  of  the  cooperation  of  the  side  roll  with 
the  steadying  rolls.  This  is  done  by  holding  the  side  rolls  on  fixed  bearings  while  rotating 
them,  and  bringing  pressure  to  bear  upon  them  through  the  bloom  from  the  steadying  rolls. 

Rubber-cushioned  Car  Wheels. — A  novel  form  of  car  wheel  has  a  rubber  cushion  between 
the  tire  and  the  wheel  center,  by  which  construction  it  is  claimed  that  the  vibrations  resulting 
from  uneven  track  and  other  ca'uses  are  prevented  (Railroad  Gazette,  September  4,  1891). 

Wrought-iron  Wheel  Centers  have  been  much  used  at  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works. 
The  wheels  are  drop-forged  or  swaged  from  parts  previously  rough  shaped,  which  are  not 
only  swaged  or  die-forged,  but  are  simultaneously  welded  together. 

The  Lappin  Brake-shoe  is  made  by  casting  a  shoe  in  a  solid  piece,  from  metal  combining 
both  strength  and  softness  to  a  high  degree,  and  with  intervening  chilled  and  soft  sections 
of  the  same  metal.  The  chilled  sections  radiate  into,  and  mingle  with,  the  soft  metal  com- 
posing the  body  of  the  shoe  and  leave  no  clearly  defined  dividing  line  to  form  a  cutting  edge. 
The  soft  sections  project  about  &  of  an  inch  on  the  face  of  the  shoe. 

A  series  of  valuable  practical  lectures  on  car  wheels  was  delivered  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Hunt, 
in  the  Sibley  College  Course,  Cornell  University,  1890  (see  Scientific  American  Supplement 
of  that  year). 

RAILROAD,  ELECTRIC.  Some  experiments  were  tried  in  1867,  at  Berlin,  in  electric 
railways,  by  Dr.  Werner  Siemens,  but  the  work  was  abandoned  because  the  armature  of  the 
Siemens  machine  then  used  became  heated  too  quickly  and  too  greatly  to  be  of  practical  ser- 
vice. Under  conditions  of  more  promise,  the  experiments  were  resumed  by  Siemens  &  Halske 
in  1879,  and  carried  to  a  successful  issue.  The  first  permanent  undertaking  executed  on  the 
Siemens  system  was  the  line  between  Lichterfelde  and  the  Central  Cadetten  Anstalt,  near 
Berlin.  This  installation  differed  somewhat  in  detail  from  the  first  attempts  in  the  manner 
in  which  the  current  was  led ;  for  whereas  in  the  latter  a  third  central  rail  was  used,  the 
former  employed  only  the  two  existing  rails,  one  as  a  lead,  and  the  other  as  a  return,  circuit. 

With  the  advancing  efficiency  of  the  dynamo  as  a  generator,  or  as  a  consumer  of  curi'ent, 
and  with  the  success  of  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1881,  came  a  revival  of  interest  in  the  subject 
of  electric  railways  in  America,  as  elsewhere.  At  the  Chicago  Railway  Exposition,  in  May, 
1883,  Mr.  Field 'exhibited  the  electric  locomotive  named  -'The  Judge."  The  track  ran 


720 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


around  the  gallery  of  the  main  exhibition  building,  curving  sharply  at  either  end  on  a  radius 
of  56  ft.  Its  total  length  was  1,553  ft.  The  track  was  of  3-ft.  gauge,  and  had  a  central  rail 
for  conveying  the  current,  the  two  outer  rails  serving  as  the  return.  The  Chicago  Electric 


FIG.  1. — Daft  electric  motor. 


Railway  was  the  first  constructed  in  this  country  for  business  purposes,  and  was  opened  on 
June  9  and  closed  June  23,  having  run  in  all  446.24  miles.  It  carried  26,805  passengers. 
It  was  afterward  sent  to  the  Louisville  Exposition  during  the  same  year,  and  there  carried  a 


FIG.  2. — Electric  railway — trolley  system. 

large  number  of  passengers.  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Edison's  work  in  electric  railroading  dates  back 
to  the  spring  of  1880,  when  he  built  a  track  at  Menlo  Park,  N.  J.,  near  his  laboratory.  This 
line  was  less  than  half  a  mile  in  length.  Toward  the  close  of  1883,  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Leo 
Daft  began  to  attract  attention. 
The  first  street  railway  equipped 
by  the  Daft  Co.  was  the  Hampclen 
branch  of  the  Baltimore  Union  Pas- 
senger Hailway  Co.,  opened  for 
business  August  8,  1885.  In  1885 
the  Daft  Co.  obtained  permission 
to  equip  a  section  of  the  Ninth 
Avenue  Elevated  Railway,  in  New 
York  City,  on  its  system.  The 
road  was  equipped  from  the  ele- 
vated railway  station  at  Fourteenth 
Street  up  to  Fifty-ninth  Street,  a 
distance  of  two  miles,  in  which  a 
heavy  grade  is  encountered.  The 
motor  used  was  named  "  Benjamin 
Franklin,"  with  which  a  speed  of 
20  miles  an  hour  was  attained.  Fig. 
1  is  a  side  elevation  of  this  loco- 


motive, which  was  designed  for  75 
horse-power  and  a  normal  speed  of 
18  miles  per  hour,  with  a  possible 
speed  of  40  miles.  The  motor 
complete  weighs  9  tons  and  meas- 
ures 14;V  ft.  in  length  over  all.  The 


Vs 

\ 


FIG.  3. — Electric  conductor  supports. 


first  railway  operated  under  the  Charles  J.  Van  Depoele  system  was  laid  in  Chicago  in  tha 
winter  of  1882-3.  The  Bentley-Knight  Electric  Railway  Co.  made  an  experimental"  installa- 
tion of  their  conduit  system  on  the  tracks  of  the  East'  Cleveland  Horse  Railway  Co.  for  a 
distance  of  two  miles,  in  1884,  which  was  in  operation  for  one  year. 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


721 


General  Method  of  Operation. — The  general  principle  upon  which  the  modern  electric 
railway  is  operated  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  current  starts  from  the  positive  brush  of  the 
generator,  6%  passes  out  to  the  main  conductor,  C,  suspended  over  the  middle  of  the  track, 
and  along  this  conductor,  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  until  it  reaches  the  point,  T,  where  the 
"trolley"  of  one  of  the  motor  cars  is  in  contact  with  the  main  conductor.  Here  it  divides, 
and  a  portion  passes  down  through  the  trolley,  2\  to  the  motors,  M  M,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines.  After  passing  through  the  motors  it  reaches  the  rails  through  the  wheels, 


and  passes  along  through  the  rails  and  through  the  return  wire,  ir,  back  to  the  nega- 
tive brush  of  the  generator.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  "parallel,"  or  "multiple"  circuit.  The 
main  portion  of  the  current  which  divided  at  T  passes  on  to  feed  other  cars  upon  the  Jine  in 
the  same  manner,  the  entire  current  being  carried  by  the  rails,  each  car  taking  from  the 
overhead  conductor  exactly  the  amount  of  current  which  is  needed  to  develop  the  required 
power.  The  rails  are  connected  at  each  joint,  J,  by  a  copper  or  iron  tie  wire  riveted  to  each 
rail,  which  makes  a  perfect  electrical  connection.  The  rails  are  usually  " grounded."  The 
electric  current  is  developed  at  the  power  station  usually  by  a  compound- wound  generator, 

46 


722 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


driven  by  a  steam-engine  or  water-wheel.  This  generator  maintains  a  constant  electro-motive 
force,  or  difference  of  potential  between  the  overhead  conductor  and  the  rails,  the  current 
varying  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  service,  as  determined  by  the  number  of  cars 
taking  current  at  one  time. 

There  are  three  methods  of  supporting  the  main  conductor.  Where  the  track  is  close  to 
the  side  of  the  street,  a  bracket  carries  the  conductor  over  the  middle  of  the  track,  as  shown 
at  D,  Fig.  3.  Where  the  track  is  double  and  in  the  middle  of  the  street,  poles  with  double 
brackets,  as  shown  at  B,  are  sometimes  used.  The  third  method,  and  that  most  commonly 
followed,  is  to  place  a  pole  on  each  side  of  the  street,  with  a  light  cross  wire  strung  between 
them  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  street.  From  this  cross  wire  the  insulating  support 
for  the  main  conductor  is  suspended.  The  supports  are  placed  not  more  than  125  ft.  apart. 
When  the  line  is  very  long,  the  traffic  heavy,  or  the  grades  are  very  severe,  insulated  feeder 
wires  are  used  to  supplement  the  main  conductor,  to  which  they  are  connected  at  proper 
points  along  the  line.  Fig.  4  shows  the  method  of  center-pole  construction  and  trolley 
arrangement,  as  embodied  in  the  Thomson-Houston  electric  road  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  Sprague  System. — The  introduction  of  the  Sprague  electric  railway  motor  in  1886 
constituted  a  distinct  change  in  the  method  of  propelling  street  cars  by  electricity,  and  was 
the  beginning  of  a  practice  of  operation  which  has  become  almost  universal.  The  objects 
sought  and  accomplished  in  Mr.  Sprague's  method  were  to  remove  the  motor  from  the  car 
body,  place  it  under  the  car,  make  positive  connection  between  the  machine  and  the  axle, 
drive  by  gearing,  and  to  allow  independent  movement  of  the  axles,  and  to  preserve  elasticity 
in  mechanical  connections.  Independent  driving  and  positive  gearing  became  cardinal  prin- 
ciples, and  this  necessitated  a  yielding  and  preferably  cushioned  support.  To  these  ends 
one  motor  is  centered  upon  each  axle,  and,  to  allow  the  required  freedom  of  motion  and  at 
the  same  time  to  preserve  perfect  parallelism  in  the  meshing  of  the  gears,  and  also  for  taking 
part  of  the  weight  of  the  motor  off  the  body  of  the  axle  and  to  throw  it  onto  the  journals, 
one  end  of  the  motor  is  supported  by  double  compression  springs,  playing  upon  a  loosely  sup- 
ported bolt,  which  is  supported  from  a  cross  girder  in  the  bottom  of  the  car  or  on  cross  beams 
supported  directly  on  the  side  framing  of  the  truck  or  on  equalizing  bars  carried  by  the  axle 
boxes.  The  motors  are  then,  so  to  speak,  weighed  or  flexibly  supported  from  the  car  body, 
and  the  motion  of  the  armatures  being  transmitted  to  the  axles  through  intermediate  gearing 

of  compact  form  and  great 
strength,  whenever  the  axles 
are  in  motion  there  is  a 
spring  touch  of  the  pinions 
upon  the  gears.  Barring 
friction,  a  single  pound  press- 
ure exerted  in  either  direc- 
tion would  lift  or  depress  the 
motor  a  slight  amount,  and 
no  matter  how  sudden  the 
strain,  whether  because  of  a 


FIG.  5. — Sprague  motor. 


variation  of  load  or  speed,  or  a  reversal  of  direction  of  rotation,  the  motor  yields  to  it  so  as 
to  make  the  pressure  on  the  gears  a  progressive  one.  This  support,  allowing  the  armature 
to  have  an  angular  movement  several  times  that  of  the  motor  around  its  axle,  makes  the 
strain  on  the  armature  much  less  also.  The  motors  can  be  carried  in  the  middle  space  be- 
tween the  axles,  or  external  to  them,  although  the  former  method  is  preferable.  By  detach- 
ing the  flexible  suspension,  the  motors  can  be  swung  around  the  axle  or  allowed  to  hang 
from  it  over  a  pit,  where  they  can  be  carefully  inspected  or  cleaned. 

Mr.  Sprague  has  devised  several  forms  of  motors,  double  and  single  geared  and  gearless, 
to  carry  out  these  general  prin- 
ciples. The  first  put  into  use 
was  designed  for  compactness, 
lightness,  and  high  speed  on 
levels.  This  was  a  single- 
geared  machine,  and  the  first 
one  was  used  on  experiments 
on  the  New  York  elevated 
railroad  in  1886.  The  ma- 
chine (Figs.  5  and  6)  consists, 
in  brief,  of  two  curved  field- 
magnets  bolted  to  two  pole 
pieces,  the  whole  carried  by 
brackets  on  each  side,  which 
brackets  center  on  the  axle 
and  also  carry  the  armature. 
The  free  end  of  the  motor 
is  supported  by  a  bolt  and 
double-acting  springs  from 
the  transoms  of  the  truck. 
In  this  motor  the  gear  reduc- 
tion is  about  five  to  one,  and 
the  driving  from  both  ends  FIG.  6.— Sprague  motor. 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


723 


into  gears  bolted  to  the  axle.  The  pinions  on  the  armature  shaft  are,  by  a  very  simple  and 
ingenious  construction,  set  so  that  the  one  is  half  a  tooth  in  advance  of  the  other.  For 
high  speed  and  heavy  work  this  method  is  very  efficient. 

In  a  later  type  of  motors  (Fig.  7)  the  ID  -shaped  magnet  has  been  adopted  with  a  com- 
plete wrought-iron  magnetic  circuit,  the  gear  reduction  is  double,  the  armature  pinion  mesh- 
ing with  the  larger  of  two  gears  on  an  intermediate  countershaft  carried  on  brackets  which 
engage  the  main  axle,  the  pinion  on  the  intermediate  in  turn  meshing  into  a  single  gear  on 


FIG.  7. — Spragne  motor. 

the  axle.  This  machine  has  been  very  widely  adopted,  and  is  the  plan  of  double  geared 
machines  now  generally  employed.  The  suspension  of  the  free  end  of  the  motor  has  been 
sometimes  made  from  the  car  body,  but  it  is  more  generally  carried  by  equalizing  bars  yield- 
ingly supported  on  the  axle  boxes,  so  that  the  resilience  and  size  of  the  springs  that  support 
the  car  body  is  undisturbed.  The  ratio  of  reduction  in  gearing  is  dependent  upon  the  size  of 
the  motor  and  the  character  of  the  work  required  of  it.  It  is  essential,  on  account  of  the 
limited  space  and  the  necessity  of  driving  both  axles,  to  have  two  machines,  one  geared  to 
each  axle  and  independently  mounted;  the  free  ends  of  the  machines  are  inboard,  that  is,  the 
entire  motor  equipment  is  in  the  space  between  the  axles. 

The  method  of  regulating  the  Sprague  electric  railway  motor  is  unique,  and  for  the  pur- 
poses used  has  proven  most  economical.  The  field  magnets  are  wound  with  three  sets  of  coils 
of  variable  numbers  of  turns  and  resistances,  each  occupying  the  same  space  and  of  the  same 
general  dimensions.  The  coils  are  wound  on  vulcanized  asbestos  spools,  and  are  practically 
made  waterproof ;  these  are  slipped  over  the  cores  of  the  field  magnet,  and  the  terminals  attached 
to  wiies  which  go  to  the  regulating  switches  on  the  car.  The  method  of  winding,  connecting, 
and  the  development  of  one-half  of  a  controlling  switch  is 
shown  in  Fig.  8.  When  the  contacts  and  the  switch  plates 
are  in  the  position  shown,  all  circuits  in  the  machine  are 
open :  that  is,  although  the  trolley- wire  or  one  branch  of 
the  multiple  circuit  is  connected* to  one  terminal  of  one 
of  the  field  coils,  the  other  terminal  and  the  terminals  of 
the  rest  of  the  coils  and  the  armature,  as  well  as  the  con- 
nection to  the  ground  or  other  part  of  the  circuit,  are  all 
open.  As  the  cylinder  is  rotated  beneath  the  contacts,  the 
first  movement  throws  all  of  the  coils  in  series  with  each 
other  and  with  the  armature,  and  completes  the  circuit. 
This  interposes  a  comparatively  high  resistance  in  circuit, 
the  machine  having  a  very  large  number  of  turns  around  the  field  magnet.  As  the  switch 
continues  to  rotate,  the  coils  are  variously  grouped  without  at  any  time  breaking  the  circuit 
from  the  first  position  of  three  in  series  with  each  other  to  three  in  parallel  circuit,  changing 
the  effective  turns  of  wire  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one.  and  the  resistance  of  the  field  in 
the  proportion  of  nine  to  one.  By  these  progressive  changes  the  potential  difference  at  the 
armature  terminals  is  raised,  the  field  losses  with  any  given  current  are  reduced,  and  while 
the  speed  of  the  machine  is  increased  the  saturation  of  the  field  is  kept  very  high.  In  the 
last  position  on  the  switch,  which  is  the  normal  one  for  the  machine  when  operating  under  a 
steady  and  large  load,  the  combined  resistances  of  the  field  coils  as  arranged  is  practically 
equal'  to  that  of  the  armature,  that  is  '63  ohm.  The  resistance  of  the  three  coils  is  T27, 
1'56,  and  '87  ohms  respectively,  and  the  resistance  of  the  field  vanes  in  the  following  order: 
7*4,  4'86,  3'14,  1-40,  and  '7?  ohms;  while  the  resistance  of  the  field  and  armature  together 
is  :  ^  8-03,  5;49,  3  77,  2'03,  and  1-40  ohms  respectively.  By  this  arrangement  the  field  mag- 
netization is  the  same  at  the  first  notch  of  the  switch  with  10  amperes  of  current  as  it  is  on 
the  last  with  30  amperes,  and  the  torsional  effort  in  the  first  position  with  a  given  current 


Fio7  8. — Winding  and  connecting- 
detail. 


724: 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


is  about  equal  to  that  on  the  last,  with  double  amount.      In  later  forms  of  machine  the 
coils  are  of  equal  resistance  and  number  of  turns  of  wire.     While  this  interferes  somewhat 


FIG.  9. — Thomson-Houston  street  car  motor. 


with  the  perfect  gradation  of  resistance,  it  is  not  a  serious  objection,  and  the  additional  sim- 
plicity in  manufacture  is  important. 


FIG.  10.— Short  railway  motor. 

In  actual  operation  in  street-car  work,  the  plates  shown  in  Fig.  8  are  duplicated  on  the 
switch-cylinder,  and  the  lower  connections  reversed,  so  that  a  single  movement  of  the  one 
switch,  without  the  op- 
eration of  any  other 
switches,  ace  omplishes 
the  full  set  of  changes  in 
commutation,  and  the  re- 
versal of  the  current  in 
the  armature  required 
for  going  ahead  or  revers- 
ing. In  this  way,  no 
matter  how  sudden  the 
reversal  of  the  machine, 
as  from  full  speed  ahead 
to  full  speed  back,  the 
movement  of  the  switch- 
cylinder  through  an  arc 
of  about  300°  effects  a  pro- 
gressive change  through 
theentire  rangeof  com  mu- 
tation in  either  direction. 

In  equipping  a  car  the 
usual  practice  is  to  con- 
nect the  terminals  to  all 
parts  of  the  two  motor 
circuits  to  a  three-way, 
cut-out  box  placed  in  the 
body  of  the  car,  to  which 
are  also  brought  the  niul- 
tiple-arced  connections  of 
two  switches — one  placed 

on  each  of  the  platforms.  p       ll.-Westinghouse  motor. 

In  one    position    of    the 

switch  the  circuits  of  one  motor  are  cut  off  from  the  switches  ;  in  another  those  of  the  other 
motor,  and  in  a  third  those  of  neither.  The  object  of  this  arrangement  is  to  facilitate 
testing  of  motors,  and  also  to  cut  a  machine  out  of  circuit  in  case  of  accident.  Either  switch, 
therefore,  has  control  over  either  or  both  motors,  as  desired. 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


725 


With  heavy  grades  an  arrangement  for  using  the  machines  as  dynamic  brakes  has  been 
adopted.  This  consists  in  connecting  lever  switches  at  each  platform,  so  that  either  the 
conductor  or  driver  can  cut  loose  from  the  trolley  connection,  and  close  the  circuit  of  the 
machines  upon  themselves.  In  descending  a  grade,  in  case  the  brake  chains  part,  or 
the  supplying  system  should  fail,  this  gives  instant  and  positive  braking  control  of  the 
car.  This  latter  system  is  now  in  use  in  Florence,  Italy. 

The  Thomson-Houston  railway  motors.  Fig.  9,  have  the  same  general  appearance  as  the 
Sprague  motors,  but  differ  somewhat  in  construction.  Ordinarily  two  15-horse-power 
motors  are  supplied  to  each  truck,  and  are  run  in  parallel  at  a  pressure  of  about  500  volts. 
While  the  Sprague  system  had  depended  entirely  on  the  high  resistance  of  the  three-field 
windings  in  series  to  'choke  down  the  initial  rush  of  current  during  the  time  the  motor  was 
starting  from  rest,  the  Thomson-Houston  engineers  preferred  to  employ  an  external  rhe- 
ostat for  this  purpose.  The  motor  fields  are  wound  with  what  are  practically  double  coils, 
one  or  both  being  employed,  as  occasion  demands.  On  starting,  the  rheostat,  semi-circular 
in  form,  and  controlled  by  a  sprocket-wheel,  generally  operated  by  a  handle  on  the  car  plat- 
form, offers  sufficient  resistance  to  check  the  initial  current.  Afterward,  as  the  motor  gets  up 
speed,  more  or  less  of  this  rheostat  is  cut  out,  and  finally  the  motor  coils  alone  are  in  series. 

The  current  is  then  said  to  be 
"on  the  end'' — that  is,  both 
the  motor  coils  are  in  circuit. 

The  earlier  form  of  Short  rail- 
way motor  is  shown  in  Fig.  10. 
The  arrangement  of  the  field 
magnets  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
Brush  arc  dynamo.  The  arma- 
ture is  readily  accessible  for  re- 
pairs, but  the  form  of  the  motor 
necessitates  a  different  construc- 
tion of  truck,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 
In  the  summer  of  1890  the 
electric  railway  art  took  an  im- 
mense stride  forward.  The 
Westinghouse  Electr  i c  Co. 
brought  out  a  motor  pos- 
sessing some  unique  mechanical 
features.  The  motor  proper, 

FIG.  12.— Rae  motor.  Fig.  11,  is  within  a  square  iron 

frame  that  serves  both  to  sup- 
port it  and  to  furnish  bearings  for  the  countershafts  for  gearing.  The  body  or  skeleton  of 
the  motor  consists  of  only  five  parts :  The  cast-iron  frame,  the  keeper,  the  two  pole 
pieces,  and  the  brass  casting  joining  the  upper  and  lower  pole  pieces,  forming  a  mechanical 
framework  of  a  very  strong  and  simple  character.  The  cast-iron  frame  carries  the  car  axle, 
the  intermediate  axle,  and  the  armature  in  perfect  alignment  and  parallelism,  thus  enabling 
the  gears  to  mesh  with  great  exactness.  The  pole  pieces  are  hinged  to  the  keeper,  and  both 
are  firmly  held  in  position  by  the  retaining  bolts  through  the  brass  casting  that  joins  them 
at  their  extremities.  The  gears  are  encased  in  cast-iron  boxes,  oil-tight,  and  partially  filled 
with  grease.  They  are  thus  entirely  free  from  the  access  of  dust  and  grit,  and  can  be  con- 
tinually and  thoroughly  lubricated.  The  armature  is  of  the  usual  drum  type;  the  core  is 
built  up  of  plates,  each  of  which  is  cut  with 
a  key-way,  so  that  the  entire  inner  structure 
of  the  armature  can  be  locked  firmly  upon 
the  shaft.  The  double  wires  of  the  arma- 
ture are  equivalent  in  conductivity  to  No.  7 
wire,  so  that  there  is  little  danger  of  undue 
heating  under  the  severest  strain  of  service. 

The  Rae  electric  railway  system  presents 
some  radical  differences  from  any  of  the 
others  heretofore  mentioned.  A  single  motor 
is  used,  rigidly  attached  to  the  truck,  and 
the  armature  spindle  is  parallel  to  the  length 
of  the  ear.  The  power  is  transmitted  to  both 
axles  from  the  same  motor  through  beveled  PIG.  13.— Wenstrom  motor, 

gearing.  Fig.  12  gives  an  idea  of  the  princi- 
pal characteristics  of  the  system.  The  motor  is  placed  cross- wise  of  the  car,  midway  between 
the  wheels,  and  fastened  rigidly  to  the  framework  of  the  truck.  The  armature  pinion  drives 
an  intermediate  gear  that,  through  the  bevel-wheels,  turns  the  axles.  The  motor  is  of  30 
horse-power,  with  a  Siemens  armature  ;  it  is  thoroughly  insulated  at  the  sides  by  oak 
bars  saturated  with  asphalt,  and  the  employment  of  raw-hide  or  fiber  armature  pinions  still 
further  frees  the  machine  from  danger  of  a  ground.  The  whole  truck  is  put  together 
as  rigidly  as  possible,  no  attempt  whatever  being  made  to  secure  the  usual  flexibility.  The 
motor  is  series  wound.  The  regulation  of  speed  is  effected  through  the  interposition  of 
a  rheostat,  consisting  of  four  coils  that  are  successively  thrown  in  parallel  arc  with  each 
other,  and  finally  short-circuited.  The  rheostat,  with  its  switch,  is  placed  under  the  car,  as 


726 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


FIG.  14.— Atwood  hydraulic  gear. 


in  the  Thomson-Houston,  Short,  and  Westinghouse  systems,  and  is  operated  from  the  car 
platform  by  a  simple  handle. 

'•  Single-reduction  "  Car  Gear. — The  standard  Wenstrom  street-car  motor,  Fig.  13,  is  a  4- 
pole  machine,  the  magnetic  circuit  being  cast  of  mitis  metal  in  one  piece.  It  is  rated  at  25 
horse-power,  and  weighs,  complete,  very  nearly  1  ton.  Owing  to  the  powerful  magnetic  field 
practicable  with  the  Wenstrom  construction,  and  to  the  fact  of  the  motor  being  a  4-pole 
machine,  its  speed  is  only  400  revolutions  per  minute.  The  armature  is  consequently  geared 
directly  to  the  car  axle,  without  the  intermediate  countershaft.  Another  ingenious  modi- 
fication of  street-car  practice  due  to  the  Wenstrom  Co.  is  to  be  found  in  the  Atwood  hydraulic 
gear  which  forms  the  connection  between  the  split  gear 
and  the  driven  axle.  Its  purpose  is  to  furnish  a  varia- 
ble clutch  between  the  driving  and  the  driven  axle,  so 
that  in  starting  the  motor  it  may  be  allowed  to  run  free 
and  its  power  be  applied  gradually  to  start  the  car,  and, 
in  addition,  to  provide  a  sort  of  mechanical  safety  valve, 
so  that  when  there  is  a  severe  overload  the  hydraulic  clutch 
will  slip  and  allow  the  armature  to  rotate  fast  enough  to 
save  it  from  the  excess  of  current,  instead  of  subjecting 
it  to  the  dangerous  overloading  which,  would  otherwise 
follow.  Fig.  14  shows  a  section  of  this  hydraulic  gear. 

The  Thomson-Houston  "Single-reduction  Gear"  is 
shown  in  Fig.  15.  It  is  very  nearly  iron-clad,  having  two 
pole  pieces  of  ample  surface  and  carrying  two  field  coils, 
which  partially  surround  the  armature  core.  The  magnetic 
circuit  is  completed  on  the  front  end  of  the  motor  through 
the  face  plate,  and  at  the  back  through  the  frame  on 
which  are  cast  the  axle  boxes  and  arms  that  serve  as  a 

support  for  the  armature-shaft  bearings.  The  armature  is  of  the  Gramme  ring  type,  and  the 
bobbins  are  wound  close  together  around  the  entire  rim.  One  great  advantage  of  this  con- 
struction is  the  fact  that 
any  coil  can  be  easily  re- 
wound without  disturbing 
its  fellows,  while  with  the 
drum  armature,  in  the  type 
of  motor  formerly  used'  by 
the  company,  the  winding  all 
had  to  be  removed  down  to 
the  injured  coil.  The  motor 
when  mounted  on  a  truck 
with  30-inch  wheels  is  de- 
signed to  clear  the  tops  of 
the  rails  4  in.  The  spur 
gear  on  the  armature  shaft  is 
of  steel,  4i  in.  face,  and  has 
14  teeth.  The  split  gear  on 
the  car  axle  is  of  cast-iron, 
with  the  same  width  of  face, 
and  has  67  teeth.  The  speed 

Fio.  15.—  Thomson-Houston  "single-reduction"  gear.  of  the  armature  shaft  rela- 

tive to  that  of  the  car  axle 

is  nearly  4'8  to  1 ;  when  the  car  is  running  10  miles  per  hour  the  armature  makes  538  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  or  the 
speed  of  the  armature  is 
53 '8  turns  per  minute  when 
the  car  speed  is  1  mile  per 
hour.  The  gears  are  sur- 
rounded by  an  iron  box,  so 
that  they  may  be  run  in  oil. 
The  Westinghouse  Sin- 
gle-reduction Car  Motor, 
Fig.  16,  has  the  square  form 
of  frame,  but  the  change  in 
the  shape  of  the  magnetic 
circuit,  which  is  circular, 
makes  it  possible  to  utilize 
four  poles  with  great  ad- 
vantage. They  are  also 
rather  narrow,  and  conse- 
quently are  capable  of  being 
magnetized  by  compara- 
tively short  and  small  wind- 
ings. The  gear  ratio  is  3 '3 
to  1.  The  iron-clad  form  FIG.  16.—  The  Westinghouee  single-reduction  car  motor. 


«^i .. .  .. 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC 


. 


FIG.  17. — Westinghouse  gearless  motor. 


of  the  motor  enables  it  to  be  completely  shut  in  by  applying  side  plates,  so  that  in  actual 
practice  it  is  inclosed  so  tightly  as  to  be  quite  free  from  the  numerous  difficulties  so  often 
experienced  from  dirt  finding  its  way  into  the  working  parts  of  a  machine.  The  normal 
speed  of  the  armature  at  a  car  speed  of  about  10  miles  per  hour  is  380  revolutions  per 
minute. 

G  earless  Motors. — The  single-reduction  motor  was  followed  by  another  type  in  which  the  ar- 
mature is  mounted  directly  upon  the  car  axle,  thus  doing  away  with  all  gearing  whatsoever. 

The  general  apparance 
of  the  Westinghouse 
gearless  motor  is  shown 
in  Fig.  17.  It  is  a  4-pole 
machine,  completely 
iron-clad,  and  with  the 
same  hinged  arrange- 
ment of  fields  as  in  the 
other  types  of  Westing- 
house  motor.  The  arma- 
ture is  built  directly  on 
the  car  axle,  without  any 
attempt  at  flexible  con- 
nection ;  it  is  of  the 
drum  type,  16  in.  in 
diameter,  and  instead  of 
having  a  smooth  surface, 
is  grooved  to  receive  the 

wires,  thus  holding  them  rigidly  in  place.  The  total  depth  of  the  field  magnets  over  all  is 
but  20  in.,  giving  5  in.  clearance"  between  the  bottom  of  the  motor  and  the  tread  of  the  30- 
in.  wheel. 

In  the  Short  gearless  motor  the  same  style  of  armature  is  employed  as  in  the  ordinary  Short 
motor— that  is,  a  flat  Gramme  ring  of  many  sec- 
tions, with  a  magnetic  circuit  arranged  like  that 
of  the  Brush  dynamo.  The  motor  and  its  connec- 
tions are  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  18.  The  arma- 
ture itself  is  not  mounted,  as  in  the  Westinghouse 
motor,  directly  upon  the  axle,  but  on  a  hollow 
shaft  concentric  with  it,  with  plenty  of  inside 
clearance.  The  armature  proper  consists  of  a 
laminated  iron  core  of  the  usual  Short  type, 
wound  in  a  large  number  of  independent  seg- 
ments. The  commutator  is  mounted  on  the 
same  hollow  shaft  as  the  armature,  and  close  to 
it.  The  motor  is  really  a  4-pole  machine.  The 
field  coils  are  bolted  to  a  circular  frame  at  each 
side  of  the  motor,  in  the  center  of  which  are  the 
bearings  that  carry  the  hollow  armature  shaft. 

The  spring  connections  for  easy  starting  are  shown  in  the  cut.     A  double  arm,  running  out 

from  the  frame- 
work to  the  cross- 
girders  of  the  truck 
makes  provision 
for  supporting  the 
entire  motor.  A 
36-in.  wheel  is  gen- 
erally employed, 
giving  a  clearance 
of  5£  in.  over  the 
track.  At  a  speed 
of  10  miles  per 
hour,  the  armature 
drives  a  36-in.  car- 
wheel  94  revolu- 
tions per  minute  : 
the  equivalent 
speed  of  a  single- 
reduction  motor 
would  be  about 
400. 

Probably  the 
first  gearless  motor 
for  street  cars  was 
the  Eickemeyer- 
Field,  the  peculi- 
PIG.  19. -Field  electric  locomotive.  arity  of  which  is 


FIG.  18.— Short  gearlces  motor. 


'28 


RAILROAD,  ELECTRIC. 


the  use  of  a  motor  not  connected  to  the  axle,  but  operating  through  the  medium  of  a  con- 
necting-rod, driven  direct  from  a  crank  on  the  armature  shaft.  The  motor  is  iron-clad  and 
singularly  compact. 

The  method  adopted  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  19,  which  shows  the  Field  locomotive  that  ran 
for  some  time  on  the  New  York  elevated  railways. 

The  type  of  locomotive  employed  on  the  City  and  South  London  Railway,  London,  under- 
ground, is  shown  in  Fig.  20.  Each 
locomotive  is  capable  of  develop- 
ing 100  effective  horse-power,  and 
of  running  up  to  25  miles  per  hour. 
The  armatures  of  the  locomotives 
are  constructed  so  that  the  shaft 
of  the  armature  is  the  axle  of  the 
locomotive  ;  in  this  way  all  inter- 
mediate gear  and  all  reciprocating 
parts  are  entirely  avoided.  A 
motor  is  fitted  on  each  axle,  as 
shown  in  the  cut,  the  axles  not 
being  coupled,  but  working  inde- 
pendently. The  current  is  con- 
veyed from  the  collecting  shoes, 
through  an  ammeter,  to  a  regulat- 
ing switch,  then  to  a  reversing  FIG.  20.-London  underground  railway  motor/ 
switch,  thence  to  the  motors,  and 

back  through  the  framework  of  the  locomotive  to  the  rails,  so  completing  the  electrical 
circuit. 

Underground  Conductors.— MX.  S.  D.  Field  has  invented  an  electric  street-railway  sys- 
tem designed  to  avoid  the  use  of  overhead  wires.  Fig.  21  shows  the  general  method  of  con- 
struction. The  wheels 
shown  are  30  in.  in  diam- 
eter, and  the  conduits 
themselves  are  only  8  in. 
high.  They  are  built  up  in 
lengths  from  two  sections 
bolted  together  at  the 
bottom,  and  let  into  the 
wooden  cross-ties,  leaving 
a  slot  at  the  top.  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  wheels 
have  different  treads  on 
each  side  of  the  flange, 
the  inner  being  of  smaller 
diameter  than  the  outer 
tread.  On  a  straight 
track  the  outer,  larger 
tread  of  each  wheel  bears 
on  the  track.  But  when 
rounding  curves,  the 
wheel  bears  on  the  smaller 


FIG.  21. — Underground  conductor. 


tread  on  the  inner  rail,  so  that  it  has  a  slower  motion  than  the  outer  wheel,  and  thus  the 
friction  usually  encountered  is  avoided.  The  angle-rails,  which  are  bolted  to  the  tops  of 
the  conduits,  are  raised  only  one-fourth  of  an  inch  above  the  level  of  the  pavement,  and,  being 
rounded,  present  no  obstruction  to  ordinary  traffic.  The  conductors  are  supported  in  the 
conduit  by  insulating  hangers.  An  underground  system  based  on  this  principle  has  been  in 
operation 'in  Budapest,  Hungary,  since  1890.  A  number  of  attempts  have  been  made  to  avoid 
the  use  of  the  slot  in  streets,  and  several  systems  have  been  devised  by  means  of  which  a 
cable  buried  beneath  the  surface  is  connected  to  the  car  circuit  by  switches  placed  at  intervals 
and  operated  by  mechanism,  such  as  attracting  magnets  on  the  car.  Among  these  systems 
are  those  devised  by  Poliak  &  Binswanger,  McElroy,  Lineff,  and  others.  They  have  not, 
however,  come  into  general  use. 

Accumulators,  or  storage  batteries,  are  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  the  operation  of  elec- 
tric railways.  By  this  method  the  stored  energy,  conveyed  to  a  motor  in  the  form  of  current, 
sets  it  in  motion,  and  with  it  the  car.  Looked  at  from  the  standpoint  of  convenience  and 
applicability,  the  propulsion  of  tram-cars  through  the  medium  of  accumulators  must  be 
conceded  to  be  second  to  no  other.  The  batteries  occupy  no  valuable  space,  being  stowed 
under  the  seats,  while  the  motor  can  be  placed  under  the  car  body.  London,  Brussels, 
Paris,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Washington,  and  San  Francisco,  have  all  seen  tram- 
cars  run  by  accumulators.  In  Berlin,  Mr.  A.  Reckenzaun  made  a  successful  demonstration 
with  his  motor  applied  to  street  cars,  and  deriving  current  from  accumulators.  Fig.  22 
shows  the  car,  in  part  sectional  elevation.  The  various  arrangements  may  be  classed  under 
the  following  headings,  viz.  :  1.  The  battery.  2.  The  motors.  3.  Transmitting  gear. 
4.  Speed  regulation.  5.  The  brakes. 

(1)  The  battery  consisted  of  60  cells,  each  weighing  40  Ibs.,  and  with  a  capacity  of  150 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


729 


ampere-hours.  They  were  placed  on  a  board  under  the  seats  of  the  car,  resting  on  rollers,  so 
that  they  could  be  readily  run  in  and  out.  There  were  two  rows  of  15  cells  each  under  each 
seat.  They  were  coupled  in  series,  and  hence  gave  an  electromotive  force  of  from  110  to 
120  volts. 

The  storage  batteries  were  changed  every  two  or  four  hours,  according  to  the  length  of 
the  trip,  and  the  change  could  be  performed'in  about  three  minutes,  not  occupying  more  time 
than  a  change  of  horses. 

(a)  The  electric  motors  employed  were  of  the  Reckenzaun  model.  They  weighed  420  Ibs., 
and  were  capable  of  delivering  from  four  to  nine  horse-power.  At  ]20  volts  their  efficiency 
was  75  per  cent.,  and  at  the  nominal  speed  of  7  miles  per  hour  they  made  1,000  revolution's 
per  minute.  But  this  speed  could  be  raised  to  10  miles  per  hour. 

(3)  The  car  body  was  mounted  upon  two  trucks,  each  of  which  carried  a  motor  ;  and 


FIG.  22. — Car  driven  from  storage  battery. 

worm  gearing  was  employed  to  transmit  power  from  the  armature  shaft  to  the  axles  of  the 
wheels. 

(4)  Changes  in  speed  were  effected  by  different  combinations  between  the  whole  battery 
and  the  two  motors. 

Two  forms  of  brake  could  be  brought  into  play  on  the  car  :  the  ordinary  mechanical,  and 
the  electrical  brakes.  The  latter  were  called  into  action  automatically  when  the  switch  cut 
off  the  battery  current.  The  motors  were  then  converted  into  dynamos  which  generated  a 
current  that  was  sent  into  the  coils  on  the  brake-shoes,  magnetizing  them  so  that  they  were 
attracted  by,  and  pressed  against,  the  wheels.  At  the  same  time  the  resistance  encountered 
by  the  armature  turning  in  the  magnetic  field  also  acted  powerfully  to  retard  the  speed,  and 
both  these  acting  together  brought  the  car  rapidly  to  a  halt. 

THE  PORTELECTRIC  SYSTEM,  invented  by  J.  T.  Williams,  is  designed  for  the  rapid  convey- 
ance of  mail  and  express  matter  between  distant  points.  The  carrier,  Fig.  23,  is  a  hollow, 

cylindrical  projectile  of 
wrought-iron,  with  ogival 
ends,  the  cylindrical  portion 
being  8  ft.  long  and  10  in.  in 
diameter,  the  length  12  ft. 
over  all,  and  the  weight, 
approximately,  500  Ibs.  It 
FIG.  23. -Portelectric  system,  carrier.  has  capacity  to  contain,  say, 

10,000  letters,  weighing,  per- 
haps, 175  Ibs.  It  is  provided  with  two  flanged  wheels  above,  and  two  underneath,  all  of 
which,  being  fitted  with  ball  bearings,  revolve  with  very  slight  friction.  The  propelling 
power  is  derived  from  a  series  of  hollow  helices  of  insulated  copper  wire,  each  of  which 
encircles  the  track  and  carrier,  Fig.  24.  These  are  fixed  along  the  permanent  way  at  inter- 
vals. A  contact  wheel,  mounted  upon  the  carrier,  and  running  in  contact  with  the  upper 
track-rail  ( which  is  divided  into  sections,  and  utilized  as  an  electric  conductor),  connects 
the  several  helices  in  succession  with  the  source  of  electricity  as  the  carrier  moves  forward 
upon  the  track.  The  actual  cost  of  the  electric  power  required  to  propel  the  carrier  at  150  miles 
per  hour  is  claimed  to  befivecents  per  horse-power  hour,  including  cost  of  attendance  at  stations. 
The  mere  cost  of  power  for  propelling  a  carrier  from  Boston  to  2s  ew  York  would,  therefore, 
not  exceed  seventy-five  cents  per  trip.  Excessive  estimates  of  the  cost  of  a  double-track  line, 
making  liberal  allowances  in  all  directions,  do  not  exceed  $35,000  per  mile,  or  about  $7,000,- 
000  for  a  line  between  Boston  and  New  York.  It  has  been  proposed  to  use  this  system  for 
speedy  mail  delivery  in  Xew  York  City. 

TELPHERAGE. — telpherage  is  the  name  given  to  a  system  devised  by  the  late  Prof.  Fleem- 
ing  Jenkin,  and  worked  out  by  Professors  Ayrton  and  Perry,  of  transportation  of  goods  and 
passengers  by  overhead  suspended  cars  driven  by  electric  motors.  Generically  considered,  a 
telpher  line  system  consists  of  a  rod  or  rail  track  of  considerable  length,  suspended  several 
feet  from  the  ground,  connected  with  a  source  of  electricity  placed  at  some  convenient  place 
at  or  near  the  course  of  the  track,  and  traversed  by  an  electro-locomotive  which  derives  its 
motive  power  electrically  from  the  track,  draws  a  number  of  small  holders  of  freight  or 
passengers,  and  is  controlled,  as  to  its  motion,  from  a  place  or  places  other  than  itself.  On 
the  telpher  line  built  at  Weston,  England,  the  wire  is  five-eighths  of  an  inch  ia  diameter. 


730 


EAILBOAD,    ELECTRIC, 


The  load  is  carried  in  seven  skips,  the  first  being  seen  in  Fig.  25.  About  half  a  ton  can  be 
put  into  each  skip  and  a  speed  obtained  of  six  miles  an  hour.  The  principle  of  the  system 
of  telpherage  is  best  shown  forth  in  a  commercial  line  that  was  put  into  operation  at  Glynde, 
England,  to  carry  clay  from  a  pit  to  the  Glynde  railway  siding,  whence  it  was  delivered  into 
trucks  and  taken  by  rail  to  its  ultimate  destination. 

DATA  OF  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE.— The  electric  railroads  of 


PIG.  24.— Portelectric  system,  track. 

the  United  States  now  (January,  1892)  number  nearly  500,  and  they  have  been  in  operation  long 
enough  to  furnish  some  very  interesting  data  as  to  the  cost  of  construction  and  maintenance, 
whether  as  compared  among  themselves,  or  as  contrasted  with  horse  or  cable  street  railways. 
It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  many  of  the  earlier  roads  were  crude,  and  hence  are  expensive 
to  operate,  while  in  other  cases  the  original  cost  of  equipment  as  horse  railroads  still  figures 
as  part  of  the  investment  upon  which  the  electric  service  has  to  pay  dividends.  The  tables 
presented  here  are  the  result  of  a  careful  investigation  of  the  subject  in  1891.  Table  I. 
shows  that,  taking  street  length  as  the  unit  of  comparison  in  the  cases  of  the  roads  under 
consideration,  the  total  permanent  investment  of  the  electric  roads  is  only  15  per  cent,  more 
than  that  of  the  horse  roads,  while  the  cable  roads  cost  more  than  nine  times  as  much  as  the 
electric  roads.  The  average  speed  of  cable  and  of  electric  cars  is  about  the  same  ;  conse- 
quently the  cable  roads  ran  about  four  times  as  many  cars  per  mile  of  street  length  as  the 
electric.  This  would  be  expected,  as  the  cable  roads  generally  occupy  the  routes  of  heaviest 
travel.  The  horse  roads  ran  more  cars  than  the  electric,  for  an  equal  length  of  road,  but 


FIG.  25.— Telpherage— track  and  motor. 

the  latter,  having  an  advantage  in  higher  speed,  greatly  exceed  in  car  miles  run.  The 
electric  roads  carried  fewest  passengers  per  car  mile,  but  carried  nearly  as  many  per  mile  of 
street  occupied  as  the  horse  roads.  On  account  of  their  more  favorable  location,  the  cable 
roads  exceed  both  the  others  in  passengers  per  mile  of  route.  The  column  showing  passen- 
gers carried  per  mile  run  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  relative  number  of  passengers  on  a  car 
at  any  one  time. 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


731 


TABLE  I. 
Comparison  of  Investment  and  Operating  Expenses. 


Total  Investment,  real  estate,  road 
and  equipment. 

Car  miles  run  per 
annum,  per  mile 
of  street  length. 

Passengers  carried 
annually  per  mile 
of  street  length. 

Passengers  carried 
per  car  mile  run. 

Per  mile  of  street 
length. 

Per  mile  of  track 
length. 

*  22  Electric  roads  

$38,500 
33,406 
350,325 

$27,780 
31,093' 
184,275 

76,158 
43,345 
309,395 

237,038 
251,816 
1,355,965 

3-10 
5-81 
4-38 

t  45  Horse  roads  
$  10  Cable  road?  

*  Car  miles  run  per  annum,  14,013,187  ;  passengers  carried  per  annum,  43,614,972  ;  street  length,  184  miles ; 
track  length,  255  miles. 

t  All  the  roads  in  Massachusetts  operated  exclusively  by  horses  for  1885-90.    Average  for  six  years. 
%  From  U.  S.  Census  Bulletin  No.  55. 

In  Table  II.  we  have  operating  expenses  per  car  mile,  with  all  taxes  and  fixed  charges  ex- 
cluded, for  the  three  systems  ;  the  interest  charge  per  mile  at  6  per  cent,  upon  the  total  per- 
manent investment  ;  the  total  of  operating  expenses  and  interest  per  car  mile  ;  the  cost  per 
passenger  carried,  interest  charge  excluded,  and  the  same  with  interest  charge  included. 


TABLE  II. 


Operating    ex- 
penses per   car 
mile  run. 
(cents.) 

Interest  charge  per 
car  mile  at  6  per 
cent,  on  total  in- 
vestment, 
(cents.) 

Total  of  operating 
expenses  and  in- 
terest,   per    car 
mile. 

(cents.) 

Cost  per  passenger 
carried,  interest 
excluded, 
^cents.) 

Cost  per  passenger 
carried,  interest 
included. 

icents.) 

Electric  roads  

11-02 

3-03 

14-05 

3-55 

4-53 

Horse  roads  

24-32 

4-62 

28-94 

4-18 

4-98 

Cable  roads        

14-12 

6-97 

20-91 

3-22 

4-77 

It  deserves  pointing  out  that,  as  cable  roads  operate  only  in  centers  of  dense  population, 
they  carry  at  present  four  times  as  many  passengers  per  car  mile  as  the  electric  cars,  few  of 
which  have  yet  penetrated  to  the  heart  of  the  larger  cities,  and  hence  the  slightly  lower  cost 
per  passenger  shown  by  the  cable  roads.  • 

In  Table  III.  we  have  the  ratios  of  the  three  most  important  items,  and  the  proportional 
traffic  that  must  be  done  per  mile  of  street  occupied,  for  each  system,  to  pay  operating  ex- 
penses and  6  per  cent,  on  the  investment, 


TABLE  III. 


••.     • 

Ratio     of    investment, 
per   mile    of  street 
length. 

Ratio  of  car  mile*  run 
annually  per  mile  of 
street  leu  th. 

Ratio  of  cost  of  opera- 
tion  per  car  mile,  in 
terest  included. 

Proportional  traffic  that 
must  be    done,    per 
mile  of  street  occu- 
pied, 10  pay  operating 
expenses,  and    6  per 
cent,  on  the  invest- 
ment. 

Electric  roads 

1-152 

i-ooo 

10-486 

1-757 

i-ooo 

7-138 

•485 

i-ooo 

•722 

•652 

i-ooo 

5-154 

Horse  roads  .  .             .... 

Cable  roads  

A  few  details  are  now  in  order  as  to  the  nature  of  the  work  done  by  electric  roads  in  fur- 
nishing cheap  passenger  transportation.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  subjoined  TabJe  IV.  that 
many  of  the  items  are  susceptible  of  wide  variation. 


732 


RAILROAD,    ELECTRIC. 


TABLE  IV. 
Seven  Representative  Roads,  operated  entirely  by  Electricity. 


ROAD. 

LENGTH. 

Passengers 
carried  annu- 
ally per  mile 
*  of  road. 

Number 
of  cars  In 
datly   op- 
eration. 

Average 
dally 
mileage 
per  car. 

Average 
number    of 
passengers 
dally  per  car. 

Passengers 
carried  per 
car  mile. 

Operating 
expenses 
per  car 
mile. 

Operating 
expenses 
per  car  per 
day. 

Cost  per 
passen- 
ger car- 
ried. 

tracks. 

Of  road. 

Cents. 

Dollars.          Cents. 

1 

2 

8'5 
16-0 

5-0 

10-0 

*460,000 
199,000 

20 
16 

83 
125 

318 
343 

3'82 
2-75 

11-82 
8-43 

9.80            3'09 
10.54            3-07 

3 

51  '0 

35-0 

*162,857 

50 

100 

313 

3-13 

12  '29 

12.29 

3  '  9o 

4 

40-0 

19'5 

487,582 

140 

91 

188 

2-06 

7'80 

7.10 

3'79 

5 
6 

7 

15-5 

28.0 
3-8 

14-0 
23'5 

2-8 

167,511 
286,852 
200,000 

18 
31 
5 

106 
108 
92 

357 
597 
307 

3  35 
5-51 
3-33 

ll'OO 
12-74 
8-49 

11.70 
13.76 
7.81 

3'28 
2-31 
2-55 

162-8 

109-8 

280 

t9-as 

t3'28 

*  Estimated.       t  Averages. 
Total  annual  car  mileage,  9,862,000.    Total  number  of  passengers  carried  annually,  29,144,000. 

The  items  of  expense  in  the  operation  of  electric  street  railways  may  be  divided  into — 
roadbed  and  track  ;  maintenance  of  overhead  line  :  maintenance  of  power  plant  ;  total  cost 
of  power  making  ;  repairs  to  rolling  stock  ;  incidental  transportation  expenses,  and  what 
may  be  called  executive  charges.  Below  is  given  Table  V.,  which  supplies  the  averages  of  22 
American  electric  trolley  roads,  varying  in  length  from  3  to  51  miles,  with  from  3  to  140  cars 
in  daily  operation,  making  80  to  150  miles  daily  per  car,  or  an  average  of  110  miles  for  each 


car. 


TABLE  V. 
Detail  of  Operating  Expenses  of  Electric  Roads. 


EXPENSl 

S&  PER    CA 

(CENTS.) 

R    MILE. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Average. 

Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track        .                      ... 

1"86 

'10 

•54 

Maintenance  of  line  

'95 

'01 

-12 

Maintenance  of  power  plant,  including  repairs  on  engines,  dynamos,  buildings,  etc. 
Cost  of  power,  including  fuel,  wages  of  engineers,  firemen,  dynamo  tenders,  oil, 
waste  water  and  other  supplies  

•86 
4-95 

•05 

•48 

•36 
1'96 

Repairs  on  cars  and  motors  

5  '24 

'59 

rso 

Transportation  expenses,  including  wages  of  conductors,  motormen,  starters,  and 
switchmen,  removal  of  snow  and  ice,  accidents  to  persons  and  property,  etc.  
General  expenses,  including  salaries  of  officers  and  clerks,  office  expenses,  advertis- 
ing printing,  le^al  expenses   insurance  etc  .... 

9-47 
2'95 

2'74 

T9 

4-98 
1'26 

Total !*22'U9 


'80     I  11-02 


*  Respectively  the  highest  and  lowest  total  for  any  one  road. 

These  figures  bring  out  some  interesting  facts  as  to  the  mechanical  and  steam-engineering 
features  of  this  work.  The  cost  of  coal  on  the  above  roads  varies  from  $1  per  ton  for 
slack,  to  $3  for  R.  0.  M.  (run  of  mine),  and  $3.80  for  lump.  The  wages  of  conductors 
and  motormen  vary  from  10  cents  to  20  cents  per  hour.  The  consumption  of  coal  varies 
from  4.3  Ibs.  of  slack  per  car  mile  to  12.2  Ibs.  R.  0.  M.  per  car  mile. 

The  station  output  varies  from  3.7  E.  H.  P.  (electrical  horse-power)  to  8.4  E.  H.  P.  per 
car  in  operation,  for  roads  equipped  with  16-foot  cars  and  Edison  motors.  In  the  latter  case 
the  road  had  many  heavy  grades  and  sharp  curves.  One  road,  equipped  with  30-foot  double 
truck  cars  (weight  complete  about  10  tons),  15-horse-power  equipments,  traffic  medium  and 
grades  moderate,  required  an  average  of  10.7  E.  H.  P.  per  car  in  operation. 

The  best  station  performance  here  included  is  1  E.  H.  P.  for  every  5  Ibs.  of  slack  or 
4  Ibs.  of  nut  consumed  ;  and  evaporation  of  7£  Ibs.  of  water  for  every  pound  of  slack  con- 
sumed. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  electric  railway  equipment,  using  the  trolley  system  : 

The  cost  of  an  electric  car  equipment,  including  two  motors,  truck  and  car  body  com- 
plete, is  from  $3,200  to  $3,500.  There  should  be  installed  in  generating  capacity  for 
power  plant,  twenty  to  twenty-five  horse-power  per  car  operated,  which  will  give  reserve 
power.  One  mile  of  single  track  construction  will  cost  complete,  with  65-lb.  girder  rail,  ties 
2^  ft.  on  centers,  bonding  of  rails,  paving,  etc.,  $9,000  to  $10,000.  The  cost  of  the  electric 
part  of  power  plant,  including  generators,  switch-board,  etc.,  installed,  is  $35  to  $45  per 
horse-power. 

Line  construction  per  mile,  complete,  including  track  bonding,  plain  pole  work,  cross  sus- 


RAILS. 


733 


pension  or  bracket  with  feed  wire,  $2,000  to  $2,500.     Sawed  and  painted  poles,  $2,500  to 
$3,000.     Iron  poles,  concrete  setting,  cross  suspension,  double  track,  feed  and  guard  wires, 
$6,50D  to  $7,500.     Same  with  center  poles,  $4,5<>0  to  $5,500. 
An  electric  car  averages  100  to  125  miles  a  day. 

Cost  of  Electric  Equipments  for  Street  Railroads. 


No.  of  cars. 

Steam  plant. 
H.P. 

Capacity  of 
generators. 
K.W. 

Steam  plant. 

Station 
electrical 
equipment. 

Line 
Car  equipments.!    construction, 
boilers,  trucks          %  mile  of 
am!  motors.      .    double  track 
per  car. 

Total 
equipment, 
omitting 
track. 

6 

130 

80 

87,000 

$6,4CO 

$19,500 

$15,000     j          £47,900 

10 
15 

325 
375 

150 
240 

11,000 
17,500 

10,500 
15,000 

32,500 

48,750 

25,000 
37,500 

79,000 
118,750 

30 

450                  300 

22,000 

17,500 

65,000                   60,000 

164,500 

30 

675 

450 

28,000 

22,000 

97,500 

90,000 

237,500 

50 
100 

1,125 
2,025 

™     • 

1,350 

50,000 
90,000 

33,000 
60,000 

162,500 
325,000 

187,500 
375,000 

433,000 
850,000 

The  above  figures  are  approximate  only,  and  based  on  the  best  city  railroad  practice. 

[For  more  detailed  information  on  Electric  Railways,  the  reader  may  consult  Martin  & 
Wetzler's  The  Electric  Motor  and  its  Applications,  Crosby  &  Bell's  The  Electric  Railway,  and 
the  electrical  journals.] 

Railroad  Signals  :  See  Switches  and  Signals. 

RAILS.  In  the  decade  from  18^0  to  1890  but  few  changes  hare  taken  place  in  the  theory 
or  practice  of  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  permanent  way  of  railroads.  One  im- 
portant change  has  taken  place,  in  the  United  States  at  least,  in  theory,  and  to  some  degree 
in  practice.  That  relates  to  the  form,  weight,  and  composition  of  rails.  The  iron  rail  no 
longer  exists  except  as  a  relic.  In  1880  there  were  in  the  tracks  of  the  United  States,  70,741 
miles  of  iron  rail,  and  37,:'>29  miles  of  steel  (Tenth  Census).  At  the  end  of  1890  there  were 
still  40,700  miles  of  track  laid  with  iron  and  167,600  miles  with  steel.  (Poor s  Manual) 
The  question  of  steel  or  iron  rails  was  settled  long  before  1880,  and,  in  fact,  commercial  roll- 
ing of  steel  rails  began  in  the  United  States  in  1867.  The  important  change  of  the  last 
decade  has  been  in  the  steel  rail  itself.  In  1880  rail  makers  and  railroad  engineers  had 
begun  working  on  the  theory  that  a  comparatively  soft  rail  would  wear  better  than  one  con- 
siderably harder.  Accordingly,  rails  were  made  with  about  0  30  per  cent,  of  carbon,  the 
influence  of  this  theory  became  still  more  marked  by  1885  or  1886,  and  indeed  the  doctrine 
has  not  yet  been  absolutely  disproved,  but  it  has  been  shown  to  be  so  improbable,  that  the 
hardness  of  rails  is  being  increased  quite  generally.  The  practice  in  the  United  States  now 
is  to  use  0.40  to  0.60  per  cent,  of  carbon,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  section,  with  a  ten- 
dency  to  0.50  or  0.55  as  an  average.  The  most  recent  example  of  a  heavy  rail,  designed  to 
be  high  in  carbon  and  stiff  in  section,  is  the  Boston  &  Albany  Railroad  Co.'s  rail,  95  Ibs.  per 
yard,  rolled  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  in  1891.  This  is  the  heaviest  rail  used  in  the  United 
States  up  to  the  end  of  1891.  (A  rail  weighing  100  Ibs.  per  yard  has  been  laid  in  the  St.  Clair 
tunnel,  Grand  Trunk  Railway.)'  This  Boston  &  Albany  rail  is 
important  as  an  example  of  late  and  good  practice  in  composition 
and  design.  Its  general  outline  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  chemical 
specifications  call  for  carbon  0.60.  and  phosphorus  not  to  exceed 
0.06.  per  cent.  Physical  tests  give  an  elastic  limit  of  55,000  to  60,000 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in. ,  and  from  12  to  18  per  cent,  elongation.  In  England 
the  percentage  of  carbon  has  long  been  about  0.40,  and  in  France  it 
is  much  higher.  Rails  above  G.60  per  cent,  carbon  are  common 
there,  and  they  often  run  as  high  as  1  per  cent.  The  theory  of 
the  better  wear  of  very  soft  rails  never  affected  steel  rail  practice 
so  much  in  France  as  in  the  United  States. 

The  change  in  the  the- 
ory of  the  section  is  shown  by  Figs.  2  and  3.  These 
are  85-lb.  rails  rolled  for  comparative  trial.  Fig. 
2  shows,  in  a  general  way,  the  best  section  according 
to  the  theories  of  1880  ;  Fig.  3  shows  the  theories  of 
1890.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  later  form 
is  still  tentative.  The  earlier  section  was  adopted  to 
get  the  mass  of  metal  in  the  head  of  the  rail  to  take 
the  wheel  wear,  while  the  web  and  flange  were  re- 
duced to  the  minimum  dimensions  which  would  give 
reasonable  bearing  on  the  ties,  endurance  against  corrosion,  and  vertical  stiffness.  The  result 
was  disappointing.  It  gradually  appeared  that  the  rails  with  large  heads  did  not  wear  as 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


734  EEAPERS. 


long  as  rails  of  earlier  make,  with  smaller  heads,  even  when  these  last  were  of  considerably 
lighter  section  The  investigations  of  engineers,  rail  makers,  and  students  have  gradually 
crystallized  into  the  doctrine  that  the  mass  of  metal  in  a  steel  rail  should  be  disposed  not 
merelv  with  regard  to  wheel  wear  and  to  get  stiffness  as  a  beam,  but  so  that  the  metal  in  the 
head  shall  be  thoroughly  worked  by  the  rolls,  and  that  the  cooling  shall  be  uniform  through- 
out the  section,  as  nearly  as  may  be.  In  the  type  of  section  shown  by  Fig.  2,  the  distribu- 
tion of  metal  is  about  :  Head,  47.51  per  cent. ;  web,  18.95  per  cent. ;  flange,  33.54  per  cent. 
In  Fig.  3  the  proportions  are  :  Head,  41  per  cent.;  web,  21.40  per  cent;  flange,  37.54  per 
cent.  In  the  latter  section  the  metal  in  the  head,  although  less  in  mass,  is  better  compacted, 
and  defects  in  the  ingot  are  more  likely  to  be  worked  out  ;  besides,  cooling  strains  are  less, 
and  less  straightening  of  the  rail  is  necessary  in  the  mill.  The  more  modern  theory  appears 
to  be  borne  out  by  facts,  but  some  years  must  pass  yet  before  it  is  absolutely  demonstrated  to 
be  correct.  (See  for  discussions  of  these  matters,  Trans.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  1888  to  1891  ;  Trans. 
Am.  Inst.  of  Mining  Engineers,  1888  to  1891  ;  and  technical  journals,  especially  the  Rail- 
road Gazette,  1886  to  1891.) 

The  average  weight  of  rails  rolled  in  the  United  States  in  1891  is  estimated  by  the  makers 
at  between  65  and  70  Ibs.  per  yard,  but  many  have  been  rolled  of  75,  80,  and  85  Ibs. ,  and  some 
of  90  and  9">  Ibs.  There  is  no  means  of  making  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  average  weight 
rolled  in  1880,  but  67  Ibs.  per  yard  may  be  taken  as  the  maximum  of  that  date,  while  56  Ibs. 
was  a  very  common  weight. 

Rail  Fastenings.— In  rail  fastenings  little  progress  has  been  made.  Many  rail  joints  have 
been  contrived,  but  nothing  has  superseded  the  angle  bar,  or  seems  likely  to,  although  this  is 
admittedly  defective.  The  plain  fish  plate  has  disappeared  from  good  practice  in  the  United 
States.  Even  the  best  length  of  the  angle  bar  is  still  in  dispute,  as  is  the  question  of  sup- 
ported and  suspended  joints.  If  after  many  years  of  trial,  it  cannot  be  decided  whether  or 
not  the  contiguous  rail  ends  should  be  supported  on  a  tie  or  suspended  between  two  ties  ;  or 
what,  between  24  in.  and  48  in.,  is  the  best  length  of  angle  bar  ;  it  is  very  probable  that  there 
is  not  much  difference  in  the  results. 

Within  three  or  four  years  there  has  been  an  important  advance  in  the  use  of  metal  plates 
on  the  ties,  under  the  rails.  Early  in  American  practice,  cast-iron  chairs  and  plates  were 
more  or  less  used,  even  with  the  flange  rail.  It  was  found  that  the  surface  of  the  head  of  the 
rail  was  worn  directly  over  the  chair,  from  the  fact  that  the  greater  mass  of  metal  just  at 
that  point  made  the  "blow  of  the  wheel  more  efficient.  This  experience  has  retarded  the  use 
of  tie-plates,  desirable  as  they  are  to  save  ties  and  to  prevent  rails  turning  or  spreading. 
Recently,  however,  plates  of  steel  have  been  introduced.  These  give  all  the  advantages  of 
increased  bearing  on  the  tie,  and  utilize  the  whole  holding  power  of  the  inside  spike  against 
the  outward  thrust,  and  are  still  light  enough  and  elastic  enough  to  avoid  the  anvil  effect  of 
the  more  massive  cast-iron  chair.  Practically  the  only  changes  in  track  spikes  have  been  in 
the  methods  of  manufacture  and  in  the  material.  Recent  machines  turn  out  spikes  with 
points  that  make  a  clean  cut  when  driven,  greatly  reducing  the  destruction  and  the  displace- 
ment of  the  fibers  of  the  tie.  The  result  is  increased  holding  power  and  longer  life  of  the 
tie.  Many  spikes  are  now  made  of  steel.  In  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  the 
general  practice  is  to  use  screws  instead  of  spikes  to  hold  the  rails  to  the  ties,  and  to  use  cast- 
iron  chairs  with  bull-head  and  double-head  rails.  With  flange  rails  tie-plates  are  sometimes 
used,  but  oftener  the  rail  rests  directly  on  the  tie. 

Ties. — In  the  United  States,  the  wooden  cross-tie  not  only  remains  standard,  but  the  trials 
of  metal  ties  have  been  quite  insignificant  in  extent.  Considerations  of  economy  and  of 
adaptability  to  the  purpose  indicate  that  there  will  not  be  any  large  use  of  metal  ties  in  this 
country  until  the  means  of  preserving  wooden  ties  and  the  benefits  of  tie-plates  have  been 
exhausted.  The  wooden  tie,  so  long  as  it  does  not  cost  too  much,  has  great  advantages  of 
elasticity  and  of  convenience  in  track  work.  In  Europe,  India,  Sout'h  America  and  various 
colonies,  the  use  of  metal  ties  has  been  much  more  extensive,  and  a  great  variety  of  designs 
have  been  brought  out  and  tried.  The  best  results  have  been  got  with  a  cross-tie  of  steel,  in 
the  form  of  a  channel,  laid  with  the  hollow  down,  and  with  the  ends  bent  down  to  engage  in 
the  ballast.  Of  this  type,  the  tie  designed  by  Mr.  Post,  engineer  of  the  Netherlands  State 
Railroads,  is  the  best  known.  The  designs  are  so  many,  and  the  results  so  varied  and 
inconclusive,  that^it  would  take  too  much  space  to  properly  discuss  the  subject  here.  The 
most  complete  resume  is  contained  in  Bulletin  No.  4,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1890. 

Railway  Head  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machines. 

Raker,  Hay  :  see  Hay  Carriers  and  Rakers. 

Ram,  Hydraulic :  see  Engines,  Hydraulic. 

Reamer  :  see  Lathe  Tools. 

Reaper  :  see  Mowers  and  Reapers. 

REAPERS.  The  reaper  has  been  so  far  superseded  by  the  binding-harvester  that 
inventive  energy  may  almost  be  said  to  have  become  diverted  from  this  form  of  harvesting 
machine  ;  nevertheless  a  large  aggregate  of  reapers  is  made  annually.  Steel,  and  malleable 
and  cast  iron  are  employed  for  many  of  the  parts  before  made  of  wood.  In  reapers,  as  in  the 
case  of  mowers,  the  front-cut  construction  has  been  adopted,  bringing  the  cutter-bar  forward 
on  a  line  with  the  front  of  the  machine,  instead  of  the  former  rear-cut  construction,  to  get 
the  driver  back  to  a  safe  position  out  of  the  danger,  formerly  incurred,  of  a  fall  in  front  of 
the  sickle. 

Wood's  Reaper. — A  front  view  of  an  improved  reaper,  by  Wood,  appears  in  Fig.  1. 


REAPERS. 


735 


It  has  a  novel  rake-controlling  device.  The  rake  arms,  which,  in  this  class  of  machine 
also  serve  to  reel  the  standing  grain  to  the  sickle,  and  lay  it  on  the  triangular  platform, 

are  guided  in  their 
sweep  by  the  ordinary 
cam  track,  but  this 
track  contains  a  switch, 
the  automatic  move- 
ments of  which  direct 
any  given  rake  arm  up- 
ward to  clear  the  plat- 
form in  passing  around 
the  rake-head  axis,  or 
downward  to  sweep 
from  the  platform  to 
the  ground  the  grain 
accumulated  thereon. 
Fig.  2  shows  the  con- 
troller parts  shaded. 
The  controller  finger  is 
set  to  switch  every  sec- 
ond rake  to  sweep  the 
platform  ;  and  Fig.  3 
shows  the  finger  forced 
up  by  a  revolving  spiral 
inclined  plane  until  it 
trips  the  cam  switch 
PIG.  i.— Wood's  reaper.  which  decides  the 

course  to  be   followed 

by  a  rake  arm,  and  then  drops  back  to  the  same  level  from  which  it  started.  The  driver, 
without  halting,  sets  the  finger  by  the  hand  lever  and  index  to  drop  upon  either  of  the  spiral 
ledges,  after  which  it  continues  to  open  the  switch  automatically,  at  the  exact  intervals 


HAND    LEVER 


FIG.  2.— Reaper  details. 


determined.     Although  the  reaper  has  only  four  rake  arms,  every  one,  or  every  second,  third, 
fourth,  or  fifth,  may  be  automatically  switched  to  sweep  the  platform,  according  as  the  hand 


736 


REGULATORS. 


lever  is  moved  on  the  numbered  index.  A  foot  lever,  seen  in  Fig.  2,  serves  to  interrupt  the 
operation  of  the  automatic  controller,  when  the  driver  prefers  to  momentarily  cease  raking 
off,  though  the  movement  of  the  rake  arms  as  reels  continues  to  direct  the  standing  grain  to 


FIG.   3.— Reaper.— Detail. 


sickle  and  platform.    This  is  done  in  specially  thin  spots  in  the  crop,  and  at  corners  to  avoid 

dropping  sheaves  there,  where  the  team  would  on  the  next  round  trample  them-  and  waste 

grain. 

Reel :  see  Milling  Machinery,  Grain  and  Cotton-spinning  Machines. 

Refrigerating  Machinery  :  see  Ice-making  Machines. 

REGULATORS.     I.  DAMPER  REGULATORS.— Th e  Mason  Steam  Damper  Regulator  is 

shown  in  Fig.  1.     It  is  designed  to  automatically  maintain  any  desired  pressure  in  a  steam 

boiler  by' controlling  the  draft.  The  operation  of 
the  regulator  is  as  follows :  The  boiler  pressure,  which 
is  connected  at  the  pipe.  G.  conies  into  the  cham- 
ber, E,  the  top  of  which  is  formed  by  a  diaphragm, 
on  which  rests  the  main  spring,  S.  If  the  boiler 
pressure  rises  above  the  required-point,  or  sufficiently 
to  overcome  the  tension  of  the  spring,  S,  the  dia- 
phragm is  raised  very  slightly  and  the  steam  passes 
down  the  passage.  X,  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  pis- 
ton, Z),  which  it  forces  down.  This  piston  being 
connected  with  the  wheel  on  the  shaft,  H,  by  a  chain, 
or  rack  and  pinion,  turns  it  around,  communicating 
a  like  motion  to  the  outside  wheel,  and  thence  to 
the  damper  in  the  flue. 

When  the  boiler  pressure  falls,  the  diaphragm 
comes  on  to  its  seat,  which  covers  the  passage,  X  and 
steam  pressure  is  removed  from  the  top  of  the  piston, 
A  while  the  weight  on  the  damper  brings  the  wheel, 
P,  back  to  its  original  position. 

fTellam's  Steam  Damper  Regulator  is  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  The  instrument  consists  of  a  piston,  Y, 
upon  which  is  a  projecting  ground-joint.  W.  contain- 
ing water-packing  grooves,  upon  which  works  an  ac- 
curately fitted  cylinder,  K,  which  is  in  turn  covered 
by  a  sleeve,  (/(weighing  from  12  to  50  Ibs.,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  machine).  To  the  bottom  of 
the  piston  is  screwed  the  section,  U,  in  which  is  fitted 
the  valve,  V,  on  a  raised  seat.  Upon  this  valve  rests 
the  stem,  P,  the  top  of  this  stem  bearing  against  the 
weighted  lever,  F.  The  operation  is  as  follows  : 
FIG.  1.— Mason  damper  regulator.  The  weight,  /(from  l-{-  to  2^  Ibs.),  is  adjusted  on 


REGULATORS. 


737 


Fio.  2. — KellanTs  damper  regulator. 


lever,  F,  so  that  the  valve,  V,  will  open  at  the  pressure  which  it  is  desired  to  carry  on  the 

boiler  when  the  steam  entering  ports,  Q,  passes 

through  the  piston,  Y,  raising  the  cylinder  gradu- 
ally till  cap,  L,  comes  in  contact  with  the  bottom 

of  ground-joint,  W,  at  which  time  the  damper  is 

entirely  closed.     As  the  boiler  pressure  lowers, 

valve,  V,  is  pressed  to  its  seat  by  weigbted  lever, 

F,  and  as  the  condensation  passes  from  within 

the  piston  through  the  pet-cock,  E,  the  cylinder 

descends,  drawing  the  damper  open. 

The  Curtis  Damper  Regulator  is   shown   in 

Fig.  3.  It  consists  of  a  composition  cylinder, 
within  which  is  a  piston 
fitted  with  water  packing. 
The  piston-rod  is  connected 
by  a  chain,  over  guide 
rolls,  to  the  lever  of  the 
damper,  on  which  is  hang 
a  weight  sufficient  to  over- 
haul the  piston  and  open 
the  damper  regardless  of 
any  ordinary  friction.  The 
motion  of  the  piston  is  con- 
trolled by  a  metallic  dia- 
phragm, which  operates 
the  valve,  alternately  clos- 
ing and  opening  the  damper 
as  the  boiler  pressure  in- 
creases or  diminishes.  The 

regulator  is  fastened  to  the  wall  of  the  boiler-room  ;  the  top  pipe  is 
connected  to  the  boiler,  and  the  lower  pipe  to  the  drain,  ash-pit,  or 
heater.  The  normal  condition  of  the  damper  is  to  be  wide  open,  the 
weight  holding  it  in  that  position.  To  operate  it,  a  given  load — say  60 
Ibs.  to  the  inch— is  produced  on  the  regulator  diaphragm,  by  screwing 
the  handle  in.  When  the  pressure  in  the  boiler  reaches  60  Ibs.,  it  lifts 
this  load  and  permits  steam  to  enter  the  space  over  the  piston,  slowly 
pushing  it  down  and  closing  the  damper.  When  the  boiler  pressure 
falls  below  60  Ibs.  the  valve  closes,  and  the  pressure,  passing  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom  of  the  piston,  puts  the  piston  in  equilibrium,  and 
allows  the  weight,  slowly  settling  d:wn,  to  open  the  damper,  thus 
controlling  the  pressure  at  the  desired  limit. 

II.  PRESSURE  REGULATORS. — The  Foster  Pressure-regulating  and 
Reducing  Valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.     The  principle  of  operation  is  as 

follows  :  Steam  is  admitted  at  A  and  delivered  at  B,  at  a  pressure  dependent  upon  the  open- 
ing of  valve,  D,  which    may   be    regulated  by  turning 

spindle,  P,  to  the  right  to  diminish  the  pressure,  or  the 

left  to  increase  the  pressure.     The  delivery  pressure,  en- 
tering chamber,  K,  tends  to  raise  the  diaphragm,  W,  and 

draw  valve,  1),  toward  its  seat  ;  in  opposition  to  this,  the 

spring,  with  its  lower  end  bearing  on  winged  nut,  E,  tends 

to  open  the  valve  until  there  is  an  equilibrium  established 

between  these  two  forces.     Under  this  condition,  if  the 

delivery  pressure  fails,  the  pressure  on  the  diaphragm  is 

diminished,  and  the  spring,  overcoming  the  lighter  re- 
sistance, opens  the  valve  until  the  equilibrium  is  again 

established  and  the  pressure  restored  ;  on  the  other  hand, 

any  increased  delivery  pressure  bearing  on  the  diaphragm 

overcomes  the  resistance  of    the  spring  and  draws  the 

valve    toward  its   seat    in   proportion   to  the  increased 

pressure.    When  the  tension  of  the  spring  is  proportioned 

to  the  pressure  bearing  on  the  diaphragm,  a  constant  and 

uniform  discharge  is    insured.      The   spring  nut,   E,  is 

threaded  on  the  spindle,  and,  having  winjs  which  extend 

into  the  hexagon  spring  chamber,  H,  it  is  prevented  from 

turning  with  the  spindle,  but  is  free  to  move  longitudi- 
nally with  it,  as  the  valve  is  opened  or  closed  by  reason  of 

variation  of  pressure  on  the  diaphragm.     The*  flange  on 

lower  side  of  spring  nut,  E,  is  used  as  a  stop  to  prevent  an 

excessive  lift  and  possible  bulge  of  the  diaphragm. 

The  Ross  Pressure -regulating  Valve  is  shown  in  Fig. 

5.     It  is  used  to  control  or  reduce  pressure  in  street  mains 

and   pipe  lines  ;    or  to  regulate    the    flow   of  water  be- 
tween reservoirs    located    at  different  levels.     In   the     sectional 


FIG.  3.     Curtis  damper 
regulator. 


FIG.  4.— Foster  reducing  valve. 


view,  A   is  the  inler  to 


738 


REGULATORS. 


high-pressure  side ;  J5,  the  outlet  or  low-pressure  side.     The  operation  of  this  valve  is  as 

follows  :  The  small  regulator  valve,  7,  has  been  set 
to  close  at,  say,  40  Ibs. ;  relief  valve,  0,  to  open  at  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  pressure.  This  can  be 
readily  adjusted  when  the  valve  is  working.  It  is 
preferable  to  have  relief  valve,  0,  open  a  little  in 
advance  of  the  closing  of  the  regulating  valve,  as 
this  keeps  a  circulation  constantly  through  the 
chamber,  K,  and  valve,  /and  0.  This  maintains  a 
very  even  pressure  in  the  chamber,  K.  The  press- 
ure in  chamber,  K,  determines  the  pressure  on  out- 
let side  of  valve,  B.  For  illustration,  assume  that 
piston,  D,  is  one-half  the  area  of  F.  ( It  can  be  more 
or  less,  as  desired;  the  practice  is  to  make  it  less.) 
Water  is  turned  on  the  system,  and  passes  freely 
through  the  valve  until  the  pressure,  accumulat- 
ing in  the  pipes  on  the  outlet  side,  is  exerted  on 
the  full  area  of  the  valve  beneath  M.  When  20 
Ibs.  is  reached  an  equilibrium  exists,  and  any 
further  rise  of  pressure  at  B  will  increase  the 
pressure  twice  as  much  in  chamber,  K.  This 
decreases  the  flow  of  water  through  /,  and  in- 
creases the  quantity  discharged  through  0,  allow- 
ing the  pistons,  F  and  T,  with  valve,  M,  to  slowly 
close  until  only 
enough  water  pass- 
es to  maintain  20 
Ibs.  pressure  at  out- 
let B.  Should  an 


5. — Ross  pressure-regulating  valve. 


FIG.  6.— Union  regulator.    Detail. 


extra  demand  on  the  system  cause  the  pressure  to  fall  below  20 

Ibs.  on  the  outlet  side,  B, 
relief  valve,  0.  would  close 
and  regulating  valve,  1, 
would  open,  thus  allowing 
pistons,  F  and  T,  with  valve, 
M,  to  open,  and  allowing 
sufficient  water  to  pass  to 
keep  the  pressure  at  20  Ibs. 
Any  rise  or  fall  of  pressure 
will  continue  to  repeat  this 
operation. 

The  Union  Gas  Pressure 
FIG.  7.— Union  gas  pressure  regulator.    Regulator,  made  by  the  Union  Water  Meter  Co.,  Worcester, 

Mass.,  is  shown   in  Figs.  6, 

7,  and  8.  It  is  built  on  the  tank  or  gasometer  principle. 
Fig.  6  is  a  sectional  view  of  the  tank  and  piston  connected 
with  the  valve  by  rack  and  segment.  Fig.  7  is  a  view  of  the 
valve  with  cap  removed,  showing  the  valve-stem  and  V-shaped 
ports.  Fig.  8  shows  the  valve-stem  detached  from  the  valve 

with  the  four  ports  which  open 
and  close  over  four  alternate 
parts  in  the  valve-seat.  The 
operation  is  as  follows  :  The 
gas  is  taken  from  the  low-press- 
ure side  of  the  valve  by  the 
pipe,  shown  in  Fig.  7,  to  the 
under  side  of  piston  in  the  dia- 
phragm case  in  Fig.  6.  Then 
any  increase  of  pressure  imme- 
diately raises  the  piston  and 

closes  the  rotary  valve  by  means  of  the  rack,  A,  and  segment, 
F\  any  decrease  of  pressure  opens  the  valve.  The  rotary 
valve  with  V-shaped  ports  is  operated  by  a  piston  with  a 
rolling  diaphragm,  thus  giving  a  long  stroke  and  graduating 
the  flow  of  gas  with  the  greatest  accuracy.  The  conical  form 
of  valve  admits  of  its  being  ground  to  a  gas-tight  joint,  not 
affected  by  contraction  or  expansion,  and  requiring  no  packing 
around  the  valve-stem.  The  ports  have  cutting  edges  and  a 
shearing  motion,  thus  effectually  preventing  the  formation  of 
ice  or  the  accumulation  of  foreign  matter  on  the  valve  seats, 
which  so  often  prevents  the  closing  of  other  forms  of  valves. 
By  the  rotary  motion  of  the  valve,  and  its  opening  and  clos- 
ing both  ways  from  the  center,  a  positive  cut-off  is  effected  FIG.  9.— Curtis  pressure  regulator 


FIG.  8.— Union  regulator.    Detail. 


RIVETING   MACHINES. 


739 


without  extra  mechanism,  the  weight  of  the  piston  closing  the  valve  whenever  the  supply  of 
gas  fails.  Nor  can  any  leak  around  the  piston  or  diaphragm,  or  increased  pressure  of  gas, 
force  the  valve  open  and  allow  the  gas  to  blow  through. 

The  Curtis  Pressure  Regulator,  made  by  the  Curtis  Regulator  Co.,  of  Boston,  shown  in 
Fig.  9,  has  a  main  valve,  operated  by  a  loose-fitting  piston  ;  a  secondary  valve  in  the  top  of 
the  chamber  over  the  piston  ;  a  metallic  diaphragm  (performing  the  double  office  of  oper- 
ating the  secondary  valve,  and  making  a  joint  to  the  cap  which  contains  it) ;  and  a  side 
passage,  connecting  the  chamber  under  the  diaphragm  with  the  outlet.     When  the  spring 
over  the  diaphragm  is  compressed,    it  opens  the  secondary  valve  upon   which   it   rests. 
Pressure  being  let  on.  raises  the  piston,  and  therewith  the  main  valve  to  its  full  capacity. 
The  main  valve  remains  open  until  the  back  pressure  communicated  from  the  outlet  through- 
out the  side  passage  is  sufficient  to  raise  the  follower  under  spring,  and  thus  close  the 
secondary  valve,  when  the  steam  or  water  escaping  around  or  through  the  loose-fitting  piston 
fills  in  the  space  on  top  of  said  piston,  and  forces  it  toward  its  seat,  thus  uniformly  main- 
taining the  pressure  at  which  it  is  set. 
Repeating"  Rifle  :  see  Fire-arms. 
Re-sawing  Machines  :  see  Saws,  Wood. 
Revolvers  :  see  Fire  Arms. 
Rifle :  see  Fire  Arms. 

Rim  Planer  :  see  Wheel-making  Machines. 
Riveting1,  Electric  :  see  Welding,  Electric. 

RIVETING  MACHINES.  Elastic  Rotary-blow  Riveting  Machine.— The  use  of  the  ma- 
chine shown  in  Fig.  1 — made  by  John  Adt  &  Son, 
New  Haven,  Conn.— extends  to  almost  every  branch 
of  manufacturing  where  articles  are  held  together  by 
rivets.  Its  most  important  feature  is  in  the  combina- 
tion and  working  of  the  cylinder  and  hammer-rod. 
The  hammer- rod.  suspended  by  springs  and  confined 
air  within  the  cylinder,  partakes  of  its  reciprocating 
motion,  and  produces  a  sharp,  quick  blow,  which,  with 
its  rotating  action,  enables  the  machine  to  perform  the 


FIG.  1.— Riveting  machine. 


-Hydraulic  riveting  machine. 


work  almost  instantly.  The  blow  is  rendered  elastic  by  the  springs  in  connection  with  the  air 
cushions,  and  its  force  can  be  regulated  at  the  will  of  the  operator  by  more  or  less  pressure 
applied  to  the  treadle  at  the  right  of  the  machine  ;  the  yoke  to  which 'the  treadle  is  attached 
is  self-acting,  and  the  moment  the  pressure  is  removed  the  blows  cease,  and  the  work  can 
be  withdrawn. 


740  ROLLS,    BENDING. 


The  hammer  always  strikes  on  the  rivet,  heading  it  equally,  and  as  it  is  rotated  while 
the  blows  are  being  struck,  the  head  conforms  to  the  shape  of  the  peen  of  the  hammer, 
and  any  style  of  head  can  be  formed. 

Riveting  Machine,  Hydraulic. — The  riveting  machine  shown  in  Fig.  2  was  designed  and 
built  by  William  Sellers  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia.  It  has  a  gap  of  198  in.  measured  from  the 
center  of  the  riveting  dies  to  the  base  of  the  throat,  and  the  distance  between  the  frames 
or  stakes  is  4  ft.  6  in.  The  ram  is  operated  by  hydraulic  pressure,  and  is  capable  of 
exerting  variable  pressures  of  25,  50,  or  75  tons  upon  the  rivet,  at  the  will  of  the  operator, 
from  a  fixed  accumulator  pressure  of  2,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  These  variations  are  obtained 
directly  at  the  machine  itself  by  a  valve  of  special  construction,  and  by  the  simple  movement 
of  a  single  lever  conveniently  located.  The  stakes  are  of  cast-steel,  and  the  requisite  spread 
is  obtained  by  means  of  the  massive  cast-iron  box  at  the  base,  the  whole  being  securely  tied 
together  by  the  large  through  bolts  shown.  The  cylinder  is  also  of  cast-steel,  and  has  cast 
with  it  the  bearing  for  the  riveting  ram,  which  bearing  is  necessarily  prolonged  by  the  large 
overreach.  The  machine,  instead  of  being  placed  in  a  pit,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  so  as  to 
make  the  floor  line  form  the  working  platform,  is  set  with  the  bottom  of  the  throat  level  with 
the  shop  floor,  and  a  platform  (not  shown)  is  attached  to  the  main  stake  about  3  ft.  below 
the  center  of  the  ram,  so  as  to  bring  the  operators  at  the  most  convenient  distance  to  the 
dies. 

ROD-MAKING  MACHINERY. — For  making  rods  and  dowels  there  is  ordinarily  em- 
ployed a  hollow  arbor,  having  a  head  and  cutters  revolving  about  the  rod,  cutting  it 
smooth  and  true.  Rolls  back  of  the  cutter-head  drive  the  material  into  the  machine  ; 
these  rolls  having  grooves  made  to  fit  the  thinnest  size  of  the  rods,  and  being  fastened  to 
the  shaft  by  set-screws,  so  that  in  working  the  rolls  are  moved  sidewise  to  bring  the  right 
sized  groove  for  the  rod  to  be  worked  exactly  in  the  center.  In  the  latest  machine  the  feed- 
ing arbor  is  vertical  and  center,  the  stock  being  turned. 

Roller  :  see  Seeders  and  Drills. 

Roller  Mills  :  see  Ore-crushing  Machines. 

Rolling-  Machinery  :  see  Leather-working  Machinery. 

Rolls  :  see  Coal  Breakers,  Milling  Machinery,  Grain  and  Ore-crushing  Machines. 

ROLLS,  BENDING.  Heavy  Plate-l)ending  Rolls.— The  full-page  illustration,  Fig.  1, 
represents  the  No.  12  power  bending  rolls  made  by  the  Niles  Tool  Works,  Hamilton,  0.,  for 
bending  plates  up  to  2  in.  in  thickness.  This  machine  is  22A  ft.  between  the  housings,  and 
has  four  wrought-iron  forged  rolls,  22^  ft.  long  between  the  journals. 

The  two  feeding  rolls  are  placed  vertically  one  over  the  other,  and  are  32  in.  in  diameter, 
and  tho  two  bending  rolls  are  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  center  rolls.  These  are  25£  in. 
in  diameter,  and  move  in  guides  in  the  housings.  They  are  so  placed  as  to  move  very  closely 
by  the  lower  center  roll  when  the  latter  is  touching  the  upper  roll.  The  upper  feed  roll  runs 
in  fixed  bearings  in  the  housing,  and  the  lower  roll  runs  in  bearings  having  a  vertical  adjust- 
ment of  5  in.,  obtained  by  means  of  heavy  steel  adjusting  screws  8  in.  in  diameter,  operated 
by  tangent  gearing. 

The  bending  rolls  have  an  adjustment  of  20  in.  When  in  their  lowest  position  the  upper 
surface  is  4  in.  below  the  bottom  of  the  upper  feed  roll,  from  which  position  they  move  up- 
ward until  they  touch  the  upper  feed  roll.  The  adjusting  screws  for  these  rolls  are  of  steel, 
7  in.  in  diameter,  and  are  operated  by  tangent  gearing.  The  two  bending  rolls  and  the 
lower  feed  roll  are  raised  and  lowered  by  a  pair  of  reversing  engines,  which  are  used  for  this 
purpose  only.  Clutches  are  provided  in  the  train  of  elevating  gear  for  all  the  movable  rolls, 
so  that  either  one  or  both  ends  of  any  of  them  can  be  moved  independently.  Safety  friction 
clutches  are  provided  in  the  gear  train  of  the  lower  feed  roll,  which  allow  the  gearing  to 
slip  when  the  feed  rolls  and  plate  are  pressed  tightly  together.  Graduated  index  scales  are 
provided  to  indicate  the  exact  height  of  the  ends  of  the  rolls. 

The  two  feed  rolls  are  positively  geared  together  from  opposite  ends.  The  main  gear  on 
each  roll  is  10  ft.  diameter,  15  in.  face,  and  5  in.  pitch.  They  are  driven  by  a  pair  of  re- 
versing engines,  whose  cylinders  are  12  in.  diameter,  and  stroke  16  in.  The  machine  is 
mounted  on  a  heavy  cast-iron  sole  plate,  18  in.  deep,  bedded  in  a  massive  stone  foundation, 
and  sunk  to  a  level  of  7  ft.  below  the  floor  line.  The  plates  are  intended  to  pass  through 
the  rolls  at  a  height  of  19  in.  above  the  floor.  The  reverse  levers  and  throttles  for  the  engines 
are  operated  from  one  common  platform,  erected  on  the  sole  plate,  level  with  the  floor,  and 
all  clutch  and  operating  levers  are  brought  to  a  convenient  position  above  the  floor. 

Vertical  Plate-bending  Rolls. — Fig.  2  illustrates  a  vertical  plate-bending  machine,  built 
by  Thomas  Shanks  &  Co.,  Johnstone,  Scotland,  which  is  capable  of  bending  cold  steel  plates 
U  in.  thick,  and  12  ft.  6  in.  wide.  The  front  roller  is  of  steel,  23  in.  in  diameter,  and  is 
adjustable  to  and  from  the  inner  rollers,  which  are  1G  in.  in  diameter,  of  forged  steel.  The 
adjustment  is  by  two  screws  driven  by  worm-wheels  and  vertical  worm-shaft,  with  bevel  gear 
worked  from  either  side  of  the  machine.  The  forged  iron  nuts  of  the  screws  form  the  slide 
and  bearings  which  carry  the  journals  of  the  front  roller.  The  machine  rests  on  four  cast- 
iron  stools,  to  which  is  bolted  a  strong  frame  carrying  one  end  of  the  pinion  shaft,  contain- 
ing two  bearings  for  the  back  rollers,  and  a  parallel  space  for  the  sliding  block  of  the  front 
roller.  To  this  plate  is  also  bolted  a  gearing  frame,  with  the  bearing  for  the  cross-shaft  and 
bevel  pinion.  These  plates,  with  the  four  stools,  are  bolted  to  the  masonry  foundation.  The 
top  framing,  carrying  the  rollers  at  the  top,  as  also  the  top  main  pinion  *shaf t,  is  cast-iron, 
and  it  is  supported  on  a  massive  vertical  standard,  checked  and  bolted  to  the  sole  plates,  and 
this  forms  a  rigid  frame  to  self -contain  the  strains.  It  is  cast  with  bearings  for  the  anti- 


ROLLS,  BENDING. 


741 


742 


ROLLS,  BENDING. 


friction  rollers.  These  are  12  in.  broad,  those  at  the  sides  being  10  in.  in  diameter,  and  at 
the  back  18  in.  in  diameter.  They  are  so  arranged  that  they  transfer  the  pressure  off  the 
roller  to  the  vertical  standard.  The  inner  rollers  are  each  driven  by  a  large  spur-wheel,  3^ 
in.  pitch,  worked  by  pinions,  keyed  to  the  connecting  shaft,  8  in.  in  diameter,  upon  which 
also  is  keyed  the  large  bevel  wheel.  Spur-wheels  and  pinions  enable  the  gearing  to  be  altered 
for  heavy  or  light  work.  The  engines  for  driving  the  machine  are  of  the  vertical  type,  hav- 
ing 12  in.  cylinders. 

Setters'  Bending  Rolls. — Fig.  3  shows  a  set  of  vertical  bending  rolls,  built  by  William 
Sellers  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  which  are  capable  of  bending  a  steel  plate  10  ft.  wide,  U  in. 
thick.  The  bending  roll,  18  in.  diameter,  and  the  two  side  rolls,  15  in.  diameter,  are  carried 
in  heavy  plate  housings,  and  so  united  as  to  embody  great  strength,  and  at  the  same  time 
leave  the  front  of  the  machine  unobstructed  for  the  free  curvature  of  the  plate.  All  three 
rolls  are  driven  by  a  pair  of  independent  reversing  engines.  The  bending  roll  is  the  prin- 
cipal driving  roll,  and  the  side  rolls  are  adjustable  to  and  from  the  bending  roll  by  another 


PIG.  2.— Vertical  plate-bending  rolls. 

pair  of  independent  engines,  controlled  by  convenient  levers,  and  so  arranged  that  the  two 
ends  of  the  rolls  may  be  adjusted  together  or  independently  in  either  direction.  The  driving 
wheels  at  the  bottom  of  the  side  rolls  are  of  steel,  while  the  bending  roll  carries  at  its  upper 
end  a  spur-gear  wheel  over  5  ft.  in  diameter,  and  about  4  in.  pitch  by  11  in.  face,  driven 
by  a  steel  pinion.  The  bending  roll,  with  its  upper  bearing  and  driving  wheel,  can  be  with- 
drawn by  an  overhead  crane  for  the  removal  of  flues.  Hitherto  the  problem  of  driving  all 
the  rolls  at  the  same  peripheral  speed  has  been  embarrassed  by  the  calendering  action 
developed  in  the  passage  of  a  curved  plate.  To  avoid  this  action,  and  at  the  same  time 
relieve  the  driving  gear  of  unnecessary  strain,  there  is  provided  in  the  train  of  gearing  for 
the  side  rolls  a  positive  clutch  with  sufficient  lost  motion  to  allow  for  the  maximum  effect  of 
calendering.  The  work  of  driving  the  plate  through  the  rolls  is  thus  thrown  chiefly  on  the 
gearing,  which  drives  the  middle  roll,  and  although  the  pinions  on  the  side  roll  are  thus 
relieved  of  the  work  of  driving,  they  are  always  in  readiness  to  assist,  should  the  friction  of 
the  middle  roll  on  the  plate  be  insufficient  to  carry  it  through. 

2  he  Niles  Plate-straightening  Machine,  shown  in  Fig.  4,    is  designed  for  straightening 
plate  iron  for  boilers,  tanks,  safes,  etc.     Jt  has  seven  rolls  arranged  in  two  tiers — four  rolls 


ROLLS,  BENDING. 


743 


in  the  upper  tier,  and  three  in  the  lower.     The  lower  rolls  are  driven  by  steel  pinions.     The 
upper  series  of  four  rolls  are  adjustable  vertically  to  suit  the  thickness  of  sheet  to  be  straight- 


Fie.  3.— The  Sellers  bending  rolls. 

ened.     Indexes  are  provided   for  setting  these  rolls.     The  outer  rolls   of  this  series  are 
adjustable  independently  ;  the  inner  rolls  are  raised  or  lowered  together,  and  the  entire  four 


FIG.  4.— The  Niies  plate-straightening  machine. 

rolls  are  also  arranged  so  that,  after  being  once  set,  they  may  all  be  adjusted  at  the  same 
time  without  disturbing  their  relative  positions. 


744 


ROLLS,  METAL  WORKING. 


BOLLS,  METAL  WORKING.  Roughing  Train  and  Doubling  Machine  for  a  Tin-plate 
Rolling  Mill.  —  Theodore  L.  Thomas,  of  the  Union  Works  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Co., 
Chicago,  has  designed  a  mill  for  rolling  tin-plate  bars,  which  is  herewith  illustrated,  Pig.  1 
showing  the  side  elevation,  and  Fig.  2  the  ground  plan.  Mr.  Thomas  has  also  devised  a  doub- 
ling machine,  likewise  shown  in  the  illustrations,  which  is  an  important  part  of  the  appa- 
ratus. This  mill  is  intended  to  break  down  tin-plate  bars  and  prepare  them  for  the  usual  fin- 
ishing train.  It  consists  of  three  sets  of  rolls,  three  high,  inclosed  in  one  pair  of  housings 
and  driven  by  one  engine,  as  indicated  by  the  gearing.  The  doubling  machine  consists  of 
four  folding-doors  lying  at  floor  level,  with  shears  in  the  center. 

In  the  usual  method  of  making  sheets  for  the  tinning  process,  the  practice  followed  is  to 


FIG.  1 . — The  Thomas  roughing  train  and  doubling  machine. 

take  a  7-in.  bar,  cut  to  suitable  width,  which  is  subjected  to  five  heatings  and  five  rollings, 
with  four  doublings.  The  five  rollings  are  known  to  millmen  as  (1)  molding,  (2)  singling, 
(3)  doubling,  (4)  fours,  (5)  eights,  finishing  to  suitable  lengths.  The  description 
applies  to  what  is  known  in  the  market  as  1C  20  x  14.  By  Mr.  Thomas's  method  a  14-in. 
bar  is  taken.  It  is  heated,  passed  through  the  lower  rolls  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow, 
shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  then  back  through  the  upper  rolls.  The  rolls  are  adjusted  by  lining, 
graduating  the  work  on  the  bar  throughout  the  six  passes.  Guide  rollers  between  the  rolls 
keep  the  bar  in  proper  position  for  the  next  rolls.  The  rolls  are  a  sufficient  distance  apart 
to  prevent  buckling.  The  sheet  which  emerges  from  the  last  pass  is  trailed  on  the  floor  a 
little  on  one  side  of  the  doubling  machine.  It  is  then  pushed  by  machinery  on  the  folding- 
doors  and  into  the  shears,  which  cut  it  in  two.  The  doors  next  move  into  a  perpendicular 


FIG.  2.— The  Thomas  roughing  train  and  doubling  machine. 

position,  thus  doubling  the  two  sheets  at  one  operation  and  one  heat.  The  doubling  machine 
is  operated  by  hydraulic  or  steam  cylinders. 

Two-fifths  of  the  work  of  rolling  the  black  sheets  is  performed  at  this  stage,  leaving  three- 
fifths  to  be  done  in  the  finishing  mill,  to  which  the  doubled  sheets  are  taken  by  an  endless 
chain  or  other  labor-saving  device.  The  finishing  mill  being  thus  relieved  of  two-fifths  of  the 
work  of  rolling  the  black  sheets,  can  be  operated  with  much  greater  capacity  than  by  the  old 
method. 

The  Simonds  Metal  Rolling  Machine. — A  novel  machine  for  the  rolling  of  special  shapes 
of  metals,  built  by  the  Simonds  Rolling  Machine  Co.,  of  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  3.  The  machine  is  designed  for  rolling  accurately  and  in  a  short  space  of  time 
a  large  variety  of  work  which  at  present  is  turned  out  by  more  laborious  and  expensive  pro- 
cesses, such  as  lathe  turning,  the  customary  methods  of  forging,  and  others.  The  machine 


KOLLS,  METAL   WORKING. 


745 


consists  in  the  main  of  a  substantial  bed  and  two  standards,  which  are  practically  duplicated 
within  and  below  the  frame  and  floor  line,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.    Mounted  on  these  standards 


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1      i       '            ' 

t 

1              ! 

!               1             i 

i 

:          i 

1 

i         i 

l 

1         i 

FIG.  3.— The  Simonds  metal  rolling  machine. 

by  means  of  suitable  fixtures,  are  a  number  of  rollers,  arranged  to  act  as  front,  rear,  and 
side  supports  and  guides  to  cast-iron  traveling  platens,  O  0.       They  thus  take  the   place 

of  the  ordinary  sliding 
surfaces,  and,  affording 
only  rolling  contact,  re- 
duce friction.  Fitted 
into  the  backs  of  these 
platens  are  racks  which 
engage  with  suitable  me- 
chanism, so  that  one  of 
the  platens  always  travels 
upward,  while  the  other 
travels  downward. 

£— aaa  The     platens,    0    0, 

_^ carry    iron     plates,   into 

^ — : -'-- -' — --•-— --=r-==rr  —  .1         which  the  dies  proper  are 

PIG.  4.— Die  for  car  axle.  dovetailed,     the     section 


746 


ROLLS,  METAL   WORKING. 


of  these  for  this  purpose  being  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  die  there  illustrated  is  for  forging 
car  axles,  of  one  of  which  a  sketch  is  also  given.  The  dies  are  used  in  pairs,  moved  in  opposite 
directions  over  the  metal  to  be  shaped,  the  die  surfaces,  of  course,  being  exactly  alike. 
From  the  plane  faces  of  the  dies,  which  lie  parallel  to  each  other  when  in  position  for 
work,  rise  the  forming  and  reducing  and  spreading  surfaces,  the  plane  portions  serving 
to  support  and  steady  the  work  and  prevent  it  from  rocking.  The  reducing  surfaces  are 
grooved  or  serrated,  in  order  to  insure  a  firm  grip  on  the  hot  and  plastic  metal,  and  perfect 
regularity  in  its  rotation,  and  being  thus  arranged  obliquely,  the  marks  made  in  the  metal 
by  the  serrations  are  obliterated  in  subsequent  revolutions  of  the  blank,  and  the  rate  of  the 
surface  movement  of  the  latter,  where  work  is  being  performed,  is  the  same  as  the  rate  of 
linear  movement  of  the  dies.  The  reducing  faces  commence  to  work  on  the  metal  at  the 
extreme  left,  where  they  meet  in  a  point,  and  when  the  hot  blank  is  placed  between  the  dies, 
the  central  reduction  of  the  axle  is  commenced  by  the  narrow  end  of  the  tapering  raised 
portion,  a,  of  the  die  face.  In  general  configuration,  the  raised  portions  are  like  the  half 
section  of  the  axle,  the  shearing  off  squarely  of  the  ends  of  the  axle  being  accomplished  by 
the  level  edge  cutters,  c  c.  The  edges  of  these  cutter  projections  are  also  serrated,  so  that  the 
rotation  of  the  blank  is  under  control  throughout  the  length  of  travel  of  the  die.  The 
material  operated  upon  is  compressed  and  condensed  as  it  assumes  the  required  shape 
under  the  dies.  The  construction  and  function  of  all  other  forms  of  dies  for  use  in  the 
machine  are  on  the  same  general  basis. 

The  blank  to  be  operated  upon  is  inserted  between  the  dies,  and  rests  on  the  supporting 
plate  marked  V,  in  Fig.  3,  one  of  the  dies  being  at  or  near  the  end  of  its  up  stroke,  and 
the  other  at  or  near  the  end  of  its  down  stroke,  so  that  the  extreme  ends  of  the  gripping 
surfaces  of  the  dies  are  opposite  each  other  in  a  line  passing  through  the  centers  of  the 
shafts,  A  A.  One  of  the  die  platens  travels  up  and  the  other  down,  until  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  cutting-off  edges  are  opposite  each  other,  when  a  finished  car-axle,  or  whatever 
other  product  the  dies  may  have  been  designed  for,  is  the  result.  The  whole  operation 
occupies  only  a  fraction  of  a  minute.  The  smaller  the  article  made,  the  greater  may,  of 
course,  be  the  speed  of  working;  boot  calks  for  lumbermen,  for  example,  being  turned  out 
at  the  works  of  the  Simonds  Rolling  Machine  Co.  at  the  rate  of  from  10,000  to  20,000 
per  day. 

The  Munton  Process  of  manufacturing  Steel  Tires.  —  The  Chicago  Tire  and  Spring 
Co.,  of  Melrose,  near  Chicago,  111.,  use  a  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  locomotive  and 
car-wheel  tires  and  circular  forgings  which,  in  its  method  of  treating  steel,  is  a  marked 
departure.  Mr.  James  Munton,  the  superintendent,  is  the  inventor  of  the  new  process  and 
the  machinery  for  operating  it.  The  ordinary  method  of  manufacturing  tires  is  to  cast  a 
solid  ingot  of  cylindrical  shape,  which  is  then  heated  and  upset  under  a  steam-hammer  until 
its  height  is  reduced  and  its  diameter  enlarged.  After  a  hole  has  been  punched  in  its  center, 

the  ingot  is  then  placed  on  a  beak  or  pike-horn  and  ham- 
mered by  blows  struck  on  the  periphery.  It  is  then  again 
heated  and  placed  in  a  rolling  mill,  and  rolled  into  a  tire 
of  the  required  diameter.  In  Mr.  Munton's  process  he 
avoids  the  use  of  the  hammer  altogether,  and  in  elongating 
the  ingot,  or  bloom,  into  a  tire  he  densities  the  metal  on  the 
tread  and  increases  the  wear-resisting  properties  of  the 
steel. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  several  steps  taken  is  as  follows  : 
(1)  The  ingot  is  cast  with  a  hole  cored  out  large  enough  to 
admit  a  small  roll.  (2)  The  ingot  is  heated  and  taken  to 


FIG.  5. — Ingot  as  cast. 


the  rolling  mill,  where  its  top,  with  its  imperfections,  is  sheared  off  and  the  bloom  left  of 

a  given  weight.     At  the  same  heat,  and  by  the  same  operation,  the  bloom  is  also  roughed  out 

by  the  roughing  rolls  of  the  mill  and  edged 

down  by  horizontal  rolls.     (3)  The  bloom  is 

reheated  and  placed  in  the  tire  rolling  mill, 

where  it  is  rolled  and  finished  to  the  exact 

inside  and  outside  diameter  required.     Mr. 

Munton's  present  practice  is  to  cast  an  ingot 

large  enough  for  two  or  more  tire  blooms. 

He  uses  a  collapsible  steel  core.     The  steel  is 

produced  in  an  open-hearth  furnace  and  poured 

from  a  ladle  into  the  molds  over  a  spreader 

of  circular  form,  which  covers  the  core  and 

causes  the  steel  to  'flow  down  on  all  sides, 

keeping  any  dirt  in  it  flowing  and  thus  col- 

lecting at  the  top.     Fig.  5  shows  a  cross- 

section  of  an  ingot  as  first  cast,  before  slit- 


PIG.  6.— Ingot  and  slitting  rolls?. 


ting.  Fig.  6  shows  a  two-tire  ingot  partially  slit,  and  also  indicates  the  method  by  which 
the  slitting  is  done.  In  slitting,  two  upright  rolls  are  used.  One  roll  operates  upon  the 
inside  of  the  ingot,  as  shown  above,  while  the  other  roll  operates  on  the  outside.  The 
outside  roll  is  driven.  It  has  a  sharply  beveled  edge  as  a  top  cutter,  a  projecting  flange 
as  a  central  cutter,  and  a  bottom  flange  to  support  the  base  of  the  ingot.  Grooves  are 
formed  in  this  roll  at  suitable  places  to  partly  shape  the  tread  of  the  tires.  The  flanges  all 
extend  the  same  distance  outward  from  the  roll.  The  inside  roll  has  projecting  flanges  to 


ROLLS,  METAL   WORKING. 


747 


correspond  with  those  on  the  outside  roll,  but  shorter.     Fig.  7  shows  an  ingot  after  the  top 
has  been  sheared  off  and  the  remainder  cut  into  tire  blooms  ready  for  finishing.     In  Fig. 

8  a  perspective  view  of  the  mill  is  given.  It  consists  of 
an  exterior  fixed  vertical  pressure  roll  (which  also  operates 
as  the  slitter);  a  vertical  inner  pressure  roll,  with  horizontal 
movement  ;  two  vertical  exterior  pressure  rolls  with  hori- 
zontal movement  ;  and  two  horizontal  or  edging  rolls,  one 
above  and  the  other  below  the  bloom  operated  upon.  The 
upper  edging  roll  is  moved  vertically  by  the  edging  cylinder. 

This  mill  is  a  universal  mill,  which  can  be  used  for  rolling 

FIG.  7. -Ingot  cut  into  tire  blooms,  tires  or  rings  of  any  section  and  diameter  up  to  8ft.,  and 

rings  up  to  16  in.  wide.      The  vertical  exterior  pressure  or 

slitting  roll  and  the  lower  edging  roll  are  driven  by  steam-power.      The  engine  has  no  fly- 
wheels, being  built  on  the  reversing  principle,  so  as  to  start  or  stop  quickly.      The  movable 


\Jj — if — \\l 
(&*(*- — * ' — -^  MJft 


FIG.  8.— Munton's  tire  rolling  mill. 

rolls  are  operated  by  hydraulic  power,  controlled  by  valves  shown  in  the  foreground  of  the 
perspective  view.  Thus  the  edging,  interior,  or  exterior  rolls  may  either  or  all  be  brought 
into  play  upon  the 
tire  whenever  desired, 
either  simultaneously 
or  one  set  at  a  time, 
go  that  the  section  of 
the  tire,  its  size  and 
diameter,  are  always 
under  the  complete 
control  of  the  oper- 
ator, and  can  be  in- 
stantly changed  as  de- 
sired. 

(For  a  more  com- 
plete description  of 
the  Munton  mill,  see 
Engineering,  October 
17,  1890.) 

Rolling  Fluid  Met- 
al  into  Thin  Sheets. — 
In  1846  Sir  Henry 
Bessemer  made  some 
experiments  on  the 
manufacture  of  con- 
tinuous sheets  of  glass, 
by  passing  the  semi- 
fluid glass  from  a  bath 
between  a  pair  of  rolls. 
On  one  occasion  a 
sheet  of  glass  70  ft. 
long  and  oO  in.  wide  FIG.  9.— Rolling  fluid  metal, 

was  produced,  but  the 

method  was  never  brought  into  practical  use.     Ten  years  later,  by  somewhat  similar  means, 
he  produced  a  sheet  of  iron,  3  or  4  ft.  in  length  and  3}0  in.  thick,  pouring  the  liquid  metal 


748  ROLLS,   METAL   WORKING. 

onto  a  pair  of  rolls.  He  then  obtained  a  patent  on  the  process,  but  no  commercial  results 
followed.  Experiments  have  recently  been  made  in  the  United  States  on  the  same  process, 
with  such  a  degree  of  success  that  it  has  already  been  introduced  as  a  commercial  process. 
In  1891,  forty-five  years  after  his  original  experiments  with  glass,  Sir  Henry  Bessemer  read 
a  paper  before  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  of  Great  Britain,  describing  his  proposed  methods 
of  remedying  the  defects  of  his  first  apparatus.  From  this  paper  (see  Engineering,  October  9, 
1891),  we  abstract  the  following  : 

The  rolls, L  and  M,  Fig.  9,  consist  of  two  hollow  drums  through  which  a  tubular  steel  axis, 
N N,  passes,  and  conveys  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  for  keeping  the  rolls  cool.  The  brasses 
which  support  the  roll,  J/,  are  fixed,  while  those  which  support  the  roll,  L,  are  movable  in  a 
suitable  slide,  and  are  pressed  on  by  a  small  hydraulic  ram,  which  is  in  free  and  uninterrupted 
communication  with  an  accumulator,  so  that  at  any  time  should  the  feed  of  metal  be  in  excess, 
the  roll,  L,  will  move  back  and  prevent  any  undue  strain 
in  the  machinery,  the  only  result  being  a  slightly  increased 
thickness  at  that  part  of  the  sheet  of  metal,  a  defect 
which,  as  it  extends  parallel  across  the  whole  width  of 
the  sheet,  will  be  easily  corrected  in  the  next  rolling 
operation.  The  rolls  by  preference  may  be  made  3  ft.  or 
4  ft.  in  diameter,  each  having  a  flange  on  one  end  only, 
and  thus  form  a  trough  with  closed  ends  for  containing 
the  fluid  metal.  In  order  to  obtain  a  regular  and  quiet 
supply  of  metal,  I  employ  a  small  iron  box  or  reservoir,  FIG.  10.— Metal  reservoir. 

Fig.  10,  lined  with  plumbago  or  fire-clay;  along  the  bot- 
tom of  this  reservoir  some  10  or  20  small  holes  of  about  4  in.  in  diameter  are  neatly 
molded  by  a  row  of  conical  brass  pegs.  The  reservoir  is  provided  with  a  long  bar  or  handle 
at  each  end.  By  means  of  these  bars  the  reservoir  is  supported  on  the  side  frames,  the  bars 
falling  into  suitable  notches  made  in  the  roll  frame  for  that  purpose.  A  pair  of  rails,  Q,  are 
supported  on  the  roll  frames,  and  serve  for  the  conveyance  of  the  ladle,  R,  which  is  mounted 
on  wheels,  and  brings  the  metal  direct  to  the  rolls,  or  to  any  number  of  pairs  of  rolls  that 
may  be  placed  in  line.  The  ladle  is  provided  with  one  or  more  valves  or  stoppers  of  the  usual 
kind,  by  means  of  which  the  supply  of  metal  to  the  reservoir,  P,  may  be  easily  regulated  ;  the 
several  small  streams  from  the  reservoir  will  deliver  an  almost  constant  quantity  of  metal, 
varying  only  slightly  as  the  operator  regulates  the  head  of  metal  in  the  reservoir.  From  the 
smallness  of  the  head  of  metal  in  the  reservoir  the  several  streams  will  fall  quietly  without 
splashing.  These  streams  do  not  fall  direct  onto  the  rolls,  but  into  a  small  pool  formed 
between  the  thin  films  solidifying  against  the  cold  surface  of  the  rolls,  the  metal  at  all  times 
being  free  from  floating  slags.  The  speed  of  the  rolls  also  affords  a  means  of  regulating  the 
quantity  of  metal  retained  between  them  ;  and  as  a  pair  of  4-ft.  rolls  would  only  require  to 
make  about  four  revolutions  per  minute,  a  quick-running  engine  could  easily  be  provided 
with  differential  speed  gearing,  so  as  instantly  to  alter  the  speed  of  the  rolls  to  the  very  small 
extent  ever  required  during  the  rolling  process. 

The  thin  sheet  of  metal,  as  it  emerges  from  the  under  side  of  the  rolls,  is  received 
between  the  curved  guide  plates,  8  and  T,  to  the  latter  of  which  a  cutting  blade,  U, 
is  bolted.  Beneath  the  guide  plate,  S,  a  similar  cutting  blade  is  arranged  to  sud- 
denly move  forward  by  a  cam  and  cut  the  thin  sheet  in  two,  the  piece  so  cut  afterward 
passing  between  the  second  pair  of  rolls,  V  V,  from  which  it  again  descends  by  gravity, 
and  passes  between  the  third  pair  of  rolls,  W  W,  and  is  delivered  onto  a  horizontal 
table  ;  or  it  may  be  allowed  to  slide  down  the  inclined  end  of  a  cistern  of  water,  and  moved 
slowly  forward.  By  these  means  it  will  be  possible  to  cool  and  stack  a  ton  of  plates  without 
any  labor  or  trouble.  The  thickness  of  plates  capable  of  being  produced  will  much  depend 
on  the  size  of  the  rolls  ;  if  drums  of  10  ft.  or  12  ft.  in  diameter  are  employed,  it  is  probable 
that  plates  of  f  in.  in  thickness  could  be  produced,  or,  perhaps,  even  thicker.  The  central 
space  between  drums  of  such  large  diameter  would  represent  a  sort  of  plate  ingot  mold  with 
nearly  parallel  sides  for  some  8  in.  or  10  in.  in  depth.  With  reference  to  speed  of  produc- 
tion, let  us  assume  the  mill  to  be  fitted  with  a  pair  of  4-ft.  diameter  rolls,  18  in.  wide,  and 
making  four  revolutions  per  minute,  and  set  to  produce  a  sheet  having  an  initial  thickness  of 
f0  in. ,  and  rolled  by  the  third  pair  to  ^  in. ;  we  should  thus  have  a  surface  velocity  of  the 
first  pair  of  rolls  equal  to  50  ft.  per  minute,  and  making,  when  finished,  100  plates  18  in.  by 
12  in,,  ^  in,  thick,  and  weighing  300  pounds,  or  equal  to  a  production  of  one  ton  of  plates 
in  seven  and  a  half  minutes.  Hence  it  becomes  a  question  which  is  the  least  costly  mode  of 
dealing  with  a  ladleful  of  fluid  steel,  forming  it  into  massive  ingots  in  molds,  or  making  it 
into  thin  sheets  in  the  manner  proposed. 

It  appears  from  Sir  Henry  Bessemer's  paper,  above  quoted,  that  he  did  nothing  to  develop 
the  process  after  his  experiments  in  1856  for  over  thirty  years,  nor  until  he  had  learned  that 
success  had  been  reached  in  America  in  the  same  direction.  Meanwhile,  Mr.  Edwin  Norton, 
vice-president  of  Norton  Brothers,  Incorporated,  of  Chicago,  manufacturers  of  tin-plate  and 
tinware  (see  the  presidential  address  of  Robert  W.  Hunt,  before  the  American  Society  of  Me- 
chanical Engineers  in  November,  1891),  had  been  experimenting  for  some  years  on  the  process, 
and  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  J.  G.  Hodgson,  had  obtained  various  American  and 
foreign  patents.  (Apparatus  for  making  sheet  metal,  Nos.  382,319  and  382,321,  May  8, 
1888;  No.  406,945,  July  16,  1889.  Apparatus  for  manufacturing  railroad  rails,  No.  406.944, 
same  date.  Manufacture  of  metal  bars  or  rails.  No.  406,946,  same  date.)  As  sheet  rolling 
mills  under  these  patents  are  now  working  commercially  at  Whitestone,  Long  Island, 


ROLLS,  METAL   WORKING. 


749 


N.  Y. ;  Chicago,  III.;  and  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  it  appears  that  to  Mr.  Norton  is  due  the 
credit  of  the  successful  introduction  of  the  process  of  rolling  sheets,  bars,  etc.,  from  fluid 
metal,  the  first  experiments  on  which  were  made  over  forty  years  before  by  Mr.  Bessemer, 
just  as  Mr.  Bessemer  is  entitled  to  the  credit  of  the  successful  introduction  of  the  Bessemer 
process,  although  William  Kelly,  an  American,  had  experimented  with  and  obtained  patents 
upon  it  before  Bessemer. 

We  illustrate  herewith  the  process  patented  by  Messrs.  Norton  and  Hodgson  for  rolling  rails 
and  shapes.  The  underlying  principle  is  to  subject  the  molten  metal  to  pressure  between  rolls, 
the  conformation  of  the  first  rolls  being  such  as  to  compress  the  flowing  metal  into  very  nearly 
the  shape  of  the  finished  form  ;  subsequent  rolling  is  continuous,  and  in  a  direction  to  bring 


PIG.  13.  PIG.  14. 

Norton's  process  of  rolling  fluid  metal. 

to  exact  size,  and  to  further  compress  the  metal  ;  also  the  speed  of  the  rolls  is  such  as  to  pre- 
vent, damming  of  the  metal  ;  that  is,  the  speed  is  such  as  to  provide  for  a  continuous  stream 
of  practically  a  constant  cross-section.  It  will  be  understood  that  there  is  very  slight  press- 
ure on  the  initial  rolls  ;  these  rolls  are  kept  cool  by  interior  water  circulation.  In  the 
engravings.  Fig.  11  is  a  plan  view  of  the  apparatus  devised,  and  Figs.  12,  13,  and  14 
are,  respectively,  a  central  horizontal  section  through  the  axes  of  the  rolls,  a  vertical  sec- 
tion on  o,*5,  of  Fig.  11,  and  a  side  elevation  partly  in  section.  The  first  rolls — in  this 
instance  four  in  number — are  formed  at  their  peripheries  so  as  to  present  a  space  between 
them  similar  to  the  section  of  an  ordinary  rail.  Directly  over  these  rolls  the  molten  metal 
passes  to  the  rolls  through  the  spout  or  channel.  The  following  description  is  taken  from  the 
patent  specifications  :  As  indicated  in  Figs.  11, 12, 13,  and  14  of  the  drawings,  the  working  or 


750 


ROPE-MAKING   MACHINERY. 


meeting  faces  or  peripheries  of  the  rolls,  B,  are  given  a  shape  or  configuration  to  form  an 
ordinary  railroad  rail.  They  may,  however,  be  shaped  to  give  the  space  or  passage,  b,  any 
desired  cross-section,  and  thus  produce  a  bar  of  any  form  required.  The  rolls,  B,  have  beveled 
faces,  b',  which  meet  or  roll  against  each  other,  and  serve  as  stops  for  the  several  rolls  against 
each  other,  so  that  the  space  or  passage,  6,  for  the  metal  will  always  be  maintained  of  a 
uniform  size,  and  thus  produce  the  rail  or  bar  of  a  uniform  cross-section  throughout.  The 
rolls,  B,  are  each  made  hollow,  and  preferably  with  a  central  web,  B',  and  the  shafts,  B*,  are 
also  made  hollow,  so  that  the  water  or  other  cooling  fluid  or  liquid  may  be  made  to  circulate 
through  each  of  the  rolls  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  them  cool  or  of  the  desired  temperature. 
The  hollow  shafts,  B2,  are  each  furnished  with  a  packing  or  stuffing-box,  d,  at  each  end,  by 
which  they  are  connected  with  the  inlet  and  outlet  water  pipes,  D  I)'.  The  pouring  bowl  or 
vessel,  C,  is  supported  by  any  suitable  means  above  the  rolls,  B,  during  the  pouring  operation, 
preferably  by  standards,  C' ,  furnished  with  adjusting  screws,  (72.  The  pouring  nozzle,  C,  is 
preferably  furnished  with  a  valve  or  device,  c,  for  opening  and  closing  the  discharge  passage. 
The  hollow  shafts,  B2,  of  the  rolls  are  all  geared  together,  so  that  they  revolve  or  roll  together 
at  the  same  surface  speed.  The  gearing  employed  may  preferably  be  bevel  gears,  such  as 
indicated  at  B3.  Two  of  the  shafts,  B2,  are  also  geared  together  by  spur  gears,  B*.  E  is 
the  driving  shaft,  having  a  gear,  E' ,  which  meshes  with  a  gear,  E*,  on  one  of  the  shafts,  B2. 
The  pouring  bowl  ornozzle,  C,  is  furnished  with  a  guide  or  shield,  Cs,  extending  down  to  near 
the  meeting  point  of  the  rolls.  This  is  designed  to  prevent  the  metal  from  splattering  at  the 
beginning  of  the  pouring  operation.  A  greater  or  less  number  of  rolls  than  four  may  be 
employed.  F  represents  a  second  scries  of  rolls,  arranged  preferably  directly  below  the 
chilling  rolls,  B,  and  between  which  the  bar,  x,  passes  as  it  issues  from  the  chilling  rolls,  B. 
The  series  of  rolls,  F,  are  preferably  of  the  same  form  and  construction  as  the  rolls,  B,  being 
hollow  and  having  the  same  connections  for  passing  water  through  them,  so  that  they  may 
operate  as  chilling  rolls  as  well  as  to  further  roll,  compress,  and  finish  the  rail  or  bar  pro- 
duced. The  rolls,  F,  may,  however,  be  of  any  ordinary  or  known  construction.  The  series  of 
rolls,  F,  is  preferably  like  the  series,  B,  composed  of  four  rolls  revolving  together.  G  is  a 
curved  guide  or  conveyer,  consisting  preferably  of  a  series  of  rolls  or  idle  pulley  wheels, 
arranged  in  a  curved  path  to  curve  and  guide  the  bar  as  it  issues  from  the  rolls,  F,  to  the 
horizontal  conveyer  or  series  of  rolls,  H.  Some  of  the  roils,  H,  are  preferably  driven  and 
operated  to  further  roll  and  straighten  the  rail  or  bar,  as  well  as  to  convey  it  along  or  away. 
The  curved  guide,  O,  also  affords  some  slack  in  the  rail  or  bar  between  the  chilling  rolls  and 
rolls,  H  H,  to  compensate  for  difference  in  speed  or  slipping. 

Rope  Driving  :  see  Belts  and  Cranes. 

ROTE-MAKINGr  MACHINERY.  HEMP  ROPE.— Preparation  machinery  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes  :  the  drawing  or  single-chain  machine,  and  the  heckling  or  double-chain 


FIG.  1. — Hemp-drawing  machine. 


machine.  A  chain  is  an  endless  combination  of  bars  linked  together,  the  distance  between  each 
two  bars  being  equal.  The  bars  are  of  iron,  round  or  square,  varying  in  size  from  \  in.  to  H 
in.,  and  are  studded  with  pins  which  vary  in  length,  thickness,  and  distance  in  about  the 
same  relative  proportions  as  the  bars.  The  heavier  the  bar,  the  coarser  the  pin.  and  vice 
versa;  being  largest  at  the  beginning  of  the  preparation,  and  decreasing  in  size  on  each  suc- 
cessive working  machine.  At  each  end  of  a  bar  is  a  "  dog,"  which  is  moved  through  guide 
bars,  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  machine,  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  the  pins  in  a  vertical 


ROPE-MAKING   MACHINERY. 


751 


position.      The  chains  are  moved  by  means  of  a  carrier-wheel,  consisting  of  from  five  to 

ten  pinions,  the  distance  between  each, 
or  width  of  the  pinions,  being  equal  to 
the  distance  between  the  bars.  The 
carrier-wheel  is  connected  to  the  mo- 
tive power  by  gearing,  thus  permitting 
changes  to  be  made  in  the  speed  of  the 
chain. 

The  single-chain  machine,  Fig.  1, 
consists  of  a  chain  and  a  pair  of  fluted 
iron  rollers,  placed  close  to  one  end  of 
the  chain.  The  rollers,  or  drawing 
rolls,  as  they  are  called,  have  a  speed  of 
from  four  to  six  times  that  of  the 
chain,  and  in  consequence  draw  the 
body  of  hemp  which  is  on  the  chain 
into  a  sliver  four  or  six  times  the  orig- 
inal length.  The  term,  head  of  a  ma- 
chine, refers  to  the  end  having  the 
drawing  rollers. 

The  second  class  of  preparation  ma- 
chines, Fig.  2,  is  heavier  and  stronger 
than  the  machines  described. 

In  addition  to  the  chain  and  drawing 
rolls  of  the  first  class,  these  machines  pos- 
sess a  second  chain,  moving  at  from  one- 
sixth  to  one-tenth  the  speed  of  the  front 
or  fast  chain,  the  chain  nearest  the 
head  of  the  machine.  These  two  chains, 
one  moving  six  or  ten  times  faster  than 
the  other,  heckle  or  comb  the  hemp, 
forming  it  into  a  sliver  made  up  of  the 
hemp  fibers,  all  extending  in  the  same 
direction. 

We  are  now  ready  to  understand  the 
preparation  of  the  hemp  for  the  pur- 
pose of  spinning.  The  process  of  prepar- 
ing and  spinning  Manila,  Sisal, Russian, 
and  American  hemp  is  substantially  the 
same.  The  hemp  is  received  in  tightly 
compressed  bales,  which  are  opened,  and 
each  bundle  or  sheave  untied  and  shaken 
by  hand.  It  is  then  passed  through  a 
softening  machine,  consisting  of  from 
six  to  ten  pairs  of  heavy  fluted  iron  roll- 
ers. An  oil  sprinkler  at  the  head  of 
this  machine  enables  the  operator  to 
distribute  over  the  hemp  a  quantity  of 
oil  varying  according  to  the  kind  of 
hemp,  as  well  as  to  the  use  to  which 
the  yarn  or  rope  is  to  be  put.  The 


i   i 


1    J    i. 


o    o     o     o 


0000 

FIG,  3.— Arrangement  of  a  set  of  hemp  machines, 
is  softened,  the  fibers  separated,  and,  in  the  case  of  Sisal,  is  ready  for  the  heckling 


752 


ROPE-MAKESTG   MACHINERY. 


©=• 


o=- 


and  combing  process.  In  the  case  of  Manila,  owing  to  the  fineness  and  softness  of  the  hemp 
at  the  top  or  seed  end,  the  fibers  are  not  separated,  but  are  bunched 
together  into  a  towy  mass.  In  order  to  separate  the  fiber  and  re- 
move the  tow,  an  operation  termed  scutching  is  introduced.  A  $ 
bunch  of  hemp  is  seized  at  the  middle  of  its  length,  and  the  seed  or  £^iij^ 
top  end  thrown  against  the  rim  of  a  swiftly  revolving  cylinder.  ^Hjl^ 
The  rim  of  this  cylinder  is  thickly  studded  with  steel  pins  or  blades  ,// 
about  4  in.  long.  Being  held  so  that  the  seed  end  comes  in  contact  ,j» 
with  the  rapidly-moving  pins,  the  hemp  is  teased  out,  the  fibers  <;• 
are  straightened,  and  the  tow  removed  from  the  hemp,  and  thrown 
from  the  cylinders  by  centrifugal  force.  The  hemp  is  sent  to  the  si 
breaker,  Fig.  2,  a  machine  of  the  second  class,  on  the  slow  chain  of 
which  it  is  fed,  and  firmly  held  by  the  pins  which  pass  through  it. 
In  front  of  the  slow  chain  is  the  fast  chain,  the  relative  speeds  being 
about  as  10  to  1.  The  hemp  being  firmly  embedded  on  the  slow 
chain,  and  the  pins  of  the  fast  chain  passing  through  each  portion 
of  the  hemp  as  presented,  the  fiber  is  straightened  out,  and  in  each 
revolution  of  the  fast  chain  a  body  of  hemp  is  drawn  into  a  sliver  of 
ten  times  the  original  length.  Naturally,  this  sliver  is  not  even  or 
uniform  throughout  its  length,  due  in  most  cases  to  irregular  feed- 
ing, unequal  softening  of  the  hemp,  and  to  riding  over  the  pins  on 
the  fast  chain.  To  correct  the  inequalities,  6  or  8  slivers  are  fed 
on  the  slow  chain  of  a  second  breaker,  which  operation  further 
completes  the  separation  and  straightening  of  the  fiber,  and  at  the 
same  time  makes  the  sliver  more  uniform  throughout  its  length. 
The  subsequent  operations  are  essentially  the  same  as  described 
above  ;  6,  8,  or  10  slivers  are  placed  behind  spreaders,  Fig.  2, 
consisting  of  a  slow  and  a  fast  chain.  The  bars  in  these  chains  are 
in  each  successive  working  brought  closer  together,  and  also  the  pins 
are  finer,  and  the  distance  between  each  two  bars  or  pins  made 
smaller  in  each  case.  Sisal  receives  from  5  to  8,  and  Manila 
from  4  to  6  workings  on  the  double-chain  machines.  The  sliver 
is  then  considered  sufficiently  even  and  the  fibers  soft  and  elastic. 
A  number  of  such  slivers  are  placed  back  of  a  drawing  frame  or 
single-chain  machine,  Fig.  1,  to  be  drawn  to  a  size  which  will  admit 
of  its  being  spun  into  yarn  or  thread  of  from  300  to  600  ft.  to  1 
Ib,  The  drawing  frame,  Fig.  1,  is  made  up  of  a  chain  studded  with 
fine  pins,  and  in  place  of  a  fast  chain  is  a  pair  of  fluted  iron  rollers, 
with  a  speed  of  four  or  five  times  that  of  the  chain.  This  difference  in 
speed  will  reduce  the  slivers  to  one-fourth  or  one-fifth  the  original 
size  by  drawing  them  to  a  single  sliver  four  or  five  times  the  original 
length.  After  one  or  two  workings  on  the  drawing  frames,  the 
sliver  is  ready  for  the  spinning  or  jenny  room,  where  it  is  spun  or 
twisted  into  yarn  of  any  desired  size. 

The  diagram,  Fig.  3,  shows  the  usual  arrangement  of  the  various 
machines  making  up  a  "set."  The  capacity  of  this  set  is  from 
12,000  to  15,000  Ibs.  per  day. 

The  main  defects  of  this  system  are  the  tendency  of  the  fiber  to 
ride  over  the  pins  of  the  fast  chain  (which  is  natural,  on  account  of 
the  speed  of  this  chains,  and  in  the  space  between  the  last  pin  in  the 
detaining  chain  and  the  first  on  the  fast,  or  combing  chain,  which  ^@ 

is  of  necessity  so  great  as  to  let  a  portion  of  the  stock  go  from  one  ^"^ 

to  the  other  without    being    cleaned,  combed,  and  straightened.  Jlf^f 

These  defects  cause  an  amount  of  raw  or  unworked  hemp  to  show  3S^1 

in  the  sliver,  and  render  the  number  of  successive  operations  neces- 
sary to  repair  this  fault.  2!***© 

The  machinery,  as  described  and  illustrated  above,  is  the  type  in  dl^ 

general  use  throughout  the  United  States.  iS^ 

Fig.  4  shows  the  style  of  chain  used  in  foreign  preparation  .^^^ 

machinery.     The  great  difference  between  these  machines  and  those  'Jl^t 

previously  described  is  in  the  mode  of  drawing  the  bars  or  gills.    As  ^^ 

we  have  seen,  in  the  former  machines  the  bars  are  driven  by  a  carrier-  3i 

wheel,  but  the  bars  in  this  machine  are  driven  by  a  horizontal  screw,  ^ijgff 

which  forces  the  pins  in  and  out  of  the  fiber  at"  right  angles.     The  \HflP 

front  chain  in  this  machine  consists  of  two  sets  of  bars,  one  above  the  ^jjijljii 

other,  shown  by  Fig.  4,  producing  an  absolute  certainty  of  action,  as  ^9* 

the  pins  i'i  the  bars  intersect  and  prevent  any  possibility  of  the  fibers 
riding  over  the  points  of  the  pins.     And  on  account  of  the  intersect- 
ing bars  there  are  twice  the  number  of  pins  in  action  at  the  same  time  as  would  be  in  the 
case  of  the  machine  shown  in  Fig.  8.     The  action  of  this  machine  is,  therefore,  much  better 
than  that  of  the  former  set.     There  still  remains  the  fault  due  to  the  distance  between  the 
chains, 

The  latest  form  of  preparation  machine  invented  by  A.  W.  Montgomery,  New  York,  is 


ROPE-MAKING   MACHINERY. 


753 


shown  in  Fig  5.     It  embraces  the  advantages  of  the  old  lapper  system,  and  of  the  Good  or 
two-chain  system.     This  machine  consists  of  the  detaining  roller,  with  withdrawing  pins  of 


\    t 


FIG.  5. — Montgomery  breaker. 

the  former,  close  in  front  of  which  is  the  fast  chain  of  the  latter  system.  In  this  machine  the 
distance  between  the  detaining  pin  and  combing  pin  is  only  6  or  7  in.  Hence  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  fiber  escapes  the  heckling  action  in  the  first  working  through  the  machine, 

and  is  pretty  sure  to  be  thoroughly 

cleaned  and  straightened  the  second 

..-••-..  time  through.     The  chain  takes  the 

,''""'•,      \          s--— t t —  hemp  from  the  cylinder,  on  a  line 

4  »        *       _/_     _il  V  '-      .  ""•.    \        tangent  to   the  detaining  cylinder, 

thus  forcing  the  hemp  firmly  be- 
tween the  pins  and  on  the  bars.  The 
draw  at  this  point  is  nearly  constant. 
Immediately  in  front  of  the  chain 
are  the  drawing  rollers,  which,  draw- 
ing the  hemp  in  about  the  proportion 
of  one  to  one  and  one-half,  forms  it 
into  a  compact  sliver.  Five  workings 
on  this  system  accomplish  the  work 
done  by  the  system  represented  above. 
Four  workings  on  machines  similar 
to  Fig.  5,  and  one  drawing,  fits  the 
sliver  for  the  spinning-room.  The 

capacity  of  this  system  is  from  18,000  to  25.000  Ibs.  per  day.  The  arrangement  of  a 
"set"  is  shown  by  Fig.  6.  The  jenny,  illustrated  by  Fig.  7,  consists  of  a  slow-moving 


O     O    C     O    O 


FIG.  6.— Arrangement,  Montgomery  system. 


FIG.  7.— Hemp  spinning-jenny. 

chain,  in  front  of  which  is  the  flier  containing  a  pair  of  capstan  wheels.     Each  revolution  of 
the  flier  causes  the  capstan  wheels  to  draw  in  a  certain  uniform  amount  of  sliver.     Lach 
48 


754  ROPE-MAKING   MACHINERY. 

revolution  of  the  flier  puts  one  turn  into  the  hemp  drawn  through,  forming  it  into  a  thread  ; 
and  at  the  same  time  winds  an  equal  amount  of  spun  yarn  on  the  bobbin,  which  holds  about 
15  Ibs.  The  bobbins  are  sent  to  the  rope-walk  or  rope-machine  room  to  be  made  into  rope. 
Rope  of  a  diameter  of  £  in.  or  less  is  made  on  rope  machines,  Figs.  8  and  9.  That  of  larger 


determines  the  number  of  threads  necessary  to  make  it.  One-third  this  number  are  twisted 
together  into  a  strand  when  a  hawser-laid  rope  is  wanted,  and  one-fourth  when  a  shroud- 
laid  rope  is  required.  Either  the  three  or  four  strands,  as  the  case  may  be,  are  in  turn 
twisted  together  to  form  a  rope.  The  two  operations  are  performed  at  the  same  time  on 
some  rope  machines,  but  separately  on  others  and  in  the  rope-walk.  A  description  of  the 
rope- walk  process  will  suffice  for  both.  In  the  rope- walk  the  bobbins  are  mounted  upon  a 
rack  ;  the  requisite  number  of  threads  to  make  a  strand  are  passed  through  the  same  num- 
ber of  holes  in  a  perforated  plate  to  and  through  a  trumpet-shaped  tube,  and  fastened  to  a 
hook  on  the  forming  machine.  This  hook  can  be  geared*  to  revolve  a  definite  number  of 
times  per  each  foot  of  travel  of  the  ' '  former  ;  "  in  this  way  a  regular  amount  of  turn  is  put 
into  the  strand.  The  turn  varies  with  the  size  of  the  strand,  more  turn  being  required  in 
the  small  than  in  the  large  sizes.  The  length  of  the  track  limits  the  travel  of  the  "  former  " 
and  the  length  of  the  strand.  Six  strands  are  usually  made  at  one  time.  As  many  strands 
as  are  required  for  the  rope  are  stretched  at  full  length  along  the  walk,  and  attached  at  each 
end  to  hooks  on  the  laying  machines — the  foreboard,  being  at  one  end,  is  stationary,  and  the 


FIG.  8. — Strand-forming  machine. 

traveller  at  the  other  moves  up  and  down  the  walk.  The  hooks  of  both  machines  are  set 
revolving,  continuing  the  •'  foreturn  "  placed  in  the  strand  during  the  forming  process. 
Why  this  step  is  necessary  has  been  explained.  At  one  of  the  "laying0  machines,  each 
strand  is  in  turn  removed  from  its  hook  and  laid  in  one  of  three  equidistant  concentric 
grooves  of  a  cone-shaped  block  called  a  "top,"  and  then  fastened  together  on  the  center 
hook  of  the  machine.  The  hooks  of  the  two  machines  are  now  set  revolving,  the  direction 
of  turn  at  one  end  being  the  opposite  of  that  at  the  other  end.  As  a  consequence,  being 
fastened  at  one  end  to  one  hook,  and  at  the  other  end  to  three  hooks,  the  strands  turn  or 
twist  on  themselves  at  the  end  where  there  is  one  hook.  As  the  twist  is  communicated  to 
the  strands  between  the  single  hook  and  the  "top,"  the  latter  is  pushed  forward,  leaving 
the  laid  rope  behind  it.  Care  must  be  exercised  in  guiding  the  block,  for  on  its  uniform 
motion  depends  the  firmness  of  the  rope,  as  well  as  the  regular  and  uniform  character  of 
its  "Jay." 

Trautwine  says  :  "  The  tarring  of  ropes  is  said  to  lessen  their  strength,  and  when  exposed 
to  the  weather,  their  durability  also.  We  believe  that  the  use  of  it  in  standing  rigging  is 
partly  to  diminish  contraction  and  expansion  by  alternate  wet  and  dry  weather."  Haswell 
speaks  of  tarred  ropes  being  25  per  cent,  weaker  than  white  or  untarred  ropes.  Russian 
hemp  rope  agrees  with  the  conclusion  laid  down  by  both  writers  ;  but  the  Manila  and  Sisal 
hemp  ropes  were  not  affected  at  all  in  strength,  although  20  per  cent,  of  tar  was  added. 
The  loss  in  strength  was  due  to  the  tarring  process.  The  ropes  were  formerly  passed 
through  a  tar  bath  of  a  temperature  of  from  210°  to  240°  F,  This  temperature,  being 
sufficient  to  singe  off  the  hairs  or  stray  fiber  usually  appearing  on  the  surface  of  a  rope, 


ROPE-MAKING   MACHINERY. 


755 


was  high  enough  to  cause  it  to  crisp,  and  hence  by  impairing  the  elasticity  and  stretch  of 
the  rope,  cause  it  to  break  at  from  20  to  35  per  cent,  less  weight  than  before  it  was  tarred. 
By  the  use  of  the  Montgomery  tarring  process,  the  necessity  for  the  high  temperature 
of  the  tar  bath  is  avoided,  and  the  rope  is  treated  to  a  bath  at  14'»°  to  150°  F.  Rope  so 
treated  is  uniformly  tarred,  and  at  least  maintains,  if  it  does  not  improve,  its  strength. 
This  process  liquefies  but  does  not  evaporate  the  tar,  as  happens  when  the  tar  is  heated 
to  and  maintained  at  a  high  temperature.  The  light  oils,  and  even  the  carbolic  oils,  of 
tar  will  be  driven  off  at  the  temperature  of  250°,  and  in  a  short  time  there  would  be 
nothing  left  but  hard  pitch.  Rope  tarred  with  such  a  substance  will  immediately  upon  its 
removal  from  the  bath  become  hard  and  stiff,  while  for  actual  use  tarred  rope  should  be  soft 
and  pliable.  In  the  latter  case  the  life  of  the  tarred  rope  is  equal  to,  if  not  greater  than,  of  a 


FIG.  9.— Rope-laying  machine. 

white  rope  of  the  same  size  ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  amount  of  expansion  and  contraction 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Russian  and  American  hemp,  being  soft  and  spongy  in  their 
nature,  absorb  the  tar,  swelling  the  fiber,  and  consequently  lessening  its  stretch.  With 
the  hard  and  wiry  fiber  of  Manila  and  Sisal,  oh  the  other  hand,  the  tar  remains  upon  the 
outside,  acting  as  a  preservative  against  the  weather.  A  peculiarity  about  tarred  ropes  is 
that  the  three  strands  are  liable  to  break  at  one  time.  In  the  case  of  white  rope,  one  strand 
breaks  while  the  remaining  two  set  themselves,  and  will  stand  nearly  seven-ninths,  instead 
of  two  thirds,  the  strain  which  caused  the  first  strand  to  part.  In  practice  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  breaks  occur  at  the  splices,  caused  probably  by  the  sawing  of  a  strand  on  its  neighbor. 
The  more  turn  or  harder  laid  the  rope,  the  stronger  it  is.  This,  however,  is  true  only  up 
to  a  certain  limit,  as  excessive  turn  would  of  itself  cut  the  rope.  "  Hard  "  turn  ropes  were 
found  to  be  fully  10  per  cent,  stronger  than  ordinary  turn  ropes. 

Recent  tests  made  at  the  Water-town  Arsenal,  to'determine  the  breaking  strain  of  Manila 
rope,  gave  as  the  strength  per  square  inch  of  section  9,-500  Ibs.,  when  the  rope  was  clear  of 
splices,  and  7,000  Ibs.  when  spliced. 

WIRE-ROPE  MACHINES. — Lang's  Laid  Rope. — In  the  construction  of  roping  known  as 
"the  Lang  lay,"  the  wires  forming  the  strands,  and  the  strands  comprising  the  rope,  are 
all  laid  in  the  same  direction.  Upon  comparing  the  two  illustrations,  Figs.  10  and  11,  the 

difference  between  an  ordinary  rope  and  one  accord- 
ing to  the  last-mentioned  construction  will  be  readily 
apparent.  In  Fig.  11,  it  will  be  noticed  that  both  the 
wires  composing  the  strands  and  the  strands  form  ing 
the  rope  are  laid  in  a  right-hand  direction,  and,  con- 
sequently, the 
component 
wires  follow  a 
An  advantage  of 


FIG.  10. — Ordinary  rope. 

dextral  spiral  axially  to  the  rope, 
this  construction    is  "that  a  longer  continuous    sur- 
face of  any  wire  is  exposed  to  wear,  and  the  crowns 
of  the  strands  are  less  pronounced;  therefore,  whilst  FIG.  11.— Lang's  rope, 

more  uniform  wear  is   promoted,   the  cutting  ten- 
dency of  the  wires  is  reduced,  and  the  durability  of  the   rope  correspondingly  increased. 
Latch  and  Bachelor's  Locked-coil  Rope.—  The  principle  incorporated  in  this  manufacture 


756 


ROPE-MAKING  MACHINERY. 


consists  in  the  employment  of  various  suitably  shaped  wires,  which,  when  closed  together, 
interlock  and  present  a  structure  with  a  uniform  wearing  surface,  in  which  each  component 
wire  is  permanently  held  in  its  proper  normal  position.  The  transverse  section,  Fig.  1 2, 
shows  a  rope  composed  of  an  ordinary  wire  core,  around  which  a  series 
of  cylindrical  and  radial  wires  are  closed,  followed  by  an  outside  shell  of 
sectional  wires,  which  are  locked  or  held  down  in  position.  The  various 
succeeding  layers  of  wires  are  laid  in  alternate  directions — i.e.,  one  to  the 
right  hand  and  the  next  to  the  left,  and  soon,  as  in  tho  manufacture  of 
some  compound  strands  previously  referred  to. 

The  modern  type  cf  wire-stranding  and  rope-dosing  machinery  is 
shown  in  Figs.  13  and  14.  The  selected  wires  of  requisite  gauge  are  con- 
tained or  coiled  upon  the  bobbins  shown,  or  mounted  in  the  "flyers," 
carried  by  the  circular  frame,  which  is  fixed  to  a  horizontal  shaft  mounted 
in  bearings,  so  as  to  be  free  to  revolve  through  the  intervention  of  appro- 
priate gearing.  The  outer  ends  of  the  wires  are  passed  through  apertures  provided  in  the 
annular  framing  and  nozzle  plate  running  in  the  headstock  bearing,  and  thence  are  carried 
through  the  fixed  closing  block  or  die — shown  closed  by  means  of  the  weighted  lever — to  the 


FIG.  12.— Wire  rope 
section. 


FIG.  13.— Wire-stranding  machine. 

draw-off  drums.  The  hempen  or  wire  core  is  drawn  in  centrally  from  the  back  of  the  machine 
through  the  tubular  horizontal  shaft,  and  as  the  machine  revolves  and  draws  in  the  core,  the 
wires  are  twisted  spirally  round  the  same.  The  tandem  grouping  or  arrangement  of  the  bob- 


FIG.  14. — Wire-rope  closing  machine. 


bins  is  worthy  of  notice,  and  consequent  easy  angle  at  which  the  wires  are  concentrated  at  the 
nozzle  plate,  and  drawn  through  the  closing  die.  In  this  manner  the  strands  are  twisted  up 
without  bending  or  straining  the  component  wires,  whilst  any  undue  slack  arising  from  any 


ROUTING   MACHINES. 


unequal  running  of  the  bobbins  is  ingeniously  pushed  back  from  the  aforesaid  die.  The 
bobbins  mounted  in  the  flyers,  or  fork-shaped  frames,  are  controlled  by  an  eccentric  motion 
at  the  back  of  the  machine,  as  shown  in  the  closing  machine,  Fig.  14,  so  that  whilst  the 
circular  carrying  frame  revolves,  they  are  always  maintained  in  a  vertical  attitude,  in  order 
to  prevent  any  individual  twisting  of  the  wires.  Each  bobbin  is  mounted  on  an  independent 
transverse  axis,  and  provided  with  a  tension  band  and  adjusting  screw,  so  that  they  may  be 
set  to  pay  the  wire  out  uniformly.  The  draw-off  drum  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  machine 
is  driven  by  a  train  of  gearing  actuated  by  a  spur-wheel  fixed  on  the  revolving  portion  of  the 
machine,  and  proportioned  to  drive  the  said  drum  at  a  determined  peripheral  speed,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  required  length  of  lay  in  the  strand.  In  other  words,  as  the  revolving  portion  of 
the  machine  makes  one  complete  revolution,  the  draw-off  drum  receives  an  angular  move- 
ment, dependent  upon  the  proportion  of  lay  desired,  the  variation  of  lays  being  obtained  by  the 
employment  of  "change  wheels."  The  finished  strands  are  wound  upon  reels  or  bobbins,  and 
are  afterward  placed  in  the  flyers  of  the  closing  or  rope-making  machines,  such  as  repre- 
sented at  Fig.  14,  before  referred  to.  This  only  differs  from  the  stranding  machine 
explained  inasmuch  that  the  bobbins  are  usually  confined  to  six  in  number,  and  that  they 
are  loaded  with  strands  in  lieu  of  wires.  Closing  machines  are,  however,  run  at  lower  speeds 
— e.g.,  from  30  to  50  revolutions  per  minute — whilst  those  for  stranding  are  run  up  to  from 
75  to  150  revolutions,  and  some  even  up  to  300  revolutions  per  minute. 

Roughing*  Frame  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machines. 

Routing  Machine  :  see  Boring 
Machines  and  Carving  Machines. 

Rounding  and  Straightening 
Machines  :  see  Iron-working  Ma- 
chinery. 

ROUTING  MACHINES.  A 
routing  machine  may  be  used  for 
carving  or  for  working  away  the 
spaces  between  raised  portions  of 
relief-engraving  blocks,  or  for 
gaining.  A  species  of  gaining  is 
string-routing,  or  letting  in  the 
risers  and  treads  of  steps. 

The     string-routing    machine 
shown   in   Fig.  1    is  made  by  P. 
Pryibil  of  New  York  City.    There 
are  two  swinging  arms  swiveled  to 
each  other,  and  to  a  bracket  fast- 
ened to  a  post  on  the  wall.     The 
end  of  the  second  or  outer  joint  of 
the  arm  carries  a  dove-tail  cutter, 
and  can  be  moved  freely  in  any 
direction  by  two  handles  fastened 
to  the  two  arms.     The  arms  are 
hollow  to  give  lightness  and  stiff- 
ness, and  the  swivel  bearings  are 
very  long.     There  is  a  vertical  ad 
justment     to     regulate 
the  depth   of  cut,    and 
an  adjustable  step.    The 
machine    is    used   with 
forms    made    of    three 
thicknesses     of    hard 
wood     glued     together, 
with    the    grain    cross- 
ing.    To  use  them  and 
the  machine  the  string 
piece     is     marked    out 
in    the  usual    manner, 
and  laid  on  the  table  of 
the  machine  ;  tne  form 
is    placed    thereon  and 
fastened   to  it   by    two 
clamping   screws.     The 
cutter    is  then   fed  in, 
guided  by  the  form,  and 
cuts  out  the  material  to 
form    the    riser,    tread, 
nose,  and  wedges.     The 
same   form   produces 
both  right  and  left-hand 
runs. 


FIG.  1.— The  Pryibil  string-routing  machine. 


Roving1  Frame :  see  Cotton -spinning  Machinery. 


758 


SAFES   AND   VAULTS. 


SAFES  AND  VAULTS.  I.  BURGLAR- PROOF  CONSTRUCTION.— The  highest  skill  of  the  safe- 
maker  is  now  devoted  to  the  construction  of  strong-rooms  and  vaults  for  banks  and  safe- 
deposit  companies. 


FIG.  1.— Safe-deposit  and  bank  vault.    Elevation. 


Safe-deposit  and  Sank  Vaults.— Fig.   1   represents  a  front  elevation  of  a  structure  in- 
tended to  be  proof  against  not  only  fire  and  burglars,  but  the  depredations  of  a  riotous  mob. 


i.i.         I   . 


I  .   I      I      I 


ii.li 


J L 


FIG.  2.— Safe-deposit  and  bank  vault.    Plan. 

A  steel  vault  is  provided  with  an  outside  wall  of  stone  or  brick,  2  ft.  in  thickness  and  laid 
up  in  cement ;  the  vault  rests  upon  a  foundation  especially  prepared  for  it,  and  is  usually 


SAFES   AND   VAULTS. 


759 


erected  within  and  apart  from  the  walls  of  the  edifice  in  which  it  is  located,  so  that  it  may 
be  patrolled  on  all  its  sides  by  watchmen,  or  by  an  armed  force,  should  necessity  require. 
When  the  space  within  a  building  to  be  occupied  by  the  vault  is  contracted,  a  fire-proof 
composition,  6  in.  thick,  sustained  within  an  iron  shell  or  cladding,  is  sometimes  substituted 
for  the  thicker  wall  of  stone  or  brick. 

The  architectural  design  of  these  structures  may  be  severely  plain,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving, or  may  be  embellished  with  brick  and  terra  cotta,  or  by  cast-iron  base  moldings 
and  pediment  when  the  outside  wall  or  cladding  is  of  iron. 

Fig.  8  represents,  however,  the  plan  of  a  medium  cost  vault,  and  shows  the  steel  walls 
surrounded  by  brick  work,  together  with  the  entrance,  which  consists  of  a  steel  vestibule 
with  inner  folding-doors  and  a  single  outer  door.  Many  safe-deposit  vaults  are  built  with 
two  openings  or  entrances  instead  of  one.  The  number  o"f  patrons  to  be  accommodated  ren- 
ders it  desirable  to  use  one  set  of  doors  as  an  entrance,  and  the  second  set  of  doors  as  a 
means  of  departure  from  the  vault. 

There  is,  however,  another  and  far  more  important  reason  for  the  use  of  two  openings. 
Untold  expense  and  annoyance  would  be  entailed  upon  the  patrons  and  officials  of  a  safe- 
deposit  or  bank  vault  should  the  locking  mechanism  of  the  doors  become  disarranged  over 
night,  and  thereby  prevent  access  to  the  vault  at  the  regular  hour  for  opening  up  for  business 


FIG.  3.— Marvin  vault.    Section. 

in  the  morning,  as  might  happen,  despite  all  reasonable  care,  if  but  one  entrance  is  provided. 
That  the  locks  on  both  sets  of  entrances,  where  two  openings  are  provided,  should  cause 
trouble  at  the  same  moment  is  a  contingency  so  remote  as  to  be  removed  from  the  necessity 
for  consideration.  The  vaults  of  the  Marvin  Safe  Co.  are  constructed  in  the  following 
manner : 

A  corner  section  of  the  walls  of  the  vault  is  shown  in  Fig.  3,  together  with  the  junction 
of  the  walls  with  the  vestibule  ;  the  jamb  and  a  part  of  the  left-hand  folding  inner  door  : 
and  the  jamb  and  a  part  of  the  outer  or  main  door.  The  outer  frame  of  the  vault  is  made 
of  6  x  6  x  1  in.  angles  of  welded  chrome  steel  and  iron,  bent  and  welded  at  the  corners  to 
form  tripod  sections.  The  panels  formed  by  this  frame  are  filled  in  with  plates  of  the  same 
material  and  thickness.  All  edges  of  the  angles  and  plates  are  rabbeted  one-half  their  thick- 
ness, and  with  ^  in.  lap,  and  engage  with  similar  rabbets  wherever  plates  and  angles  abut 
each  other.  The  second  layer  is  formed  of  plates  of  welded  chrome  steel  and  iron  ^  in.  in 
thickness.  All  the  corners*  of  the  second  layer  are  formed  of  angles  wrought  from  the  plates. 
The  plates  of  the  second  layer  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  those  of  the  outer  layer,  and  are 
secured  to  the  latter  with  welded  steel  and  iron  counter-sunk  bolts  |  in.  in  diameter  and 
spaced  not  more  than  10  in.  from  centers.  These  bolts  pass  through  the  second  layer  into 
but  not  through  the  outer  layer,  the  purpose  being  to  "  blind  "  all  fastenings  on  the  surface. 
The  third  anil  fourth  layers  are  also  of  i-in.  welded  chrome  steel  and  iron,  turned  at  the 


760 


SAFES   AND   VAULTS. 


corners  to  form  angles.  The  third  layer  is  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  second  layer,  and 
secured  thereto  with  the  f-in.  welded  steel  and  iron  bolts,  which  pass  through  the  third 
layer,  and  are  tapped  into  the  full  thickness  of  the  second  layer.  The  fourth  layer  parallels 
the  second  layer,  and  is  bolted  to  the 
third  layer  by  the  f-in.  welded  steel  and 
iron  bolts  passing  through  the  fourth 
layer.  The  fifth  or  final  layer  is  of  Bes- 
semer steel  plates,  i  in.  in  thickness,  se- 
cured to  the  fourth  layer  by  similar  bolts 
to  those  used  in  the  preceding  layers. 
The  total  thickness  is  3  in.,  but  the  thick- 
ness is  varied  by  the  addition  to,  or  reduced 
by  taking  from,  the  number  of  plates  or 
layers  in  the  vault,  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  security  desired.  The  vestibule 
is  constructed  of  the  same  material  and 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  body  of  the 
vault,  except  that  in  most  cases  its  thick- 
ness is  increased  ^  in.  over  that  of  the 
vault  itself  The  vestibule  is  usually  tel- 
escoped into  the  vault,  as  shown,  and  is 
joined  to  the  walls  of  the  vault  with  re- 
versed angles,  as  shown.  The  outer  or 
main  door  is  usually  made  5  in.  thick,  of 
alternate  layers  of*  the  five- ply  welded 
chrome  steal  and  iron,  as  shown,  secured 
together  with  the  ^-in.  welded  steel  and 
iron  bolts,  placed  at  average  distances  of 
8  in.  from  centers,  and  great  care  being 
observed,  as  in  bolting  the  layers  of  the 
vault,  that  no  two  bolts  align  each  other. 
The  bolt  frame  is  of  steel,  forged  into  a 
continuous  frame,  and  secured  to  the 
inner  edge  of  the  door  by  conical  bolts, 


g  vault. 


made  of  the  best  wrought  iron,  with  the  conical  parts  of  hardened  welded  chrome  steel 
and  iron.  These  bolts  start  with  and  extend  through  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  layers 
into  and  through  the  bolt  frame.  The  inner  doors  are  made  folding,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
and  the  right-hand  door  overlaps  and  interlocks  with  the  left-hand.  These  doors  are  usually 

made  3^  to  4  in.  in  thickness  of  mate- 
rials, and  put  together  in  the  same 
manner  as  already  described  for  the 
outer  door.  Through  the  bolt  frame 
of  the  outer  door  extend  not  less  than 
twenty-four  round  revolving  steel  bolts, 
each  2  in.  in  diameter.  They  are 
checked  by  the  time- lock  and  by  two 
four-wheel  combination  locks,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  require  that  both  locks 
must  be  unlocked  before  the  bolts  can 
be  retracted.  They  are  further  ar- 
ranged so  that,  if  desired,  one  of  the 
locks  will  release  the  bolt- work.  Each 
inner  door  is  fitted  with  not  less  than 
sixteen  round  revolving  bolts,  lif  in.  in 
diameter,  also  checked  by  two  four- 
wheel  combination  locks,  so  arranged 
that  one  lock,  at  least,  on  each  door 
must  be  unlocked  before  the  bolt-work 
of  either  door  can  be  retracted.  The 
lock  and  bolt-work  spindles  are  of  steel, 
in  conical  sections,  closely  ground  to 
fit,  and  packed  so  as  to  be  absolutely 
proof  against  the  introduction  of  ex- 
plosives. They  can  be  neither  driven 
in  or  drawn  out,  and  by  reason  of 
their  peculiar  construction  do  not 
develop  the  structural  weakness  which 
appears  in  former  methods  of  spindle 
construction.  In  addition  to  the  locks 
on  both  the  outer  and  inner  doors,  each 

door  is  equipped  with  a  gravity  device,  to  operate  the  instant  the  locks  are  forced  from 
the  inner  surface  of  the  doors,  so  that  the  doors  will  remain  locked  or  fastened,  even  though 
the  locks  themselves  should  by  any  means  be  driven  from  their  fastenings.  All  the  doors 


FIG.  5.— Vault,  Chemical  Bank,  New  York. 


SAFES   AND   VAULTS. 


761 


FIG.  6.— Vault,  Chemical  Bank. 


hung  to  compound  hinges  with  a  vertical  part  and  two  cross-arras.     They  operate  in  an 

anti-friction  or  ball-bearing  cup,  and  are  so  arranged  that 
tha  sag  of  the  door  may  be  easily  taken  up.  The  finish 
of  the  locks,  bolt  frames,  and  bolt-work  is  very  elaborate, 
and  is  protected  from  rust  and  dust  by  being  enclosed  be- 
hind plate-glass  doors,  hung  to  the  inside  of  the  bolt 
frames.  The  day  gate  is  usually  hung  back  of  the  vesti- 
bule doors,  and  is  made  of  polished  steel  vertical  bars, 
with  flat  polished  frames  and  cross-bars,  tipped  with 
polished  brass  ornaments.  It  is  hung  to  gravity  hinges, 
and  is  fitted  with  a  key- lock  and  lock-guard  plate. 

Within  a  very  recent  period  the  doors  of  several  vaults 
and  safes  have  been  built  by  this  company  with  what  is 
termed  "  automatic  bolt- work  ''  or  "  bolt-actuating  de- 
vices." The  "automatic  device"  aims  at  a  solid  door 
without  any  lock  or  bolt- work  spindles  piercing  it.  The 
operation  of  locking  is  accomplished  automatically,  in 
closing  the  door,  by  means  of  the  tripping  lever,  located 
on  the  outer  edge  of  the  bolt  frame,  which  impinges 
against  the  jamb  of  the  vault  or  safe  when  the  door  is 
closed  releasing  the  locking  springs,  which  thereupon 
shoot  the  bolts  behind  the  jamb  and  lock  the  door. 
The  door  will  then  remain  locked  for  the  number  of 
hours  for  which  the  time-lock  is  set.  When  the  proper 
time  arrives  the  hand  of  the  time-lock  will  remove  the 
hook  which  connects  with  the  compound  levers,  and  the 
unlocking  springs  will  thereupon  be  released  and  the 
bolts  retracted.  All  "automatic  bolt- work  "  and  their 
kindred  devices  are,  as  yet.  in  the  experimental  stage, 
and  it  is  not  claimed  that  they  have  been  fully  perfected. 
Among  the  more  notable  bank  and  safe-deposit  vaults 
are  those'built  in  the  manner  above  described  by  the 
Marvin  Safe  Co.  for  Messrs.  Drexel.  Morgan  &  Co.,  and  the  Garfield  Safe-Deposit  Co.,  cf 
New  York  City.  Other  important  vaults  are 
those  constructed  by  Messrs.  Herring  &  Co. , 
of  New  York,  for  the  Lincoln  Safe-Deposit 
Co. ,  and  the  Chemical  National  Bank.  The 
entrance  to  the  great  vault  of  the  Lincoln 
Safe- Deposit  Co.  is  represented  in  Fig.  4. 
This  is  constructed  of  iron,  steel  and  iron 
welded,  homogeneous  plates  of  hard  and  soft 
steel  and  Franklinite.  The  vault  is  entered 
through  the  largest  and  strongest  safe  dcors 
ever  made.  There  are  four  sets  of  double 
doors,  having  a  combined  weight  of  48  tons, 
and  yet  they  are  easily  opened  and  closed  by 
means  of  patent-lever  hinges.  Massive  and 
highly  polished  bolts  secure  the  doors  on  both 
sides,'  top  and  bottom.  These  bolts  are 

checked  by  Dexter  double  bank  locks   and   improved  time-locks.      Ornate  doors  of   open 

wrought-iron  work  are 
provided  for  use  during 
business  hours.  The  vault 
of  the  Chemical  National 
Bank  of  New  York  City  is 
illustrated  in  Figs.  5  and 
6.  The  vault  occupies  two 
floors,  and  weighs,  exclu- 
sive of  the  masonry,  almost 
200,000  Ibs.  Both  upper 
and  lower  vaults  are  pro- 
vided with  two  inner  or 
burglar-proof  doors. 
These  are  8  in.  in  thick- 
ness, and  each  door  weighs 
a  little  less  than  22,000 
Ibs.  Inside  of  these  doors 
in  turn  are  iron  gates  for 
use  during  business  hours. 
The  massive  doors  just 
referred  to  have  tongues 
and  grooves  which  inter- 

^   ^^-  lock    with    corresponding 

-Maivineafe.  tongues    and    grooves    in 


FIG.  7.— Railroad  iron  vault. 


762 


SAFES   AND   VAULTS. 


each  jamb,  so  that  when  closed  the  doors  are  firmly  keyed  to  the  body  of  the  structure. 
There  are  20  steel  bolts  in  each  door,  which  secure  it  on  all  sides.  These  doors  are 
made  fast  by  two  Dexter  bank  locks,  which  may  be  unlocked  by  either  of  two  dials.  They  are 
safe  against  a  lockout,  or  they  may  be  arranged  to  require  the  presence  of  two  persons,  each 
one  controlling  a  dial  with  a 
distinct  combination.  Besides 
this,  each  one  of  the  outer  strong 
doors  has  a  time  lock  attached. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  only  pro- 
tection against  burglars.  Inside 
the  vaults  are  12  Herring's  safes, 
in  which  the  many  securities  and 
different  funds  of  the  bank  are 
kept  separate,  fixing  individual 
responsibility  to  the  last  degree. 
Referring  again  to  the  upper 
vault,  the  fire-proof  casing  ex- 
tends back  of  it  to  the  wall,  pro- 
viding a  space  in  which  the  books 
of  the  bank  are  stored  for  safety 
against  fire.  Referring  to  the  cut, 
the  door  shown  at  the  right  in  the 
upper  vault  leads  to  the  book  re- 
ceptacle just  described.  It  would 
seem  that  the  precautions  taken 
against  loss  by  robbery  or  by  fire 
in  this  bank  are  as  great  as  may 
be.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  the 
fire-proof  building  already  de- 
scribed ;  next  the  fire-proof  casing 
of  the  vault,  inside  of  which  is  the 

vault  proper,  and  then,   in  turn,  FIG.  9.— Herring  safe, 

inside  of  this  are  safes  of  the  most 

thorough  construction.    In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  bank  has  resources  amounting  to  some 
$30,000,000,  the  need  of  these  precautions  will  be  appreciated. 

Type  of  vault,  constructed  of  plate  steel  and  railroad  rails,  is  represented  in  Fig.  7. 
Burglar-proof  safes  are  constructed  in  the  same  manner  and  in  the  same  materials  as 

vaults,  being  in 
fact  little  more 
than  miniature  re- 
productions of  the 
latter.  Fig.  8  rep- 
resents  a  new 
form  of  Marvin 
safe,  made  of  steel 
and  provided  with 
an  inner  chest. 
Fig.  9  is  a  solid- 
door  bankers'  safe, 
made  by  Messrs. 
Herring  &  Co. , 
which  has  the 
novel  feature  of  a 
solid  outer  door, 
with  a  smooth 
steel  surface,  un- 
penet rated  by 
spindle  or  arbor. 
When  the  time- 
lock  has  unlocked 
at  the  time  set,  the 
bolts  may  be  oper- 
ated by  a  mechan- 
ical attachment  on 
the  inside  of  the 
safe  door.  A  lock- 
ing bar  is  moved  so  that  the  door  has  a  slight  play.  It  is  then  given  an  in-and-out  move- 
ment by  means  of  a  cam  leverage  on  the  outside  of  the  door.  This  works  the  attachment 
and  unlocks  the  strong  bolts.  It  is  arbitrary  in  its  action,  not  depending  upon  springs  or 
weights. 

Among  the  late  improvements  in  safe  manufacture,  applied  by  Messrs.  Herring  &  Co.,  are 
a  new  form  of  hinge,  by  which  the  tongued  and  grooved  door  is  withdrawn  perfectly  square 
and  true  from  the  jambs  in  the  body  of  the  safe  until  it  is  free  from  the  groove  with  which  it 
interlocks.  Safe  bodies  are  made  of  solid  hard  and  soft  steel,  or  steel  and  iron  welded  plates 


PATENTED  FIRE-PROOF  COMPOSITION 


PIG.  10. — Marvin  fire-proof  construction. 


SANDPAPERING   MACHINES. 


7G3 


and  augles.  The  front  and  back  frames  are  made  solid,  with  welded  corners,  and  the 
body  between  these  frames  is  a  solid  hoop.  The  back  plate  is  one  piece,  which  is  rabbeted 
into  the  frame.  Bank  safes  and  vault  doors  are  constructed  with  outside  plates  1  in.  thick. 
A  step  is  planed  on  the  edge  of  the  doors,  and  the  plates 
where  they  join  are  also  rabbeted.  The  lock  and  bolt  spin- 
dles, as  now  made  by  Herring  &  Co.,  are  provided  with  a  gas- 
ket which  renders  them  air-tight.  The  spindle  is  a  ground  fit, 
and  is  constructed  of  the  same  metal  as  the  safe  door.  In 
every  case  the  spindles  terminate  on  the  inside,  against  the 
solid  bolt  frame,  and  operate  the  locks  by  geared  wheels,  which 
offset.  A  new  bolt  attachment  holds  fast  the  bolts  in  the  event 
of  the  lock  being  detached  by  concussion,  or  any  other  means, 
so  even  if  the  lock  and  the  spindles  are  destroyed  the  bolts  will 
be  held  secure. 

II.  FIRE  PROOF  CONSTRUCTION. — In  Figs.  10  and  11  is 
shown  the  construction  of  the  latest  form  of  Marvin  fire-proof 
safe.  Both  the  stepped  front  frame,  in  which  the  door  sets,  and 
the  frame  of  the  door  itself,  are  shown  by  the  heavy  black 
lines,  Fig.  10,  separated  by  a  fine  white  line,  which  marks  the 
joint  or  opening  between  the  door  and  the  front  frame.  This 
stepped  front  frame  is  constructed  to  form  a  tongue  and 
groove  with  one  of  its  steps — here  shown  as  the  second  one — 
which  extends  along  or  around  the  door  opening,  side  and  top 
and  bottom  of  said  stepped  front  frame,  but  not  down  the 
side  against  which  the  back  or  hinged,  side  of  door  sets.  The 
door  itself  is  made  with  a  corresponding  tongue  and  groove  on 

FIG.  11.— Fire-proof  construction,     like  sides,  so  that  the  tongue  of  the  frame  and  the  door  interlock 
by  the  fit  of  the  tongue  of  each  one  in  the  groove  of  the  other, 

said  tongues  breaking  joint  with  the  frame  and  its  door.  The  door  is  constructed  on  its 
hinge  side  with  a  heel  tongue  or  projecting  flange  which  extends  along  its  entire  side,  from 
top  to  bottom,  without  a  break.  When  the  door  is  closed,  this  flange  is  projected  into  a 
groove  of  corresponding  size,  within  the  first  step  of  the  front  frame,  thus  closing  and  break- 
ing the  joint,  crack,  or  opening  between  the  door  and  stepped  front  frame  at  the  hinged  side. 
A  recess  in  the  inner  face  of  the  door  receives  a  sheathing  of  material  which  is  a  non-con- 
ductor of  heat,  and  forms  an  air  chamber  which  prevents  communication  of  heat  from  the 
iron-work  of  the  door  to  the  contents  of  the  safe.  The  hinges  are  annealed  and  are  riveted  to 
the  outside  of  the  door  and  the  front  plate.  The  main  object  of  the  improvements  in  this 
safe  is  to  prevent  opening  of  the  joints,  due  to  warping  of  the  frame.  The  latter  is  made  of 
solid  forged  metal,  and  in  fact  is  a  continuous,  four-sided  angle-iron,  constructed  of  a  suita- 
ble size  to  fit  over  and  receive  within  it  the  back  portion  of  the  outer  walls  of  the  body.  It 
has  a  slot  in  its  lower  side  to  receive  a  back  plate,  which,  after  being  slid  to  its  place, 
Fig.  11,  is  secured  by  a  separate  bottom  piece,  closing  the  gap  in  the  bottom  of  the  angle-iron 
frame,  and  is  in  turn  fastened  by  rivets  to  said  angle-iron  frame.  The  back  plate  is  further 
secured  by  fastenings  passing  through  the  outer  angle-iron  frame,  through  the  back  plate, 
and  entering  an  inside  system  of  angles.  The  continuous  angle-iron  frame  prevents  the 
fire-proof  filling  working  out  through  the  joints,  and  strengthens  the  safe. 
Sampler  :  see  Ore  Sampling. 

SANDPAPERING  MACHINES.  Sandpapering  machinery,  with  which  may  be  included 
finishing  machines  using  sanding  belts,  and  sanding  cylinders  and  cones,  are  of  great  variety, 
according  to  the  class  of  work 
which  they  are  to  perform.  The 
function  of  all  is  the  same  :  to 
remove  roughness  and  produce  a 
smoothly  finished  surface.  Their 
action  is  often  supplemented  by 
polishing  attachments,  which  put 
upon  the  wood  a  luster,  and  give  it 
a  smooth,  velvety  feel  which  mere 
sandpaper  or  its  equivalent  could 
not  impart. 

The  sand-belt  machine  shown 
in  Fig.  1  is  for  polishing  the  body  of 
wagon  and  carriage  spokes,  and  also 
for  finishing  neck  yokes,  single  trees, 
handles,  and  similar  articles.  There 
are  two  sand-belt  pulleys,  having 
parallel  horizontal  axes,  the  dis- 
tance between  which  may  be  regu- 
lated by  hand  wheels  and  screws  ;  FIG.  1.— Sand-belt  machine, 
the  article  to  be  polished  is  held 

between  centers  supported  by  radial  parallel  arms,  swinging  on  an  axis  parallel  with  those 
of  the  belt  pulleys.  One  of  these  centers  may  be  turned  by  a  hand  crank,  so  as  to  present 
every  side  of  the  piece  in  succession  ;  the  other  is  a  dead-center. 


764 


SANDPAPERING   MACHINES. 


Another  type  is  known  as  the  bracket  machine,  being  designed  to  attach  to  a  wall  or  post. 
There  is  a  bracket  bearing  a  vertical  pulley  spindle,  and  a  hinged  arm,  the  outer  end  of  which 
has  a  vertical  spindle,  on  the  lower  end  of  which  there  is  a  drum  covered  with  sandpaper  upon 
its  lower  head.  The  rotation  of  the  sandpaper  drum,  and  the  traverse  of  the  hinged  arm  in 
every  direction  in  a  horizontal  plane,  enable  the  machine  to  cover  the  entire  surface  of  a  door, 
or  similar  plane  piece,  and  at  the  same  time  do  work  that  is  reasonably  free  from  scratches. 
The  sandpaper  disk  is  vertically  adjustable  to  different  thicknesses  of  stock,  and  has  a  spring 
handle  to  regulate  the  pressure  on  the  surface,  and  a  suction  fan  to  carry  away  the  dust. 
Another  form  of  this  machine  has,  instead  of  a  bracket,  a  column  placed  near  a  cast-iron 
table,  upon  which  the  door  or  other  piece  is  placed,  and  the  hinged  arm  has  more  joints. 
In  the  column  is  placed  the  exhaust  fan. 

Another  machine  has  a  single  vertical  spindle,  bearing  a  plain  cylindrical  drum  or  tube 
of  small  diameter,  covered  with  sandpaper  on  its  convex  surface,  and  is  useful  for  finishing 
the  internal  and  external  curves  of  scroll-sawed  work.  The  spindle  in  the  best  of  such 
machines  moves  automatically  up  and  down  by  a  crank  and  pitman,  as  it  rotates,  so  as  to 
free  the  surface  of  the  work  from  scores.  A  development  of  this  type  has  two  such  spindles, 
placed  about  i>  ft.  apart,  and  one  bearing  a  large  and  the  other  a  small  cylinder  or  tube, 
these  working  in  curves  of  either  large  or  small  radius.  In  these,  each  spindle  has  a  verti- 
cal reciprocating  as  well  as  a  rotary  movement  ;  the  former  being  produced  by  cranks  at 


each  end  of  a  shaft,  running  across  the  frame  at  the  bottom  of  the  spindles. 

A  triple-drum  sandpapering  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  is  for  sandpapering  planed 


sur- 


Fio.  2.— Triple-drum  sandpapering  machine. 

faces  for  furniture,  pianos,  etc.,  where  the  work  is  to  be  varnished  or  painted.  There  are 
three  drums,  made  of  steel,  on  which  the  sandpaper  is  placed,  its  grade  being  according  to 
the  work  to  be  done.  The  first  drum  carries  coarse  paper,  the  second  a  fine  grade  for 
smoothing,  and  the  third  a  finer  grade  for  polishing.  Each  of  these  drums  has  lateral  oscil- 
lation across  the  material,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  lengthwise  scores,  which  would  be  the 
case  if  the  material  moved  straight,  and  the  rolls  had  no  such  endwise  vibration.  The  feed 
rolls  are  eight  in  number,  four  above  and  four  below  the  platen,  and  are  driven  by  a  train 
of  expansion  gearing.  They  are  so  placed  that  the  material  will  pass  between  the  upper  and 
lower  sets,  and  open  to  receive  material  8  in.  thick.  The  lower  rollers  are  placed  one  each 
side  of  the  drum,  each  roller  being  in  a  separate  bed-plate,  which  is  adjustable  with  the  roller, 
and  the  roller  has  a  separate  adjustment  from  the  bed-plate.  Each  bed-plate  can  be  set  to 
gauge  the  amount  of  cut  to  each  drum,  or  all  the  bed-plates  can  be  set  in  line,  and  the  drums 
set  to  the  cut  desired  above  this  line.  The  upper  rollers  are  mounted  in  a  frame  over  the 
corresponding  lower  rollers.  The  pressure  rolls  are  three  in  number,  one  over  each  drum,  to 
hold  the  material  firmly  to  them,  and  are  separately  adjustable  by  hand  wheels  in  front,  which 
operate  worms  and  worm  gears. 

There  has  been  produced  one  machine  which  will  joint  and  sandpaper  the  meeting  rails  of 
sash.  The  sash  is  placed  on  a  movable  carriage,  with  the  meeting  rail  resting  against  ad- 
justable stops,  by  which  a  heavy  or  a  light  cut  may  be  obtained,  as  desired.  The  sash  while 
passing  through  the  machine  is  held  in  position  by  springs,  by  which  means  the  meeting 
rails  are  worked  to  the  same  thickness.  The  jointing  is  done  by  a  rotation  cutter  head  on  the 
vertical  axes  of  one  side  of  the  machine,  and  the  sandpapering  head  or  drum  is  borne  by  a 


SASH   MACHINES.  765 


horizontal  shaft,  which  springs  its  working  surface  practically  in  line  with  that  of  the  cutter 
beads.  The  capacity  for  jointing  and  sanding  is  eighty  windows  per  hour.  There  is  a  plow- 
ing and  boring  attachment,  the  sash  being  placed  against  a  gauge  on  the  lower  table,  at  an 
angle  of  about  30°,  and  the  stile  bored  with  one  bit  to  receive  the  cord.  The  sash  is  then 
placed  against  a  gauge  on  the  upper  table,  and  grooved  or  plowed  to  the  hole,  so  that  the 
cord  can  be  heavily  knotted  and  slipped  into  the  hole,  and  the  weight  of  the  sash  will  draw 
the  knot  to  the  bottom. 

Sand  Wheel  :  see  Ore-dressing  Machinery. 

SASH  MACHINES.  Wood-working  machinery  includes  not  merely  machines  for  cutting 
material,  but  those  for  clamping,  bending,  etc.  Sash  and  door  manufacturers  make  use  of 
machines  which  clamp  up  sash,  and,  where  they  are  glued,  hold  them  while  the  glue  is 
drying.  One  variety  has  heavy  plate  sides  and  guards,  and  on  the  top  there  are  two  heavy 
rails,  in  which  are  mounted  corner  bars  for  holding  the  sash.  These  are  pivoted  to  traveling 
plates,  through  which  pass  right  and  left-hand  screws,  by  which  each  corner  can  be  moved  an 
exact  distance  from  the  center,  and  at  the  same  time  remain  in  a  fixed  rigid  position.  A 
pressure  of  the  foot  upon  a  treadle  secures  and  clamps  the  sash.  The  arrangement  of  lever 
connections  is  on  the  toggle  principle,  by  which  the  greatest  power  is  applied  just  as  the  joint 
is  closed,  or  where  there  is  the  greatest  resistance.  The  same  machine  modified  for  door 
clamping  has  a  supplemental  treadle  which  releases  the  door,  and  allows  the  clamp  to  open. 

In  the  door  and  sash  clamping  machine  made  by  the  H.  B.  Smith  Machine  Co.  there 
are  two  draw-bars,  and  very  short  stiff  compression  members  ;  and  the  lever  connections 
form  a  knuckle-ioint,  which  in  use  just  passes  a  central  point,  thus  retaining  the  clamp  in 
position  until  released.  The  fulcrum  of  the  treadle  which  actuates  this  toggle  and  clamps  the 
frames  is  adjustable  so  as  to  make  more  or  less  movement  on  the  clamps,  as  may  be  required. 
Each  receiving  rail  has  long  dogs  for  doors,  and  short  ones  for  blinds.  For  sash  clamping, 
there  are  employed  four  corner  dogs,  pivoted  'on  iron  plates  which  may  be  fastened  on  the 
machine. 

In  a  relishing  machine  brought  out  by  the  H.  B.  Smith  Co.  there  is  a  square  main 


FIG.  1 . — Sash,  boring  and  plowing. 

table,  bearing  a  mandrel  upon  which  there  are  two  sets  of  saws,  one  at  each  end.  There  are 
attached  to  the  main  table  two  glued  up  wooden  tables,  borne  by  brackets,  and  having  ver- 
tical adjustment,  as  also  sliding  motion  to  and  from  the  saws.  The  rail  is  first  placed  on  the 
left-hand  table,  which  is  shoved  back  to  the  saws,  making  the  angling  cut.  It  is  then  placed 
on  the  right-hand  table,  which  is  shoved  back  to  the  saws,  and  then  by  a  treadie  the  right- 
hand  table  bearing  the  stock  is  raised,  to  meet  two  small  circular  saws  borne  by  horizontal 
mandrels  at  right  angles  to  the  main  saw  arbor.  These  cut  the  relish,  and  the  wedges  drop 
into  a  box  or  basket  on  the  floor.  The  angle,  width,  and  depth  of  the  relish  are  regulatable 
by  gauges  and  stop  dogs. 

A  special  machine.  Fig.  1,  for  sash  boring  and  plowing,  intended,  as  its  name  implies,  for 
the  preparation  of  window  sash  for  the  reception  of  a  cord,  does  plowing  in  two  ways. 

In  the  first  system,  it  is  adapted  to  bore  a  hole  of  suitable  size  into  the  edge  of  a  sash,  and 
at  an  angle  of  about  30 D.  and  to  plow  a  groove  of  suitable  width  and  depth,  connecting  with 
this  hole.  Into  this  groove  and  hole  a  suitably  knotted  cord  is  placed  ;  a  draft  upon  this 
cord  draws  the  knot  into  the  slanting  hole,  and  holds  it  in  position. 

In  the  second  system,  a  30°  angle  hole  and  slot  are  formed,  as  in  the  first  instance,  but 
the  slot,  instead  of  being  cut  to  connect  with  the  hole,  is  cut  to  within  an  inch  thereof,  and 
then  by  a  hole  bored  by  a  second  bit  of  suitable  size  and  arrangement  the  slot  and  angular 
hole  are  connected,  and  the  sash  cord  drawn  through  this  latter  hole,  and  knotted  in  the 


766 


SAWS,    METAL   WORKING. 


angular  hole.  The  one  feature  of  this  machine  is  that  in  making  stock  work,  where  it  is 
uncertain  whether  the  sash  will  be  used  with  or  without  cord,  the  groove  can  be  discontinued 
at  the  meeting  rail  without  cutting  through  it,  and  this  part  done  by  hand  if  the  sash  is 
finally  used  with  cord. 

The  increasing  demand  for  sash  and  doors  all  ready  to  hang  has  brought  out  machines 
for  preparing  sash  to  receive  the  weight  cord  in  a  manner  to  suit  the  requirements  of  all 
markets  ;  the  old  method  of  a  groove  in  the  side  of  the  sash,  running  through  a  hole  that 
carries  the  knot  on  the  end  of  the  cord,  often  being  very  unsatisfactory.  In  the  machine  made 
by  the  H.  B.  Smith  Machine  Co.  there  is  a  table-like  frame,  bearing  along  one  of  its 
sides  a  horizontal  boring  spindle,  and  having 
a  sliding  frame  to  receive  a  sash  and  feed 
it  up  to  the  spindle.  A  double  saw  borne  by 
a  vertical  arbor  about  the  center  of  width 
of  the  machine,  cuts  a  groove  which  extends 
into  the  top  or  first  hole  previously  bored  by 
the  bit,  and  the  work  is  then  completed  by  the 
horizontal  boring  bit,  making  a  hole  between 
the  two  holes  first  bored,  thus  uniting  the  sec- 
ond or  lower  hole  to  the  groove.  The  cord 
may  be  very  readily  passed  into  this  hole, 
with  no  chance  of  getting  out  after  the  knot 
is  tied. 

The  same  machine  may  be  used  as  a  light 
saw  table,  with  horizontal  boring  attachment 
for  general  purposes  ;  and  by  using  a  routing 
bit  in  the  vertical  spindle,  blind-rails  may  be 
scored  for  the  roller  bar. 

A  machine  for  wiring  both  blind-rods  and 
their  slats  at  one  operation  is  shown  in  Fig. 
2.  The  slat  is  placed  on  the  upper  bed,  and 
by  an  upward  motion  of  the  lever  the  staple 
is  driven  in.  Then  the  same  slat  is  placed  on  the  lower  bed,  and  a  downward  motion  of 
the  same  lever  staples  the  slat  to  the  rod.  The  staple  cut-off  is  so  arranged  that  two  staples 
cannot  get  under  the  driver  at  the  same  time. 

Saw  Glimmer  :  see  Grinding  Machines. 

Saw.  Pile-cutting  :  see  Pile  Driving. 

SAWS,  METAL  WORKING.  Cold  Saw  Cutting-off  Machines.— Sawing  machines  for 
cutting  iron,  steel,  and  other  metals  while  in  a  cold  state  have  come  into  use  during  the  past  few 
years.  They  are  probably  more  commonly  used  in  Europe  than  in  this  country  at  present,  but 


FIG.  2.— Sash  wiring  machine. 


FIG.  1. — Cold  saw  cuttiug-o£E  machine  for  barf  and  beams. 


the  Newton  Machine  Tool  Works,  of  Philadelphia,  have  recently  put  on  the  market  a  full  line  of 
these  machines  of  various  styles,  and  their  more  general  use  may  be  anticipated.  Several 
styles  of  cold  saw  cutting-oif  machines  built  at  the  above-named  establishment  are  shown 
in  Figs.  1  to  4. 

Circular  Saws. — Fig.  1  is  a  machine  designed  to  cut  off  round  or  square  bars  up  to  4  in., 
and  beams  up  to  16  in.  in  depth.  The  saw  or  mill  cutter  is  18|  in.  in  diameter.  It  has  a 
variable  automatic  feed,  ranging  from  £  in.  to  1^  ins.  per  minute,  with  power  quick  return, 
with  automatic  stop  in  both  directions. 


SAWS,    METAL  WORKING. 


767 


Fi2  2  is  a  machine  designed  for  trimming  the  edges  of  armor  plate  after  it  comes  from 

the  rolls.  The  machine  will 
cut  work  up  to  10  in.  in  height 
and  13  ft.  long.  It  is  built  so 
that  it  can  be  used  as  two  in- 
dependent machines,  or  can  be 
adjusted  to  take  in  work  be- 
tween saws  20  ft.  in  width. 
The  work  tables  are  made  nar- 
row so  that  the  two  machines 
can  be  brought  together  within 
30  in.  of  the  saws.  The  work 
table  of  the  adjustable  head 
can  be  removed,  so  that 
work  of  the  width  of  15  in. 
can  be  cut,  both  sides  at  one 
time.  To  support  the  outer 
end  of  the  armor  plate,  the 
entire  machine  is  provided 
with  a  table  planed  the  same 

4  height  as  the  work  table  on 
the  machine,  and  if  the  plate 

"?•  is  wider  than  the  clamps  will 
2  admit,  it  can  be  clamped  with 
|  bolts  on  the  outside  work  table, 
to  The  clamps  can  be  readily  re- 
•|  moved  for  convenience  in  set- 

5  ting  work.    The  machine  is  set 
5     on  cast-iron  girders,  allowing 
%     one  head  to  be  adjusted  by  pow- 
*£     er  in  and  out  from  the  station- 
4:     ary  head.  The  saws  of  the  ma- 
§     chine  are  36  in.  in  diameter. 

Fig.  3  is  a  cold  sawing 
|  machine  which  is  set  on  a 
.3  turn-table,  and  driven  from 
o  the  central  point  underneath 
^  the  bed,  so  that  it  can  be 
«  swung  around  at  any  angle. 
o  The  advantage  of  this  tool  for 
£  heavy  work  lies  in  economy 
of  shop  space. 

Fig.  4  is  a  machine  for 
cutting  round,  square,  and 
flat  bar.  The  work  to  be  cut 
off  is  laid  on  the  work  table 
and  clamped.  The  saw  is  then 
fed  down  through  the  bar,  cut- 
ting off  the  same  as  on  the  ordi- 
narymachine.  To  lubricate  the 
saw,  the  machine  is  furnished 
with  a  small  pump  and  con- 
nections, throwing  the  lubri- 
cant on  both  sides  qtf  the  saw. 
The  machine  ha«  four  changes 
of  feed,  with  quick  return  by 
hand.  The  arm  of  the  saw  is 
counter  weighted  to  overcome 
any  tendency  which  the  weight 
of  the  arm  would  have  to  press  the  saw  against  the  work,  as  it  is  necessary  for  the  success  of 
these  machines  to  feed  them  positively,  and  not  in  any  way  by  any  gravity  contrivance. 
The  saw  being  fed  in  this  manner  can  "be  forced  into  the  work,  'and  the  work  cut  off  very 
quickly.  The  machine  can  be  used  not  only  for  cutting  off  bars  of  iron  and  steel,  but  also  for 
cutting  off  small  beams,  making  the  cuts  square,  and  can  be  used  on  beam  work  to  any 
angle  within  the  range  of  the  machine. 

Saw  Grinder. — Fig.  5  shows  a  grinding  machine  furnished  by  the  Xewton  Machine  Tool 
Works,  for  grinding  the  teeth  of  the  saws  of  their  cutting-off  machines.  The  saw  is  placed 
on  the  arbor,  and  the  saddle  is  adjusted  to  suit  the  diameter  of  saw  ;  the  emery  wheel,  tho 
face  of  which  is  given  the  profile  of  space  between  teeth,  will  then,  when  passed  over  the  saw, 
grind  the  face  and  top  of  tooth  at  one  time.  The  spring  trigger,  or  catch,  is  set  to  suit  the 


tooth  of  saw,  which  is  revolved  by  hand,  one  tooth  at  a  time,  the  trigger  guiding  the  saw. 
When  the  saw  is  ground  in  this  manner,  it  will  always  retain  the  shape  of  tooth,  and  keep 


the  saw  round. 


768 


SAWS,    METAL   WORKING. 


Horizontal  Circular  Saw.— Fig.  6  represents  a  cold  sawing  machine,  designed  by  Messrs. 


PIG.  3.— Cold  saw  cutting-off  machine  built  on  revolving  bed. 

Isaac  Hill  &  Son,  Derby,  England,  and  used  principally  for  the  sawing  of  runners  or  gates 
of  steel  castings.     The  saw  is  caused  to  revolve  in  a  horizontal  plane,  and  in  the  case  of  the 


FIG.  4.— Cold  saw  cutting-off  machine.  , 

machine  illustrated  it  may  be  raised  to  3  ft.  6  in.     The  machine  carries  a  28-in.  diameter 


SAWS,    METAL   WORKING. 


769 


saw,  having  a  longitudinal  trav- 
el of  16  in.,  and  will  cut  solids 
up  to  8  in.  thick.  The  saw  is 
secured  to  the  spindle  by  a  flush 
side  arrangement,  while  the 
driving  is  by  a  type  of  gearing 
dispensing  with  the  usual  worm 
and  worm-wheel.  The  feed  is 
self-acting,  of  three  speeds,  and 
suitable  for  sawing  solids,  for 
quick  return  motion,  and  for 
disengaging  motion,  there  being 
an  automatic  gearing  for  disen- 
gaging the  gear  clutch  at  any 
point  in  the  forward  or  return 
traverse.  The  slide  bed  upon 
which  the  saw-carrying  saddle 
moves  has  a  traverse  slide  which 
fits  the  standard.  The  raising 
or  lowering  is  done  by  hand 
through  a  worm  and  worm- 
wheel,  by  a  wire  rope  carried 
on  suitable  carrying  pulleys  on 
a  drum  ;  while  the  exact  low- 
ering or  raising  adjustment  of 
the  saw  is  done  by  means  of 
a  telescopically  arranged  spin- 
dle. The  driving  is  from  the 
main  shaft  onto  pulleys  on  an 
overhead  shaft  carried  in  bear- 
ings across  the  top  of  the  ma- 
chine. Upon  this  latter  shaft 
is  a  bevel  pinion,  which  gears 
with  a  bevel  wheel  supported 
on  a  bearing  as  shown,  this 
bevel  wheel  communicating  mo- 


FIG.  5.— Saw  grinder. 


tion  by  a  feather  key  to 
the  vertical  shaft,  which 
can  slide  through  it. 
On  the  low  part  of  this 
shaft  is  secured  a  bev- 
el pinion,  which  gears 
with  a  bevel  wheel  on  the 
principal  shaft  of  the 
sawing  portion  of  the 
machine. 

Band  Saw. — Fig.  7 
shows  the  Newton  band 
sawing  machine,  which 
can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  cutting  the  center 
out  of  cranks,  connect- 
ing rods,  piston  rods, 
eccentric  rods,  pump 
levers,  etc.,  and  for  cut- 
ting curved  or  irregular 
work,  where  it  can  be 
guided  by  hand.  The 
machines  have  a  large 
stationary  work  table, 
the  rear  section  of 
which  is  made  so  that  it 
can  be  moved  away 
from  the  saw,  so  that 
the  saw  can  be  removed 
from  the  pulleys.  The 
automatic  feed  table  is 
inserted  in  the  station- 
ary table.  The  saw 
wheels  are  covered  with 
a  rubber  tire,  and  the 

49 


FIG.  6. — Horizontal  circular  saw. 


770 


SAWS,    WOOD. 


bottom  wheel  runs  in  a  bath  to  lubricate  and  cool  the  saw.      The  upper  wheel  is  provided 
with  a  suspended  bearing,  with  attached  weight  to  keep  the  saw  at  a  proper  tension.      The 


FIG.  7. — Band  saw. 

saw  passes  between  two  guides  and  presses  against  a  wheel  which  revolves  with  the  saw, 
thus  reducing  the  friction.  The  lower  saw  guide  is  inserted  in  the  table,  and  the  upper 
guide  can  be  raised  and  lowered  to  suit  the  various  depths  of  work. 

SAWS,  WOOD.  In  the  consideration  of  sawing  machines,  we  may  divide  them  into 
straight,  circular,  and  band  ;  the  former  being  either  strained  or  unstrained  ;  the  circular 
type  existing  in 
great  variety,  ac- 
cording to  the  num- 
ber and  disposition 
of  saws,  and  the  pur- 
poses for  which 
they  are  intended; 
and  the  latter,  while 
having  no  such 
range  as  those  of 
the  circular  type, 
still  requiring  differ- 
ent treatment,  ac- 
cording as  they  will 
have  light  or  heavy 
work,  and  will  be 
used  for  ordinary 
cutting,  scroll  work, 
or  resawing. 

STRAIGHT  SAWS. 


FIG.  1.— Drag-saw  and  jack-works. 


—In  the  first  class, 

that  of  straight 

saws,  there  is  but  little  to  offer  at  this  time  in  addition   to  what  has  been  said  about  them 

in  the  preceding  volumes  ;  but  there  may  be  noted  a  combination  of  drag-saw  and  log-jack 


SAWS,    WOOD.  771 


or  jack-works,  Fig.  1,  which  is  intended  to  save  room  and  lessen  the  number  of  frames  to  set 
and  belts  to  keep  in  order,  while  but  one  lever  is  required  to  handle  both  machines.  In 
operating  it,  the  sawyer  throws  the  lever  over  until  the  paper  friction  bears  against  the  log- 
jack  friction-works  enough  to  draw  the  log  to  its  place  under  the  saw,  the  requisite  distance 
of  lengthwise  feed  of.  the  log  ;  then  the  lever  is  thrown  further  over  until  it  bears  upon  the 
drag-saw  enough  to  drive  that  at  the  speed  desired.  The  log-saw  and  the  jack  cannot  be  run 
at  the  same  time.  In  order  to  rest  the  drag-saw,  the  operator  presses  down  upon  a  short 
lever,  which  forces  together  two  overhead  frictions,  and  so  winds  up  a  belt  connected  to  the 
side  piece  of  the  drag-saw.  Releasing  the  short  lever  permits  the  weight  of  the  saw  to 
pull  the  iron  friction  of  the  saw  down  tight  on  the  brake  under  it  and  hold  the  saw  in  that 
position.  By  slightly  pressing  the  short  lever  the  saw  will  descend  slowly. 

CIRCULAR  SAWS. — In  taking  up  the  subject  of  circular  saws,  we  may  first  consider  the  log- 
mill,  board-mill,  and  resawing  machines,  these  being  the  first  in  order  of  action  upon  the  wood, 
in  its  conversion  from  the  log  to  the  finished  product,  no  matter  what  it  is.  As  circular  saw- 
mills have  been  treated  at  considerable  length  in  the  preceding  volumes,  it  may  be  desirable 
in  this  place  only  to  note  special  forms  of  this  wonderful  factor  in  wood  conversion,  and 
to  mention  some  of  the  appliances  and  attachments  which  give  it  greater  range  of  dimen- 
sions and  character  of  output,  and  better  quality  of  work,  coupled  with  great  increase  hi  the 
amount  of  material  that  can  be  handled  in  a  given  time. 

Circular  Saw-mills. — A  very  great  advance  in  the  circular  saw-mill  is  making  it  double — 
that  is,  with  two  saw  arbors,  one  above  the  other  in  the  same  vertical  plane,  the  upper  one  bear- 
ing a  smaller  saw  than  the  other,  both  saws  cutting  in  the  same  vertical  plane.  The  upper  arbor 
is  given  vertical  adjustment  on  the  housing,  to  enable  it  to  be  raised  and  lowered  to  suit 
variations  in  the  diameters  of  the  saws.  The  upper  saw  is  driven  from  the  arbor  of  the 
lower  one,  usually  by  an  open  belt,  so  that' both  saws,  as  regards  the  spectator,  rotate  in  the 
same  direction ;  but  as  regards  the  lumber,  the  teeth  of  the  upper  one  enter  it  in  the  direc- 
tion opposite  to  those  of  the  lower  one,  the  teeth  passing  each  other  in  opposite  direction. 
The  saws  are  set  so  that  the  periphery  of  each  one  intrudes  a  trifle  upon  the  kerf  or  channel 
made  by  the  other,  one  of  them  being  a  little  in  advance  of  the  other  to  enable  this  to  pre- 
vent the  teeth  of  one  saw  interfering  with  those  of  the  other.  The  upper  arbor  is  for  saws 
having  the  same  holes  as  the  lower  ones,  so  when  the  lower  one  is  worn  too  small  for  effective 
service  it  may  be  used  as  an  upper  one,  and  the  upper  one  moved  to  a  smaller  mill.  As 
smaller  and  thinner  saws  are  used  than  on  single  saw- mills,  they  can  have,  and  really  require, 
faster  feed  ;  they  cut  a  thinner  kerf,  are  more  readily  kept  in  order,  are  less  *  liable  to 
accident,  and  cost  less  to  replace  when  broken.  As  the  speed  of  the  smaller  saws  is  higher 
than  that  of  one  large  saw,  the  feed  and  gig  motion  of  the  double  mill  are  higher  than  those 
of  the  single. 

As  some  sawyers  desire  that  the  upper  saw  in  a  double  circular  mill  shall  run  reversed,  and 
as  a  quarter-twist  belt  would  be  impracticable,  by  reason  of  the  short  distance  between  arbor 
centers,  such  a  direction  of  motion  is  got  by  having  the  belt  run  from  a  pulley  on  the  lower  ar- 
bor, over  an  idler  pulley  above  the  upper  mandrel,  down  under  the  pulley  on  the  upper  arbor, 
up  over  another  idler,  and  down  under  the  pulley  on  the  lower  mandrel.  This  produces  the 
effect  of  a  quarter-twist  belt,  with  full  facility  for  varying  the  tension,  and  gives  better 
contact  upon  the  pulleys,  as  the  idlers  are  quite  close  together,  so  that  the  belt  gives  more 
than  180°  wrap  on  the  upper  saw  pulley.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  device  for  guiding  the  rim 
of  the  saw  near  the  cut,  to  prevent  it  from  straying  out  of  the  true  plane  ;  and  this  guide 
must  be  adjustable  toward  or  from  the  saw  arbor  to  suit  various  diameters  of  saws,  and  also 
must  have  adjustment  to  suit  the  varying  gauges  of  different  saws,  and  also  the  varying 
thickness  of  the  same  saw,  as  it  is  worn  down  in  diameter.  In  addition  to  this,  there  must 
be  a  certain  amount  of  adjustability  to  and  from  the  line  of  the  carriage,  to  accommodate 
different  thicknesses  of  collars,  etc.,  as  well  as  different  conditions  of  saw  tension.  All  these 
adjustments  should  preferably  be  made  without  the  use  of  a  special  wrench,  and  should  be 
of  such  a  character  that  they  may  be  done  quickly. 

One  of  the  best  of  these  consists  in  effect  of  two  horizontal  and  parallel  hollow  cylinders,  in 
each  of  which  turns  a  wrought-iron  pin,  adjustable  lengthwise  ot  the  bore  containing  it,  by 
a  screw  and  milled  nut.  One  of  these,  when  nearest  the  saw  edge,  is  terminated  by  a  short 
arm  bearing  an  anti-friction  piece,  which  guides  the  inner  edge  of  the  saw  disk.  The  outer 
bears  a  longer  arm,  having  a  smaller  anti-friction  piece,  which  may  be  brought  into  contact 
with  the  first,  or  withdrawn  by  means  of  the  saw  or  milled-nut  arrangement.  This  second 
bar  and  arm  engage  and  guide  the  outer  face  of  the  saw  disk.  The  entire  device  is  fastened 
by  screws  and  milled  nuts  to  a  slotted  piece  borne  on  the  saw  frame,  thus  permitting  length- 
wise adjustment  to  suit  saws  of  varying  diameters. 

Back  of  the  saw,  in  a  log-mill,  there  is,  or  should  be,  what  is  known  as  a  spreader  or  split- 
ter wheel,  which  in  the  best  makes  is  thinner  in  the  middle  than  near  the  edge,  to  lessen  fric- 
tion. The  shaft  bearing  the  splitter  is  supported  in  hangers,  and  on  it  is  a  large  roll,  which 
supports  the  lumber  passing  over  the  frame  ;  but  the  roll  and  the  splitter  plate  rotate  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  this  arrangement  preventing  accident  by  reason  of  a  heavy  stick  of 
timber  resting  on  the  shaft,  preventing  the  splitter-wheel  from  turning. 

The  carriage  of  a  circular  saw-mill  of  the  first  class  consists  essentially  of  two  long  side 
sills  or  timbers,  framed  together  by  iron  cross  beams  above,  and  which*  bear  on  its  under 
side  iron  facing  pieces,  which  bear  on  rollers  placed  at  suitable  distance  on  cells  in  the  floor 
of  the  mill.  Carriages  are  usually  made  in  sections  of  about  15  ft.  in  length,  and  fastened 
together  by  rods  and  dowels.  The  side  piece  nearest  the  saw  bears  on  its  under  surface  a 


772  SAWS,   WOOD. 


rack  that  engages  with  a  pinion  by  which  lengthwise  feed  of  the  carriage  and  log  are  given, 
driving  the  saw  through  the  log. 

In  some  mills  this  rack-and-pinion  feed  is  dispensed  with  and  a  rope  feed  is  used ;  in 
others  the  carriage  is  connected  to  the  piston-rod  of  a  long  steam-cylinder,  and  admission  of 
steam  drives  out  the  piston  and  forces  the  carriage  along  by  direct  action  at  a  marvellous  rate 
of  speed  ;  this  constitutes  what  is  known  as  a  "shot-gun  feed."  Lengthwise  of  the  carriage, 
on  the  side  furthest  from  the  saw,  is  what  is  known  as  the  set-beam,  which  is  prevented  from 
springing  up  by  suitable  projections  engaging  with  the  under  sides  of  the  cross  pieces  of  the 
carriage.  To  this  set-beam  there  are  attached  the  various  head  and  side  blocks  and  uprights  to 
which  the  log  is  attached  or  against  which  it  rests.  The  set-beam,  blocks,  uprights,  and  log 
are  given  traverse  across  the  carriage  by  slight  advances  each  time  that  the  saw  has  made  a 
cut  and  the  carriage  is  drawn  back  ;  the  rate  of  withdrawal  being  much  more  rapid  than 
that  of  feed,  even  with  the  shot-gun  feed.  The  set-beam  is  advanced  only  a  slight  degree 
after  each  cut ;  and  in  large  mills  it  is  retired  by  power  to  make  room  for  the  next  large  log 
after  one  has  been  sawed  down  to  the  last  board. 

The  rack-and-pinion  carriage  feed  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  teeth  of  the  rack  and 
pinions  are  liable  to  break,  causing  annoyance  and  delay.  To  lessen  this  trouble,  it  is 
necessary  to  increase  the  width  of  face  of  the  gears,  which  of  course  adds  to  the  weight 
of  carriage.  Where  rope  feed  is  used,  there  are  several  ways  of  effecting  the  winding  up  of 
the  rope.  In  one  of.  them,  which  may  properly  be  called  a  rope  and  gear  feed,  the  rope 
sheave  is  made  in  the  form  of  an  internal  gear,  having  the  cogs  or  teeth  on  the  inside  and 
the  spiral  groove  for  the  rope  outside.  This  sheave  is  keyed  to  a  short  shaft,  which  runs  in 
boxes  bolted  to  the  timbers  underneath  the  carriage  and  directly  opposite  to  the  mill  frame. 
It  is  rotated  by  a  feed  pinion  which  runs  in  the  internal  gear  in  the  same  manner  as  it  would 
in  the  rack  of  the  carriage. 

Some  sawyers  prefer  trucks  on  the  carriage  and  tracks  on  the  floor,  but  this  has  disad- 
vantages, in  that  tracks  on  the  floor  obstruct  the  floor  itself,  and  dirt  on  them  is  readily 
accumulated  and  is  likely  to  throw  the  carriage  off  the  track  or  lift  it  on  one  side,  thus 
making  an  irregular  cut.  A  carriage  with  the  track  on  its  under  side  is  lighter  than  one 
bearing  trucks ;  it  runs  more  easily ;  the  rolls  may  be  more  readily  kept  in  line  and  level  than 
a  track  ;  the  chairs  which  bear  them  may  be  set  on  a  level  with  the  floor  of  the  mill,  enabling 
it  to  be  crossed  with  barrows,  etc. ;  they  are  more  durable,  because  only  such  rolls  as  the  car- 
riage passes  over  rotate,  while  where  they  are  on  the  carriage  every  one  turns  ;  they  are  more 
readily  replaced  when  worn,  and  are  more  economical,  because  when  those  opposite  the  saw 
frame,  which  are  most  used,  are  worn,  they  can  be  exchanged  for  those  nearer  the  ends  ;  and 
the  back  rolls  being  finished  the  same  as  the  front  ones,  can  be  changed  to  the  front  and 
made  to  do  service  as  guide  rolls. 

In  the  best  mills  the  head  blocks  and  horizontal  rests  on  the  carriage  are  at  intervals  of 
3  to  4  ft.  the  entire  length  of  the  carriage,  and  uprights  which  add  side  support  are 
placed  on  the  set-beam  directly  over,  and  at  right  angles  to,  the  head  blocks.  This  arrange- 
ment does  away  with  the  necessity  of  moving  the  head  blocks  when  sawing  logs  which  vary 
in  length. 

Saw-mill  Attachments. — Dogs  for  holding  the  logs  are  sometimes  merely  steel  rods,  having 
heads  like  pointed  hammer-heads,  one  end  of  the  rod  being  fastened  by  and  on  to  the  set-beam, 
the  other  end  being  driven  into  the  log.-  But  those  on  head  blocks  and  tail  blocks  are  more 
complicated,  being  arranged  so  that  two  of  them  bite  into  the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of 
the  log  in  opposition  to  one  another,  being  forced  in  by  screw  or  eccentric  motion.  For  en- 
abling the  saw  to  work  close  up  to  the  uprights,  there  are  what  are  known  as  last-board  dogs, 
which  project  only  about  one-half  inch  from  the  uprights,  and  may  be  used  after  the  other 
dogs  have  been  retired  by  reason  of  the  log  having  been  nearly  entirely  sawed  away. 

A  saw-mill  dog,  brought  out  by  the  Knight  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Canton,  0.,  belongs 
to  that  class  in  which  an  adjustable  head  carries  the  dog-bit,  and  is  secured  at  any  point  on 
a  horizontal  sliding  bar,  with  a  lever  connection  to  force  it  into  the  timber.  The  upright  is 
formed  of  two  parallel  straight  pieces,  on  one  of  which  slides  the  head  carrying  the  upper 
dog-bit,  giving  adjustability  in  height ;  the  locking  mechanism  for  this  being  an  eccentric 
and  lever.  The  lower  dog  is  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  with  the  vertical,  its  lower 
end  being  turned  up  to  about  the  same  angle.  It  is  controlled  by  the  lever  which  operates  the 
upper  dog.  The  lower  dog-bit  moves  upward  until  it  strikes  the  timber,  then  upward  into  it, 
both  dogs  being  locked  in  position  when  first  in  the  timber.  To  operate  the  upper  dog,  the  dog- 
bit  is  dropped  on  the  log,  and  is  forced  downward  into  the  timber  by  drawing  downward  upon 
the  long  lever.  When  released  from  its  bite  in  the  timber,  thelower  dog  returns  to  its  original 
position,  automatically  locking  itself,  and  remains  there  out  of  the  way  until  again  liberated 
by  the  operator.  These  dogs  are  made  right  and  left-handed.  For  a  right-hand  mill  a  right- 
hand  dog  is  used  on  the  front  head  block,  and  a  left-hand  one  on  each  rear  block  ;  while  on 
a  left-hand  mill  a  left-hand  dog  is  used  on  the  front  head  block  and  a  right-hand  on  the  rear. 

For  holding  quartered  logs  on  the  carriage  there  are  employed  what  are  known  as  quarter- 
log  dogs,  which  have  two  sets  of  teeth,  sliding  up  and  down  on  the  upright,  and  each  set  ar- 
ranged so  that  their  points  come  in  a  vertical  line,  inclined  about  45°  to  the  horizontal,  so 
that  they  can  conveniently  grip  between  them  the  corner  of  a  quarter  log,  included  between 
one  of  the  sawed  faces  and  the  bark. 

For  rolling  heavy  logs  on  to  the  saw-mill  carriage,  and  for  turning  them  when  slabbing, 
it  is  almost  necessary  to  have  a  canting  machine  of  some  sort  or  other.  One  of  the  most 
simple,  which  may  also  be  used  for  drawing  logs  into  the  mill,  consists  merely  of  a  horizontal 


SAWS,   WOOD. 


773 


drum,  on  the  axis  of  which  there  is  a  spur  wheel,  driven  by  a  pinion  on  a  shaft,  receiving 
power  by  belt.  This  device,  when  used  as  a  log  turner,  is  fastened  to  the  timbers  overhead, 
and  a  chain  attached  to  the  drum  is  carried  along  over  open  sheaves  to  the  middle  of  the  car- 
riage, as  it  stands  when  run  back  to  take  on  the  longest  sticks.  In  turning,  the  sawyer  or 
his  assistant  takes  down  from  overhead  the  hook  which  is  attached  to  the  chain  and  attaches 
it  to  the  log,  and  by  throwing  on  the  belt-power  causes  the  chain  to  wind  up  on  the  drum, 
and  thus  turn  the  log  as  much  or  as  little  as  desired.  Logs  may  be  rolled  from  the  log  deck 
by  passing  the  chain  entirely  around  them  once  or  twice,  and  then  working  as  before  men- 
tioned. When  used  as  a  jacker  for  hauling  in  logs,  there  is  required  a  longer  spool,  heavier 
gears,  and  longer  chain,  and  the  machine  may  be  placed  either  under  the  mill  floor,  or  over- 
head, as  may  be  most  convenient.  The  gearing  and  frictions  should  be  heavy  enough  to 
enable  several  logs  at  a  time  to  be  hauled  into  the  second  story  of  a  mill  building. 

One  very  well  made  log-jacker  has  an  endless  chain  engaging  with  a  pitch  wheel  and  a 
shaft  which  is  driven  by  spur  and  pinion,  the  shaft  bearing  this  latter  being  driven  by  V- 
frictions  from  a  belted  shaft. 

A  log-nigger  moves  the  log  from  the  table  to  the  carriage,  by  a  nearly  vertical  beam,  piv- 
oted at  its  lower  end  beneath  the  mill  floor,  and  given  slight  oscillation  in  the  direction  in 


FIG.  2.—  Resawing  machine. 

which  it  is  desired  to  move  the  log,  by  a  friction  device  hauling  on  a  chain.  The  upper 
end  of  the  beam  next  the  log  is  armed  with  teeth  which  engage  the  logs. 

A  gauge-roll  for  board-sawing  machines  consists  of  a  vertical  roll  on  a  horizontal  bracket, 
which  slides  along  a  horizontal  graduated  scale,  so  as  to  bring  the  vertical  roll  at  any  dis- 
tance from  the  saw,  the  motion  being  effected  and  the  position  of  the  roll  maintained  by  the 
screw  mentioned,  and  a  hand  wheel.  A  scale  shows  the  actual  distance  between  the  saw 
and  the  roll.  A  horizontal  roll  at  the  back  of  the  device  serves  as  a  support  for  the  lumber 
passing  over  the  frame.  The  arm  which  bears  the  vertical  roll  is  hinged  so  as  to  swing  out 
of  the  way  when  slabbing.  The  special  use  of  such  a  rolJ  is  in  sawing  boards  of  different 
thickness,  such  as  is  known  as  dimension  stuff,  and  in  making  the  last  cuts  through  a  cant, 
as  it  prevents  the  lumber  springing  away  from  the  uprights,  and  increases  the  evenness  of 
thickness  of  the  lumber. 

Resawing  machinery  has  taken  a  very  important  place  in  the  economy  of  sawing.  It  has 
now  become  the  custom  almost  all  over  our  country  to  saw  the  logs  at  the  mill  only  into  stand- 
ard dimensions  of  considerable  size,  and  to  ship  these  to  near  the  place  of  distribution  and 
consumption,  where  they  are  then  sawed  thinner,  to  such  dimensions  as  may  be  considered 
most  desirable  for  the  local  market  or  special  demand.  This  policy  greatly  lessens  the  waste 
of  lumber,  in  that  the  kerf  taken  by  the  resawing  machine  in  slitting  a  plank  into  two  boards 
is  less  than  that  made  by  a  heavy  log-saw,  and  also  there  is  less  material  spoiled  by  the  grit, 


774 


SAWS,   WOOD. 


Fro.  3.— Circular  resawing  machine. 


dirt,  and  defacing  marks  which  are  inseparable  from  shipment  by  rail,  canal,  or  raft.  The 
light  and  rapid  resaw  also  enables  a  dealer  to  fill  his  orders  for  irregular  thicknesses,  or  for 
any  great  quantity  of  any  regular  size  with  reasonable  promptness,  and  without  having  to 
keep  on  hand,  drawing  interest,  and  subject  to  fire  risks,  an  unreasonable  stock  of  lumber. 

The  resawing  machine  shown  in  Fig.  2,  and  made  by  Rowley,  Hermance  &  Co.,  of  Wil- 
liamsport,  Pa.,  has  a  heavy  frame  cast  in  one  piece.  The  arbor  overhangs  the  box  next  the 
saw,  admitting  of  the  latter  being  easily  removed.  The  saw  arbor  boxes  are  connected  by  a 
heavy  yoke  and  keyed  to  the  frame,  and  are  moved  to  and  from  the  rolls  by  a  screw,  keeping 
the  saw  in  line  with  them.  The  rolls  move  upon  the  platen  in  pairs  and  adjust  themselves 
to  various  thicknesses  of  lumber,  opening  6  in.  and  permitting  a  1-in.  board  to  be  cut  from 
a  6-in.  plank.  One  pair  of  rolls  may  be  made  stationary,  and  lumber  of  even  thickness  cut 
upon  that  side,  and  inequalities  of  thickness  confined  to  the  other  side.  The  table  upon 
which  the  lumber  rests  being  very  close  to  the  rolls,  permits  of  sawing  very  narrow  boards. 
The  feed  works  are  reversible,  and  lumber  may  be  run  from  the  saw  more  rapidly  than  to  it. 
The  platen  that  supports  the  rolls  turns  upon  a  center  for  sawing  beveled  siding,  and  is  regu- 
lated by  a  graduated  index  plate.  The  saw  may  be  lifted  out  of  the  frame  and  kept  sus- 
pended on  a  pin  in  the  center,  thus  protecting  the  teeth  from  bending  and  twisting. 

The  24-in.  circular  resawing  machine  shown  in  Fig.  3,  and  made  by  the  Egan  Co.,  is  for 
beveled  siding  and  general  planing  and  furniture  work.  The  frame  is  one  piece,  cored  out. 
There  are  four  vertical  feed  rolls,  which  work  so  close  to  the  board  rest  that  a  |-in.  strip  may 

be  cut  if  necessary.  The  feed  rolls  are  on  a  swing- 
ing frame,  and  by  the  adjustment  of  a  hand  nut 
any  angle  of  cut  may  be  obtained.  The  feed 
rolls  are  carried  together,  and  the  belt  which 
drives  them  runs  from  the  middle  to  the  counter- 
shaft, and  from  that  to  the  cone  pulley  on  the  feed 
shaft,  so  that  when  the  feed  rolls  are  thrown  on  a 
bevel  the  feed  belt  keeps  its  tension.  The  feed 
rolls  may  be  moved  all  four  at  once,  or  only  two 
at  a  time.  There  is  lateral  adjustment  by  a 
crank  at  the  end.  They  are  self-centering,  and 
will  take  any  lumber  from  |  in.  to  8  in  thick. 
Those  on  one  side  may  be  made  rigid  by  a  crank 
handle  at  the  side  of  the  swinging  frame,  to  per- 
mit of  taking  a  piece  £  in.  thick  from  the  side  of 
a  thick  plank. 

In  a  resawing  machine  made  by  Hoyt  &  Bro. 
there  is  an  iron  trough  which  nearly  follows  the  lower  periphery  of  the  saw,  and  merges 
into  a  spout  which  conducts  the  sawdust  clear 
of  the  machine,  or  to  a  chute  or  exhaust  pipe, 
thus  materially  adding  to  the  convenience  of  the 
machine. 

For  the  larger  grade  of  resaws,  the  saws 
are  sectional,  having  thin  sectors  fastened  by 
flush  screws  to  a  tapering  central  disk  ;  the  adja- 
cent radial  edges  of  the  sectors  being  joined  by 
dovetail  pieces  flush  with  the  edges  of  the  plate, 
and  close  to  the  tooth  line.  Of  course,  this  permits 
the  use  of  thinner  saws  than  would  be  possible 
where  a  single  disk  was  used. 

Various  Forms  of  Circular  Sawing  Machines. — 
Of  circular  sawing  machines  other  than  those  for 
log-cutting  and  board  resawing,  there  are  many 
varieties,  distinguished  or  classifiable  according  as 
there  is  one  or  more  than  one  upon  the  table,  and 
whether,  where  there  are  two,  these  are  parallel 
and  upon  the  same  axis,  so  that  both  may  be  used 
at  once,  or  are  on  separate  arbors,  so  that  only  one 
may  be  swung  into  use  at  once.  In  some  machines, 
too,  the  work  is  fed  to  the  saw  ;  in  others  the  saw  is 
fed  to  the  work  ;  and  in  those  in  which  the  saw  is 
stationary,  the  work  may  be  fed  by  hand,  or  drawn 
along  by  a  chain  upon  rollers,  or  fastened  to  the 
carriage  and  moved  with  it.  In  those  machines  in 
which  the  saw  is  moved  to  the  work,  it  may  be  on  a 
carriage  or  saddle,  or  swinging  at  the  end  of  a 
pendulum.  Where  it  is  on  a  carriage  or  saddle, 
its  motion  may  be  either  horizontal  or  vertical,  and 
if  at  the  end  of  the  pendulum  it  may  be  pivoted 
either  below  or  above  the  work.  All  these  varieties 
exist ;  each  of  them  having  some  special  purpose, 
and  being  best  adapted  for  that  purpose.  Some  sawing  machines  are  for  ripping,  others  for 
cross  cutting  ;  some  for  gaining  or  grooving  as  well  as  for  separating. 


FIG.  4. — Swing  cut-off  saw. 


SAWS,   WOOD. 


775 


FIG.  5.— Parallel  swins  saw. 


Bracket  stationary  cut-off  saws  appear  in  two  principal  varieties,  one  in  which  the  bracket 
is  fastened  to  a  post  or  wall,  and  another  in  which  it  is  borne  by  a  special  cast-iron  column. 
The  bracket  has  a  vertical  adjustment  upon  the  column,  where  there  is  one,  and  upon  the  wall 
plate  where  there  is  no  column.  The  arbor  runs  horizontally  in  a  sliding  gate-way  gibbed  to 

the  face  of  the  bracket.  The  table  bearing  the  work  is 
at  right"  angles  to  the  bracket  and  has  rollers  to  facili- 
tate feeding  along  the  stuff.  The  table  has  vertical 
adjustment  by  hand  wheel,  to  suit  the  thickness  of  the 
material  being  cut  or  the  wear  of  the  saw  to  smaller 
diameter. 

A  vertical  cut-off  saw  made  by  the  Berry  &  Orton 
Co.  has  a  vertical  column,  up  and  down  one  face  of 
which  there  slides  a  counterbalanced  saddle  bearing  a 
saw  mandrel  ;  and  its  movement  up  and  down,  which 
is  by  a  rack  and  pinion,  is  controlled  by  a  treadle.  The 
table  which  bears  the  work  has  adjustment  to  and  from 
the  column  to  suit  different  diameters  of  saws,  and 
also  radial  adjustment  for  angle  sawing.  The  same 
machine  may  be  used  for  gaining  if  desired. 

In  a  direct-acting  steam  cut-off  saw  by  William  E. 
Hill  &  Co. ,  the  circular  saw  and  its  mandrel  are  on  the 
top  of  a  solid  iron  frame,  planed  on  its  side  and  edges, 
and  working  in  adjustable  vertical  guides.  This  iron 
frame  is  worked  up  and  down  by  an  upright  steam 
cylinder  with  28  in.  stroke,  and  having  steam  cushion  at 
each  end  to  permit  of  high  speed  of  working. 

A  powerful  machine  for  cutting  off  and  gaining,  as  in 
railway,  car,  bridge,  and  other  heavy  work,  has  a  vertical 
column  from  which  there  projects  a  strong  horizontal  bracket,  on  the  under  surface  of  which 
there  slides  a  carriage  bearing  a  saw  with  horizontal  mandrel.  Under,  and  at  right  angles 
to  this  bracket,  there  is  a  horizontal  table  at  which  is  placed  the  material  to  be  cut  off  or 
gained  ;  this  table  having  rollers  to  permit  the  material  to  be  moved  lengthwise  to  bring 
the  proper  mark  under  the  saw.  To  provide  for  the  use  of  circular  saws  of  various  sizes, 
and  to  allow  for  the  cutting  of  gains  of  different  depths,  the  arm  or  bracket  is  adjustable 
vertically  by  screws  operated  by  hand  or  power.  The  saw  carriage,  which  traverses  the 
entire  length  of  the  arm,  is  moved  by  a  screw  actuated  by  a  friction  clutch,  the  feed  being 
started  and  stopped  by  either  one  of  two  levers,  one  at  the  front  of  the  table  and  the  other 
at  the  side  of  the  column,  thus  placing  the  machine  well  under  the  operator's  control.  The 
saw  is  driven  by  an  endless  belt  wrapping  around  idlers  in  such  a  way  that  it  preserves  its 
tightness,  no  matter  how  far  out  upon  the  bracket  the  saw  mandrel  may  be. 

In  the  railway  cut-off  saw  of  the  H.  B.  Smith  Machine  Co.  there  is  a  horizontal  table 
bearing  a  horizontal  cross-head  or  saddle,  which  supports  in  proper  bearings  the  horizontal 
mandrel  of  the  saw.  This  cross-head  or  saddle  is  attached  to  a  connecting-rod  pivoted  at  its 
other  end  to  a  frame  which  vibrates  about  a  center  at  its  lower  end,  this  being  the  center 
about  which  a  large  pulley 
rotates.  Prom  this  large 
pulley  a  belt  rises  and  passes 
over  a  small  pulley  near  the 
top  of  the  vibrating  frame, 
then  horizontally  to  the  saw 
pulley,  back  horizontally  to 
a  second  or  upper  small 
pulley  on  the  vibrating 
frame,  and  down  to  the 
lower  or  large  pulley.  A 
long  hand  lever  enables  this 
vibrating  frame  to  be  drawn 
forward,  and  with  it  the 
saw.  giving  traverse  in  the 
machine.  Above  the  saw 
bearings  are  two  horizontal 
guide  bars  which  serve  as 
rests  for  the  stock. 

In  the  swing  cut-off  saw 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  and  made 
by  Rowley  &  Hermance,  the 
frame  swings  upon  the  hang- 
ers instead  of  upon  the 
countershaft  as  in  most 
other  machines  ;  it  is  adjustable  for  different  heights  of  ceiling,  the  saddle  holding  the 
arbor  having  a  sliding  adjustment  of  5  in.  ;  thus  incidentally  permitting  the  saw  being 
entirely  used  up.  The  saw  is  protected  by  a  shield. 

In  a  parallel  swing  saw  machine  made  by  P.  Pryibil,  Fig.  5,  the  saw  arbor  travels  in  a 


FIG.  6.— Slitting  and  cut-off  saw  table. 


776 


SAWS,   WOOD. 


FIG.  7. — Double  and  single  cut-off  saw. 


horizontal  straight  line  instead  of  rising  and  falling  in  an  arc,  as  in  all  swing  saws,  thus 
enabling  a  comparatively  small  saw  to  be  used  for  wide  and  thick  timber,  and  permitting 
the  use  of  a  dado-head  for  grooving,  gaming,  rebating,  tenoning,  molding,  etc.  The  moving 
parts  are  balanced  so  that  they  will  stay  in  any  position  in  which  they  may  be  left.  The 
parallelism  is  given  by  the  main  bearings  sliding  in  vertical  grooves,  and  the  pendulum  being 
connected  at  about  the  center  of  its  length  with  a  link-piece  pivoted  at  about  the  height  of 
the  saw  arbor,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

The  combination  slitting  and  cut-off  saw  table  made  by  Beach,  Brown  &  Co.,  and  shown 
in  Fig.  6,  has  a  bed  mounted  upon  roller  bearings,  so  as  to  make  it  run  easily  and  square 
with  the  saw.  For  dado  cutting,  grooving,  etc.,  the  saw  is  raised  and  lowered  by  a  hand 
wheel  and  screw,  or 
for  ordinary  work  by 
a  hand  lever. 

The  double  and 
single  cut-off  saw 
made  by  Beach, 
Brown  &  Co. ,  a  n  d 
shown  in  Fig.  7,  con- 
sists of  a  frame  hav- 
ing at  the  left-hand 
end  a  table  which  is 
permanently  fixed  to 
the  carriage,  while 
the  right-hand  table 
is  free  to  move  along 
the  carriage,  carrying 

with  it  a  movable  saw  for  cutting  material  of  different  lengths.  The  carriage  has  a  truss 
upon  both  the  front  and  the  back,  preventing  sagging  or  springing  in  the  center,  and  rests 
upon  four  flanged  differential  wheels,  having  no  fixed  bearings  and  serving  to  lessen  friction. 
The  two  wheels  on  the  front,  and  also  those  on  the  back,  are  connected  by  shafts,  so  that  the 
carriage  moves  square  with  the  saws. 

In  one  class  of  cheap  rip-saw  benches  the  machine  may  be  changed  from  power  feed  to 
hand  feed  by  raising  the  feed  works,  which  are  contained  in  a  frame  that  is  pivoted  at  one  end 
of  the  machine.  This  feed  is  driven  by  belting,  and  carries  the  stuff  along  by  the  usual  spur 
wheel  having  its  axis  and  its  plane  of  rotation  parallel  with  those  of  the  saw. 

In  one  type  of  miter  and  bevel  sawing  machines  the  table  is  fixed  in  height,  and  has  no 
adjustment  at  all ;  but  the  saw  arbor  is  raised  and  lowered  in  a  gibbed  frame  at  such  an  angle 
as  to  keep  the  belt  tension  constant ;  a  central  hand  wheel  in  front  of  the  machine  accom- 
plishing this  adjustment.  There  is  an  adjustable  bevel  fence  which  works  in  a  planed  way  to 
and  from  the  saw,  and  can  be  set  to  different  angles.  The  saw  and  its  arbor  can  be  set  to 
any  angle  from  the  vertical  plane  to  45°  by  turning  a  hand  wheel  at  the  left  of  the  machine, 
either  while  the  machine  is  still  or  while  it  is  running.  This  construction  and  arrangement 
render  it  unnecessary  to  provide  more  opening  around  the  saw  in  the  table  for  miter  sawing 
with  the  saw  tilted  than  with  the  saw  in  its  vertical  position.  Having  the  table  level  and  the 
saw  tipped  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  holding  the  material  to  the  table,  as  is  often 
desirable  where  the  table  is  tipped  ;  furthermore,  very  long  stuff  does  not  come  in  the  way  of 
the  floor  or  of  other  objects. 

A  universal  sawing  machine,  Fig.  8,  made  by  R.  E.  Kidder,  has  a  square  box  frame,  the  top 

of  which  has  vertical  adjustment,  and  is 
counterbalanced  by  a  weight  within. 
There  is  a  spider  rotating  on  a  horizontal 
axis,  and  having  three  arms,  each  of 
which  has  an  arbor  for  a  saw  or  a  cutter 
head,  each  arbor  having  two  bearings. 
On  one  end  of  each  arbor  is  a  saw  or  cut- 
ter, and  on  the  other  a  clutch  which  en- 
gages with  a  sliding  clutch  on  the  driving 
shaft,  making  a  continuous  shaft  when 
the  spider  is  so  rotated  as  to  bring  any 
one  of  the  three  arbors  in  line  with  the 
main  driving  shaft.  On  the  outer  end 
of  the  main  or  common  shaft  is  a  locking 
wheel,  having  three  holes  and  three  equi- 
distant projections.  Passing  through  the 
frame  and  entering  the  wheel  is  a  locking 
pin,  on  the  inner  or  opposite  end  of  which 
is  attached  a  fork  pivoted  to  the  frame,  and 
FIG.  8.— Universal  sawing  machine.  the  object  of  which  is  to  disengage  the 

sliding  clutch  on  the  driving  shaft.       The 
table  is  raised  by  a  lever  in  front  and  clamped  in  any  position. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  lumber  which  is  to  be  matched  or  jointed  should 
be  edged  straight,  for  any  irregularity  in  the  edging  will  be  followed  by  the  matcher,  and 
imperfect  lumber  will  be  the  result.  In  a  power-feed  double  edger  made  by  the  Lane  Manu- 


SAWS,    AVOOD. 


777 


facturing  Co.  the  boards  are  fed  through  the  machine  by  an  endless  chain  with  barbed  links, 
running  over  spocket  wheels  which  are  driven  by  a  friction-feed  box  having  three  changes  of 
feed.  Heavy  rolls  in  swing  frames  rest  on  the  top  of  the  board,  holding  it  down  to  the  bed. 
The  barbed  chain  travels  in  a  planed  iron  groove  which  guides  it,  and  a  bradded  roll  at  the 
tail  end  of  the  machine  causes  the  board  to  pass  out  in  line  with  the  chain  feed. 

There  is  a  large  class  of  circular  sawing  machines  which  may  be  considered  under  a 
miscellaneous  heading ;  as,  for  instance,  slab  slashers,  slat-saws,  picket  machines,  etc.  A 
steam-feed  lath  machine,  made  by  William  E.  Hill  &  Co.,  has  a  steam-cylinder  feed  with 
a  carriage  to  receive  the  slab  which  is  to  be  made  into  lath.  This  latter  is  placed  on  the  car- 
riage, which  makes  it  into  lath  without  its  being  previously  butted.  The  same  machine 
may  be  arranged  to  saw  broom-handles  from  cuts  or  small  round  logs,  making  from  two  to 
ten"  handles  at  a  time,  according  to  the  size  of  the  bolt  or  log.  There  are  two  circular  saws 
on  horizontal  arbors,  one  in  advance  of  the  other,  and  there  is  a  gang  of  smaller  disks  on  the 
vertical  rubber,  back  of  the  two  vertical  disks. 

A  power-feed  slab  slasher,  which  differs  greatly  from  the  ordinary  type  of  slabbing  ma- 
chines, made  by  D.  S.  Abbott,  Olean,  N.  Y.,  has  but  one  saw,  and  this  is  borne  on  the  end  of 
a  frame  which  is  pivoted  at  its  lower  end.  and  bears  near  its  upper  end  a  cross-head  with  pro- 
jections that  engage  on  the  sides  of  a  guide-bar,  the  outline  of  which  is  a  circular  arc,  and 
which  is  intended  to  hold  the  saw  square  and  true  to  its  work.  The  table  or  bed  has  live  rolls 
which  feed  the  slab.  The  feed  is  by  friction  rolls,  and  pressure  of  the  foot  on  a  treadle  con- 
nects the  frictions  which  bring  the  "saw  forward  and  make  the  cut.  When  the  saw  recedes 
from  the  cut.  and  is  at  or  near  the  back  end  of  its  stroke,  an  arm  comes  in  contact  with  connec- 
tions which  actuate  the  friction  gear  and  the  live  rolls,  and  they  start,  carrying  the  slab  for- 
ward for  the  next  cut.  Pressure  again  on  the  foot  treadle  starts  the  saw  forward,  and  at 
the  same  time  releases  the  frictional  contact  of  the  rolls,  which  stand  idle  while  the  saw  is 
making  its  cut,  and  start  again  when  the  saw  swings  back  to  the  proper  point. 

For  making  square  stick  slats  for  wire  fences,  trunks,  etc.,  it  is  best  to  employ  a  special 
machine.  Such  a  one  has  a  horizontal  carriage,  with  a  track  on  which  there  runs  a  carriage 
bearing  the  log  or  cant  to  be  sawed  up  ;  between  two  parts  there  is  a  cross- head  or  saddle  the 
whole  width  of  the  machine,  and  this  bears  a  horizontal  mandrel  lying  across  the  line  of  the 
track,  and  a  vertical  one  ;  the  latter  having  separate  adjustment  for  height  and  for  distance 
from  the  parts.  The  horizontal  mandrel  bears  two  saws,  which  cut  their  way  into  the  stock 
to  a  definite  depth,  and  the  horizontal  saw  upon  the  vertical  axis  then  makes  a  cut  in  a  hor- 
izontal plane.  By  adjustment  of  this  last  saw  the  planks  may  be  sawed  tapering,  with  alter- 
nate butts  and  tops,  so  that  the  sawing  is  continually  with  the  grain.  This  machine  saws 
with  the  backward  movement  of  the  carriage  as  well  as  with  the  forward,  thus  saving  the 
time  otherwise  lost  in  gigging  back.  The  vertical  arbor  is  driven  from  a  vertical  drum  hav- 
ing the  lower  end  of  its  shaft  in  a  pot-box  on  the  floor,  and  its  upper  end  in  a  timber  bearing 
on  the  ceiling.  In  sawing  both  ways  two  operators  are  required,  one  at  each  end ;  they 
remove  the  piece  that  has  just  been  sawed,  and  adjust  the  log  carriage  by  a  hand  wheel 

until  the  next  log 
strikes  the  gauge. 
When  sawing  one 
way,  only  one  oper- 
ator is  needed.  The 
machine  automatical- 
ly reverses  itself,  the 
carriage  and  log  start 
back  for  another  cut ; 
hence  the  operator 
must  be  prompt  in  ad- 
justing the  log  over 
against  the  gauge. 
There  is  a  lever  by 
which  the  carriage 
may  be  reversed  by 
hand,  if  for  any  reason 
it  is  desired  to  back 
out  of  a  cut  before  it 
is  finished. 

Foot-power  Circu- 
lar Saws. — The  devel- 
opment of  a  new 
country  would  be  ren- 
dered much  more  dif- 
ficult if  there  were 
no  medium  between 
power-driven  machin- 
ery and  hand  tools. 
In  this  particular  the 
line  of  wood- working 

machinery  is  especially  fortunate  in  having  provision  for  the  large  class  of  small  operatives 
in   slightly  populated   yet  growing  districts  ;  hand  and  foot-power  machinery  for  sawing, 


FIG.  9. — Foot-power  circular  saw. 


778 


SAWS,    WOOD. 


boring,  etc.,  being  plentiful,  and  in  the  main  quite  well  adapted  for  the  work  that  it  is  called 
upon  to  do. 

There  may  be  said  to  be  two  classes  of  foot  and  hand-power  machinery  ;  those  for  ama- 
teurs and  those  for  workmen.  Machines  in  the  first  class  are  usually  adapted  to  do  but 
light  work,  and  several  operations  on  one  machine  ;  the  latter  are  built  to  stand  continued 
work  on  stock  such  as  has  to  go  into  actual  service,  and  there  is  seldom  the  same  range  of 
operations . 

The  application  of  man  power  to  the  circular  saw  has  been  of  great  use  to  small  manufac- 
turers. In  this  line  such  a  machine  as  that  made  by  Marston  &  Co.,  and  shown  in  Fig.  9, 
has  done  good  service.  There  is  an  iron  frame  with  a  wooden  top  or  table  ;  a  treadle  in 
front  gives  motion  to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  machine  ;  a  large  spur-wheel  drives  a  small  pinion 
on  a  lower  shaft,  which  bears  a  large  band -wheel  from  which  a  belt  extends  to  a  small  pulley 
upon  the  saw  arbor.  The  large  band-wheel  serves  as  a  fly-wheel.  A  crank  at  the  left-hand 
side  of  the  table,  and  upon  the  crank  shaft  which  is  driven  by  the  treadle,  enables  the  work 
of  the  foot  to  be  supplemented  or  superseded  by  hand.  Such  a  machine  as  this  will  carry 
a  7-in.  saw,  and  do  cross-cutting  and  ripping,  being  supplied  with  necessary  gauges.  An 
extension  of  the  saw  arbor  enables  boring  to  be  done,  a  separate  sliding  table  for  bringing 
the  work  up  to  the  bit  being  added.  There  is  also  a  side  treadle  which  works  independently 
of  the  saw  treadle,  and  permits  the  operator  to  stand  upon  the  boring  side  or  end  of  the 
machine,  directly  in  front  of  his  work. 

In  another  foot-power  machine,  a  scroll-sawing  attachment  is  put  on  by  throwing  off  the 
main  belt  which  drives  the  saw  arbor  from  the  fly-wheel,  and  passing  it  over  the  fly-wheel  to 
a  small  pulley  upon  a  crank  shaft,  instead  of  over  the  fly-wheel  to  the  saw  pulley.  The  lower 
end  of  the  jig-saw  blade  is  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  a  pitman  from  the  crank  ;  the  upper 
end  of  the  same  blade  being  attached  to  a  wooden  spring-beam. 

The  number  of  saw  filing  and  gumming  machines  is  legion ;  and  for  circular-saw  work 
they  are  usually  supplemented  by  a  jointer,  the  teeth  in  a  true  circle  concentric  with  the  saw 
arbor.  In  one  saw-mill  the  jointer  is  combined  with  the  saw  guide,  consisting  of  a  block  of 
emery  or  equivalent  abrasive  attached  to  the  bracket  which  bears  the  guides,  and  which  may 
be  brought  up  to  the  teeth,  while  the  saw  is  running  at  full  speed  ;  the  block  being  turned 
as  the  saw  rotates,  in  order  to  keep  its  surface  free  from  scores,  which  would  destroy  it  and 
make  its  work  untrue. 

An  automatic  machine  for  sharpening  circular  rip-saws  of  from  8  to  72  in.  in  diameter, 
mounts  the  disk  in  a  frame  in  which  there  is  a  belt-driven  emery-wheel,  of  the  proper  section 
to  give  the  desired  tooth  form  ;  this  cuts  its  way  across  and  finishes  the  face  of  one  tooth 
and  the  back  of  another  ;  then  the  wheel  is  brought  back  to  its  original  position,  the  disk  is 
moved  on  the  space  of  one  tooth,  and  the  machine  continues,  automatically,  to  work  its  way 
around  the  disk,  in  the  same  way  as  a  gear-cutting  machine  does  around  a  blank.  There  is 
suitable  adjustment  to  take  in  disks  of  various  diameters,  and  the  amount  of  partial  rotation 
after  cutting  or  sharpening  each  tooth  is  governed  by  the  position  of  an  arm  with  regard 
to  a  graduated  arc.  The  same  principle  is  adapted  to  sharpening  long,  straight  blades  ;  the 
spacing  in  this  case  being  in  a  straight  line  instead  of  circular. 

BAND  SAWS. — While  the  band  saw  was  invented  about  the  year  1808,  it  did  not  come  into 
use  until  1835,  since  which  time  there  has  been  a  gradual  but  steady  and  satisfactory  devel- 
opment along  various  lines  of  design  and  work.  Its  use  takes  in  practically  nearly  every 


FIG.  10.— Resawing  machine. 


FIG.  11.— Duplex  reversible  band-saw  table. 


kind  of  wood  sawing,  both  curved  and  straight  lines,  from  very  delicate  outside  fret-work  to 
the  heaviest  logs  ;  the  latter  having  band-wheels  as  large  as  96  in.  in  diameter,  carrying 
8-in.  saws  50  ft.  long. 

A  band  resawing  machine  made  by  the  Egan  Co.  has  the  two  front  feed  rolls  close  to  the 
saw  blade,  and  the  tops  of  the  roller  brackets  are  connected,  so  that  the  plank  may  be  straight- 


SAWS,  WOOD. 


779 


ened  while  sawed. 


FIG.  12.  —Band-saw  guide. 


The  wheels  are  of  iron  with  steel  spokes,  and  their  mandrels  run  in 
self-oiling  boxes.  The  lower  wheel  is  thicker  and  more 
solid  in  the  rim  than  the  upper,  giving  it  more  momen- 
tum, although  it  may  be  readily  stopped  by  the  brake.  Each 
wheel  is  supported  by  an  outside  bearing  each  side  of  the 
column,  giving  three  bearings  each  to  the  upper  and  the 
lower  shaft.  The  feed  consists  of  six  large  geared  rolls 
driven  by  a  graduated  feed,  so  that  the  speed  can  be 
changed  at  once  by  turning  a  hand  wheel  while  the  board  is 
being  fed  through  the  machine.  A  ratchet  lever  connected 
with  the  upper  guide  permits  changing  the  latter  to  suit  the 
width  of  board  being  cut. 

Another  band  resawing  machine,  Fig.  10,  has  vertical 
feed  rolls,  the  front  two  of  which  are  close  to  the  saw  bed, 
and  the  system  of  gearing  employed  permits  the  plank  being 
straightened  while  sawing.  The  wheels  are  entirely  of 
iron,  and  the  lower  one  is  thicker  and  more  solid  than  the 
upper,  giving  a  certain  amount  of  momentum  where  it  is 
desired  to  make  the  sawing  steady,  at  the  same  time  being 
within  the  control  of  the  brake.  There  are  six  large  feed 

rolls,  heavily  geared,  and  driven  by  a  graduated  feed,  which  permits  the  speed  to  be  changed 

instantly,    by   turning  a  hand 

wheel,  while*  the  board  is  being 

fed  through  the  machine.      By 

a  running  lever  handy  to  the 

operator,  the  upper  guide  may 

be  changed  to  suit  the  width  of 

board.       The    Egan     Co.    has 

made  a  band  resawing  machine 

which  will  saw   a  2|-in.  plank 

into  two  1-in.  boards  at  one  cut, 

thus    effecting    a    considerable 

saving  in  lumber. 

The  firm  of  Marston  &  Co. 

makes  a  hand  and  foot-power 

band  saw  with  both  hand  crank 

and  treadle,  and  which  for  out- 
side work  will  act  faster  than 

a  hand  jig  saw.     This  machine 

has  a  capacity  of  6  in.  in  thick- 
ness under  the  top  guide,  and 

swings  15  in.  between  the  saw 

and  the  frame.     The   table  is 

rounded  for  cutting  on  the  bev- 
el.   The  speed -multiply  ing  rig 

consists  of  a  large  spur  wheel 

on   the   crank    shaft,    meshing 

with  a  pinion  on  the  lower  band 

wheel ;    the   shaft  bearing  the 

latter    having    a    fly-wheel    to 

steady  the  motion. 

For  band  resaws  a  very  de- 
sirable   attachment    or   feature 

is  the  duplex   reversible   table 

and    rolling   guides,  shown    in 

Fig.  11,  the  column  being  broken 

away  in  large  part.    The  table  is 

made   in  two  sections,   divided 

upon  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the 

saw  teeth.    On  the  front  section 

of  the  table   are   mounted   the 

feed  works,  consisting  of   four 

geared  rollers  having  a  gradu- 
ated friction  feed,   which  may 

be  varied  at  once  from  slow  to 

fast.       These  feed  rollers  have 

lateral  adjustment  to   suit  the 

thickness  to  be  cut.    By  loosen- 
ing a  nut  in  front,  upon  which 

the  outer  section  of  the  table  is 

mounted,  it  may  be  turned  com- 
pletely over,  its  lower  side  when  so  reversed  forming  a  clear  table  for  plain  band-sawing 

purposes. 


FIG.  14.— Jig  saw. 


780 


SCREW   MACHINES. 


A  band-saw  guide,  Fig.  12,  made  by  Goodell  &  Waters,  has  two  side  guides  consisting  of 
metal  plates,  which  are  adjustable  for  thickness  of  the  blade,  and  a  wheel  with  a  back 
guide,  the  latter  having  a  grooved  or  concave  periphery,  and  being  set  on  an  angle  so  that 
the  back  of  the  saw  passes  diagonally  across  the  wheel  periphery,  and  rotates  it.  Thus  the 
point  of  bearing  of  the  wheel  against  the  back  of  the  saw  blade  is  constantly  changed, 
and  the  saw  is  prevented  grooving  the  surface  of  the  wheel  by  continued  action  in  any  one 
place.  The  saw  has  a  bearing  of  1£  in.  at  the  back,  and  is  not  liable  to  twist  or  turn,  even 
if  the  side  pieces  are  removed.  The  wheel  runs  on  a  ball  bearing. 

A  desirable  feature  in  band  log-mills  is  the  saw  deflector,  by  which,  when  the  direction  of 
the  carriage  is  reversed,  the  saw  blade  is  automatically  drawn  back  from  the  surface  of  the 
cut,  to  prevent  marking  the  log,  and  set  back  into  line  before  and  during  the  cut.  Some 
band  log-mills  are  made  with  the  engine  and  the  lower  band-wheel  on  a  common  shaft,  and 
the  engine  is  so  arranged  that  the  sawyer  has  control  thereof  without  leaving  his  position  for 
running  the  mill.  It  is  desirable  that  the  position  of  the  band  on  the  wheels  be  controlled 
by  the  operator  without  leaving  his  place  or  stopping  the  machine,  as  the  collection  of  dust 
on  the  wheels  often  causes  the  blade  to  leave  its  path,  crowding  it  over  against  the  guides 
and  causing  breakage  and  stripping  of  the  blade.  It  is  also  desirable  that  the  tension  may 
be  changed  at  once  while  the  machine  is  running. 

The  band  saw  being  so  much  more  delicate  and  sensitive  than  the  circular,  it  is  well  that 
its  feed  works  be  arranged  with  a  friction  device  in  heavy  cuts,  in  order  to  vary  the  rate 
of  feed  from  zero  to  full  speed  without  stopping  the  mill. 

The  increasing  use  of  the  band  saw  has  led  to  the  production  of  filing  and  setting  frames, 
in  most  of  which  there  is  a  general  resemblance,  except  in  very  minor  details.  There  is  a  hori- 
zontal slab  or  sole  piece,  bearing  two  short  vertical  standards,  upon  which  are  journaled  two 
leather-covered  pulleys,  having  a  flange  on  the  lower  edge  of  each.  One  of  these  pulley  stand- 
ards is  fixed,  and  the  other  is  adjustable  lengthwise  of  the  machine,  in  order  to  take  in  bands 
of  various  lengths,  to  give  the  proper  tension  to  each  while  being  filed.  There  are  two  vises 
on  the  same  side  of  the  machine,  one  for  filing  and  the  other  for  setting.  The  filing  vise  is 
of  extra  length,  and  has  jaws  closed  by  three  handles.  The  setting  vise  is  of  cast-iron  with 
beveled  steel  jaws,  and  has  a  small  gauge  at  each  end,  which  can  be  adjusted  for  different 
widths  of  saws. 

Jig  Saws. — A  jig  saw,  shown  in  Fig.  14,  and  recently  made  by  P.  Pryibil,  has  a  lever  for 
depressing  its  upper  slide,  which  conduces  much  to  speed  and  convenience  in  placing  and 
removing  the  saw.  The  saw  runs  in  adjustable  guides,  which  can  be  varied  in  height  accord- 
ing to  the  thickness  of  the  work,  and  the  strain  may  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  saw  length.  The 
weight  of  the  strain  is  balanced  by  a  spiral  spring.  There  is  an  automatic  blower  to  keep 
the  work  free  from  sawdust.  The  connecting-rod  has  adjustable  bearings,  which  are  ar- 
ranged to  take  up  wear  endwise  in  the  direction  in  which  it  occurs,  and  not  sidewise,  as 
is  usual  in  machines  of  this  class.  The  machine  is  started  by  a  friction  clutch  without 
belt  shifting.  Simultaneously  with  the  releasing  of  the  clutch,  the  machine  is  stopped 
by  a  brake,  brought  into  operation  by  the  same  motion  which  releases  the  clutch. 

In  some  of  the  advanced  machines  for  scroll  sawing  by  strained  saws,  an  ingenious 
feature  is  that  the  strain  is  kept  practically  constant  at  all  parts  of  the  stroke,  by  coun- 
teracting the  loosening  flexibility  of  the  spring  by  an  eccentric  roller  varying  the  leverage 
at  each  point  of  the  stroke. 

Scales  :  see  Balance. 

SCREW  MACHINES.  The  name  screw  machine  is  not  properly  descriptive  of  the  class  of 
machines  to  which  it  is  applied.  It  does  not  well  indicate  many  purposes  for  which  they  have 
come  to  be  used,  and  yet  it  had  been 
too  long  applied  to  be  readily  changed. 
The  name  turret  lathe  is  a  more  generic 
term,  including  the  screw  machines  as 
a  variety.  (See  LATHES.)  Designed 
primarily  for  making  screws,  and  use- 
ful for  this  purpose  whenever  screws 
are  not  required  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  render  entirely  automatic  machines 
preferable,  screw  machines  are  per- 
haps chiefly  used  in  making  a  large 
variety  of  pieces  from  iron  or  steel 
bars,  and  in  finishing  castings  or  forg- 
ings  which  may  be  held  in  a  chuck 
while  subjected  to  one  or  more  opera- 
tions. The  full  extent  to  which  ex- 
perience has  shown  that  it  is  profitable 
to  employ  them  for  other  purposes  than 
for  making  screws  may  be  judged  from 
the  fact  that  in  the  shops  of  the  Brown 
&  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Co.  only  one 
out  of  every  eight  is  usually  employed 

for    this  purpose.     Three-eighths   are  FIG.  i.-Screw  machine, 

ordinarily  used  in  finishing  studs,  nuts, 
washers,  bushings,  pins,  handles,  etc. ,  from  round,  square,  or  hexagonal  stock  ;  while  one- 


SCREW   MACHINES. 


78J 


half  the  machines  are  generally  employed  on  small  wheels,  levers,  or  cams  for  sewing  ma- 
chines, or  on  small  parts  of  machine  tools. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  new  style  of  screw  machine  recently  introduced  by  the  Brown  &  Sharpe 
Manufacturing  Co.  The  head  is  back-geared,  and  the  change  from  belt  speed  to  back  gears 
is  effected,  without  stopping  the  spindle,  by  a  friction  clutch  which  is  practically  positive  in 
its  action  and  will  hold  the  full  belt-power  of  the  machine.  The  back  gears  are  underneath 
the  spindle-cone  and  are  entirely  enclosed.  The  gears  on  the  cone  are  also  enclosed.  The 
cone  has  three  steps.  The  turret  is  fed  automatically  or  by  hand,  and  has  eight  speeds,  as 
each  of  the  four  speeds  given  by  the  feed  cones  may  be  varied  by  shifting  a  lever,  so  that 
without  changing  the  belt  the  tools  may  be  fed  fast  or  slow  for  each  step  of  the  cone.  This 
is  a  novel  feature  in  screw  machines.  The  turret  is  94  in.  in  diameter.  The  movement  of 
the  turret-head  slide  is  9|  in.,  and  the  extreme  distance  between  the  face-plate  and  the  turret 
is  33  in.  The  length  that  can  be  drilled,  or  milled,  without  moving  the  turret-head  slide- 
bed  is  6  in. 

The  Niles  Screw  Machine. — Fig.  2  illustrates  a  screw  machine  built  by  the  Niles  Tool 
Works,  Hamilton,  O.  The  following  is  a  detailed  description  :  The  chuck,  A,  is  fast  on 
the  hollow  arbor  of 
the  machine.  B  is 
a  steadying  chuck 
on  the  rear  end  of 
the  arbor.  C  is  an 
ordinary  lathe  car- 
riage, fitted  to  slide 
on  the  bed  and  be 
operated  by  hand 
wheel,  D,  and  a 
rack  pinion. 
Across  this  car- 
riage, slides  a  tool- 
rest,  E,  operated 
by  a  screw,  and 
having  two  tool- 
rests,  one  to  the 
front  and  one  to 
the  rear  of  the 
work.  This  tool- 
rest,  instead  of 
sliding  directly  in 
the  carriage,  as  is 
the  case  with 
lathes,  is  mounted 

on  an  intermediate  block  which  fits  and  slides  in  the  carriage.  This  intermediate  block  is 
moved  in  and  out,  a  short  distance  only,  by  means  of  a  cam  lever,  G.  An  apron  on  the 
front  end  of  the  slide  carries  the  lead-screw  nut,  H.  When  the  lever  cam  is  raised  it  brings 
the  slide  outward  about  half  an  inch,  and  the  tool-rest,  E,  comes  out  with  it,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  nut  leaves  the  lead  screw.  The  inward  movement  of  the  slide  is  always  to  the 
same  point,  thus  engaging  the  lead  screw  and  resetting  the  tool. 

With  this  machine  threads  may  be  cut  by  adjusting  a  thread  tool  in  the  front  tool-post, 
as  in  ordinary  lathe  practice,  and  at  the"  end  of  the  cut  the  cam  lever  serves  to  quickly  with- 
draw the  tool  and  the  lead-screw  nut  so  that  the  carriage  can  be  run  back.  The  tool-rest  is 
then  advanced  slightly  and  the  new  cut  taken.  By  this  means  threads  are  cut  without  any 
false  motions,  and  may  be  cut  up  close  to  a  shoulder.  1  is  the  lead  screw.  This  screw  does 
not  extend  to  the  head  of  the  machine,  but  is  short  and  is  socketed  into  a  shaft  which  runs 
to  the  head  of  the  machine,  and  is  driven  by  gearing.  The  lead  screw  is  thus  a  plain  shaft 
with  a  short,  removable  threaded  end.  The  gearing  is  never  changed.  Different  lead  screws 
are  used  for  different  threads,  thus  permitting  threads  to  be  cut  without  running  back.  The 
lead  screws  are  changed  in  an  instant  by  removing  knob,  J.  The  lead-screw  nut,  H,  is  a 
sectional  nut,  double-ended,  so  that  each  nut  will  do  for  two  pitches,  by  turning  it  end  for 
end  in  the  apron. 

L  is  an  adjustable  stop  which  determines  the  position  of  the  carriage  in  cutting  off, 
facing,  etc.  K  is  an  arm  pivoted  to  the  rear  of  the  carriage,  and  carrying  three  open  dies 
like  a  bolt-cutter  head.  JIT  is  a  block  sliding  on  the  bed.  N  is  a  gauge  screw  attached  to 
this  block  and  provided  with  two  nuts.  The  stop  lever  shown  in  the  cut  turns  up  to  strad- 
dle this  screw,  and  the  position  of  the  nuts  determines  how  far  each  way  the  block  may 
slide.  0  is  the  turret  fitted  to  turn  on  the  block.  It  has  six  holes  in  its  rim  to  receive 
sundry  tools.  It  can  be  turned  to  bring  any  of  these  tools  into  action,  and  is  secured  by  the 
lock  lever,  P. 

The  turret  slide  is  moved  quickly  by  hand,  by  means  of  the  capstan  levers,  U,  which  by 
an  in-and-out  motion  also  serve  to  lock  the  turret  at  any  point.  The  turret  slide  is  fed  in 
heavy  work  by  the  hand  wheel,  R,  on  its  tail  screw.  This  tail  screw  carries,  inside  the  hand 
wheel,  two  gears,  S,  which  are  driven  at  different  speeds  by  a  back  shaft  behind  the  machine. 
These  two  gears  are  loose  on  the  tail  screw,  and  a  clutch  operated  by  lever,  T,  locks  either 
one  to  the  screw. 


FIG.  2. — Screw  machine. 


782 


SCREW  MACHINES. 


FIG.  4. — End  gauge. 


Turret  Tools. — The  different  forms  of  tools  used  in  the  turret  on  ordinary  shop  work  are 
illustrated  in  Figs.  3  to  9. 

The  end  gauge  shown  in  Fig.  4  is  simply  a  hollow  shank,  A,  fitting  the  turret,  and  a  gauge 
rod,  £,  fitting  the  shank.  The  shank 
may  be  set  further  in  or  out  of  the  tur- 
ret, and  the  rod  may  be  set  further  in  or 
out  of  the  shank.  The  end  gauge  is  so 
set  that  when  the  turret  is  clear  back 
against  its  stop  the  end  of  the  rod  B 
will  gauge  the  proper  projections  of  the 

bar  iron  from  the  chuck  of  the  machine.  The  center,  shown 
in  Fig.  5,  explains  itself  ;  it  is  used  only  in  chasing  long  work  in 
steel.  The  turner,  shown  in  Fig.  6,  consists  of  hollow  shank, 
A,  fitting  the  turret ;  a  hardened  bushing,  B,  held  in  its  front 
end  by  a  set-screw  ;  a  heavy,  mortised  bolt,  C,  in  the  front  lug 
of  the  shank  ;  an  end-cutting  tool,  D,  shaped  like  a  carpenter's 
mortising  chisel,  and  clamped  by  the  mortised  bolt  ;  a  collar- 
screw  E,  to  hold  the  tool  endwise,  and 
a  pair  of  set-screws,  F,  to  swivel  the 
tool  and  its  bolt.  Bushing  B  is  to 
suit  the  work  in  hand.  The  tool,  D, 
is  a  piece  of  square  steel,  hardened 
throughout.  It  is  held  by  its  bolt  with 
just  the  proper  clearance  on  its  face. 
It  cuts  with  its  end  without  any  springing,  and  will  on  this  account  stand  a  very  keen  angle 

of  cutting  edge.  It  will  cut  an  inch  bar  away  at  one  trip 
with  a  coarse  feed.  It  does  not  do  smooth  work,  and  is, 
therefore,  used  only  to  remove  the  bulk  of  the  metal, 

I"  g£      ^         -^     'jjf      leaving  the  sizer  to  follow. 
l^Mf^'^^ll^r  The  sizer,  shown  in  Fig. 

7,  consists  of  a  hollow 
shank,  At  fitting  the  turret 
and  carrying  in  its  front 
end  a  hardened  bushing,  B, 
and  a  flat  tool,  C. 

The    sizer   follows    the  FIG.  7.— Sizer. 

turner  and  takes  a  light 
water  or  oil  cut,  giving  size  and  finish  with  a  coarse  feed.    Having  only  light,  clean  work  to 
do,  it  holds  its  size  nicely. 

The  die   holder,  shown  in  Figs.  8  and  9,  is  arranged  to  automatically  stop  cutting  when 
the  thread  is  cut  far  enough.    It  will  cut  a  full  thread  cleanly  up  against  a  solid  shoulder.    It 


FIG.  3.— Turret  tools. 


FIG.  5.— Center. 


FIG.  6.— Turner. 


FIG.  8.— Die  holder. 


j-i- 


FIG.  9.— Die  holder.     Section. 


consists  of  a  hollow  shank,  A,  fitting  the  turret;  a 
sleeve,  B,  fitted  to  revolve  and  slide  on  the  front  end  of 
the  shank,  C;  a  groove,  E.  bored  inside  the  sleeve  ;  a 
pin,  D,  on  the  shank,  fitting  freely  in  the  groove,  E; 
a  keyway,  F,  at  one  point  in  the  groove  and  leading  out 
each  way  from  it,  and  a  thread  die,  6r,  held  in  the 
front  end  of  the  sleeve.  When  the  turret  is  run  for- 
ward the  thread  die  takes  hold  of  the  bolt  to  be  cut, 
but  it  revolves  idly  instead  of  standing  still  to  cut,  until 
the  pin,  D,  comes  opposite  the  keyway,  F,  when,  the 
turret  still  being  moved  forward,  the  pin  enters  the 
back  of  the  keyway.  The  sleeve  now  stands  still,  the  mm^ 
die  cuts  the  thread  and  pulls  the  turret  along  by  the  FIG.  10.— Operations  in 
friction  of  the  pin  in  the  keyway.  Finally  the  turret  '  screw  making, 

comes   against  its  front  stop  and  can  move  forward 

no  further.  Consequently  the  sleeve  is  drawn  forward  on  its  shank,  C,  and  the  instant  the 
pin,  D,  reaches  the  groove,  E,  the  die  and  sleeve  commence  to  revolve  with  the  work  and 
cease  cutting.  The  machine  is  then  run  backward  and  the  turret  moved  back  a  trifle.  This 


in  machine 


SCREW   THREADS. 


783 


causes  the  pin  to  catch  in  the  front  end  of  the  keyway,  and  the  sleeve  is  again  locked.  The 
die  then  unscrews,  and,  in  so  doing,  pushes  the  turret  back.  A  tap  holder  may  be  inserted 
in  place  of  the  die,  and  plug  taps  may  be  run  to  an  exact  depth  without  danger. 

The  following  cuts  show  the  operations  performed  in  making  a  machine  screw  : 

First  Operation. — The  bar  is  inserted  through  the  open  chuck.  Second  Operation. — The 
turret  being  clear  back  against  its  stop  and  revolved  to  bring  present  the  end  gauge,  the  bar 
is  set  against  the  end  gauge  and  the  chuck  is  tightened.  This  chucks  the  bar  and  leaves  the 
proper  length  projecting  from  the  chuck.  Third  Operation. — The  front  tool  in  the  car- 
riage, a  beveled  side  tool,  cones  the  end  of  the  bar  so  turret  tools  will  start  nicely.  Fourth, 
Operation. — The  turret  being  revolved  to  present  the  turner,  the  bar  is  reduced  at  one  heavy 
cut  to  near  the  proper  size,  the  turret  stop  determining  the  length  of  the  reduced  portion. 
Fifth  Operation. — The  turret  being  revolved  to  present  the  sizer,  the  body  of  the  bolt  is 
brought  to  isxact  size  by  a  light,  quick,  sliding  cut.  Sixth  Operation.  — The  open  die  arm 
being  brought  down,  the  bolt  is  threaded,  the  left  carriage  stop  indicating  the  length  of  the 
threaded  part.  Seventh  Operation. — The  turret  being  revolved  to  present  the  die  holder, 
the  solid  die  is  run  over  the  bolt,  bringing  it  to  exact  size  with  a  light  cut,  and  cutting  full 
thread  to  the  exact  point  desired.  Eighth  Operation. — The  front  tool  in  the  carriage  chamfers 
off  the  end  thread.  Ninth  Operation. — The  back  tool  of  the  carriage,  a  parting  tool,  cuts  off 
the  bolt,  the  left  carriage  stop  determining  the  proper  length  of  head.  Tenth  Operation. — 
The  bolt  being  reversed  in  chuck,  the  top  of  the  head  is  water-cut  finished  by  a  front  tool  in 
the  carriage.  This  operation  is  deferred  till  all  the  bolts  of  the  lot  are  ready  for  it. 

Screw  Propeller  :  see  Engines,  Marine. 

Screw-threading  Machine  :  see  Nut-tapping  Machine. 

SCREW  THREADS.  At  a  meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers, 
held  at  Chattanooga  in  1885,  Major  William  R.  King  read  a  paper  on  the  subject  of  screw 
threads,  in  which  he  took  the  ground  that  the  ordinary  thread  was  cut  too  deep  into  the 
iron,  and,  consequently,  the  bolt  was  weakened  more  than  -was  necessary,  and  he  proposed  to 
remedy  the  evil  by  increasing  the  number  of  threads  per  inch,  thereby  reducing  the  depth  of 
the  thread. 

Mr.  John  L.  Gill  read  a  paper  before  the  Franklin  Institute,  in  November,  1887,  in  which 
he  advocated  a  thread  formed  part  square  and  part  V.  The  form  of  this  thread  is  shown  in 


warrwoRTH  THREAD,  we?. 

r 125 


8*ltan  ThiMd.  Prinklia  iMtitaie,  1864. 


FIG.  1.— Screw  threads. 


comparison  with  the  Whitworth,  the  Sellers,  and  the  old  V  threads,  in  the  cut,  Fig.  1.  He 
found  that  a  thread  might  be  made  in  this  way  in  which  the  altitude  was  not  dependent  upon 
the  pitch  of  the  thread,  and  that  the  altitude  could  be  made  in  proportion  to  the  diameter  of 
the  bolt.  Making  the  altitude  T^  of  an  in.  high  for  each  \  of  an  in.  in  diameter,  would 
reduce  the  cross-section  of  the  bolt  uniformly  15'35  per  cent,  on  all  sizes.  On  this  basis  Mr. 
Gill  made  a  table  of  sizes  from  ^  in.  to  6  in.  in  diameter,  without  reference  to  the  pitch  of 
the  threads,  and  then  made  a  diagram  to  determine  the  pitch  and  the  angle  of  the  receding 
side.  He  used  the  same  number  of  threads  on  the  smaller  sizes  as  the  Sellers,  but  on  some 
sizes  a  different  number. 

The  resisting  side  of  the  thread  is  made  at  an  angle  of  90C  to  the  axis,  and  the  receding 
side  at  an  angle  of  45°,  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  threads  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bolt. 
The  flat  surface  is  found  by  subtracting  the  altitude  from  the  pitch,  and  dividing  the 
remainder  by  two.  The  iron  was  of  a  very  good  quality,  having  a  breaking  strength  of  over 
53,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

The  following  table  shows  the  size  proposed  by  Mr.  Gill  : 

A  New  System  of  Screw  Threads,  by  John  L.   GUI,  Jr. 


1.  Diameter  of  bolt  

H* 

*  in. 

fin. 

t  in.     1  in. 

liin. 

liin. 

1|  in. 

If  in. 

2  in. 

2iin. 

^in. 

2t,n. 

2.  Number    of    threads 

per  inch  

12- 

11- 

10' 

9'          8' 

~- 

7' 

6' 

6' 

5'          5- 

4- 

4' 

3.  Pitch  of  threads  

•083 

•091 

•10 

•111      '125 

•143 

•143 

•167 

•167 

•2 

•2 

•25 

•25 

4.  Altitude  of  thread.  .. 

•02 

•025 

•03 

•035      '04 

•045 

•05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

•09 

•10 

•11 

5.  Width  of  flat  top  

•032 

•033 

•035 

•038!     "043 

•49        -047 

•054 

•049 

•06 

•055 

•075 

•07 

6.  Diameter   of  bolt  at 

ba^e  of  thread  .  .  . 

•46 

•575 

•69 

•805,     '92  j  1-035;  1'15 

1-38 

1-61 

1-84 

2-07 

2'30 

2'53 

784 


SCREW   THREADS. 


A  New  System  of  Screw  Threads. — Continued. 


1.  Diameter  of  bolt  

Sin. 

3|in. 

8f  in. 

3f  in. 

4  in. 

4±in. 

4*  in. 

4f  in. 

5  in. 

5±in. 

«,n. 

5f  in. 

6  in. 

2.  Number   of    threads 

per  inch  
3.  Pitch  of  threads  
4.  Altitude  of  thread.  .. 
5.  Width  of  flat  top  
6.  Diameter  of  bolt  at 
base  of  thread  .  .  . 

4' 
•25 
•12 
•065 

2-76 

4' 
•25 
•13 

•06 

2-99 

3' 
•333 
•14 
•097 

3-22 

3* 
•333 
•15 
•092 

3-45 

3' 
•333 
•16 
•087 

3-68 

3' 
•333 
•17 
•082 

3-91 

•4 
•18 
•11 

4-14 

*< 

•19 
•105 

4-37 

•4 
•20 
•10 

4'60 

•4 
•21 
•095 

4-83 

2' 
•5 
•23 
•14 

5-06 

2' 
•5 
•23 
•135 

5-29 

2' 

•5 
•24 
•13 

5-52 

The  following  table  shows  a  comparison  of  the  V,  the  Franklin  Institute,  and  the  Gill 
threads  for  certain  sizes  : 


1    Diameter  of  bolt 

iin. 

Jin. 

lin. 

Hin. 

2  in. 

2.  Number  of  threads  per  inch,  V.and  Franklin  Institute  threads 
3    Number  of  threads  per  inch,  Gill  thread       

13- 
12- 

10- 

10' 

8- 
8- 

6- 
6' 

4*' 

5 

4    Altitude  of    /     \  i  /     \     V  thread 

•0666 

•0866 

•1082 

•1444 

'19* 

5.  Altitude  of      /      \  j  /      \     Franklin  Institute  thread  ... 
6    Altitude  of    j                                            Gill  thread       .     . 

•0500 

'02 

•0649 
•03 

•0812 
'04 

•1083 
•06 

•144J 
'08 

7    Width  of  flat  top  of  Franklin  Institute  thread 

•0096 

•0125 

•0156 

•0210 

•028( 

8    Width  of  flat  top  of  Gill  thread  

•032 

•035 

•043 

•054 

•06 

•5 

'75 

1- 

'50 

2' 

10    Diameter  of  bolt  at  ba«e  of  V  thread 

•3668 

•5767 

•7836 

•2112 

T615S 

11    Diameter  of  holt  at  base  of  Franklin  Institute  thread       

•3993 

'6201 

•8376 

•2834 

1'711< 

12   Diameter  of  bolt  at  base  of  Gill  thread 

•46 

•69 

•92 

•38 

T84 

•1963 

•4418 

•78539 

•7671 

3'141( 

•1056 

•2612 

•482-2 

•152 

2'048 

15.  Area  of  cross-section  at  base  of  Franklin  Institute  thread  
16    Area  of  cross-section  at  base  of  ^lill  thread 

•1262 
•1662 

•3019 
•3739 

•5510 
•66476 

•2956 
T4957 

2-300, 
2'659 

17    ^"ercent  reduction  of  cross-section  for  V  thread.... 

58-19 

40'78 

38-63 

34-81 

34-65 

18.  Per  cent,  reduction  of  cross--  section  for  Franklin  Institute 
thread  .                     .                                           

35-71 

31-66 

29-84 

26-71 

26-71 

19.  Per  cent,  reduction  of  cross-section  for  Gill  thread  

20.  Franklin  Institute  bolt,  per  cent,  stronger  than  V  
21  .  Gill  bolt,  per  cent  .  stronger  than  Franklin  Institute  
22    Gill  bolt  per  cent    stronger  than  V 

15-35 

19-50 
31-69 

57'38 

15'36 

15-59 
23-84 
42  76 

15-35 

14-27 
20-64 
3~-86 

15-36 

12-41 
15-44 
29'77 

15-36 

12-40 
15-50 
2P'83 

Mr.  Gill  made  some  tests  to  determine  the  strength  of  bolts  made  with  his  thread,  as  com- 
pared with  bolts  of  the  same  iron  with  the  Sellers'  thread,  with  an  elastic  limit  of  from  63  to 
68  per  cent,  of  the  breaking  load.  It  was  very  ductile,  the  elongations  averaging  over  21  per 
cent,  in  10  in.  The  nuts  were  from  common  stock  and  were  excellent,  as  not  one  of  them 
showed  any  tendency  to  give  way  in  the  thread.  Six  specimens  of  each  size,  £-in.,  f-in.,  and 
1-in.,  all  20  in.  long,  were  tested  to  determine  the  quality  of  the  iron.  Six  specimens  of 
bolts  of  each  size,  |-in.,  f-in.,  and  1-in.,  having  the  Sellers  thread,  and  six  specimens  of  each 
size,  £-in.,  f-in.,  and  1-in.,  having  the  new  thread,  were  also  tested. 

An  abstract  of  the  results  is  shown  forth  in  the  following  table  : 


Diameter  of  bolts  

lift. 

fin. 

lin. 

Area  of  cross-section  at  ba^e  of  thread 

•1662 
10,796 
54,998 
6,946 
64-33  p.  c. 

15-35  p.  c. 
ll'45p.  c. 

35-71  p.  c. 
30-16  p.  c. 

9,140 
9,560 

6,940 
7,540 

31  -69  p.  c. 

26-79  p.  c. 

•3739 
23.600 
53,418 
12,260 
68-89  p.  c. 

15-36  p.  c. 
13*26  p.  c. 

31  '66  p.  c. 
29-04  p.  c. 

19,973 
20,471 

16.126 
16,747 

23*84  p.  c. 
22-24  p.  c. 

•  6(1476 
42.142 
53,657 
26,829 
63  -66  p.  C. 

15  '35  p.  c. 
11-95  p.  c. 

29  '84  p.  c. 
30  -21  p.  c. 

35,669 
38,  1M 

29,595 
29,411 

20*63  p.  c. 
29-69  p.  c. 

Breakino1  load  of  specimens 

Breaking  load  of  iron  per  square  inch        .              .            

Elastic  limit  of  iron                .   .                        .... 

Elastic  limit  per  cent,  of  breaking  load  

Gill  thread  reduces  cross-section  of  bolt  by  calculation  in  table 

By  actual  test  by  breaking  load 

Sellers  thread  reduces  cross-section  of  bolt  by  calculation  in  table  
By  actual  test  by  breakin^  load  .... 

Strength  of  Gill  bolt  by  calculation  in  pounds  with  iron  of  above  strength  
By  actual  test  

Strength  of  Sellers  bolt  by  calculation  in  pounds  with  iron  of  above  strength  .  . 
By  actual  test  .  .   . 

Gill  bolt  stronger  than  Sellers—  per  cent,  by  calculation  in  table.  .  .".  
Per  cent,  stronger  by  actual  test,  by  breaking  load  

SEEDERS   AND   DRILLS. 


785 


Experiments  were  made  to  determine  how  thin  a  nut  would  have  to  be  before  the  thread 
would  strip.  On  a  1-in.  bolt  having  the  Sellers  thread,  a  nut  the  thickness  of  }\  of  the  diam- 
eter was  found  as  likely  to  strip  the  thread  on  the  bolt  as  to  break  the  bolt.  The  thread 
will  never  strip  in  the  nut  if  of  a  good  quality,  as  the  circumference  at  th3  bottom  of  the 
thread  on  the  bolt  is  much  less  than  the  circumference  of  the  thread  at  the  base  inside  of  the 
nut.  On  the  Grill  bolt  a  nut  was  required  to  be  as  thick  as  ro  °f  the  diameter.  At  that 
thickness  of  the  nut  the  bolt  both  broke  and  stripped,  while  at  '95  the  bolt  broke,  and  at 
•85  the  thread  stripped  ;  so  if  the  nuts  are  made  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  diameter  of  the 
bolt,  there  will  be  a  margin  of  11  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  bolt  breaking  instead  of  stripping. 

Scutching1 :  see  Rope-making  Machine. 

SEEDERS  AND  DRILLS.  All  classes  of  seeders  have  been  improved  and  simplified  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  come  into  general  use,  so  that  hand  sowing  has  been  quite  superseded. 
The  Moline  broadcast  seeder  (Fig.  1)  is  made  by  the  Deere  &  Mansur  Co.,  for  use  with  or  with- 


! 

i 


FIG.  1. — Moline  broadcast  seeder. 

out  the  harrowing  attachment,  which  is  made  detachable,  and  with  pivoted  or  "  slip  "  teeth, 
held  to  work  by  springs  capable  of  yielding  to  the  resistance  of  immovable  obstacles,  so 
that  the  teeth  may  rise  and  draw  over  them  without  breakage.  This  seeder  has  a  series  of 
seed- vents  in  the  bottom  of  the  hopper,  adjustable  to  suit  the  kind  of  seed  sown,  and  over 
each  vent  a  stirring-wheel,  rotated  by  the  main  axle,  to  prevent  clogging  and  insure  a  uni- 
form flow  of  seed.  The  adjustability  of  the  vents 
is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  an  arrangement  which  adapts 
the  machine  to  sowing  the  small  seeds  of  grasses 
as  well  as  grain.  The  low  delivery  admits  of  use 
in  windy  weather. 

In  the  so-called  Hoosier  grain-drill  there  is  a 
ratchet  device  in  the  hub  of  each  ground- wheel, 
rendering  both  wheels  driving  wheels  ;  and  either 
will  drive  the  feed  or  back  out  of  gear.  The  ad- 
justable  fluted-roll  force-feed  may  be  adjusted  FIG.  2.— Seeder, 

respectively  for  sowing  smaller  and  larger  quanti- 
ties. Beneath  the  hopper  of  the  machine,  within  the  feed-cups,  is  a  series  of  these  fluted 
feed-rolls.  In  each  cup  is  a  scalloped  ring  which  revolves  with  the  fluted  roll,  fitting  into 
its  grooves.  The  rolls  are  all  fastened  to  the  square  feed-rod  shown,  and  are  movable  length- 
wise with  it  by  means  of  a  suitable  hand  lever,  the  movement  of  which  to  right  or  left  causes 
more  or  less  of  the  face  of  the  feed- rolls  to  pass  into  or  out  of  the  scalloped  rings,  and  to  be 
thereby  removed  from  or  brought  into  contact  with  the  grain.  Within  the  feed-cup  and  on 
the  opposite  side  from  the  scalloped  ring,  attached  to  the  feed-rod  close  against  the  rolls,  is  a 
hub  or  follower  cutting  off  the  flow  of  seed  from  that  portion  of  the  cup  not  exposed  to  the 
feed-roll  when  the  feed  is  set  to  sow  anything  less  thau  full  capacity.  The  graduated  scale 
seen  on  the  back  of  the  hopper  is  provided  with  an  indicator  secured  to  the  feed-rod  and 
affected  by  its  movements,  showing  on  the  indicator-plate  the  quantity  of  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
or  flax-seed  the  machine  is  set  to  sow  at  any  given  time,  and  the  hand  lever  for  regulating 
quantity  is  held  by  a  thumb  nut  at  any  desired  point.  The  "  force  "  feature,  it  will  be  seen, 
is  constant,  whatever  the  quantity  or*  character  of  seed  delivered.  When  the  ground-hoes 
are  raised  the  feed-rolls  are  thrown  out  of  gear  by  a  suitable  shifter,  and  again  put  in  motion 
by  letting  the  hoes  down.  The  sowing  of  fertilizers  is  attended  with  difficulty.  Combined 
grain  and  fertilizer  drills  are  made  to  sow  grain  or  grass  seed  and  fertilizer  simultaneously, 
or  either  alone.  On  account  of  the  weight  of  load  carried,  the  wheels  have  3-in.  tires  to 
support  them  on  soft  ground.  A  distinctive  improvement  is  the  fertilizer  force-feed,  which 
delivers  the  fertilizer  into  the  top  of  a  large  rubber  spout,  forming  a  junction  below  with  a 
branch  spout  from  the  grain  force-feed,  where  the  grain  and  fertilizer  unite  to  pass  through 
50 


786 


SEEDERS   AND   DRILLS. 


a  hollow  hoe-shank  to  the  ground.  The  fertilizer  feed  is  a  series  of  nicely-fitted  circular 
plates  rotating  horizontally,  one  for  each  hoe,  forming  a  considerable  part  of  the  hopper- 
bottom.  As  the  plates  revolve,  the  contents  of  the  hopper  resting  on  them  are  carried  to 
oblique  gates  at  the  rear,  and  a  stream  of  the  fertilizer  is  forcibly  cut  off  and  discharged. 
The  opening  or  vent  is  enlarged  or  diminished  in  all  the  gates  simultaneously.  When  the 
machine  stops,  the  feed  ceases  to  rotate,  and  the  flow  of  the  fertilizer  cannot  continue,  as  the 
vent  does  not  open  downwards — thus  the  delivery  is  free  when  in  motion,  without  waste 

when  stopping,  and  is  proportioned  exactly  to  the 
speed  of  the  team.  This  fertilizer  feed  may  be  thrown 
in  and  out  of  gear  independently  of  the  grain-feed  and 
without  disturbing  the  adjustment  for  quantity,  to 
skip  strips  of  rich  ground.  It  is  now  quite  common  to 
combine  the  function  of  seeding  with  any  style  of  the 
rotary  or  "'cutaway"  harrows,  as  illustrated,  for  ex- 
ample, in  Clark's  machine,  Fig.  3,  the  seed  being 
dropped  just  in  front  of  the  gang.  Most  soils  that 
have  been  plowed  within  a  year  can  be  seeded  in 
one  operation,  in  this  way,  by  placing  the  seed  in  a 
division  of  one-half  of  the  seed  box,  driving  the  har- 
row a  half  lap,  and  completing  the  work  the  second 
time  around  with  the  other  gang.  By  thus  operat- 
ing, a  good  seed-bed  is  made  and  the  "seeds  planted 
therein  half  the  width  of  the  machine  with  each  round. 
Land  Roller. — By  rolling  the  soil  after  sowing,  germination  is  hastened  and  a  level  sur- 
face is  provided,  which  facilitates  harvesting.  Fig.  4  is  a  roller  made  by  the  Van  Brunt  & 
Davis  Co.,  Horicon,  Wis.  It  cramps  and  turns  like  a  wagon.  Its  rolls  are  made  small,  to 
concentrate  weight  and  compress  the  soil  more  compactly  in  proportion  to  weight.  In 
each  pair  the  front  roll  is  arranged  to  press  comparatively  lightly  and  prepare  the  surface  of 
the  ground  for  heavier  pressure  from  the  second  roll,  leaving  it  more  even  than  single  rolls. 
The  rolls  are  hollow,  to  save  freight,  and  to  be  ballasted  to  suit  the  land.  The  tongue  is 
hinged,  and  the  horses  pull  directly  by  the  roll  frames. 

The  Deere  Corn  Planter,  manufactured    by  the    Deere   &  Mansur   Co.,  Fig.   5,  can  be 


FIG.  3.— Clark's  seed -harrow. 


FIG.  4.— Land  roller. 

made  to  sow  the  corn  in  drills  formed  by  the  runners  seen  in  cut.  or  to  drop  with  con- 
siderable accuracy  a  determinate  number  of  kernels  in  two  hills  transversely  opposite,  by 
means  of  a  rotary  feed  beneath  the  hopper  carrying  the  seed,  controlled  either  by  the  hand 
lever,  or  a  check-rower,  the  latter  operated  by  a  light  wire  cable  armed  with  spurs  at  dis- 
tances equal  to  the  distances  which  it  is  decided  should  separate  hill  from  hill.  The  cable  is 
anchored  at  either  side  of  the  cornfield  in  order  to  hold  it  stationary  as  the  machine  ad- 
vances along  its  length,  so  that  each  collision  of  the  check-rower  device  with  one  of  the  spurs 
of  the  cable  moves  the  two  droppers  simultaneously  by  a  connecting  shaft  and  pinions.  The 
feed  is  low  and  the  seed  dropped  instantly,  leaving  the  hills  of  corn  in  accurate  line  both 
ways.  The  transverse  rows  of  hills  are  kept  straight  by  shifting  the  anchor  at  the  side  of 
the  field  always  in  a  straight  line.  The  wire  can  bs  thrown  out  of  the  check-rower  on  arriv- 
ing at  the  end  of  the  row,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  turning  the  machine.  In  Fig.  6  the  wire 
is  seen  wound  on  a  reel,  convenient  for  placing  in  position  for  work.  The  face  o±  ths 


SEEDERS   AND   DRILLS. 


787 


wheels  is  a  broad  concave,  tending  to  cover  and  press  the  dirt  upon  the  seed  in  the  drill  left 
by  the  press  runners.  The  rear  of  the  shank  of  the  runners  is  of  glass,  that  the  process  of 
dropping  may  be  observed  by  the  driver.  A  slide  drop  was  first  used  in  this  class  of  planter. 


FIG.  5.— Deere's  com  planter. 

but  the  rotary  drop  is  found  preferable.  The  check-rower  mechanism  operates  as  follows  : 
Spars  or  buttons  on  the  wire  engage  a  lever  and  carry  its  end  to  a  point  where  the  in- 
clination of  the  lever  sheds  the  spur,  which  passes  readily  in  and  out  of  the  check-rower  on 
grooved  rollers.  The  movement  of  the  lever  draws  a  small  crank  over  forward  far  enough  to 
operate  the  rotary  feed  to  which  the  shaft  of  the  crank  is  suitably  attached.  The  heel  of  the 


.  6.—  Deere  corn  planter. 


lever  is  attached  to  a  connecting-rod  by  a  swivel-nut,  the  position  of  which  on  the  rod  controls 
the  amount  of  throw  imparted  to  the  crank.  When  the  spur  on  the  cable  releases  the  lever,  a 
spring  returns  the  lever  to  the  position  of  rest  ready  for  the  impulse  of  the  next  spur  of  the  cable, 


788  SEPARATORS,    STEAM. 

In  another  form  of  the  check-rower  device  the  spurs  of  the  wire  engage  a  vertical  lever 
and  draw  it  down  backward,  escaping  to  the  rear  as  soon  as  it  assumes  a  position  nearly 
horizontal,  when  its  return  spring  causes  it  to  fly  back  upright,  ready  for  the  next  impulse, 
without  permitting  the  wire  to  escape  from  its  fork. 

An  upright  check-rower  anchor  by  the  Barlow  Co.,  Quincy,  111.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  which 
unlocks  the  wire  automatically  as  the  corn-planter  approaches  it,  paying  out  sufficient  sur- 
plus wire  to  admit  of  planting  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  row.  This  surplus  is  recovered  by 
the  operator,  who  pulls  the  wire  taut  again  when  resetting  the  anchor  behind  the  corn -planter 
before  starting  on  his  return  trip  across  the  field.  . 

Procter's  three-row  corn  planter  checks  the  corn  rows  both  ways  in  straight  lines  by  mech- 
anism contained  within  itself,  without  the  use  of  a  spurred  wire,  at  the  same  time  stamping 
an  impression  in  the  dirt  at  intervals  of  two  hills  as  a  visible  evidence  to  the  driver  that  he 
is  planting  his  cross-rows  straight.  To  prevent  momentary  variations  in  the  speed  of  either 
of  the  two  animals  which  draw  it,  the  hitch  may  play  from  side  to  side,  while  the  preserva- 


FIQ.  7. — Barlow  corn  plantef. 


tion  of  the  direction  of  travel  in  a  general  straight  line  maintains  the  travel  of  the  machine 
so  as  to  insure  virtually  straight  rows.  Across  the  machine,  hinged  to  the  axle-stock,  is 
a  rock-shaft  actuating  the  three  seed-slides  of  the  seed-boxes,  and  provided  with  a  strik- 
ing plate  on  the  ends  next  to  the  tappet- whe^1 3,  which  are  secured  to  the  carrier-wheel 
spokes,  and  upon  which  the  checking  tappets  strike  in  succession,  delivering  the  corn  through 
the  tubes  to  the  hill.  The  stampers  on  the  two  tappet-wheels  are  arranged  to  impress  the 
ground  simultaneously  with  the  drop  of  the  seed,  leaving  a  visible  mark  close  beside  each 
hill.  The  stamper  arid  the  drop-tube  may  bo  swung  forward  or  back  in  unison,  to  correct 
any  slight  irregularity  without  stopping.  This  machine  covers  the  hill  with  drag-hoes  in 
pairs.  The  Weir  cotton  or  corn  drill  requires  change  of  seed-box  for  cotton  seed  or  corn. 
The  shovel  for  opening  the  furrow  and  the  two  covering  shovels  are  arranged  to  trip  and 
draw  over  obstructions  to  avoid  breakage,  and  may  be  given  any  desired  resistance,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  ground.  The  shanks  of  the  covering-shovels  are  round,  so  that  the 
shovels  may  be  set  at  any  angle  to  throw  the  dirt  over  the  drill,  more  or  less.  The  seed  is 
taken  from  the  box  by  a' picker- wheel  revolved  through  the  medium  of  chain  gear  driven  by 
two  cranks  upon  the  ends  of  a  shaft  traversing  the  box  and  carrying  an  agitator-wheel  within 
it  to  prevent  clogging.  The  cranks  are  driven  by  two  connecting-rods  extending  to  cranks 
on  the  drive-wheel  axle.  By  setting  the  cranks  at  a  relative  angle  of  90°,  with  the  rods  par- 
allel, the  power  is  properly  transmitted  to  the  picker-wheel.  The  feed  is  thrown  out  of  gear 
by  the  long  rod  under  the  frame,  attached  in  front  to  a  clutch  on  the  main  shaft.  In  the 
Moline  beet  seeder,  the  runner  drills  are  followed  by  spring  press-wheels.  The  rider's  weight 
is  partly  sustained  by  a  rear  caster,  which  also  carries  a  hinged  marker. 

Separator  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machines.  Ore-dressing"  Machinery,  and  Threshing  Ma- 
chines. 

SEPARATORS,  STEAM,  are  used  to  separate  and  remove  the  water  entrained  or  mechan- 
ically suspended  in  a  current  of  steam  flowing  through  a  pipe.  The  names  "  eliminator  "  and 
"extractor"  are  also  applied  to  the  same  apparatus,  and  also  to  contrivances  for  removing 
oil,  grease,  or^grit  from  exhaust  steam,  as  it  passes  from  an  engine  to  a  condenser,  or  to  a  sys- 
tem of  pipes  in  which  it  is  utilized  for  heating  purposes. 

The  Stratton  Separator,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  based  on  the  principle  that  if  a  rotative  mo- 


SEPARATORS,    STEAM. 


789 


L 


tion  is  imparted  to  the  steam  the  liquid  particles  it  may  contain,  being  heavier  than  the 

steam,  acquire  centrifugal   force  and    are 

projected  to  the  outside  of  the  current.    It 

consists  of  a  vertical  cylinder  with  an  in- 
ternal  central  pipe,   extending  from   the 

top  downward  about   half  the  height  of 

the  apparatus,   leaving  an  annular  space 

between  the  two.     A  nozzle  for  the  admis- 
sion of  the  steam  is  on  one  side,  the  cutlet 

being  on  the  opposite  side  or  on  top.     The 

lower  part  of  the  apparatus  is  enlarged  to 

form  a  receiver  of  considerable  capacity, 

thus  providing  for  a  sudden  influx  of  water 

from  the   boiler.       A  suitable  opening  is 

tapped  at  the  bottom  of  the  apparatus  for 

a  drip  connection,  and  a  glass  water  gauge 

shows  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  separa- 
tor.    The  current  of  steam  on  entering  is 

deflected  by  a  curved  partition  and  thrown 

tangentially  to  the  annular  space  at  the  side 

near  to  top  of  the  apparatus.      It  is  thus 

whirled  around  with    all   the   velocity  of 

influx,  producing  the  centrifugal  action 
which  throws  the  particles  of  water  against  the  outer  cylinder.  These  adhere  to  the  sur- 
face, so  that  the  water  runs  down  continuously  in  a  thin  sheet  around  the  outer  shell  into  the 
receptacle  below,  while  the  steam,  following  a  spiral  course  to  the  bottom  of  the  internal 


Fia.  1.— Stratton 
separator. 


FIG.  2.— Centrifugal  separator. 


FIG.  3.— Hine's  elim 
inator. 


FIG.  4.— Bine's  elimina- 
tor. 


pipe,  abruptly  enters  it,  and  passes  upwards  and  out  of  the  separator. 

Robertsons  Centrifugal  Separator  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.     In  this  separator  the  steam  is  com- 
pelled to  take  a  whirling  motion  by  the  spiral  passages  around  the  central  tube. 

Hine's  Eliminator. — The  Hine  eliminator  is  shown  in  section  in  Figs.  3  and  4.  The  in- 
terior surfaces  have  deep,  sharp  corrugations  throughout,  extending  transversely  to  the  cur- 
rent, by  which  the  steam  is  thoroughly  broken 
up  upon  entering.  In  Fig.  3  a  sharply  corru- 
gated vertical  diaphragm  is  interposed  between 
the  inlet  and  outlet  side.  By  the  force  of  the 
incoming  current  the  steam  is  driven  down- 
ward against  this  diaphragm,  and  by  impinging 
the  transverse  corrugated  surfaces  in  the  body, 
the  initial  separation  takes  place  before  the 
turning  of  the  steam  into  the  outlet  side. 

At  the  lower  end  of  this  vertical  diaphragm 
two  convex  disks,  B  B,  are  placed,  having  a 
narrow  orifice  at  the  bottom,  through  which 
the  particles  separated  are  carried  into  the 
chamber  below,  out  of  and  away  from  the 
action  of  the  steam  current,  and  from  thence 
out  at  drip  valve,  A.  By  the  interposition, 
also,  of  an  inward  extending  pipe  at  the  point 
of  outlet,  the  steam  current  is  also  diverted. 

In  Fig.  4  is  shown,  at  the  side  on  one  end,  a  corrugated  deflecting  partition  which  ex- 
tends half  the  length  of  the  body, 
forming  the  inlet.  At  the  opposite 
end  a  vertical  pipe  cast  with  a  flange 
and  standing  out  from  the  body  forms 
the  outlet.  The  steam  in  passing 
through  the  deflecting  partition  ob- 
tains centrifugal  action,  and  by  con- 
tact with  the  inner  corrugated  sur- 
faces is  broken  up,  and  the  water, 
oil,  grease,  or  other  particles  elimi- 
nated readily  flow  down  the  vertical 
corrugations 'and  out,  while  the  steam, 
diverted  from  its  direct  current,  passes 
away  from  the  body  and  out  through 
the  vertical  pipe  to* point  of  delivery. 

Kieley's  ^Lultitubular  Oil  Separator 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  Both  the  inner 
and  outer  sides  of  the  tubes  are  cov- 
ered with  wire  coils,  increasing  the 
effective  area  for  retaining  the  oil. 

The  Curtis  Combined  Separator  and 
Trap  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  The  steam 


FIG.  5. — Kieley's  separator. 


In  its  passage  through  the  separator  is  sharply  deflected  downward, 


FIG.  6.— Curtis  separator 
and  trap. 


790 


SEWING   MACHINES. 


and  then  as  sharply  deflected  upward.  The  particles  of  water  by  their  momentum  continue 
onward  instead  of  turning  with  the  steam,  and  are  projected  against  the  inclined  faces  of 
the  deflector,  and  gradually  falling,  as  they  lose  their  momentum,  are  gathered  in  a  stream 
against  the  back  side  of  the  separator,  and  flow  downward  to  the  base.  The  water  in  the 
base  is  removed  by  a  balanced  float-trap. 

Stuart 's  Oil,  Grease,  and  Dirt  Extractor  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.      It  has  for  its  object  the 

removal  from  the  exhaust  steam  (before  it  reaches  either 
the  condenser,  pumps,  or  boilers)  of  all  oil,  grease,  or  grit, 
by  the  action  of  surface  plates  placed  in  the  exhaust 
pipe,  and  also  by  draining  the  valve  chests  and  steam 
casings  into  the  oil  cylinder,  by  suitable  connections. 

Tests  of  Steam  Separators. — A  test  of  the  efficiency 
of  steam  separators  of  six  different  kinds  was  made  in 
1891,  by  Prof.  R.  C.  Carpenter,  at  Cornell  University. 
Each  separator  was  subjected  to  the  same  conditions. 
Steam  was  furnished  by  a  60-horse-power  boiler.  From 
the  separator  it  was  led  to  a  2G-horse-power  engine, 
which  was  belted  direct  to  a  Buffalo  blower.  Thus  a 
constant  load  was  placed  upon  the  engine,  insuring  a 
uniform  velocity  cf  steam  through  the  system.  The 
quality  of  the  steam  before  entering  and  leaving  the 
separator  was  determined  by  means  of  a  calorimeter. 
In  order  to  obtain  a  wider  range  of  quality  than  that 
furnished  by  the  boiler,  a  vertical  section  of  the  steam 
pipe  was  enclosed  with  a  drum  or  cylinder.  This  drum 
had  several  openings  along  the  side  to  permit  water 
being  introduced  at  various  heights,  and  an  outlet  was 
arranged  at  the  bottom,  thus  maintaining  a  good  circu- 
lation. The  steam  was  thus  partially  condensed  and 
FIG.  T.^Stuart's  extractor.  charged  with  water.  The  qualities  of  the  steam  before 

and  after  passing  the  separator,  which  have  the  best 

result,  and  the  efficiency  of  separation,  which  is  the  ratio  of  per  cent,  of  water  removed  to 
per  cent,  of  water  in  the  entering  steam,  are  given  in  the  following  table  : 


Quality  before. 

Quality  alter. 

Efficiency,  percent. 

98-0 

98-0 

o- 

97-8 

9S-1 

59-1 

96-1 

98-4 

59-0 

95-3 

98-2 

61  -7 

90-1 

98*0 

80-0 

80.4 

98-1 

90-3 

79-5 

98-2 

91'2 

63-0 

98'0 

94-6 

58-0 

98-0 

95-2 

54-4 

98'1 

95'8 

54-3 

97-9 

95-4 

51-9 

93-4 

94-6 

Each  separator  reached  a  maximum  efficiency  at  about  35  per  cent,  of  moisture.  No 
marked  decrease  in  pressure  was  shown  by  any  of  the  separators,  the  most  being  !•?  to  -6  Ibs. 

The  investigation  shows  that  although  changed  direction,  reduced  velocity,  and  perhaps 
centrifugal  force  are  necessary  for  good  separation,  still  some  means  must  be  provided  to 
lead  the  water  out  of  the  current  of  the  steam.  If  such  provision  is  not  made,  momentary 
separation  may  occur,  but  before  the  water  can  drop  or  run  from  any  surfaces  in  the  direct 
current,  it  will  be  again  taken  up  by  the  rapidly  moving  steam  which  continually  surrounds 
it.  The  high  efficiency  obtained  was  probably  largely  due  to  means  having  been  provided 
for  leading  away  the  water  after  separation. 

Settler  :  see  Mills,  Silver. 

SEWING  MACHINES.  I.  MACHINES  FOR  DOMESTIC  ^^.—Lock-stitch  Machines.  The 
Wheeler  &  Wilson  Machines. — In  the  latest  forms  of  machines  of  this  manufacture  the 
principal  improvements  consist  in  the  extension  of  the  rotary  mode  of  motion  to  every 
part  of  the  mechanism  which  does  not  require  a  different  movement  ;  in  devices  for  inter- 
locking the  threads,  and  for  securing  uniform  feed  and  exact  tension,  and  also  for  produc- 
ing ornamental  stitchings.  The  newest  family  machine  (No.  9)  is  represented  in  Fig.  1. 
Motion  is  transmitted  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  shaft  by  a  crank  and  sliding  connection  ;  a 
pin  at  the  lower  end  of  the  latter,  working  in  a  slotted  crank  arm,  gives  the  necessary  vari- 
able motion  to  the  lower  revolving  shaft,  and  consequently  to  the  rotating  hook,  thus  afford- 
ing sufficient  time  for  the  take-up  to  draw  up  the  loop  of  upper  thread  between  the  casting- 
off  of  the  loop  from  the  hook  and  the  descent  of  the  needle  to  form  the  next  stitch.  Fig. 
2  shows  the  bobbin  of  under  thread  in  its  case,  and  the  tension  spring  on  the  latter.  The 
amount  of  tension  may  be  regulated  when  necessary  by  turning* the  screw,  R,  but  when 
once  properly  set  the  tension  is  substantially  automatic,  adapting  itself  to  the  different 
sizes  of  thread.  Fig.  3  shows  the  relations  of  the  bobbin  and  case  to  the  holder  and  the 


SEWING   MACHINES. 


791 


rotating  hook.  These  parts  are  brought  into  proper  position  by  closing  the  drop,  a,  which 
is  firmly  held  upright  by  the  catch-spring,  b.  Fig.  4  shows  the  face-plate  of  the  machine  and 
the  passage  of  the  upper  thread  through  the  thread  check,  tension  pulley,  thread  controller, 
and  take-up,  which  last  is  provided  with  a  roller  to  reduce  friction  on  "the  thread,  and  to 
facilitate  sewing  with  threads  of  poor  quality. 

Tn  the  "variety-stitch  machine"  the  loop-taker  (or  rotary  hook)  is  set  with  its  axis  of 
rotation  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  main  lower  shaft  of  the  machine  ;  the  needle-bar  is 
carried  in  a  swinging  gate  connected  with  a  segment  lever,  which  is  actuated  by  a  cam  on 


FIG.  3.— Bobbin  case. 


wwvwv 


FIG.  4.— Face  plate. 


FIG.  5.—  Figure  stitching. 


the  upper  shaft,  and  causes  the  needle  to  vibrate  laterally  one  or  more  times,  and  to  a  greater 
or  less  distance  during  each  revolution  of  the  shaft,  and  the  feed,  by  special  devices,  is  made 
to  move  forward  or  backward,  to  the  right  or  left,  or  to  stand  still  at  each  stitch,  as  may  be 
required.  The  machine  may  be  used  with  either  one  or  two  needles.  By  combining  dif- 
ferent numbers  and  lengths  of  transverse  vibrations  of  the  needle  or  needles,  and  different 
movements  of  the  feed,  an  almost  endless  variety  of  figures  may  be  automatically  stitched,  a 
few  of  which  are  represented  in  Fig.  5. 

The  Domestic  Machine,  Fig.  6,  has  an  improved  feed  mechanism.  The  lever,  A,  imparts 
horizontal  vibrating  motion  to  the  feed-bar,  and  receives  its  motion  through  the  stirrup,  B, 
an  eccentric  on  the  shaft  and  the  stitch-regulating  mechanism,  the  lower  end  of  which  latter  is 
seen  in  the  form  of  a  groove  at  C.  A  projection  from  B  plays  vertically  in  this  channel-way  > 


792 


SEWING   MACHINES. 


which  is  so  pivoted  that  an  arm  from  it  extending  up  through  the  bed,  and  connected  with 
a  scale  of  distances,  may  be  moved  in  either  direction,  thus  giving  any  desired  throw  to  the 
feed,  and  in  either  direction.  The  feed-dog  is  regulated  in  height  by  the  nut,  D.  E  is 
a  thumb-nut  to  secure  the  arm  wherever  Jocated.  F  is  a  thumb-nut  to  fasten  the  stop, 
which  secures  uniformity  of  stitch,  whether  feeding  forward  or  backward. 


FIG.  6.— "Domestic  •'  machine. 


The  Willcox  &  Qibbs  Machine  in  its  latest  form  is  represented  in  Fig.  7.  As  the  parts 
are  all  named  on  the  engraving,  detailed  reference  is  unnecessary.  It  has  novel  means  for 
regulating  the  tension  and  the  pressure  on  the  material,  and  for  altering  the  length  of 
stitch. 


'TAKE  UP 


SPOOL-PIN  KOLOER 


•-TOMATIC 

TENSION 


-TENSION  ROD 

«-- BM.L  STUD 

LEVER  STUD 


FIG.  7. -Willcox  &  Gibbs  machine. 

Combined  Lock  and  Chain-stitch  Machines. — A  novel  machine  of  this  class,  illustrated 
in  Fig.  8,  is  made  by  the  Domestic  Sewing  Machine  Co.  A  chain  stitch  looper  is  substi- 
tuted for  the  shuttle,  and  is  attached  to  the  carrier.  The  second  loop  is  carried  around 
the  hook  and  upon  the  arm  of  the  looper  device,  where  it  is  slightly  retarded  by  the  tension 
spring.  As  it  passes  off  the  arm  it  forms  the  stitch. 

Chain-stitch  Machines. — The  mechanism  of  a  new  machine  of  this  class  made  by  the 
Singer  Co.  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  stitch  is  formed  from  a  single  thread  which  is  inter- 


SEWING   MACHINES. 


793 


woven  into  a  chain  upon  the  under  surface  of  the  goods,  and  the  tension  is  capable  of  adjust- 
ment so  that  the  thread  will  be  drawn  closely  to  the  fabric,  forming  a  tight  and  flat  seam, 
or  left  in  an  elastic  chain  suitable  for  knit  goods.  A  beautiful  ornamental  stitch,  resembling 
braid,  is  produced  by  the  use  of  coarse  silk  or  thread. 


stitch  machine. 


FIG.  9.— Singer  chain-stitch  machine. 


II.  MACHINES  FOR  MANUFACTURING  PURPOSES  AND  HEAVY  WORK. — The  Wheeler  &  Wilson 
No.  12  Machine,  Fig.  10. — In  this  machine  the  moving  power  is  applied  to  the  upper  revolv- 
ing shaft,  which  communicates  a  uniform  rotary  motion  to  the  lower  main  shaft  by  means 
of  two  connections  and  double  quartering  cranks.  The  loop-taker  (which  takes  the  place 
of  the  ordinary  rotating  hook,  such  as  is  used  in  the  No.  9  machine)  passes  through  the 


FIG.  10.  —  Wheeler  £  Wilson  heavy  work  uiaciiiue. 


loop  of  upper  thread.  It  moves  in  a  circular  guide  with  a  motion  alternately  accelerated 
and  retarded.  It  is  rotated  by  means  of  a  driver  attached  to  a  short  shaft,  the  axis  of  which 
is  eccentric  to  that  of  the  main  lower  shaft,  and  which  in  consequence  of  the  eccentricity 
receives  a  variable  motion  from  the  motive  lower  shaft  by  a  link  connection,  as  shown  in 


704 


SEWING   MACHINES. 


the  figure.     The  axis  of  the  driver  is  also  eccentric  to  that  of  the  loop-taker,  so  that,  by 
reason  of  this  eccentricity,  the  necessary  openings  for  the  free  passage  of  thread  between  the 


FIG.  12.— Bobbin  case. 


FIG.  13.— Two-needle  machine. 


driver  and  the  loop- taker  are  alternately  formed  at  either  end  of  the  driver.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  loop  of  upper  thread  is  carried  around  the  bobbin  of  lower  thread  without  meeting 
with  any  resistance.  Fig.  11 
shows  the  large  bobbin  of 
this  machine,  and  its  case, 
with  adjustable  tension 
spring.  Fig.  12  shows  the 
bobbin  case  in  the  loop-taker, 
with  the  bobbin-holder 
thrown  open.  The  automatic 
thread  controller  is  actuated 
by  the  presser-foot  through 
the  medium  of  the  presser- 
bar,  so  that  the  controller 
gives  automatically  more 
or  less  spread,  according  to 
the  varying  thickness  of  the 
goods.  This  machine  is  pro- 
vided with  a  knee  presser- 
lifter,  by  means  of  which  the 
operator  can  at  any  time  raise 
and  lower  the  presser-foot  by 
a  movement  of  the  knee,  leav- 
ing both  hands  free  for  ma- 
nipulating the  work. 

The  Willcox  &  GMs  Straw- 
hat  Machine  makes  prac- 
tically a  concealed  stitch. 
It  has  a  claimed  capacity  of 
1,000  hand  stitches  per  min- 
ute. It  produces  all  sorts  of 
plaits,  from  the  coarsest 
"  rough-and-ready"  to  the 
finest  "Florence  Milans/' 

This  is  secured  by  compen-  FIG.  14.— Cylinder  machine, 

sating    action   between   the 
threader,  tooper,  and  presser-foot,  whereby  the  needle  automatically  adapts  itself  to  the  thick- 


SEWING   MACHINES. 


795 


ness  of  the  plait  operated  upon.  The  double  needles  operate  from  below,  and  carrying  the 
thread  upward  through  the  straw,  a  looper  takes  the  thread  from  the  threader,  and  passing 
over,  a  small  double  stitch  is  made  on  the  upper  side,  almost  invisible,  and  a  long  triple 
stitch  on  the  under  side.  The  hat  can  be  shaped  while  being  stitched. 

Two-needle  Machines. — A  machine  of  this  class,  Fig.  18,  made  by  the  Singer  Manufac- 
turing Co.,  is  a  development  of  the  regular  automatic  chain-stitch  machine.  It  has  two 
needles,  and  their  stitch-forming  mechanism,  the  hook  being  underneath,  is  so  arranged 
as  to  pick  up  both  threads.  The  gauge,  or  distance,  from  one  needle  to  the  other  can  be 
varied  by  intervals  of  T/2-  in.  from  ^  in.  to  £  in.,  by  substituting  feeds,  throats,  and  needle 
clamps  suitable  for  the  required  width  between  seams.  These  machines  are  used  in  corset 
work,  for  staying  shoes,  and  for  all  manner  of  double  seams.  A  reel  is  provided  for  carry- 
ing tape  or  staying  material.  The  same  result  is  obtained 
by  having  two  chain-stitch  machines  attached  to  a  base, 
one  being  adjustable  in  relation  to  the  other,  so  that  the 
width  between  seams  can  be  varied  from  2|  to  16  in., 
and  the  length  of  stitch  from  8  to  30  to  the  inch.  An- 
other form  of  two-needle  machine,  made  by  the  Singer 
Co.,  called  the  "three-stitch  zig-zag  machine,"  makes 
two  rows  of  stitching,  and  three  lateral  stitches  in  each 
direction  before  reversing,  and  can  be  fitted  to  make  less 
or  more  stitches. 

The  Singer  Two-needle,  Two-shuttle  Seuring  Machine. 


FIG.  15.— Oveneeaming  machine. 


FIG.  16.— Carpet-sewing  machine. 


— This  is  a  lock-stitch  machine,  having  oscillating  shuttle  mechanism,  and  is  fitted  with  two 
needles  set  to  any  desired  gauge,  with  two  shuttles  (right  and  left)  to  correspond,  and  both 
actuated  by  the  same  shaft.  It  makes  two  complete  and  uniform  rows  of  stitching,  and 
is  used  in  making  shirts  and  corsets.  India-rubber  clothing,  etc. 

The  Singer  Cylinder  Machines,  Fig.  14,  are  used  for  stitching  many  articles  which  cannot 
be  stitched  upon  a  flat  surface,  as  elastic  gores  and  back  seams  in  shoes,  legs  of  trousers, 
and  other  work  in  which  it  is  necessary  that  the  thread  should  pass  from  and  to  the  inside  of 
a  cylindrical  or  concave  surface.  They  have  the  oscillating  mechanism  ;  are  fitted  with  a 
reverse  stitch  regulator,  so  that  the  work  is  fed  either  up  or  off  the  arm,  and  are  made  with 
both  wheel  and  drop  feed  for  feeding  around  the  arm.  right  or  left. 

Over-seaming  Machines. — A  machine  of  this  class,  for  over-seaming  hosiery,  knit  goods, 
etc.,  is  manufactured  by  the  Willcox  &Gibbs  Sewing  Machine  Co.  It  has  a  knife  which  trims 
in  advance  of  the  needle,  which  passes  alternately  through  the  fabric  and  over  the  edge. 
Two  selvage  edges  can  be  united  in  this  manner  and  afterward  opened  out,  leaving  a  flat 
seam,  without  ridge,  or  two  pieces  of  fabric  may  be  laid  flat  and  their  edges  joined  by  the 
alternate  stitches  as  the  needle  passes  from  one  to  the  other.  Fig.  15  shows  the  over-seaming 


796 


SHAPING   MACHINES,    METAL. 


machine  made  by  the  Singer  Manufacturing  Co.  It  has  oscillating  mechanism.  On  the 
front  of  the  arm  is  a  slotted  lever,  worked  by  a  cam  within  the  arm.  Hinged  to  this  lever 
is  a  pitman  connected  at  the  reverse  end  with  a  rocking  frame,  through  which  the  needle- 
bar  operates.  The  pitman  communicates  the  to-and-fro  movement  of  the  lever  to  the  rocking 
shaft,  thus  giving  the  needle-bar  the  same  movement,  which  may  be  extended  or  entirely 
thrown  off  by  altering  the  adjusting  thumb-screw  seen  in  the  cut.  This  machine  is  used  for 
sewing  cloth,  leather,  carpet,  or  knit  goods,  binding,  and  especially  for  overcasting  the  raw 
edges,  left  over  after  seaming  up. 

Carpel-sewing  Machines. — The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  16,  and  made  by  the  Singer  Co., 
comprises  the  latest  improvements  in  machines  used  for  this  purpose.  It  is  fitted  with 
a  saddle  device,  so  that  it  rides  upon  the  edges  of  the  carpet.  The  carpet  to  be  sewed  iu 


FIG.  17. — Two-needle  carpet  sewing. 

suspended,  edge  up  (Fig.  17),  between  two  clamps  attached  to  upright  posts,  one  of  which 
is  stationary,  and  the  other  fastened  to  a  windlass,  by  which  the  carpet  is  stretched  taut. 
The  saddle  is  placed  on  the  tightly-drawn  edges.  With  the  left  hand  the  operator  grasps 
the  handle  shown  in  cut.  The  machine,  as  it  is  operated,  feeds  itself  along  the  edges  of  the 
carpet.  The  character  of  the  stitch  permits  the  opening  of  the  carpet  flat  while  retaining  a 
complete  union  of  its  edges. 

The  16-ft.  canvas  and  belting  sewing  machine,  designed  by  the  Singer  Co. ,  is  probably 
the  largest  sewing  machine  ever  built.  It  has  an  oscillating  shuttle,  two  needles,  and  will 
stitch  goods  from  |  in.  to  1  in.  in  thickness,  and  any  width  to  7|  ft.  It  is  fitted  with  roller 
feed,  and  a  guide  adjustable  for  various  widths,  for  making  parallel  seams. 

See  also  BOOK-BINDING  MACHINES  and  LEATHER-WORKING  MACHINES. 

Shaft-roundina:  Machine  :  see  Molding  Machines,  Wood. 

Shaper  :  see  Molding  Machines,  Wood. 

SHAPING  MACHINES,  METAL.  The  Ilendey  Traverse  Shaper.-Fig.  1  shows  a  heavy 
shaper  built  by 
the  Hendey  Ma- 
chine Co.,  Tor- 
rington ,  Conn., 
and  designed  for 
railroad  and 
other  heavy  work. 
It  has  a  stroke  of 
30  in.,  and  can  be 
set  to  vary  length 
of  stroke  while  in 
motion.  The  sad- 
dle has  a  traverse 
on  the  bed  of  72 
in.  Feed  works 
at  each  end  move 
the  saddle  back 
and  forth.  The 
saddle  can  be  run 
fast  by  hand  from 
one  end  to  the  Fit,.  1.  The  Hendey  traverse  shaper. 


SHAPING  MACHINES,   METAL. 


797 


other  when  desired  to  change  the  position  on  bed,  each  turn  of  crank  moving  it  2f  in.  The 
head  has  automatic  vertical  feed,  and  can  be  set  to  any  angle.  The  circular  arbor  also  has 
independent  feed,  and  is  operated  from  the  pulley  end  of  the  machine.  The  tables  are  raised 
and  lowered  by  screws,  and  the  aprons  on  which  the  tables  work  are  moved  on  bed  by  a  rack 
and  pinion.  The  aprons  have  a  bearing  low  down  on  the  bed,  to  insure  solidity  when  taking 
a  heavy  cut.  The  vise  jaws  open  15  in.,  and  are  15  in.  long.  The  vise  is  graduated,  and 
swivels  on  a  heavy  base-plate. 

Wright's  Friction  Shaper. — Fig.  2  shows  a  new  form  of  shaper  made  by  J.  D.  Wright  & 
Sons,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  The  driving  shaft  seen  on  the  side  of  the  machine  carries  two  loose 
pulleys  ;  the  forward  one  is  the  cutting  pulley  and  has  two  steps,  giving  two  speeds  in  cutting, 
and  carries  an  open  belt.  The  rear  pulley  is  the  return  pulley,  and  carries  a  cross  belt  from 
a  large  pulley  on  the  countershaft,  giving  a  quick  return.  These  pulleys  are  thrown  into  and 
out  of  gear  by  a  friction  clutch.  The  side  bearings  for  the  shaft  are  adjustable  for  wear,  and 


FIG.  2. — Wright's  friction  shaper. 

have  wicks  drawing  .oil  from  the  cup  beneath.  The  worm  runs  in  oil.  It  is  of  steel,  hard- 
ened and  polished,  and  meshes  in  the  large  phosphor-bronze  wheel.  The  wheel  is  secured  to 
the  end  of  the  rack  shaft,  passing  through  the  base  of  the  machine,  to  which  are  secured  the 
two  rack  wheels.  The  teeth  of  the  rack  are  at  an  angle  to  the  line  of  the  shaft,  and  are  right 
and  left,  preventing  any  side  thrust.  The  loose  pulleys  on  the  driving-shaft  are  turned  on 
the  inside  of  their  rims  to  a  taper.  The  outside  of  the  friction-rims  is  turned  to  the  same 
taper,  and  in  action  is  forced  into  the  loose  pulleys  by  a  shifting-forU.  The  shank  of  the 
fork  has  a  certain  amount  of  spring,  which  relieves  the  friction  and  pulleys  from  the  shock 
or  jar  of  the  ram  when  reversing  its  motion.  The  cross-feed  is  given  to  the  table  by  the  screw 
ratchet  and  rod  which  is  secured  to  the  lower  part  of  the  disk,  which  disk  is  compressed 
between  leather  disks.  The  friction  of  the  leather  causes  the  feed-disk  to  move  with  the 
wheel  until  stopped  by  the  fixed  pin  on  the  rear  bracket,  or  by  the  adjustable  threaded 
stop  pin  on  the  forward  bracket.  The  table  is  secured  to  the  cross-head  in  the  usual  manner, 


798 


SHINGLE-MAKING  MACHINERY. 


but  the  top  plate  is  hinged  at  the  rear  end  of  the  open  table,  and  is  raised  by  the  screw- 
shown,  and  is  clamped  when  in  position  by  screws  passing  through  slots  in  the  drop  pieces 
shown  on  the  under  side  of  the  plate. 

Sheaf  Currier  :  see  Harvesting  Machines,  Grain. 

SHEEP-SHEARING  MACHINE.— Fig.  1  shows 
the  sheep-shearing  machine  of  Burgon  &  Boll,  Shef- 
field, England,  installed  complete  ;  Fig.  2  shows 
a  few  links  of  the  flexible  operating  chain  ;  and 
Fig.  3  is  a  larger  view  of  the  shears.  The  fly- 
wheel when  in  gear  actuates  the  friction  wheel, 
marked  c,  fitted  with  a  spindle  having  a  gimbal 
joint  at  its  base  to  connect  it  with  the  flexible 
chain,  which  is  contained  within  a  hempen  tube. 
Another  gimbal  joint  at  the  lower  end  of  the  chain 
unites  it  with  the  shears,  which  are  like  those  of  a 
horse-clipper  and  formed  to  be  held  in  the  hand 
of  the  operator.  The  under  teeth  of  the  shears, 
ten  in  number,  remain  stationary,  while  three 
upper  teeth  reciprocate  rapidly  upon  them,  some- 
thing like  two  thousand  times  per  minute.  With 


FIG 


FIG.  1.— Sheep-shearing  machine. 


Fio.  3.—  Detail. 


the  machine  it  is  easy  to  avoid  cutting  the  skin  of 
the  sheep,  while  gaining  more  wool  and  working 
more  rapidly  than  with  hand  work.  The  hang- 
ing cords,  a  and  d,  are  for  starting  and  stopping 

The  flex- 


the machine  by  means  of  the  shifter,  b. 
ible  chain  is  of  hardened  steel. 

SHINGLE-MARINO  MACHINERY.  In  the  manufacture  of  shingles  nearly  every 
machine,  except  for  jointing  the  butts,  is  a  sawing  machine;  the  difference  being  as  to 
whether  the  saws  are  on  vertical  or  horizontal  arbors,  and  whether  one  saw  takes  care  of  one 
or  more  than  one  block.  Machines  with  two  or  more  saws  cut  from  four  to  ten  bolts  at  one 
time.  The  machines  of  smaller  capacity  usually  present  the  bolt  to  the  saw  and  withdraw 
it  by  a  reciprocating  motion,  those  of  larger  capacity  using  a  rotary  motion.  Among  the 
former,  the  principal  points  of  difference  are  as  to  whether  the  block  is  presented  end  on  or 
side  on  ;  and  in  minor  details  of  varying  the  taper,  thickness,  etc. 

For  making  sawed  shingles  there  are  several  classes  of  machines.  One  of  the  most  simple 
has  a  circular  saw  upon  a  vertical  arbor,  belted  from  below,  and  a  sliding  carriage  presents 
the  bolt  endwise  to  the  saw,  so  as  to  cut  with  the  grain  of  the  wood  instead  of  across  it.  This 
table  or  carriage  has  an  adjustment  by  which  either  the  front  or  the  back  end  may  be 
tilted,  so  as  to  saw  a  shingle  which  is  tapering  in  its  length  ;  and  there  is  provision  for 
changing  the  thickness  of  cut  without  altering  the  taper,  or  for  varying  both.  Such  a 
machine  will  cut  3,000  to  4,000  cedar  shingles  per  hour;  arid  it  is  also  adapted  for  sawing 
heading  and  box  stuff. 

In  the  shingle  machine  made  by  Adams  &  Sons  the  saw  arbor  is  vertical,  and  the  block  or 
bolt  is  borne  between  dogs  at  the  end  of  an  arm  vibrating  in  a  horizontal  plane  and  present- 
ing the  side  of  the  block  to  the  action  of  the  saw.  The  taper  is  given  by  tilting  one  end  of 
the  table  bearing  the  block  by  a  foot  lever  ;  this  gives  the  requisite  degree  of  taper  to  one 
shingle,  and  the  table  being  brought  back  by  a  spring  when  the  foot  is  taken  off  the  treadle 
after  one  shingle  is  cut,  the  next  shingle  is  cut  with  the  butt  coming  at  the  opposite  end  of 
the  bolt  from  that  of  the  first  one  cut.  Thus  every  other  shingle  has  its  butt  to  the  right  ; 
and  the  saw  cuts  slanting  at  every  other  cut,  and  parallel  on  the  intermediate  cuts. 

A  shingle  and  head-cutting  machine  brought  out  by  S.  Adams  &  Son  has  the  axis  of  the 
circular  saw  which  does  the  cutting  inclined  slightly  "from  the  vertical,  and  the  top  or  table 
is  semi-circularly  inclined  from  the  horizontal.  Along  the  top  there  slides  a  clamping  table 
which  holds  the  bolt  which  is  to  be  cut;  the  bolt  being  placed  crosswise  of  the  machine  so 
that  its  side  is  presented  to  the  action  of  the  saw.  The  bolt  being  clamped  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  inclined  table,  every  time  that  the  table  is  drawn  forward  the  shingle  or  heading  is 
sliced  from  it,  and  drops  clear  of  the  saw.  There  is  suitable  adjustment  for  giving  any  thick- 
ness or  degree  of  taper,  and  the  machine  will  cut  with  the  butt  first  on  one  end  of  the  block 
and  then  on  the  other,  or  may  be  set  so  as  to  cut  the  butts  continuously  from  either  end,  as 
desired.  The  capacity  claimed  is  3,000  shingles  per  hour  from  suitable  blocks,  or  60  shingles 
per  minute  from  blocks  8  in.  wide.  The  carriage  is  moved  up  over  the  saw  by  a  pinion  run- 
ning in  a  rack  gear  until  the  saw  has  passed  through  the  block,  when  the  pinion  is  automat- 
ically released  and  the  carriage  moves  back  by  gravity.  Then  the  dog  opens,  the  bolt  or 
block  drops  on  the  platform,  which  is  tilted  by  a  ratchet  wheel,  the  pinion  engages  the  rack 


SHOVEL,  KAILKOAD   SNOW. 


799 


again,  and  the  carriage  moves  the  block  against  the  saw.     There  are  two  feeds,  one  for  hard 

and  the  other  for  soft  wood. 

In  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  shingle-cutting  machines  made  there  is  a  large 

horizontal  disk,  driven  by  gearing  over 
the  top  of  a  frame  having  at  two  op- 
posite points  in  its  circumference  a 
circular  saw.  The  disk  has  dogging 
provision  for  ten  bolts  at  once,  and 
each  of  these  is  brought  in  turn  to  first 
one  and  then  the  other  of  the  horizontal 
circular  saws,  making  a  shingle  from 
each  bolt  at  each  presentation  to  the 
saw,  or  twenty  shingles  for  each  rota- 
tion of  the  circular  traveling  table. 
There  are  several  modifications  of  this 
machine,  which  is  made  by  Perkins  & 
Co. 

An  attachment  for  regulating  the 
throw  or  stroke  of  the  tilt-table  lever 
of  a  shingle  machine  may  seem  a  trivial 
matter,  but  it  is  very  important  in  such 
machines  to  have  a  device  which  can 
be  changed  without  the  necessity  of  a 
wrench,  at  the  same  time  being  posi- 
In  this,  shown  by  Fig.  1.  the  handle  has  cast  to  it  a  projection  that 


FIG.  1. — Shingle  tapering  device. 


FIG.  2.— gtealer  carriage. 


tive  to  set  and  lock.  ,  _    . 

engages  in  a  groove  in  the  enlarged  part  of  a  sliding  bar  that  is  placed  between  two  thumb- 
nuts,  which  latter  screw  through  the 
lugs  on  the  casting;  and  the  enlarged 
part  of  the  sliding  bar  strikes  the  end 
of  each  nut  as  the  lever  is  tilted  one  way 
or  the  other.  Screwing  the  thumb-nuts 
one  way  or  the  other  gives  the  lever 
more  or"  less  throw,  and  therefore  gives 
the  tilt-table  more  or  less  taper.  These 
thumb-nuts  are  grooved  on  their  edges, 
and  a  swinging  notch  or  lock  engages 
with  one  of  the  grooves  when  it  is  hang- 
ing down,  thus  making  it  impossible  to 
turn  the  nuts,  and  the  weight  of  the 
stop  causes  them  always  10  remain  in 
this  position  unless  raised  by  hand. 

What  is  known  as  a  stealer-carriage 
for  shingle  machines  is  a  device  for 
dogging  a  board  or  other  thin  piece  of 
material,  and  presenting  it  to  the  action 
of  the  single  saw  so  as  to  utilize  the  thin 
material  that  would  otherwise  have  to 
go  to  the  steam  burner.  One  made  by 
J.  C.  Simonds  &  Son  is  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  The  carriage  is  so  constructed  as  to  wedge  or  lock  the  board  or  shingle  on  three 
sides,  and  instead  of  wedging  it  lengthwise,  as  is  usual  with  such  clamps,  it  holds  it  cross- 
wise. The  shingle  that  is  being  sawed  is  not  dogged  at  all,  but  all  the  dogging  is  done 
on  the  piece  above  it  and  on  the  last  piece,  or  the  piece  that  is  left  after  all  the  shingles 
are  cut  out  of  the  board,  thus  making  it  impossible  to  spring  the  shingles.  This  carriage 
will  clamp  and  hold  a  piece  that  is  only  £  in.'  thick  at  the  thick  end  above  the  saw.  The 
split  or  wedge  piece  that  is  left  after  the  last  shingle  is  cut  is  held  in  the  carriage  and  drawn 
back  from  over  the  saw. 

Shoe  Machinery  :  see  Leather- working  Machinery. 

Shoe  Stamp  :  see  Ore-crushing  Machinery. 

SHOVEL,  RAILROAD  SNOW.  An  apparatus  for  removing  snow  from  railway  tracks. 
Figs  1,  2,  3  illustrate  the  Leslie  rotary  shovel.  Fig.  1  shows  the  machine  in  section,  and 
Figs.  2  and  3  show  its  appearance  when' actually  at  work. 

A  stout  frame  of  heavy  I-beams  is  mounted  upon  two  four-wheeled  diamond  trucks,  the 
whole  construction  being  of  extra  strength.  This  frame  carries  a  large  locomotive  pipe 
boiler,  with  a  firebox  which  extends  the  full  width  between  the  wheels.  This  boiler  supplies 
steam  in  two  17  x  22  cylinders,  with  Walshehart  valve  motion.  Each  cylinder  works  a 
short  shaft,  on  which  is  fast  a  bevel  wheel  33  in.  in  diameter  at  pitch  line.  Each  of  these 
bevel  wheels  gears  into  a  larger  bevel  wheel,  49^  in.  in  diameter  at  pitch  line,  fast  on  the 
main  shaft,  thus  driving  the  knife  wheel  placed  in  the  front  of  the  machine.  This 
wheel  is  10  ft.  in  diameter,  and  is  set  in  a  round  casing,  with  a  flaring,  square  front,  10  ft. 
wide  and  the  same  height,  which  is  made  of  4--in.  steel  plate.  This  casing  serves  to  cut 
the  bank  vertically  on  each  side,  by  its  corner  gussets;  the  snow  which  the  wheel  cacnot 
reach  is  carried  to  the  knife  wheel.  "  The  rotary  wheel  contains  a  hub  upon  which  are  placed 


800 


SHOVEL,    RAILROAD    SNOW. 


twelve  radial  plates,  in  the  shape  of  an  immense  fan  wheel.  Upon  the  front  of  these  radial 
plates  are  placed  an  inner  and  outer  series  of  knives.  These  knives  are  pivoted  on  radial 
pins,  and  the  surfaces  of  the  knives  being  inclined  to  one  another,  the  knives  are  canted 
when  they  encounter  snow,  and  are  set  so  as  to  slice  the  snow  off  the  bank  on  to  the  fan,  the 
centrifugal  force  of  which  causes  the  snow  to  fly  to  the  outside  of  the  fan- wheel,  and  as  the 
latter  is  surrounded  by  a  casing,  the  snow  can  only  escape  when  an  opening  is  provided  for 
it.  This  opening  is  at  the  top  of  the  wheel,  immediately  behind  the  headlight.  The  open- 
ing is  provided  with  a  movable  hood,  so  that  the  stream  of  snow  can  be  regulated  and  made 


4_j_4-4-IMM-4-IM- 


FIG.  1. — Leslie  rotary  snow  shovel. 


to  fly  either  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  track,  and  at  any  desired  angle.  The  rotary,  when  in 
operation,  is  in  the  charge  of  a  pilot,  who  stands  on  the  platform  in  the  front  end  of  the  cab, 
from  which  he  has  a  full  view  ahead,  as  well  as  on  each  side  of  the  track.  By  a  system  of 
signals  he  controls  the  engineers  on  the  rotary  and  locomotive  which  pushes  it,  and  by  a 
hand  wheel  can  alter  the  position  of  the  hood  that  directs  the  stream  of  snow  to  either  side. 
He  has  also  charge  of  the  ice  breaker  and  flanger  for  cleaning  the  rails  and  flanges  after  the 
main  body  of  the  snow  has  been  removed  by  the  rotary. 

The  ice  breaker  is  a  stout  plate  of  steel,  hanging  in  front  of  the  front  wheel  of  the  front 
truck,  and  so  attached  to  the  journal  box  and  frame  of  the  truck  that  it  rises  and  falls  with  the 


F;G.  2.— Elevation. 


FIG.  3.— Shovel  at  work. 


movement  of  the  front  truck  wheels,  and  consequently  maintains  a  fixed  position  about  half 
an  inch  above  the  top  of  the  rail.  The  ice-breaker  and  the  flanger.  which  follows  it,  can  be 
raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  a  small  steam  cylinder,  which  is  supplied  by  steam  from  the 
boiler  of  the  rotary.  The  flanger,  which  clears  out  snow  from  both  sides  of  the  rail  for  a 
distance  of  about  12  in.,  is  attached  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner  in  rear  of  the  rear  wheel 
of  the  front  truck.  Any  ordinary  locomotive  tender  can  be  attached  to  the  rotary  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  water  and  coal  for  the  supply  of  its  boiler. 

The  weight  of  the  machine  complete  is  110,000  Ibs.  It  is  in  us3  on  many  of  the  largest 
railroads  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Siamese  Connection  :  see  Fire  Appliances. 

Signals,  Railroad  :  see  Switches  and  Signals. 

Silicon  Bronze  :  see  Alloys. 


SLOTTING   MACHINES,    METAL. 


801 


Silver  Milling  :  see  Mills,  Silver. 

Sizing-  Screen  :  see  Ore-dressing  Machinery. 

Slate  Picker  :  see  Coal  Breakers. 

SLOTTING  MACHINES,  METAL.  Newton's  Rack-driver  Slotting  Machine.—  Fig.  1, 
shows  a  new  slotting  machine  built  by  the  Newton  Machine  Tool  Works,  of  Philadelphia. 
It  is  intended  for  finishing  work  above  18  in.  in  height,  and  is  especially  adapted  for  slot- 
ting large  forgings.  The  tool  is  unusually  heavy.  Large  machines  with  a  crank  stroke 
have  generally  not  been  successful.  To  overcome  the  difficulty  of  the  ordinary  rack-driven 
machine,  and  the  crank  slotting  machine,  these  machines  are  built  with  a  rack,  but, 


-• 


FIG.  1.— Rack-driver  slotting  machine. 


instead  of  having  a  pinion  or  bull  wheel  working  into  it,  it  is  driven  with  a  spiral  pinion, 
which  is  driven  through  angular  bevel  gearing,  which  gives  a  very  even,  steady  stroke  and 
great  power.  The  machines  are  capable  of  taking  a  full  stroke,  up  to  their  capacity.  The 
belt  velocity  is  110  times  greater  than  the  movement  of  the  cutting  bar.  The  feeds  are 
arranged  automatically,  and  can  be  worked  by  hand.  A  valuable  feature  of  these  tools 
is  the  extension  of  the  bed,  allowing  the  carriage  to  be  moved  some  distance  away  from 
the  cutting  bar.  The  cutting  bar  is  counterweigh  ted  and  has  a  quick  return. 

Newton's  Six-inch  Slotting  Machine. — Fig.  2  shows  a  short-stroke  slotting  machine.  The 
cutting  bar  is  counter  weighted,  and  can  be  adjusted,  and  is  provided  with  Whitworth's 
quick-return  motion.  The  circular  carriage  has  a  full  bearing  on  the  under  saddle,  the 

51 


802 


SOAP-MAKERS'   MACHINERY. 


worm-wheel  being  in  the  center  of  the  saddle.     The 


machine  will  admit  work  23  in.  diam- 
eter and  10  in.  in  height.  The  cir- 
cular carriage  is  17|  in.  in  diam- 
eter, and  is  made  very  heavy.  Both 
automatic  and  hand  feeds  are  pro- 
vided. 

SOAP  -  MAKERS'  MACHIN- 
ERY. There  are  two  well-known 
processes  of  soap- making,  that  by 
long-continued  boiling,  and  the 
so  called  "cold  process."  While 
"cold-process"  soap  can  be  made 
with  a  much  simpler  and  cheaper 
plant  than  regularly  boiled  soap, 
it  requires  a  higher  grade  of  stock 
to  make  a  merchantable  article, 
and  as  rosin  has  seldom  been  suc- 
cessfully used  in  "cold-process" 
soap,  it  is  usually  cheapened  by 
adding  silicate  of  soda.  Of  all 
fillers,  sal  soda  is  probably  the 
most  satisfactory,  as  it  will  soften 
hard  water  and  does  not  render  the 
soap  so  sharp  and  harsh  to  the 
skin  as  does  an  excess  of  uncom- 
bined  or  free  caustic  alkali.  A 
soap  moderately  filled  with  sal  soda 
will  generally  give  better  satisfac- 
tion than  a  soap  not  filled  at  all. 
In  soap  kettles  for  boiling  soap, 
good  practice  allows  25  cub.  ft. 
content  for  every  1,000  Ibs.  of  fin- 
ished soap  the  kettle  is  to  turn 
out  in  a  boiling.  While  exact 
data  are  wanting,  it  is  probably 
nearly  correct  to  allow  one  horse- 
power boiler  capacity  for  every 
1,000  Ibs.  of  finished  soap  to  be 
turned  out  in  a  single  boiling.  A 
criss-cross  coil  in  the  soap-boiling 
kettle  is  just  as  effective  and  much 
cheaper  than  a  spiral  one  of  the 
same  heating  surface. 

A  high-grade  toilet  soap  can  be  made  from  cuttings  and  scraps  of  a  good  quality  of  boiled 
soap,  by  dry  remelting  to  get  rid  of  excessive  water.  For  this  purpose  the  soap  stock  should 
have  no,  or  but  little,  filling.  Cuttings  and  scraps  of ' '  cold-process  "  soap,  especially  if  filled 
with  silicate  of  soda,  cannot  be  successfully  remelted,  as  the  grain  becomes  coarser.  They 
may  be  worked  up  with  a  new  batch  of  soap,  however,  or  can  usually  be  disposed  of  to  laun- 
dries, etc. 

The  formation  of  "  bags  "in  "  cold-process  "  soap,  it  is  said,  can  be  prevented  by  passing 
a  hand  crutch  back  and  forth  longitudinally  through  the  framed  soap  several  times.  After 
the  soap  is  cut  into  cakes  it  is  racked  and  allowed  to  form  a  skin  by  action  of  the  air. 
Different  soaps  will  require  different  lengths  of  time,  and  the  state  of  the  weather  will 
have  considerable  to  do  therewith.  If  possible,  select  a  clear,  dry  day  for  pressing,  and 
avoid  a  clammy,  soggy  day,  as  on  such  days  all  soap  sweats  and  becomes  frothy  in  press- 
ing. 

To  prevent  sticking  of  the  soap  to  the  dies,  it  is  necessary  to  sponge  the  dies  or  soap  in 
some  liquid  in  which  soap  is  not  readily  soluble.  The  best  way  is  to  sponge  the  cake  on  both 
face  sides.  For  sponging,  oil  of  myrbane  and  oil  of  citronella,  either  singly  or  mixed,  have 
been  used.  Salt  water,  however,  is  better,  and  weak  acetic  acid  (vinegar)  is  best. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  machine  for  making  soap  by  the  "  cold  process,"  remelting  and  crotch- 
ing  soap  scraps,  melting  and  mixing  rosin,  rendering  tallow,  etc.,  manufactured  by  Messrs. 
H.  W.  Dopp  &  Son,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

The  steam  jacket  and  inner  shell  are  cast  in  one  piece,  having  a  number  of  stays  between 
the  inner  and  outer  s.hell ;  there  is  a  large  outlet  in  the  center  of  the  bottom  for  the  dis- 
charge of  the  contents.  A  steam-heating  radiator,  composed  of  a  series  of  cylindrically 
arranged  pipes  having  open  spaces  between  them,  is  placed  in  the  center  ;  through  this 
radiator  steam  passes  directly  to  the  jacketed  part  of  the  kettle,  which  can  be  cut  off  from 
steam  supply  so  that  the  inner  cylinder  Only  has  steam.  A  conveyor  screw  is  placed  in  the 
center  of  this  radiator,  which  surrounds  the  screw.  As  soon  as  a  portion  of  the  soap  is 
melted,  the  screw  is  set  in  motion,  thereby  lifting  the  soap  up  and  dumping  it  over  the  top 
of  the  casing  surrounding  the  screw,  when  the  centrifugal  force  forces  it  out  of,  or  through, 
the  open  spaces  left  between  the  pipes.  The  large  scraps  are  carried  up  and  are  wedged  in 


FIG.  2. — Six-inch  slotting  machine. 


SOAP-MAKERS'   MACHINERY. 


803 


between  the  open  ports  at  the  upper  end  of  the  radiator.  The  constant  motion  of  the 
screw  shears  the  pieces  off,  and  thus,  in  comparatively  short  time,  the  largest  scraps  are 
completely  cut  up,  and  the  whole  kettleful  of  soap  will  be  thoroughly  melted  and  crotched 
ready  for  framing.  The  transferring  of  the  soap  into  a  crotcher  after  remelting  the  same,  is 
here  overcome,  and  the  two  operations  are  finished  in  one.  Moist  steam  may  be  passed  at  will 


FIG.  1.— "  Cold-process  "  soap  machine. 

through  the  soap  scraps,  etc.,  to  moisten  them,  if  necessary.  Cold  water  may  be  passed  into 
the  jacket  and  radiator  to  facilitate  the  cooling  of  the  soap.  The  conveyor  screw  is  worked 
by  power  forward  or  backward  by  shifting  the  clutch  that  drives  the  bevel  gearing. 

Fig.  2  represents  a  rendering  and  refining  kettle  for 
making  small  batches  of  fancy  toilet  soap  ;  rendering,  re- 
fining, cooling,  and  mixing  lard  ;  boiling  and  mixing 
oils,  varnishes,  etc.  It  consists  of  a  steam- jacketed  kettle, 
provided  with  an  agitator  so  constructed  that  it  can 
easily  be  removed  from  the  kettle  and  swung  out  of 
the  way  when  no  agitator  is  required,  for  or  cleaning  the 
machine. 

An  upright  provided  with  a  rack  is  screwed  into  a 
bracket,  which  is  cast  on  the  kettle.  A  pinion,  operated 
by  a  hand  wheel,  engages  with  the  rack,  and  thus  the  agi- 
tator can  readily  be  raised  out  of  the  kettle.  On  reaching 
the  top  it  can  be  swung  to  one  side  out  of  the  way,  and  the 
kettle  can  be  used  for  boiling  and  all  purposes  to  which  a 
steam-jacketed  kettle  can  be  put.  The  agitator  is  a  con- 
veyor screw,  surrounded  by  a  cylindrical  casing.  By 
loosening  a  set-screw,  the  conveyor  screw  can  be  withdrawn, 
and  the  machine  cleaned. 

An  improved  form  of  soap  frame,  Fig.  3,  is  made  of  No. 
10  sheet-iron,  heavily  braced  with  angle  irons  to  prevent 
bulging  or  buckling  of  the  sides.  The  ends  are  attached 
to  the  bottom  in  such  manner  as  to  be  easily  detached.  The  whole  is  firmly  bound  together 
by  hinged  rods  provided  with  fly  nuts  as  illustrated.  The  frames  can  be  set  up  or  knocked 
down  in  a  few  moments.  Two  bottoms  are  supplied  with. each  set  of  sides  and  ends,  so 
that  the  soap  can  remain  on  one  bottom  for  cutting,  while  the  other  bottom  and  frame  are 
ready  to  receive  a  fresh  charge  of  soap. 

Fig.  4  represents  a  novel  form  of  soap  press,  capable  of  pressing  a  bar  of  soap  14  in.  long, 


FIG.  2.— Refining  kettle. 


804 


SOAP-MAKERS'   MACHINERY. 


weighing  from  3  to  4  Ibs.     It  has  a  single-acting  steam  cylinder  placed  underneath  the  bed 


FIG.  3.— Soap  frame. 

in  such  position  that  its  piston,  by  means  of  a  roller  attached  to  the  end  of  the  piston  rod, 

acts  upon  a  cam  surface  of  the  swing  or 
pendulum  lever,  as  indicated.  A  hook, 
attached  to  the  piston  rod.  engages  with  a 
stud  on  the  swing  or  pendulum  lever  and 
prevents  the  latter  from  recoiling  after 
having  returned  from  giving  the  blow,  as 
it  can  not  fly  back  without  pulling  out  the 
piston.  Thus,  vibration  of  the  upper  die 
block  is  prevented.  The  steam  supply  pipe 
enters  a  governor  or  regulator,  which  can 
be  set  by  hand  wheel,  so  that  the  press 
gives  a  blow  of  required  force.  When 
this  has  once  been  set,  the  press  cannot 
give  a  stronger  blow  than  that  for  which  it 
is  set,  no  matter  how  much  steam  pressure 
the  boiler  may  supply.  To  the  right  of 
this  governor  is  shown  a  balanced  valve 
steam  trap  which  drains  off  all  condensed 
water  and  insures  the  admission  of  dry 
steam  only  to  the  cylinder.  The  admission 
of  steam  is  controlled  by  a  foot  treadle 
shown  at  the  right  of  the  cut.  The  handle 
serves  to  control  the  exhaust  in  such  man- 
ner that  the  pendulum  lever  returns  with 
just  enough  force  to  eject  the  pressed  soap 
and  no  more.  The  ejection  of  the  soap  is 
accomplished  by  a  cam,  which  is  pivoted 
at  one  end  to  the  pendulum  lever,  and 
clamped  to  the  latter  by  a  jam  nut  and 
arcs.  Against  this  cam*  works,  by  means 
of  a  roller,  a  lever  which,  with  its  other 
end,  actuates  the  center  lifting  bolt.  By 
unclaraping  this  cam,  shifting  it  up  and 
down,  and  reclamping,  the  height  to  which 
the  soap  is  lifted  is  regulated.  This  ar- 
rangement lifts  the  soap  so  gradually  that 
there  is  no  danger  of  throwing  the  cake 
of  soap  out  against  the  upper  die  block 
and  defacing  the  impressson,  no  matter 

FIG.  4.— Soap  press.  how  fast  the  press  is  worked.     By  throw- 

ing back  hook,  and  raising  the  foot-rest, 

the  press  is  at  once  transformed  into  an  ordinary  foot  press. 

Two  of  the  most  useful  works  on  soap  making  are  :  Brannt's  Manufacturing  of  Soap 

and   Candles,  H.   C.   Baird  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  ;  and  Gardner  and  Cameron's  Soap 

and  Candles,  P.  Blakiston,  Sou  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


STALK   CUTTERS. 


805 


Journals  containing  items  of  general  interest  to  the  soap  trade  :  American  Soap  Journal, 
Chicago.  Ills.,  and  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter.  New  York,  X.  Y.  We  are  indebted  to 
Messrs.  H.  W.  Dopp  &  Son,  of  Buffalo.  X.  Y.,  for  the  foregoing  information. 

Speeder,  Spindle,  Spinning  Frame,  and  Spooler  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machines. 

Spreader  :  see  Rope-making  Machines. 

Stacker  :  see  Threshing  Machines. 

Staking  Machines  :  see  Leather-working  Machines. 

STALK  CUTTERS.      Cornstalks,  where  the  growth  has  been  rank,  are  an  obstacle  to 


FIG.  1.— Stalk  cutter. 


the  plow.  The  stalk  cutter,  by  means  of  draft  hooks  pendent  under  the  frame,  combs  the 
stalks  into  line,  and  then,  by  means  of  transverse  revolving  knives,  chops  them  into  short 
lengths,  which  cannot  foul  the  plow  and  are  easily  turned  under  by  it.  The  implement  for 
this  use  formerly  consisted  simply  of  a  roller  armed  with  knives  parallel  with  its  axis  and 
projecting  from  its  face, 
and,  subsequently, 
mounted  eccentrically 
with  the  axis  of  the  roller, 
projecting  through  slots 
in  the  roller  when  coming 
to  the  ground,  and  drawn 
within  the  face  of  the 
roller  when  passing  up- 
ward and  over.  But  it 
has  been  transformed 
from  a  very  imperfect  to 
an  effective  machine  by 
the  improvements  shown 
in  Fig.  1. 

Purlin  &  Orendorff's  FIG.  2.— Stalk  cutter. 

Stalk  Cutter.—  The  work- 
ing parts  are  mounted  on  a  strong  sulky.  The  lower  floating  frame  carrying  the  bladed 
reel  is  attache:!  in  front  to  the  main  frame  above  it  by  draft  rings  at  the  corners,  and  is 
pressed  down  by  a  pair  of  strong  spiral  side  springs,  which  occasion  a  successive  rebound 
of  each  of  the  five  blades  downward  after  every  recoil  from  the  resistance  of  the  stalks  to  the 
stroke  of  the  blades.  This  automatic  rebound,  aided  by  the  resistant  inertia  of  the  whole 
fabric,  chops  the  stalks  thoroughly,  which  is  impossible  merely  by  the  weight  of  the  machine 


806 


STEAM   LOOP. 


steadily  applied.  To  relieve  the  team  from  undue  jerking  under  the  chopping  action 
described,  the  doubletree  is  connected  by  a  spring  to  the  draft  rod  of  the  machine.  The  cyl- 
inder is  covered  for  safety  from  the  knives,  and  the  cover  forms  a  box  for  ballast,  to  add 
weight  when  needed  to  insure  thorough  cutting.  The  floating  frame  and  cutters  are  raised 
and  held  up  by  a  lock  lever  when  not  required  to  cut.  The  knives  are  set  tangentially 
backward,  at  that  angle  which  insures  the  best  cutting  result.  The  knife-reel  is  rotated  by 
contact  with  the  ground  as  the  machine  advances.  The  same  class  of  machine  is  used  on 
cotton  land  to  fit  it  for  the  plow  by  cutting  the  cotton  stalks  into  short  lengths  in  the  same 
way,  but  owing  to  their  toughness  arid  hardness  is  necessarily  made  much  heavier  and 
with  stronger  reaction  side  springs  than  is  necessary  for  corn-stalks. 

Avery's  Stalk  Cutter,  Fig.  2,  has  six  knives  arranged  spirally  around  their  axis  to  effect 
constant  pressure  on  the  ground,  and  thus  avoid  jolting;  also  to  distribute  the  work  evenly 
by  cutting  few  stalks  at  once  ;  and  to  lighten  work  by  cutting  them  obliquely  with  their 
grain.  The  cutting  apparatus  presents,  when  viewed  from  front  or  rear,  a  profile  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  suiting  the  machine  to  the  usual  ridged  contour  of  cornfields.  The  machine  is 
preferably  made  wide  enough  to  cut  the  width  of  two  corn  rows,  to  use  two  horses  and  a 
man,  for  about  as  much  duty  as  for  four  horses  and  two  men  with  two  of  the  single-row  size. 
The  cutters  have  their  axis  independent  of  the  ground-wheel  centers,  and  their  pressure  can 
be  controlled  by  the  lever. 

Stamp  :  see  Ore-  crush  ing  Machines. 
Stamping  Machines  :  see  Book-binding  Machines. 
Stave  Jointer  :  see  Barrel-making  Machines. 
Steamers,  Passages  of  :  see  Engines,  Marine. 

STEAM  LOOP.  The  steam  loop  is  the  name  given  to  an  ingenious  device,  shown  in  Fig. 
1,  for  returning  the  water  of  condensation  from  a  steam  pipe  or  separator  into  the  boiler.  It 
consists  merely  of  a  system  of  piping,  and  does  not  necessarily  contain  any  valves,  adjust- 

ments, or  moving  mechanism. 
The  following  description  of 
its  method  of  operation  is  ex- 
tracted from  a  lecture  by  Wal- 
ter C.  Kerr  before  the  Franklin 
Institute.  The  principles  on 
which  its  action  depends  are  as 
follows  :  Difference  of  pressure 
may  be  balanced  by  a  water 
column  ;  vapors  or  liquids  tend 
to  flow  to  the  point  of  lowest 
pressure  ;  rate  of  flow  depends 
on  difference  of  pressure  and 
mass  ;  decrease  of  static  press- 
ure in  a  steam  pipe  or  chamber 
is  proportional  to  rate  of  con- 
densation ;  in  a  steam  current 
water  will  be  carried  or  swept 
along  rapidly  by  friction.  The 
water  of  condensation  runs  into 


BOILER 


FIG.  1.—  Steam  loop. 


a  separator.  (See  cut.)  The  drip  from  the  separator  is  below  the  boiler,  and,  evidently,  were 
a  pipe  run  from  this  drip  outlet  directly  to  the  boiler,  we  would  not  expect  the  water  to  re- 
turn  up-hill.  Moreover,  the  pressure  in  the  boiler  is,  say,  100  Ibs.,  while  in  the  separator  it 
is  only  95  Ibs.,  due  to  the  drop  of  pressure  in  the  steam  pipe,  by  reason  of  which  difference 
the  steam  flows  to  the  engine.  Thus  the  water  must  not  only  flow  up-hill  to  the  boiler, 
but  must  overcome  the  difference  in  pressure.  The  device  to  return  it  must  perform  work, 
and  in  so  doing  heat  must  be  lost.  The  loop,  therefore,  may  be  considered  as  a  peculiar 
motor  doing  work,  the  heat  expended  being  radiation  from  the  upper  or  horizontal  portion. 
From  the  separator  or  drain  leads  the  pipe  called  the  "riser,"  which  at  a  suitable  height 
empties  into  the  "  horizontal."  This  leads  to  the  "drop  leg,"  connecting  to  the  boiler  any- 
where under  the  water  line.  The  "  riser,*'  "  horizontal,  and  "  drop  leg  "  form  the  loop,  and 
usually  consist  of  pipes  varying  in  size  from  f  in.  to  2  in.,  and  are  wholly  free  from  valves, 
the  loop  being  simply  an  open  hole  from  separator  to  boiler.  (For  convenience,  stop  and 
check  valves  are  inserted,  but  they  take  no  part  in  the  loop's  action.)  Suppose  steam  is 
passing,  engine  running,  and  separator  collecting  water.  The  pressure  of  95  Ibs.  at  sepa- 
rator extends  back  through  the  loop,  but  in  the  drop  leg  meets  a  column  of  water  which 
has  risen  from  the  boiler,  where  the  pressure  is  100  Ibs.,  to  a  height  of  about  10  ft. — that 
is,  to  the  hydrostatic  head  equivalent  to  the  5  Ibs.  difference  in  pressure.  Thus  the  sys- 
tem is  placed  in  equilibrium.  Now,  the  steam  in  the  horizontal  condenses  slightly,  lower- 
ing the  pressure  to,  say,  94  Ibs.,  and  the  column  in  drop  leg  rises  6  in.  to  balance  it  ;  but 
meanwhile  the  riser  contains  a  column  of  mixed  vapor,  spray,  and  water,  which  also  tends 
to  rise  to  supply  the  horizontal  as  its  steam  condenses,  and,  being  lighter  than  the  liquid 
water  of  the  drop-leg,  it  rises  much  faster.  If  the  contents  of  the  riser  have  a  specific 
gravity  of  only  -i  that  of  the  water  in  the  drop  leg,  the  rise  will  be  ten  times  as  rapid, 
and  when  the  drop  leg  column  rises  1  ft.,  the  riser  column  will  lift  10  ft.  By  this  process 
the  riser  will  empty  its  contents  into  the  horizontal,  whence  there  is  a  free  run  to  the 
drop  leg  and  thence  into  the  boiler.  In  brief,  the  above  may  be  summed  into  the  state- 


STEEL,  MANUFACTURE   OF.  807 

ment  that  a  decrease  of  pressure  in  the  horizontal  produces  similar  effects  on  contents 
of  riser  and  drop  leg,  but  in  degree  inversely  proportional  to  their  densities .  When  the 
condensation  in  horizontal  is  maintained  at  a  constant  rate  sufficient  to  give  the  neces- 
sary difference  in  pressure,  the  drop  leg  column  reaches  a  height  corresponding  to  this 
constant  difference,  and  rises  no  further.  Thus  the  loop  is  in  full  action,  and  will  main- 
tain circulation  so  long  as  steam  is  on  the  system,  and  the  difference  of  pressure  and 
quantities  of  water  are  within  the  range  for  which  the  loop  is  constructed.  No  water 
should  accumulate  in  the  separator,  as  it  is  the  mission  of  the  loop  to  remove  it  before 
it  assembles  into  a  liquid  mass.  It  is  here  that  constant  and  vigorous  action  is  of 
great  practical  utility,  enabling  the  loop  to  act  as  a  preventive  rather  than  a  device 
for  removing  water  after  it  has  accumulated.  The  separator  evidently  must  be  of  such 
form  as  to  give  the  sweep  toward  and  through  the  loop  better  opportunity  to  pick  up 
the  entrained  water  than  is  afforded  the  current  sweeping  toward  the  engine,  pump,  or 
steam -using  device.  The  loop  action  is  practically  independent  of  the  distance  that  the 
source  of  supply  is  above  or  below  the  boiler,  and  also  independent  of  the  length  of  return. 
It  is  capable  of  handling  such  quantities  of  water  as  usually  exist  in  steam  systems.  It 
is  practically  limited  by  excessive  differences  of  pressure,  and  by  abnormal  quantities  of 
water. 

Steel  :  see  also  Alloys  :  Presses,  Forging,  and  Tempering  and  Hardening. 

STEEL,  MANUFACTURE  OF.  Recent  Improvements. — The  one  notable  improvement 
in  the  manufacture  of  steel  in  the  past  ten  years  has  been  the  successful  introduction  of  the 
basic  process,  both  open-hearth  and  Bessemer,  the  invention  of  the  late  Sidney  Gilchrist 
Thomas.  In  improvement  in  mechanical  details  of  the  manufacture,  with  the  view  of  dimin- 
ishing the  amount  of  labor  and  of  increasing  the  output  of  a  single  plant,  the  record  of  the 
past  ten  years  has  been  one  of  extraordinary  development.  In  Bessemer  works,  the  use  of 
fluid  metal  direct  from  the  blast  furnaces,  without  remelting  in  cupolas,  has  become  most 
general.  A  notable  invention  in  this  department  is  that  by  the  late  Capt.  William  R. 
Jones,  of  the  metal  mixer,  an  immense  tilting  vessel,  lined  with  fire-brick,  in  which  several 
ladlefuls  of  iron  from  different  blast  furnaces  are  poured  and  mixed,  and  from  which  the 
metal  is  drawn  off  as  required  into  other  ladles,  from  which  it  is  poured  into  the  converters. 
The  converters  themselves  have  undergone  no  essential  change,  except  increase  of  size.  A 
capacity  of  15  tons  to  the  heat  is  now  adopted  in  the  latest  works.  The  old  casting  pit,  with 
its  ingot  molds,  ladle  crane,  etc.,  immediately  in  front  of  the  converters,  is  being  done 
away  with,  and  for  it  are  substituted  ingot  molds  placed  on  cars,  and  an  overhead  traveling 
crane,  which  carries  the  ladle  of  melted  steel  from  the  converters  to  a  point  above  the 
ingot  molds  standing  on  cars  at  any  point  in  the  track  running  lengthwise  through 
the  converter  house.  This  arrangement  has  been  adopted  in  the  latest  built  works, 
those  of  the  Maryland  Steel  Co.,  at  Sparrow's  Point,  Md.,  and  is  about  being  used  in 
the  reconstruction  of  the  Edgar  Thomson  Works.  The  ingots,  with  the  metal  in  their  in- 
terior still  fluid,  are  drawn  by  a  locomotive  to  the  "  stripper  ;"  a  hydraulic  machine  strips 
them — that  is,  pulls  the  ingot  molds  off  from  them,  leaving  them  standing  on  the  cars. 
When  cool  enough  to  be  handled  by  the  crane  tongs,  they  are  lifted  by  a  hydraulic  crane, 
and  placed,  still  in  a  vertical  position,  in  the  "  soaking  pits,"  the  invention  of  Mr.  Gjers,  of 
Middlesborough,  England,  which  are  underground  fire-brick  receptacles,  heated  by  the  ingots 
themselves.  In  Hainsworth's  modification  of  these  pits,  a  small  regenerative  furnace  is 
placed  adjacent  to  them,  by  which  they  may  be  heated  when  necessary  by  the  burning  of 
fuel.  When  the  heat  of  the  ingots  has  been  equalized  in  these  pits,  the  fluid  interior  having 
solidified  while  the  comparatively  cool  exterior  is  heated  to  a  yellow  heat,  they  are  ready  for 
rolling.  In  most  modern  mills  they  are  rolled  directly  from  the  ingot  into  a  rail,  by  passing 
through  two  or  more  stands  of  rolls  in  rapid  succession,  without  reheating  or  cutting  into 
blooms.  A  four-length  rail  is  usually  made,  which  is  cut  into  rails  30  ft.  in  length  at  one 
operation  by  five  hot  saws,  which  simultaneously  make  the  four  rails  and  the  two  crop  ends. 
The  handling  of  the  rail  while  passing  through  the  rolls  is  done  entirely  by  machinery,  the 
invention  of  Capt.  Robert  W.  Hunt,  no  manual  labor  whatever  being  required  to  lift  or  turn 
either  ingot,  bloom,  or  rail.  Descriptions  of  the  process  of  rolling,  as  adopted  at  the  Edgar 
Thomson  Works,  Braddock,  Pa.,  and  at  the  Illinois  Steel  Co.'s  works  at  South  Chicago,  are 
given  by  Captain  Hunt  in  his  presidential  address  before  the  American  Society  of  Mechani- 
cal Engineers,  in  November,  1891. 

The  Basic  Process. — (See  Messrs.  Thomas  &  Gilchrist's  paper  on  "The  Manufacture  of 
Steel  and  Ingot  Iron  from  Phosphoric  Pig  Iron,"  which  was  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts, 
in  London,  in  1882.) 

The  Bessemer  vessel  is  lined  with  magnesian  lime,  which  has  been  previously  subjected 
to  an  intense  white  heat,  and  so  brought  to  a  condition  of  density,  tenacity,  and  hardness 
as  far  as  possible  removed  from  the  conditions  of  the  material  generally  known  as  "well- 
burnt  lime,"  and  more  closely  resembling  granite  or  flint.  This  material"  which  for  brevity 
is  known  as  "shrunk  lime"  (as  in  course  of  preparation  it  shrinks  to  one-half  the  bulk  of 
ordinary  lime),  is  used  either  in  the  form  of  bricks  or  in  admixture  with  tar,  as  a  rammed  or 
"  slurry  "  lining,  this  being  substituted  for  the  ordinary  silica  brick  or  siliceous  ganister 
lining  of  the  hematite  process. 

Before  the  metal,  which  may  be  either  employed  direct  from  the  blast  furnace  without 
intervening  remelting,  or,  if  for  any  reason  this"  is  not  convenient,  may  have  been  remelted 
in  a  cupola,  is  run  into  the  converter,  from  15  to  18  per  cent,  of  common  "  well-burnt "  lime 
is  thrown  into  the  vessel.  The  metal  is  then  introduced  and  the  charge  is  "  blown"  in  the 


808  STEEL,  MANUFACTRE    OF. 


ordinary  way  to  the  point  at  which  the  ordinary  Bessemer  operation  is  stopped — that  is,  till 
the  disappearance  of  the  carbon,  as  indicated  by  the  drop  of  the  flame. 

The  dephosphorizing  process  requires,  however,  to  be  continued  for  a  further  100  to  300 
seconds  ;  this  period  of  so-called  "after-blow,"  which  would  be  prejudicial  both  to  quality 
and  yield  in  the  ordinary  process,  being  with  phosphoric  iron  Bunder  conditions  permit- 
ting of  the  removal  of  phosphorus)  that  in  which  the  great  bulk  of  the  phosphorus,  down 
indeed  to  its  last  traces,  is  removed.  The  termination  of  the  operation  is  shown  by  a  peculiar 
change  in  the  flame,  and  checked  by  a  sample  of  the  metal  being  rapidly  taken  from  the 
turned-down  converter,  flattened  under  the  hammer,  quenched,  and  broken,  so  as  to  indicate 
by  its  fracture  whether  the  purification  is  complete.  A  practised  eye  can  immediately  tell 
whether  this  is  the  case  or  not.  If  the  metal  require  further  purification,  this  is  effected  by 
a  few  minutes  further  blowing. 

The  operation  is  thus,  as  will  be  seen,  but  little  different  from  the  ordinary  Bessemer 
process.  The  differences  that  have  been  indicated,  viz. :  the  lime  lining,  the  lime  addition, 
and  the  after-blow,  are,  however,  sufficient  not  only  to  enable  the  whole  of  the  phosphorus 
(which  would  be  otherwise  untouched)  to  be  completely  removed,  but  the  silicon,  of  which 
inconvenient  and  even  dangerous  quantities  are  occasionally  left  in  the  regular  Bessemer 
process,  is  also  entirely  eliminated,  while  at  least  60  per  cent,  of  any  sulphur  (also  untouched 
in  the  ordinary  process)  which  may  have  been  present  in  the  pig  is  also  expelled.  It  is  found, 
too,  that  the  once-dreaded  phosphorus  is  of  most  substantial  assistance  in  securing  by  its 
combustion  the  intense  heat  necessary  for  obtaining  a  successful  blow  and  hot  metal.  If  it 
is  desired  to  produce  "ingot  iron,"  or  a  metal  differing  only  from  puddled  iron  by  its  homo- 
geneity and  solidity,  the  usual  addition  of  spiegel  is  omitted,  or  replaced  by  a  half  per  cent, 
of  rich  ferromanganese.  The  phosphorus  is  oxidized  by  the  blast,  forming  phosphoric  acid, 
which,  finding  itself  in  presence  of  two  strong  bases,  oxide  of  iron  and  lime,  unites  with 
the  latter  of  them  to  form  phosphate  of  lime,  which  passes  into  the  slag.  Whether  or  not 
there  is  a  transitory  formation  of  phosphate,  making  oxide  of  iron  perform  the  function  of 
a  carrier,  is  a  matter  (though  interesting  theoretically)  which  it  is  needless  here  to  discuss. 
The  basic  Siemens  and  Siemens-Martin  processes  are  carried  out  upon  the  same  lines  as  the 
Bessemer  process.  The  dephosphorization  is  very  complete,  but  the  operation  takes  about 
5  per  cent,  longer  than  when  pure  material  is  used  ;  the  proportion  of  lime  required  is  less 
than  in  the  Bessemer  process,  and  the  wear  of  the  basic  hearth,  with  suitable  arrangements, 
is  not  excessive.  In  1878  there  was  not  even  in  existence  any  public  record  of  successful 
dephosphorization  of  pig  iron.  In  1884,  864,000  tons  of  basic  steel  were  produced.  In  1890 
the  production  was  2.603,083  tons.  Moreover,  in  this  last  year,  too,  there  were  also  pro- 
duced, together  with  the  steel,  623,000  tons  of  phosphoric  slag,  most  of  which  was  used  for 
fertilizing  purposes. 

The  Darby  Recarburizing  Process. — This  process,  invented  by  Mr.  John  Henry  Darby, 
of  the  Brymbo  Steel  Works,  consists  in  a  method  for  adding  the  required  carbon  to  molten 
steel  by  means  of  pure  pulverized  carbon,  in  lieu  of  the  spiegel  hitherto  used. 

The  addition  of  the  carbon  may  be  made  by  any  of  the  following  methods  : 

(1)  By  the  use  of  a  special  funnel-shaped  filter,  which  is  filled  with  carbon,  and  through 
which  the  molten  metal  flows. 

(2)  By  means  of  a  worm,  working  in  a  funnel,  hanging  or  standing  over  the  ingot  molds, 
when  it  is  desired  to  recarburize  only  a  few  ingots  from  a  charge. 

(3;  In  the  Siemens  furnace  the  carbon  is  added  to  the  molten  steel  as  it  flows  from  the 
furnace  down  the  spout,  and  in  the  Bessemer  process  as  the  metal  flows  from  the  converter 
into  the  ladle,  so  that  the  recarburization  takes  place,  partly  during  the  casting  and  partly 
in  the  ladle.  The  third  method  is  now  used,  both  on  account  of  its  cheapness  and  exactness. 
The  ground  carbon  is  placed  in  a  sheet-iron  funnel,  which  for  a  10-ton  charge  should  be 
capable  of  holding  about  450  Ibs.  of  good  ground  coke.  The  funnel  is  provided  with  a  sliding 
valve,  at  the  lower  end  of  which  a  pipe  is  affixed,  and  through  which  the  carbon  falls  into  the 
stream  of  metal.  The  flow  of  the  carbon  should  be  so  regulated  that  the  whole  of  the  car- 
bon is  in  the  ladle  when  two-thirds  of  the  steel  has  been  run  into  it.  The  slag  must  be  kept 
well  back,  especially  in  the  basic  process,  to  prevent  reduction  of  the  phosphorus  in  the 
slag.  The  amount  of  carbon  to  be  added  must  be  10  to  20  per  cent,  in  excess  of  the  theo- 
retical quantity  for  a  given  percentage.  Experiments  have  shown  that  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  carbon  0*05  per  cent,  in  a  ton  of  steel,  about  1  '6  Ibs.  of  coke  must  be  used.  From 
this  as  a  basis,  a  table  of  "charges"  may  easily  be  figured  out  for  any  given  percentage 
of  increase.  By  this  process  the  use  of  spiegel  is  entirely  done  away  with ;  the  amount  of 
ferromanganese  to  be  added,  however,  is  about  the  same 'as  by  the  older  method  of  recar- 
burizing.  (See  "On  the  Darby  Process  of  Recarburization,"  by  M.  A.  Thielen,  Journal  of 
the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  No.  2,  1890.) 

The  Lash  Open-hearth  Furnace  Plant  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  1,  2,  3.  It  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  use  of  natural  gas.  There  are  16  furnaces  erected  in  Pittsburg  on  the  Lash 
system,  four  of  40  tons,  five  of  30  tons,  one  of  20  tons,  and  six  of  15  tons. 

The  hearth  of  the  furnace  (1)  is  made  circular,  or,  preferably,  elliptical.  The  lining  of  the 
hearth  conforms  to  the  shape  of  the  shell. 

The  single  flues  in  natural-gas  furnaces  at  either  end  of  the  melting  chamber  are  5  ft. 
wide,  and  are  simply  large  passages  inclined  down  toward  the  bath  at  a  pitch  of  about  4 
in.  to  the  foot,  to  give  the  flame  a  strong  guide  downward  upon  the  metal.  In  order  to 
provide  a  firm  support  for  the  arched  roofs  of  the  melting  chamber  and  flues  leading  into 
it,  a  water-bosh,  made  of  -Hn.-thick  steel  plate,  is  put  in  the  form  of  a  keystone  in  the  arch  of 


STEEL,    MANUFACTURE   OF. 


809 


each  roof.  Natural  gas  is  led  into  the  sloping  flues  by  wrought-iron  pipes  (10-17),  and  being 
much  lighter  than  the  air,  mixes  with  it  in  its  downward  rush  into  the  furnace.  The  stack 
(21)  is  placed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  flues  leading  from  each  end  of  the  hearth  (22-23), 
which  have  checker- work  in  them,  alternately  act  as  regenerators  to  preheat  the  air  before  it 
enters  the  furnace.  The  lower  end  of  the  stack  is  connected  by  a  short  flue  (24)  with  a  four- 


!  •',  ^issLi'., !'' 


FIG.  1.— Lash  open-hearth  furnace.    Vertical  half  sections  and  projections. 


FIG.  2.  -Lash  open-hearth  furnace.    Transverse  section. 


FIG.  3.— Lash  open-hearth  furnace.     Horizontal  section  on  y,  y,  Fig.  2. 

way  chamber  (25),  to  which  the  flues  (22-23)  from  each  end  of  the  furnaca  converge,  and  to 
which  the  air  duct  (26)  delivers.  This  air  duct  (26)  leads  out  from  the  ladle  pit  (27),  and 
passes  directly  under  the  hearth,  in  this  way  not  only  heating  the  air,  but  giving  a  free  cir- 
culation under  the  hearth,  and  preventing  an  excessive  heating  of  the  bottom.  Along  the  mid- 
dle of  the  flues  (22-23)  leading  from  the  central  four-way  chamber  (25)  to  the  opposite  ends  of 


810 


STEEL,  MANUFACTURE   OF. 


the  furnace,  is  placed  checker- work  of  fire-brick,  supported  on  tiles  (28},  so  that  the  bottoms 
of  the  flues  are  clear  openings,  giving  a  stronger  draught  ;  but  as  there  is  constant  tend- 
ency of  the  heated  air  to  ascend,  there  is  a  thoroughly  uniform  heating  of  the  air  entering  the 
furnace  by  this  arrangement.  The  front  portions  of  the  flues  are  provided  with  a  series  of 
double  arches.  The  four- way  chamber  (25)  has  the  air  duct  (26)  leading  into  it  permanently 
open,  and  is  fitted  with  a  three-way  valve  (33),  alternately  connecting  the  flues  (22-23}  lead- 
ing to  each  end  of  the  furnace  with  the  chimney  (21}  and  with  the  air  chamber  (&5),  in  this 
way  reversing  the  furnace  on  the  well-known  Siemens  principle.  This  three-way  valve  (33) 
is  hollow,  and  is  kept  cold  by  a  stream  of  water  running  through  it,  preventing  the  warp- 
ing or  burning  out  of  the  valve,  or  with  the  Siemens  gas  furnace,  the  direct  loss  of  fuel 
by  leakage  to  the  chimney.  The  tap-hole  of  the  melting  furnace  is  at  about  the  ground- 
level,  and  the  metal  is  conducted,  through  an  inclined  spout  some  10  ft.  in  length, 
to  the  ladle  pit  (27).  The  Lash  furnaces  have  all  the  ordinary  and  important  operations 
around  the  furnace  on  one  ground  level,  the  three  doors  on  the  back  side  of  the  furnace 
and  the  two  on  the  front  or  tapping  side  being  accessible  for  charging  or  for  repairs  to  the 
furnace.  A  record  of  5<>0  consecutive  heats,  of  50.000  Ibs.  of  stock  each,  shows  that  these 
were  charged  in  an  average  of  24  minutes  per  charge,  12  men,  or  all  hands  about  the  furnace, 
doing  the  charging  from  all  five  doors,  which  are  balanced  and  arranged  to  open  by  levers  in 
the  pulpit  under  the  control  of  the  crane  boy. 

The  Batho  Furnace  is  represented  in  Figs.  4  to  7.  It  consists  of  five  separate  wrought-iron 
cases,  all  on  one  level, 
lined  with  fire-brick, 
which  form  the  outside 
walls  of  the  four  regener- 
ators and  of  the  melting 
chamber.  The  regener- 
ators are  connected  to  the 
melting  chamber  over- 
head bymeansof  wrought- 
iron  pipes,  running  almost 
horizontally,  which  are 
lined  with  refractory  ma- 
terial. The  melting  ves- 
sel is  lined  with  basic  ma- 
terial and  covered  with  a 
roof  of  silica  brick,  en- 
closed in  a  strong  skew- 
back  ring  of  iron.  The 
gas  ports  are  in  the  side 
walls  of  the  melting  chamber  and  the  air  is  carried  in  through  a  port  in  the  roof  directly  over 


FIG.  4.— The  Batho  furnace.    Sectional  elevation. 


FIG.  5.— The  Batho  furnace. 
Cross  section. 


FIG.  6.— The  Batho  Furnace.    Plan. 


the  gas  entrance,  the  air  port  having  a  very  steep  pitch  into  the  furnace  of  at  least  8  in.  in 
every  foot.  This  arrangement  guides  the  flame  downward  right  on 
the  hearth,  and  does  away  with  much  of  the  sharp  cutting  action  of 
the  flame  on  the  roof,  which  thus  has  to  stand  the  reflected  and 
radiated  heat  only.  The  basic  lining  is  separated  from  the 
acid  by  \  to  4-  in.  only  of  neutral  material  in  the  form  of  car- 
bon brick  or  chrome  ore.  The  upper  18  in.  of  the  lining  walls  of 
the  melting  chamber  are  of  silica  brick.  The  Batho  furnace  is  well 
adapted  for  the  basic  process  on  account  of  the  facility  of  getting  at 
and  replacing  the  linings.  (See  "  Recent  Improvements  in  Open- 
hearth  Steel  Furnaces,"  by  A.  E.  Hunt,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining 
Engrs.,  Vol.  XVI ) 
Open-hearth  Practice  in  Europe. — Mr.  F.  Lynwood  Garrison,  in  his  report  on 


FIG.  7.— End  elevation. 


STEEL,  MANUFACTURE   OF.  811 

the  metallurgical  arts,  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  (Journal  of  FranTdin  Institute,  1890), 
says  : 

Since  the  time  of  the  introduction  by  Messrs.  Martin  of  the  new  process  in  the  Sireuil 
works,  the  size  of  the  open-hearth  furnace  has  always  been  increasing.  Instead  of  the  3 
to  4-ton  furnaces  first  used,  10- ton  furnaces,  20-ton  furnaces,  and  even,  as  in  some  steel 
works  of  the  Loire  district,  35-ton  furnaces  can  now  be  found. 

In  reference  to  the  manner  of  constructing  the  furnace,  the  majority  are  of  the  fixed  type, 
the  so-called  Siemens-Martin  furnace,  designed  at  first  by  the  Messrs.  Martin  themselves, 
and  having  regenerators  situated  underneath  the  hearth,  and  the  reversing  valves  on  one 
of  the  small  sides.  In  two  or  three  steel  works  only  can  the  Pernot  furnaces  be  found,  with 
a  revolving  circular  basin  or  hollow  hearth,  or  the  Batho  furnace,  with  a  round  hearth, 
supported  by  an  iron  plate,  free  underneath,  and  with  round  regenerators  with  plate-iron 
casing  placed  laterally  and  above  ground. 

The  mode  of  working  is  usually  the  "scrap  process."  What  is  known  as  the  "ore 
process  "  does  not  appear  to  be  used  in  France.  The  combined  use  of  scrap  and  ore,  known 
as  the  "  Landore  process,"  is  used  only  at  the  Alleyard  Works.  Professor  Jordan  states  that 
the  nature  of  the  lining  varies  in  the  different  works,  and  according  to  the  description  of 
materials  used.  Sometimes  the  lining  is  acid ;  that  is,  it  is  made  with  sand,  ganister,  or 
siliceous  paddle  ;  sometimes  it  is  basic — that  is,  made  with  magnesia  bricks  or  puddle  (ac- 
cording to  the  system  patented  in  1869  by  Mr.  Emile  Muller),  or  with  dolomitic  bricks  and 
blocks ;  at  other  times  the  lining  is  neutral  ;  that  is,  made  with  chrome  ore  (according  to 
the  Valton-Remaury  process).  When  the  lining  is  made  with  chrome  ore,  Messrs.  Valton 
and  Remaury  state  that  no  material  is  taken  from  the  lining  either  by  the  molten  metal 
or  by  the  slag,  so  that  no  corrosion  takes  place,  and  it  becomes  possible  to  act  on  the  metal 
either  by  scraps  or  by  ores,  or  by  various  agents  in  such  a  manner  as  to  effect  a  complete  de- 
phosphorization,  and  to  produce  various  descriptions  of  steel. 

Use  of  Aluminum  to  secure  Sound  Ingots. — It  has  been  found  that  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  aluminum  to  molten  steel  just  before  pouring  into  ingots  has  a  beneficial  effect 
in  rendering  the  ingots  sound.  Mr.  J.  W.  Langley,  of  Pittsburg,  in  a  paper  read  at  the 
meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  in  1891,  says  : 

The  practice  in  pouring  ingots  is  as  follows  :  The  aluminum,  in  small  pieces  of  a  quarter 
or  half-pound  weight,  is  thrown  into  the  ladle  during  the  tapping,  shortly  after  a  small 
quantity  of  steel  has  already  entered  it.  The  aluminum  melts  almost  instantaneously,  and 
diffuses  with  great  rapidity  throughout  the  contents  of  the  ladle.  The  diffusion  seems  to  be 
complete,  for  the  writer  has  never  seen  the  slightest  action  indicating  want  of  homogeneity 
of  mixture— all  of  the  ingots  poured  from  one  ladle  being  precisely  alike  so  far  as  the  specific 
action  of  the  aluminum  was  concerned.  The  quantity  of  aluminum  to  be  employed  will  vary 
slightly  according  to  the  kind  of  steel  and  the  results  to  be  attained.  For  open-hearth  steel, 
containing  less  than  0.50  per  cent,  carbon,  the  amount  will  range  from  5  to  10  ounces  per 
ton  of  steel.  For  Bessemer  steel  the  quantities  should  be  slightly  increased,  viz. :  7  to  16 
ounces.  For  steel  containing  over  0.50  per  cent,  carbon,  aluminum  should  be  used  cautiously; 
in  general,  between  4  and  8  ounces  to  the  ton.  Mr.  George  G.  McMurtrie,  president  of  the 
Apollo  Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  has  found  that  aluminum  can  be  made  to  replace  manganese, 
and  has  rolled  ingots  down  to  thin  sheets  by  using  one  half-pound  of  aluminum  per  ton  of 
steel. 

The  Hoerde  Desulphurizing  Process. — Mr.  J.  Massenez,  of  Hoerde.  Germany,  read  a  paper 
at  the  London  meeting  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  in  1891,  describing  a  process  adopted 
at  his  works  of  desulphurizing  molten  pig  iron  prior  to  its  conversion  into  steel  by  the  Besse- 
mer process.  We  extract  from  this  paper  as  follows  : 

In  the  treatment  of  phosphoric  pig  iron,  which  is  employed  in  the  production  of  basic 
steel,  it  is  not  sufficient  merely  to  conduct  the  molten  pig  iron  in  large  quantities  to  the 
converter  in  a  mixed  condition  ;  but  the  problem  here  is  to  render  the  proportion  of  sulphur 
also  independent  of  the  blast  furnace  process  to  such  an  extent  that  the  proportion  of  sul- 
phur in  the  finished  steel  is  so  low  that  the  quality  of  the  steel  is  in  no  way  influenced  by  it. 
In  order  to  effect  satisfactory  desulphurization  attention  has  been  bestowed  on  the  fact  that 
iron  sulphide  is  converted  by  manganese  into  manganese  sulphide  and  iron.  If  sulphureted 
pig  iron,  poor  in  manganese,  is  added  in  a  fluid  condition  to  manganiferous  molten  pig  iron, 
poor  in  sulphur,  the  metal  is  desulphurized  and  a  manganese  sulphide  slag  is  formed.  At 
Hoerde,  the  mixing  and  desulphurizing  apparatus  holds  70  tons  of  pig  iron  and  has  the 
shape  of  a  converter,  moved  by  hydraulic  machinery.  An  hydraulic  pressure  of  8  atmos- 
pheres is  sufficient  to  set  it  in  motion.  The  vessel  is  provided  with  a  double  lining  of  fire 

ed  for  the  lining  of  blast  furnaces.  This  lining  is 


bricks  of  the  same  quality  as  those  used  for  the  lining  of  blast  furnaces.  This  lining 
attacked  only  along  the  slag  line,  and  does  not  require  repair  until  it  has  been  in  use  for 
some  six  weeks.  The  consumption  of  manganese  is  very  low.  Theoretically  it  is  the  quan- 
tity required  for  the  formation  of  manganese  sulphide,  and  in  practice  it  has  been  found  that 
this  amounts  to  about  0.2  per  cent.  The  proportion  of  manganese  which  the  desulphurized 
pig  iron  coming  from  the  vessel  should  contain  is  best  kept  at  about  1.5  per  cent,  in  order  to 
render  the  desulphurization  as  complete  as  possible.  It  has  been  found  that  if  highly  sul- 
phureted pig  iron  is  poured  from  the  blast  furnace  into  the  desulphurizing  vessel,  15  to  20 
minutes  are  sufficient  to  effect  the  desulphurization  requisite  for  the  steel  process.  The  iron 
in  the  vessel  remains  sufficiently  fluid  for  several  hours.  It  has  been  found  quite  unneces- 
sary to  obtain  heat  by  passing  and  burning  a  current  of  gas  above  the  bath  of  metal.  Daily 
analyses  during  a  month  at  Hoerde  of  the  desulphurized  metal  for  the  basic  process  gave 


812 


STEEL,    MANUFACTURE   OF. 


of  slag 
[ar  fixed 


Fio.  8.— The  Robert- Bessemer  Converter. 


results  as  follows  :  phosphorus  ranging  from  2*62  to  2-93  per  cent.  Manganese,  1-15  to  2*97 
per  cent.  ;  silicon,  (Ml  to  0'31  ;  sulphur,  0'035  to  0'086,  the  percentage  of  sulphur  before 
desulphurization  being  0' 100  to  0'481. 

The  Robert-Bessemer  Converter,  Fig.  8,  is  described   in  F.  Lynwood  Garrison's   report 
_ on  the  Metallurgical  Arts  at  the  Paris  Exhi- 
bition    (Journal    Franklin    Institute,    1890), 
which  see. 

What  is  claimed  as  novel  in  the  converter 
is  "  a  combination  of  several  parts  in  a  con- 
verter having  a  flat  side,  in  which  flat  side  are 
ranged  the  tuyeres  in  a  plane  horizontal  to 
the  axis  of  the  converter,  and  all  in  the  same 
plane."  "The  tuyeres  having  an  inclination 
to  enable  a  rotary  motion  to  be  imparted  to 
the  metal  bath,  and  being  so  disposed  that  by 
tilting  the  converter  in  the  trunnions  the 
depth  of  the  metal  over  the  tuyeres  can  be 
regulated." 

It  seems  to  have  produced  excellent  results 
wherever  put  in  operation  and  to  be  the  only 
side-blown  converter  which  is  suitable  for  the 
basic  process,  as  the  large  amount 
produced  would  soon  choke  up  a  similar 
converter. 

Processes  for  preventing  Piping  of  Steel  In- 
gots.— Recent  processes  for  preventing  pip- 
ing are  thus  described  by  Mr.  T.  S.  Crane,  in  a 
paper  published  in  the  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol. 


X.  Strenuous  efforts  have  been  made,  and  by 
many  different  modes,  to  prevent  the  piping 
of  cast-steel  ingots,  but  it  is  only  recently  that 
a  simple  apparatus  has  been  perfected  for 
practically  accomplishing  this  object. 

Some  of  the  most  modern  means  hereto- 
fore used  are  mentioned  below.  The  ' «  Sweet " 
process  consists  in  putting  powdered  char- 
coal upon  the  top  of  the  ingot  when  poured,  to 
prevent  its  upper  end  from  oxidation,  and,  by  its  combustion,  to  maintain  the  fluidity  of  the 
steel,  and  thus  assist  in  filling  the  pipe  as  it  forms.  The  entire  effect  is  very  slight.  The 
compression  process  used  by  Whitworth  to  form  sound  steel  ingots  has  never  been  wholly 
successful,  as  it  operated  to  consolidate  the  exterior  of  the  casting  without  permitting  the 
free  discharge  of  the  gases  from  its  interior  ;  and  while  it  has  operated  to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  a  pipe  or  local  depression,  it  has  been  liable  to  produce  a  spongy  or  porous  casting. 
Various  modifications  of  Whitworth's  plan  have  been  devised.  S.  T.  Williams  has  devised 
a  compression  process  for  making  sound  circular  ingots  for  saw  plates.  The  comparatively 
thin  and  flat  form  of  such  ingots  permits  the  sides  to  be  bent  or  crushed  inward,  while  the 
interior  of  the  ingot  is  still  at  a  welding  heat,  and  this  effects  the  desired  purpose  much  bet- 
ter than  in  a  square  ingot,  where  the  compression  of  the  sides  would  tend  to  induce  cracks, 
as  the  metal,  when  first  crystallized,  is  not  very  tenacious.  In  experiments  tried  by  William 
R.  Hinsdale,  at  the  Jersey  City  Steel  Works,  in  the  year  1884,  it  was  found  that  a  pressure 
of  300  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  operating  upon  a  24-in.  piston,  and  concentrated  upon  the  end  of  a  3^- 
in. -square  ingot,  merely  produced  an  ingot  containing  innumerable  globules  of  gas. 

The  "Billings  and  Hinsdale"  process  provided  a  reservoir  at  the  top  of  the  mold,  and  a 
movable  plunger  within  the  mold,  by  which  the  steel  was  drawn  downward  to  make  an 
ingot,  which  would  be  fed  during  the  shrinkage  period  by  the  residue  remaining  in  the 
reservoir.  This  process  is  not,  therefore,  convenient  except  for  the  casdng  of  large  ingots. 
Mr.  Hinsdale  also  experimented  at  the  Jersey  City  Steel  Works  with  a  pressure  of  60,000 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  upon  the  metal.  The  result  was  the  shortening  of  the  ingot  from  25  to  22  in. 
in  length,  and  perfect  solidity,  except  that  the  pipe  appeared  in  the  same  form,  a  flaw,  as  it 
ordinarily  displays  itself  at  the  piped  end  of  a  forged  bar.  Mr.  Hinsdale  thus  found  that 
piping,  or  its  effects,  could  not  be  eliminated  by  pressure,  and  invented  a  perforated  plug  to 
insert  in  the  mold  upon  the  top  of  the  fluid  metal,  through  the  perforation  in  which  the 
gases  might  escape  while  applj  ing  the  pressure. 

With  this  device  the  top  of  the  ingot  became  slightly  chilled,  and  a  crust  formed  thereon  ; 
but  after  the  pressure  upon  the  metal  was  raised  to  about  20,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  the  crust  of 
metal  exploded  with  a  loud  report,  and  a  circular  piece  like  a  boiler  punching  shot  out  of  the 
perforation  in  the  plunger,  followed  by  all  the  gases,  and  sufficient  metal  to  fill  the  cavity 
and  form  a  stud  as  long  as  one's  little  finger,  on  top  of  the  ingot. 

This  process  produced  ingots  absolutely  solid  and  free  from  defect,  which  had  been  proved 
impossible  by  the  mere  use  of  pressure.    The  expense  of  all  these  methods,  and  the  inconven 
ience  of  applying  them  to  the  open  ingot  molds  universally  used  for  casting  steel  ingots,  re- 
sulted in  the  invention  by  Mr.  J.  B.  D'A.  Boulton,  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  of  an  apparatus  in 
which  ingot  molds  made  without  bottom,  but  in  other  respects  like  the  common  ingot  molds, 


STEEL,  MANUFACTURE   OF. 


813 


are  superposed,  one  upon  another,  and  successively  filled,  the  shrinkage  in  each  ingot  being 
fed  by  the  fluid  metal  in  that  above  it,  and  the  resulting  product  being  a  series  of  absolutely 
sound  ingots  connected  by  cold-shut  joints.  An  ingot  made  by  this  process,  and  split  open, 


has  been  shown  to  be  perfectly  sound.  By  interposing  an  asbestos  washer  with  a  small  aper- 
ture between  the  successive  mold  sections,  the  resulting  product  was  necked  at  intervals, 
so  that  the  ingot  bar  could  be  readily  broken  at  such  points.  Boulton's  apparatus  has  been 
in  commercial  operation  at  the  West  Bergen  Steel  Works  of  Messrs.  Spaulding  &  Jennings, 


814 


STOKERS,   MECHANICAL. 


since  December,  1887,  and  one  ingot  per  minute  is  cast  in  it  regularly  when  the  heat  is  ready. 
The  ingots  cast  are  nearly  4  in.  square,  and  are  absolutely  sound  ;  but  the  machine  is  equally 
adapted  to  cast  larger  ingots  by  making  the  holder  and  the  ingot  molds  of  suitable  dimen- 
sions. One  man  suffices  to  operate  the  levers  of  the  hydraulic  apparatus,  and  the  ordinary 
operators  are  employed  to  pour  the  metal. 

Mr.  William  R,  Hinsdale  obtained  a  United  States  patent,  dated  January  6, 1891,  No.  444,- 
381,  for  a  process  of  forming  ingots,  which  he  states  consists,  essentially,  in  chilling  the  sur- 
face of  the  ingot  which  is  last  cast  in  the  mold,  and  which  is  therefore  the  hottest,  and  in 
reversing  the  ingot  after  such  surface  is  sufficiently  chilled  to  exclude  the  atmosphere  from 
the  fluid  interior  of  the  ingot. 

In  this  invention  the  retention  of  the  fluid  metal  within  the  chilled  shell  is  absolutely  es- 
sential, whereas  in  earlier  methods  the  discharge  of  the  fluid  metal  is  the  ultimate  object, 
and  the  chilling  of  the  top  end  of  the  casting  before  reversing  the  ingot  is  carefully  avoided. 
One  of  the  claims  of  the  patent  is  as  follows  :  The  process  of  forming  ingots,  which  consists, 
first,  in  inserting  a  cup  of  heated  material  in  the  bottom  of  the  mold  ;  secondly,  filling  the 
mold  ;  thirdly,  excluding  the  atmosphere  from  the  mouth  of  the  mold  ;  and,  fourthly, 
reversing  the  mold,  as  and  for  the  purpose  set  forth. 

Steel  Castings. — Fig.  9  is  taken  from  a  photograph  of  a  box-slide  casting  made  by  the 
Medvale  Steel  Co.,  of  Mcetown,  Pa.,  for  the  12-in.  turret  mount  for  the  United  States  tur- 
ret ship  Puritan,  in  October,  1891.  The  government  specifications  under  which  this  casting 
was  made  are  as  follow:  Tensile  strength,  65, 000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.;  elastic  limit,  25,000  Ibs. 
per  sq.  in. ;  extension,  15  per  cent.;  contraction,  25  per  cent.  The  result  of  the  tests  made 
from  this  casting  showed  that  the  steel  possessed  the  following  physical  characteristics  : 
Tensile  strength,  65,174  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.;  elastic  limit,  31,058  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.;  extension, 
25.10  per  cent. ;  contraction,  35*04  per  cent.  The  weight  of  the  casting  was  15,547  Ibs. 

In  addition  to  the  tests  above  given  on  the  sheet  enclosed,  the  casting  was  put  to  a  bal- 
listic test,  to  determine  the  ductility  of  the  metal.  This  test  is  made  by  subjecting  the 
pieces  to  the  fire  of  rapid-firing  guns  at  short  range,  and  the  castings  are  accepted  if  it  is 
shown  by  this  test  that  they  can  be  bent  or  perforated  by  projectiles  fired  from  these  guns 
without  breaking.  Ordinary  steel  castings,  if  put  to  this  test,  are  apt  to  fly  to  pieces  at  the 
first  discharge,  thus  making  the  gun  sought  to  be  shielded  useless,  and  probably  causing 
much  loss  of  life.  The  combination  of  high  elastic  limit,  extension,  and  contraction  in  the 
casting  illustrated,  indicates  that  it  would  withstand  an  immense  amount  of  battering  with- 
out going  to  pieces,  and  that  it  is  particularly  well  suited  for  the  purpose  intended.  What 
is  chiefly  remarkable  about  this  casting  is,  that  while  the  tensile  strength  developed  is  but 
174  Ibs.  above  the  government  requirements,  the  manufacturers  succeeded  in  increasing  the 
elastic  limit  by  24*2  per  cent.,  the  extension  by  67  per  cent.,  and  the  contraction  by  40  per 
cent,  beyond  the  requirements.  That  this  was  not  an  accidental  performance  was  shown 
by  the  fact  that  subsequent  castings  from  the  same  pattern  have  shown  in  the  average  fully 
as  good  results. 

Stem,  Cotton  Picking  :  see  Harvester,  Cotton. 

Step :  see  Water-wheels. 

STOKERS,  MECHANICAL.      The  Roney  Mechanical  Stoker,  Figs.  1,  2,  and  3,  when 


FIG.  1.— The  Roney  mechanical  stoker, 

attached  to  steam  boilers,  receives  the  fuel  in  bulk,  and  feeds  it  continuously  and  at  any 
desired  rate  to  the  furnace. 

The  fuel  to  be  burned  is  dumped  into  the  hopper  on  the  boiler  front.  In  small  plants  it 
may  be  shoveled  in  by  hand.  In  large  plants  it  is  usually  handled  direct  from  the  car  to  the 
hopper  by  elevators  and  conveyors.  Set  in  the  lower  part  of  the  hopper  is  a  pusher,  to  which 


STORAGE   BATTERIES.  815 

is  attached  by  a  flexible  connection  the  feed  plate  forming  the  bottom  of  the  hopper.  The 
pusher,  by  a  vibratory  motion,  carrying  with  it  the  feed  plate,  gradually  forces  the  fuel  on  to 
the  grates  over  the  dead  plate.  These  grates  consist  of  horizontal  flat-surfaced  bars  running 
from  side  to  side  of  the  furnace,  carried  on  inclined  side-bearers  extending  from  the  throat 
of  the  hopper  to  the  rear  and  bottom  of  the  ash  pit.  The  grates,  therefore,  in  their  normal 
condition  form  a  series  of  steps,  on  to  the  top  step  of  which  coal  is  fed  from  the  dead  plate. 
These  steps  at  the  inclination  given  would,  however,  prevent  the  free  descent  of  the  coal. 
But  each  bar  rests  in  a  concave  seat  in  the  bearer,  and  is  capable  of  a  rocking  motion  through 
an  adjustable  angle.  All  the  grate  bars  are  coupled  together  by  a  rocker  bar,  the  notches  of 
which  engage  with  a  lug  on  the  lower  rib  of  each  grate  bar,  pin  connections  being  made  with 
two  of  the  grate  bars  only,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  rocker  bar  in  position.  A  variable 
back-and-forth  motion  being  given  to  the  rocker  bar,  through  a  connecting  rod,  the  grate 
bars  necessarily  rock  in  unison,  now  forming  a  series  of  steps,  and  now  approximating  to  an 
inclined  plane,  with  the  grates  partly  overlapping,  like  the  shingles  on  a  roof.  Assuming  the 
grates  to  be  covered  by  a  bed  of  coal,  and  fresh  fuel  being  fed  in  at  the  top,  it  is  obvious  that 
when  the  grates  rock  forward  the  fire  will  tend  to  work  down  in  a  body.  But  before  the  coal 
can  move  too  far,  the  bars  rock  back  to  the  stepped  position,  checking  the  downward  motion, 
breaking  up  the  cake  thoroughly  over  the  whole  surface,  and  admitting  a  free  volume  of  air 
through  the  fire.  The  rocking  motion  is  slow,  being  from  seven  to  ten  strokes  per  minute, 
according  to  the  grade  of  the  coal.  This  alternate  starting  and  checking  motion  being  con- 
tinuous, keeps  the  fire  constantly  stirred  and  broken  up  from  underneath,  and  finally  lands 
the  cinder  and  ash  on  the  dumping  grate  below.  By  releasing  the  dumping  rod,  the  dump- 
ing grate  tilts  forward,  throwing  the  cinder  into  the  ash  pit,  after  which  it  is  again  closed 
ready  for  further  operation.  The  dumping  grate  is  made  in  two  parts,  so  that  each  half  can 


FIG.  2. — The  Roney  mechanical  stoker.    FIG.  3. 

be  dumped  separately.  The  operation  of  the  stoker,  therefore,  consists  of  a  slow  but  con- 
tinuous feed,  a  constant  stirring  of  the  fire,  and  an  automatic  rejection  of  the  cinder,  all 
performed  without  opening  the  fire  doors. 

All  motion  is  taken  from  one  driving  shaft.  In  a  single  stoker  this  shaft  may  either  be 
driven  through  a  worm  gear  from  a  small  engine  attached  to  the  boiler  front  and  consuming 
a  hardly  measurable  fraction  of  a  horse-power,  or  it  may  be  driven  by  a  link  belt  from  any 
convenient  point  of  the  nearest  shaft.  In  large  batteries  of  boilers  the  driving  shaft  is  ex- 
tended across  all  the  boiler  fronts,  delivering  power  to  each  stoker,  and,  with  the  elevators 
and  conveyors,  is  driven  by  a  small  independent  engine.  The  largest  stoker  can  easily  be 
turned  over  by  hand,  indicating  the  nominal  power  consumed.  The  worm  gear  shaft  carries 
a  disk  and  wrist-pin,  from  which  a  link  couples  to  the  agitator.  Through  the  eye  of  the 
agitator  passes  a  stud,  screwed  into  the  pusher,  on  which  stud  is  a  feed  wheel  by  which  the 
stroke  of  the  pusher,  and,  consequently,  the  amount  of  feed,  is  regulated.  The  agitator  hav- 
ing a  fixed  stroke,  it  is  apparent  that  if  the  feed  wheel  is  run  down  against  it  in  the  position 
shown  in  the  engraving,  the  pusher  will  be  given  its  full  traverse  and  the  greatest  feed.  If 
run  back  to  clear  the  travel  of  the  agitator,  the  pusher  will,  of  course,  have  no  motion  and  the 
feed  will  stop.  Between  these  extremes  any  desired  rate  of  feed  can  be  given. 

In  like  manner,  the  rock  of  the  grate  bars  can  be  adjusted  between  any  limiting  angles, 
and  over  a  range  of  motion  from  no  movement  to  full  throw,  by  means  of  the  sheath  nut  and 
jam  nuts  on  the  connecting  rod.  By  these  adjustments  the  whole  action  of  the  stoker  is 
controlled,  and  the  fires  forced,  checked,  or  banked  at  will. 

Stone  Breaker  :  see  Ore-crushing  Machines. 

STORAGE  BATTERIES.  The  storage,  secondary  or  reversible  battery,  and  accumu- 
lator are  different  terms  applied  to  a  form  of  cell  based  on  the  principle  demonstrated  by 
Faraday  in  1834,  that  chemical  and  electrical  energy  were  mutually  convertible.  In  1859, 


816  STORAGE    BATTEEIES. 

after  experiments  with  various  metals,  Plante  decided  upon  the  use  of  lead  plates  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  because  in  discharge  both  plates  were  active  ;  that  is,  not  only  did  the  per- 
oxide of  lead  plate  combine  with  hydrogen,  but  the  reduced  metallic  lead  combined  with 
oxygen.  Plante's  cell  was  originally  constructed  with  two  plates  of  sheet  lead,  separated  by 
gutta-percha  strips,  one  sheet  being  laid  over  the  other,  with  two  gutta-percha  strips  between 
them,  and  two  more  laid  on  the  upper  sheet,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  1. 

They  were  then  rolled  together  and  clamped,  as  shown  at  B,  a  strip  of  lead  being  left 

attached  to  the  corner  of  each  sheet  in  cutting,  by 
which  connection  could  be  made.  The  sheets  thus 
rolled  together  were  placed  in  a  jar  of  glass  or  ebonite, 
containing  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  sulphuric  acid. 
The  jar  had  an  ebonite  cover,  with  binding  screws  to 
which  the  connecting  strips  were  attached  ;  also 
clamps  for  holding  wires  to  show  the  heating  effect 
of  the  discharge. 

The  electrical  preparation  of  the  plates  was  ac- 
complished by  charging  them  with  a  battery  of  two 
or  more  cells,  one  cell  being  insufficient  to  overcome 
the  resistance  from  polarization.     The  current  was 
FIG.  1.— Plante's  cell.  continued  till  the  oxygen  evolved  at  the  positive  pole 

ceased  to  combine  with  the  lead  and  was  given  off  as 

gas.  The  cell  was  then  disconnected  from  the  battery,  and  discharged  by  making  connection 
between  its  electrodes,  and  a  fresh  charge  given  in  reverse  order,  and  continued  as  before 
until  gas  was  given  off.  This  process  was  continued  for  several  months,  with  intervening 
periods  of  repose,  during  which  the  cell  remained  charged,  and  the  time  of  charging  was 
increased  from  a  few  minutes  on  the  first  day  to  several  hours  subsequently.  In  like  manner, 
the  periods  of  repose  were  increased  from  hours  to  weeks  and  months.  Three  distinct  periods 
are  thus  required  in  this  process  :  that  of  charging,  of  repose,  and  of  discharging,  during  each 
of  which  a  distinct  chemical  reaction  occurs.  During  the  charging,  peroxide  of  lead  collects 
on  the  plate  connected  with  the  +  pole,  and  hydrogen  on  the  one  connected  with  the  —  pole. 
At  first  only  a  thin  film  of  the  peroxide  is  formed  and  a  small  amount  of  hydrogen  collected. 
The  plates  are  then  discharged,  and  during  the  discharge  the  peroxide,  which  is  insoluble  in 
sulphuric  acid,  is  reduced  to  monoxide,  PbO,  which  is  immediately  reduced  to  sulphate  of 
lead  PbS04,  by  the  acid  present  in  the  solution,  while  the  oxygen  atom  taken  from  the  peroxide 
unites  with  the  lead  on  the  opposite  plate,  forming  monoxide,  which,  in  turn,  is  reduced  to 
sulphate,  the  result  being  a  thin  film  of  sulphate  on  each  plate.  The  plates  are  then  charged 
in  reverse  order,  and  the  sulphate  on  the  plate,  now  connected  with  the  -f-  pole,  is  reduced  by 
the  oxygen  to  peroxide,  while  that  on  the  opposite  plate  is  reduced  by  the  hydrogen  to  spongy 
lead,  which  adheres  to  the  plate  in  a  finely  divided  condition.  As  each  subsequent  charge, 
after  discharge  and  reversal,  produces  the  same  result,  each  coating  continues  to  increase  in 
thickness,  and  the  spongy  lead  affording  increased  facility  for  the  formation  of  the  peroxide, 
the  chemical  reaction  proceeds  more  rapidly.  The  increased  thickness  of  the  peroxide  soon 
interposes  a  strong  resistance  to  this  reaction  ;  hence  a  period  of  repose  previous  to  the  dis- 
charge becomes  necessary,  and  during  this  period,  local  action,  as  it  is  called,  takes  place. 
This  consists  in  the  reduction  of  the  peroxide  to  sulphate  from  the  reaction  of  the  sup- 
porting lead  plate.  The  metallic  lead  having  a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen,  the  peroxide 
parts  with  the  atom  of  its  oxygen  which  unites  with  the  lead,  and  the  resulting  monoxide  is 
immediately  reduced  to  sulphate  by  the  acid.  The  result  of  the  chemical  reaction  of  the 
discharge  having  formed  sulphate  of  lead  on  both  plates,  this  sulphate  lying  next  to  the 
plates  forms  a  resistance  which  impedes  local  action  which  takes  place  during  tbe  period  of 
repose.  The  peroxide  being  limited  in  quantity  and  in  close  contact  with  the  spongy  lead,  is 
rapidly  reduced  to  sulphate,  while  the  original  peroxide  coating  on  the  other  plate,  from  its 
greater  thickness  and  the  resistance  of  an  excess  of  sulphate,  is  reduced  much  more  slowly. 
These  various  chemical  reactions  result  in  an  increased  thickness  of  the  peroxide  deposit 
with  each  charge,  while  an  increased  thickness  of  spongy  lead  remains  on  the  opposite  plate 
after  each  reversal  ;  and  when  the  process  has  been  continued  long  enough  to  produce  a 
sufficient  thickness  of  each  coating  for  a  practically  serviceable  cell,  the  alternate  charging 
and  discharging  with  reversal  is  discontinued,  and  the  cell  being  ready  for  use,  it  is  always 
thereafter  charged  in  the  same  direction.  When  the  cell  is  put  into  practical  use,  these 
chemical  reactions  continue  the  same  as  during  the  forming  process,  sulphate  being  reduced 
to  peroxide  by  each  charge,  and  peroxide  to  sulphate  by  each  discharge  ;  and  the  electric 
energy  varies  as  to  reaction,  and  ceases  when  the  chemical  affinities  are  satisfied.  In  the 
storage  cell  the  electric  energy  must  first  be  supplied  from  an  external  source,  and  the  action, 
both  chemical  and  electrical,  is  limited,  dependent  on  the  amount  of  electrical  charge  given. 
Faure's  Secondary  Battery. — Camille  A.  Faure,  a  French  chemist,  constructed  a  cell  based 
on  Plante's  about  1880.  But  he  substituted  mechanically  prepared  plates  for  those  prepared 
by  electricity,  by  coating  their  surfaces  with  a  paste  of  red  lead  (minium,  Pb304)  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  which,  when  subjected  to  electrical  action,  was  rapidly  reduced  to  peroxide  on 
the  one  plate  and  spongy  lead  on  the  other.  After  this  was  applied  it  was  coated  with 
paper,  and  each  plate  then  enveloped  in  felt  to  retain  the  coating  on  the  surface  and  to 
insulate  the  plates  from  each  other.  They  were  then  rolled  together  and  placed  in  the  acid- 
ulated water  in  the  cell,  and  subjected  to  electric  action  with  reversals,  and  in  a  few  days 
the  cell  was  ready  for  use.  The  great  advantage  of  the  Faure  over  the  Plante  cell  consists 


STORAGE   BATTERIES. 


817 


FIG.  8.— Accumulator  cell. 


in  the  rapid  reduction  of  the  minium  instead  of  the  slow  reduction  of  the  metallic  lead. 
It  soon  developed  serious  faults,  however ;  but  the  rapid  preparation  of  the  plates  was 
so  great  an  advance  that  various  inven- 
tors worked  patiently  to  overcome  the 
faults  which  had  developed.  The  various 
improvements  of  Swan,  Sellon,  Volck- 
mar,  Shaw,  and  others  resulted  in  pro- 
ducing the  improved  cell  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
This  is  made  of  different  sizes  and  a 
variable  number  of  plates,  according  to 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is*  intended. 
The  standard  type  shown,  made  by  the 
Accumulator  Co.,  of  New  York,  called 
the  IOA  cell,  has  15  plates,  7  positives 
and  8  negatives,  those  plates  being  called 
positive  which  are  connected  with  the 
positive  pole  in  charging,  and  from 
which  the  external  current  flows  in  dis- 
charging ;  the  others  being  known  as 
negative.  Each  positive  plate  is  9§  in. 
high,  8|  in.  wide,  and  -4-  in.  thick  ;  and 
each  negative,  9]  in.  high,  9|  in.  wide, 
and  -ft-  in.  thick.  They  are  of  lead  cast 
in  the  form  of  grids,  with  square  open- 
ings to  hold  the  paste,  sis  shown  at  A, 
Fig.  3,  this  form  being  the  invention  of 
Swan. 

Each  opening  is  |  in.  square  at  the 
surfaces,  but  smaller  in  the  center,  the 
walls    being    thicker,    sloping     inward 
from  each  surface  as  shown  in  cross  section  at  B,  Fig.  4,  an  improvement  by  Sellon  to  pre- 
vent the  paste  from  falling  out.     These  openings  are  filled  with  the  paste  of  lead  oxide  and 
sulphuric  acid  ;  minium,  Pb304,  being  used  for  the  positive  plates,  and  litharge,  PbO,  for  the 
negatives.    From  one  of  the  upper  corners  of  each  plate  a  lead  bar  extends  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
It  is  I  in.  wide,  the  same  thickness  as  the  plate,  and  extends  2f  in.  above  the  highest  plates. 
These  vertical  bars  on  each  set  of  plates  are  attached  to  a  hori- 
zontal bar  of  the  same  width,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  connecting  the 
set  of  plates  together  and  keeping  them  a  given  distance  apart, 
the  space  between  each  two  positives  being  -$••  of  an  in.  and  that 
between  each  two  negatives  f;  in.,  each  set  with  its  bars  being  a 
single  casting.     The  horizontal  bars  are  extended  and  the  ends 
turned  in  for  convenience,  forming  lugs  for  connecting  the  cells 
into  a  battery  (see  Fig.  2).      When  the  plates  are  ready  to  be  set 
up,  the  7  positives  are  passed  in  between  the  8  negatives,  so 
that  they  alternate,  each  positive  being  between  two  negatives 
with  a  j\  in.  space  between  them.      In  Fig.    2,  the  positives 
are  shown  with  their  bars  to  the  right  and  the  negatives  with 
their  bars  to  the  left.      As  the   outside   plates  are   negatives 
and  the  outside  surfaces  inactive,  the  same  number  of  active  sur- 
faces, positive  and  negative,  14  in  each  set,  are  adjacent  to  each 
other  within.     In  each  negative  plate  a  number  of  openings  are 
left  without  paste,  into  which  are  drawn  plugs  of  soft  rubber, 
which  project  -^  in.  on  each  side,  resting  against  the  positives 

and  holding  the  plates  that  distance  apart.  Two  plates  of  glass  of  the  same  size  as  the  lead 
plates  are  placed  outside,  one  on  each  side,  against  the  projecting  rubber  plugs,  to  keep  them 
from  being  pressed  out,  and  all  the  plates  are  bound  together  and  held  in  position  by  strong 
rubber  bands.  They  are  then  placed  in  a  glass  jar  11  in.  long,  8|  in.  wide,  and  13  in.  high 
outside,  and  rest  on  "two  strips  of  wood  placed  in  the  bottom  to  allow  free  circulation  of  the 
fluid  The  average  E.M.F.  of  this  cell  is  about  2  volts,  its  internal  resistance  .005  ohm,  and 
its  capacity  350  ampere  hours,  its  best  working  rate  being  35  amperes  for  10  hours.  The  cell 
weighs  125  Ibs.,  which  can  be  reduced  by  using  §  in.  and  £f  in.  plates,  but  it  is  not  so  dura- 
ble. The  Julien  Accumulator  is  the  invention  of  Edmond  Julien,  of  Belgium.  Its  general 
principles  are  essentially  the  same  as  have  been  already  described,  but  his  specific  claim  is 
that  the  grids  are  made  of  a  special  alloy  which  prevents  oxidation  and  buckling,  and  con- 
sequently gives  greater  durability.  The  composition  is  said  to  consist  of  94*5  lead,  42  anti- 
mony, and  1'3  mercury. 

JJrake  and  Oorhnm's  cell  has  plates  formed  of  roughened  strips  of  lead  laid  horizontally 
one  over  the  other,  and  connected  by  their  ends  to  upright  rods.  From  its  construction  this 
plate  is  free  to  expand  and  contract  without  injury  to  itself.  Nib letfs so-called  "  solid  cell" 
has  its  electrodes  separated  J>y  porous  partitions. 

Improvements  of  the  Faure  type  are,  generally:  (1)  Those  which  have  for  their  object  the 
retention  of  the  paste  on  the  plate  ;  and,  ("2)  those  intended  to  provide  better  connection 
between  the  support  and  the  active  material. 


FIGS.  3  and  4.— Plate. 


818 


STORAGE  BATTERIES. 


For  the  retention  of  the  paste,  instead  of  perforations,  grooves  or  recesses  have  been  made 
on  the  surface,  or  the  plate  is  cast  with  projections  from  it  so  as  to  afford  a  lodgment  for  the 
active  material.  The  Tudor  plate  (see  below)  is  an  instance  of  this  type. 

The  construction  of  a  mold  to  produce  a  perforation  expanding  inwardly  is  a  difficult 
matter,  and  therefore  the  grids  are  cast  in  two  halves  and  subsequently  joined,  as  in  the 


FIG.  5.— Gadot  cell. 


6  — Correns  cell. 


FIG.  7.— Roberts  cell. 


Gadot  cell,  Fig.  5.     In  the  Correns  cell,  Fig.  6,  much  used  in  Germany,  the  grid  has  the 

form  of  a  double  lattice.     In  the  Roberts  cell,  Fig.  7,  two  grids  are  used,  pasted  on  the  side 

and  then  united  to  form  a  plate  with  the  paste  inside. 

The  Tommasi  multitubular  storage  battery  (Fig.  8),  invented  by  Dr.  Donate  Tommasi. 

of  Paris,  has  each  electrode  formed  of  a  perforated  tube,  or  folded  sheet,  closed  at  one  end 

by  a  small  plate  of  insulating  material,  into  which  is  screwed 
a  rod.  The  rod,  which  serves  as  a  support  for  the  tube  elec- 
trode, is  provided  with  a  suspension  head,  which  also  serves 
as  a  contact.  Instead  of  cylindrical  tubes,  prismatic  ones 
may  be  employed,  as  in  Fig.  8,  utilizing  the  space  to  better 
advantage.  In  the  annular  space  between  the  tube  and 
the  contact  conductor  of  each  electrode  the  active  material, 
spongy  lead,  or  lead  oxide,  etc.,  is  packed,  so  that  the  tube 
serves  only  as  a  support  for  such  matter,  and  can  be  made  of 
any  substance  desired,  so  long  as  it  is  not  attacked  by  the 
acid. 

Keynier's  high  voltage  elastic  accumulator  was  designed 
to  afford  a  single  compact  structure,  having  the  qualities  of 
high  voltage,  solidity,  and  portability.  As  shown  in  Fig.  9, 
it  has  sixteen  plates  mounted  in  flexible  pockets.  These 
elements  are  placed  flat  one  against  the  other,  and  compressed 
between  two  end  plates  of  wood  by  means  of  rubber  bands. 
A  bridge  consisting  of  hard  wood  impregnated  with  a  water- 
proofing material  carries  the  whole,  which  may  be  suspended, 
or  rest  upon  its  base,  as  desired.  This  arrangement  gives  to 
the  active  solid  matter  an  artificial  elasticity  which  results  in 
large  specific  power  and  storing  capacity.  This  continuous 
compression  of  the  plates,  etc. ,  gives  protection  against  rough 
handling. 
The  Desmazures  storage  battery  (France)  has  its  electrodes  composed  of  amalgamated 

zinc  plates  and  porous  copper  plates,  the  latter  being 

produced  by  the  consolidation  of  powdered  copper 

under  very  great  pressure.     The  zinc  plates  form  the 

negative  electrode   and  are  in  metallic  connection 

with  the  box,  which  is  also  of  zinc,  while  the  positive 

plates  are  placed  in  vegetable  parchment  bags  and 

suspended   in   the   usual   way.      Contact   with   the 

negative   plates  is   prevented   by  glass   rods.     The 

electrolyte  is  a  mixture  of  chloride  of  sodium  and  a 

caustic  solution  of  zinc  oxide. 

The    Tamine  accumulator  (Brussels)   is  of    the 

Plante  type,  in  which  the  liquid  consists  of  a  satu- 
rated sulphate  of  zinc  solution,  to  which  is  added  50 

per  cent,  sulphuric  acid,  5  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of 

ammonia,  and  5  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  mercury.  In 

making  up  the  cell,   the    ingredients    are   poured 

in  in  the  reverse  order  to  that  given  here.     The  addi- 
tion of  the  sulphates  of  mercury  and  ammonia  is  said 

to  prevent  the  formation  of  sulphate  of  lead  on  an  open  circuit.     The  E.  M.  F.  of  the  cell 

is  given  as  2*3  volts. 

The  use  of  IMhanode  as  an  active  material  in  the  anodes  of  storage  batteries  has  been 

advocated  by  Desmond  Gr.  Fitz-Gerald.     This  substance  is  peroxide  of   lead  in  a  dense, 

coherent,  and  highly  conductive  form,  and  is  obtained  by  a  patented  process.     Its  chemical 


FIG.  8. — Tommasi  mnltitubular 
ceil. 


FIG.  9.— Reynier'i?  accumulator. 


STORAGE   BATTERIES. 


819 


FIG.  10.— Plate. 


composition  is  almost  identical  with  the  active  material  generally  used,  but  it  is  different  in 
molecular  construction,  and  free  from  liability  to  local  action. 

A.  V.  Meserole,  of  New  York  City,  has  found  that  an  electrolytic  sponge  composed  largely 
of  mercury  and  zinc  with  some  lead,  in  combination  with  a  plate  of  peroxidized  lead,  produces 
a  very  efficient  storage  battery.  By  using  the  same  material  differently  combined  and  formed, 
radically  different  results  are'obtained. 

In  the  Peyrusson  storage  battery  (France)  the  lead  support  is  composed  of  a  central  rod, 
and  a  number  of  longitudinal  and*  radial  strips,  which  are  placed  in  a  porous  cup.  The 
spaces  between  the  strips  are  then  filled  with  peroxide  of  lead  and  other  material  capable  of 
producing  the  same  by  oxidation,  which  is  mixed  with  a  little  acidulated  water.  Other 
forms  may  be  substituted  for  the  radial  strips.  The  porous  cup  is  placed  in  a  second  vessel 
of  glass,  containing  the  electrode  of  the  negative  pole. 

In  the  storage  battery  of  Anthony  Reckenzaun  (London)  the  active  material  is  com- 
pletely formed  in  advance  of  its  application,  and  is  so  held 
in  place  that  the  expansion  of  the  plate  has  no  effect  on  the 
adhesive  property  of  the  active  material.  Small  cylinders 
of  peroxide  of  lead  are  prepared,  and  placed  at  short  dis- 
tances from  each  other  in  regular  lines  upon  the  lower  half 
of  the  corrugated  mold.  The  two  halves  being  fitted  to- 
gether, the  molten  metal  is  poured  in,  forming  a  composite 
plate.  As  shown  in  Fig.  10,  these  cylinders  are  exposed  for 
a  large  part  of  their  surface  to  the  direct  action  of  the  elec- 
trolyte, being  held  only  at  the  top.  But  the  inclosing  metal 
is  sufficient  to  permit  the  plate  to  be  bent  over  into  a  com- 
plete circle,  without  causing  the  small  cylinders  to  fall  out. 
The  plates  are  designed  specially  for  street  car  and  similar 
work,  where  rough  treatment  is  unavoidable. 

The  Gibson  storage  battery  (New  York)  has  the  peroxide 
of  lead  introduced  in  capsules  which  are  perforated,  to  allow 
the  air  to  pass  out  when  they  are  being  filled,  and  also  to 
permit  the  entrance  of  the  electrolyte  when  the  plate  is  im- 
mersed. The  capsules  when  inserted  in  the  holes  of  the 
plate  fit  loosely,  and  project  beyond  the  surface.  The  plate  is  then  rolled,  and  the  pressure 

"  upsets  "  the  capsules  and  compresses  them  against 
the  adjacent  metal.  A  recent  form  of  this  battery 
has  the  plates  arranged  horizontally  instead  of 
vertically,  as  is  usually  the  case  (Fig.  11).  The 
plates  are  strung  on  bolts,  and  have  distance  pieces 
between  them  to  keep  the  plates  apart  and  prevent 
short  circuiting. 

Waddell  and  Entz  (New  York)  have  made 
numerous  experiments  for  adapting  copper  oxide 
for  use  in  the  storage  battery.  They  employ  for 
this  purpose  a  tube  of  woven  copper  wire,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  12.  To  avoid  the  lack  of  coherence  in 
pure  copper  oxide,  Messrs.  Entz  and  Phillips  have 
modified  the  composition  by  combining  with  the 
oxide  of  copper  a  small  portion  of  sulphur,  and 
then  heating  the  mixture. 
;-  The  sulphur  is  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  oxide  and 
then  applied  to  the  woven 
copper  wire.  The  whole  is 
then  heated  to  burn  off  the 
sulphur,  but  in  so  doing 
the  oxygen  of  the  copper 
is  absorbed  to  form  the  S02,  leaving  the  oxide  in  a  reduced  state  on  the  support.  The  heat- 
ing then  being  continued,  the  exposed  portions  of  the  particles  of  the  mass  are  reoxidized, 
while  the  unexposed  portions  at  the  juncture,  being  protected  from  the  air,  remain  metallic 
and  serve  to  hold  the  mass  together.  The  sulphur,  when  used  in  this  manner,  therefore,  acts 
as  a  binding,  toughening,  or  hardening  agent,  without  being  actually  present  in  the  mass 
after  the  treatment. 

The  Laurent-Cely  accumulator  is  distinctive  in  the  special  nature  of  the  lead  paste  em- 
ployed, and  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  applied  to  the  plates.  The  active  element  is  a  mix- 
ture of  chloride  of  lead  and  chloride  of  zinc.  The  fused  chloride  of  lead  has  a  density  of 
5-6  ;  Jby  incorporating  chloride  of  zinc  with  it  in  certain  proportions  the  density  is  reduced 
to  4.5.  This  mixture,  brought  to  a  state  of  fusion,  is  run  into  cast-iron  molds  in  the  form 
of  small  buttons,  with  rounded  edges.  After  cooling,  the  buttons  are  washed  to  remove  the 
chloride  of  zinc,  and  to  thus  render  them  somewhat  porous.  Their  density  then  varies  from 
4-^  to  3*4.  The  buttons  which  serve  for  the  manufacture  of  the  negative  plates  are  then 
arranged  in  a  metallic  mold,  into  which  antimonial  lead  is  run  ;  this  surrounds  the  buttons 
with  a  frame  which  holds  them  fixed  in  their  positions.  The  negative  plates  are  mounted  in 
cells  filled  with  acidulated  water  and  provided  with  zinc  electrodes.  The  composite  and  zinc 


FIG.  11.— Gibson  battery. 


FIG.  12.— Tube. 


820 


STORAGE   BATTERIES. 


limn 


FIG.  13.— Tudor 
cell. 


plates  are  then  short  circuited.  The  hydrogen  which  is  disengaged  upon  the  positive  electrode 
reduces  the  chloride  of  lead,  and  there  are  thus  obtained  buttons  of  spongy  lead  of  a  density 
between  2*5  and  3'1,  while  that  of  ordinary  lead  is  11-35.  The  buttons  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  positive  plates  are  first  transformed  into  spongy  lead,  then  heated  in  the  air  to 
oxidize  them,  and  transformed  into  spongy  litharge.  They  are  fixed,  like  the  negative  but- 
tons, in  a  frame  of  antimonial  lead. 

In  the  Tudor  cell,  Fig.  13,  the  positive  plates  are  first  treated  by  Plante's  process,  coating 
them  with  a  layer  of  crystalline  electrolytic  peroxide  ;  the  grooves  are  then 
partially  filled  with  a  paste  of  peroxide  of  lead,  and  pressure  is  applied  to 
the  ridges  to  expand  them  and  partially  close  the  mouths  of  the  grooves. 
Besides  the  improvements  in  the  plates,  various  devices  have  been  re- 
sorted  to  with  the  view  of  decreasing  the  resistance  of  the  lugs  and  se- 
curing  better  contact  between  plates  of  the  same  sign,  such  as  making 
connection  by  tinned  copper  rods  passed  through  holes  in  the  lugs.  Lead 
is  afterwards  cast  around  the  copper  so  that  it  is  screened  from  the  action 
of  the  acid. 

Dr.  Paul  Schoop,  of  Switzerland,  has  produced  a  successful  gelatinous  electrolyte,  by 
adding  one  volume  of  dilute  sodium  silicate  (water  glass),  density 
1*18,  to  two  volumes  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  1-250  density.  To 
prevent  short  circuiting  between  the  plates  by  the  material  dislodged 
in  working,  they  are  now  either  slung  or 
rested  on  supports  which  are  so  placed  that 
the  formation  of  a  layer  of  mud  between 
them  is  prevented.  See  Fig.  14. 

Inactive  material  is  sometimes  packed 
between  the  plates  to  prevent  short  cir- 
cuiting and  to  retain  the  active  mate- 
rial. In  England  Barber-Stark ey  has 
tried  filling  in  between  the  plates  with  a 
mixture  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  sawdust  ; 
Fuller  used  porous  pots  ;  and  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  in  the  Pumpelly  battery,  cellu- 
lose, or  wood  pulp,  is  used  to  separate  the 
plates,  which  are  arranged  horizontally. 
In  the  Atlas  cell,  Fig.  15,  construct- 
ed by  Carl  Hering.  the  plates  consist 
of  blocks  made  of  oxides  and  salts  of  lead. 
The  use  of  storage  batteries  in  central 


FIG.  15.— Atlas  cell. 


FIG.  14.— Schoop  plate 
and  holder. 


station  work  has  begun  to  assume  large  proportions.  In  a  recent 
work  on  Continental  central  stations,  Mr.  Killingworth  Hedges  gives 
a  list  of  stations  in  which  batteries  are  a  valuable  adjunct.  Most  of  the  plants  are  small,  but 
some  of  them  are  of  quite  respectable  size.  They  run  as  follows  :  Barmen,  5,000  lamps  of 
16-candle  power  ;  Hanover,  30,000  ;  Dusseldorf,  20,000  ;  Dessau,  2,500 ;  Rheims,  540  ; 
Berlin,  800  ;  Bad  Kosen,  600  ;  Gevelsberg,  2,000  ;  Bamberg,  2,700  ;  Darmstadt,  5,800  ; 
Paris,  19,500;  Gablonz,  1,500;  Konigsberg,  1,600  ;  Blankenburg,  1,000;  Berlin  (Hospital), 
2,000  ;  Vienna,  10,000.  To  this  list  might  be  added,  we  believe,  Salzburg,  Lyons,  Toulon, 
Montpelier,  Mulhausen,  Stockholm,  Sundsvall,  Munchen-Schwabing,  Varese,  Susa,  Bremen, 
Breslau,  and  Stettin,  although  few  details  are  given  with  regard  to  these  ;  while  it  appears 
that  batteries  are  to  be  added  to  the  Hamburg  central  station,  which  operates  12,000  lights  ; 
Wildbad-Gastein,  1,200  ;  Elberfeld,  14,000  ;  Arco,  2,500.  It  is  not  understood  from  this 
list  that  the  equipment  of  batteries  is  in  any  instance  equal  to  the  number  of  lamps  named  ; 
but  in  several  cases  the  figures  are  large.  Barmen,  it  seems,  has  four  double  sets  of 
batteries,  68  cells  each,  and  is  now  going  to  erect  five  sub-stations  which  will  be  charged 
during  the  day  by  the  main  central  station.  This  sub-station  plan  has  not  had  any  trial  in 
America,  except  at  Cheyenne,  Wyo. ;  Germantown,  Pa.,  and  Haverford  College,  Pa.  At 
Hanover,  Germany,  the  accumulators  are  placed  on  four  floors,  each  battery  consisting  of 
136  cells  of  1,320  ampere  hour  capacity,  and  a  discharge  of  396  amperes.  The  Dusseldorf 
plant  is  already  running  three  battery  sub-stations ;  the  largest  has  two  batteries  of  140 
cells,  each  with  a  discharge  of  483  amperes,  while  the  other  two,  with  an  equal  number  of 
smaller  cells,  discharge  248  amperes.  An  interesting  feature  of  the  Dessau  installation  is 
the  employment  of  gas  engines  as  primary  power.  It  is  stated  that  the  addition  of  accumu- 
lators of  1,700  ampere  hour  capacity  to  this  plant  increased  the  investment  15  per  cent,  and 
raised  the  output  38  per  cent.  The  present  batteries  have  been  in  use  uninterruptedly  for 
nearly  two  years  without  attention,  so  it  is  asserted,  and  more  than  once  have  been  called 
upon  for  an  output  20  to  25  per  cent,  above  the  normal. 

As  to  the  work  done  in  Paris,  France,  with  storage  batteries  in  central  stations,  Mr. 
Stanley C.  C.  Curriesays  :  "The  principle  adopted  is  that  of  casting  chloride  of  lead  com- 
bined with  a  small  proportion  of  chloride  of  zinc  in  tablets.  These  tablets  are  then  placed 
in  a  special  mold,  and  ordinary  lead  cast  around  them,  thus  forming  a  uniform  plate.  The 
plates  weigh  about  20  kilos  (44  Ibs.)  each.  The  cells  contain  from  15  to  25  of  these  plates, 
making  the  average  total  weight  of  plates  per  cell  about  half  a  ton.  The  efficiency  has 
averaged  from  72  to  85  per  cent." 

The  following  table  gives  the  data  of  the  tests  of  different  cells : 


STORAGE  BATTERIES. 


821 


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822 


STOVES,   HOT-BLAST. 


[For  more  extended  descriptions  of  storage  batteries  and  the  principles  involved  in  their 
construction  and  method  of  operation,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  following  works  :  The 
Chemistry  of  the  Secondary  Batteries  of  Plants  and  Faure,  by  Gladstone  and  Tribe  ;  The 
Storage  of  Electrical  Energy,  by  G.  Plante  ;  The  Electric  Accumulator,  by  E.  Reynier  ; 
Complete  Handbook  on  the  Management  of  Accumulators,  by  Sir  D.  Salomons  ;  Accumula- 
teurs  Electriques,  by  Rene  Tamine  ;  Les  Voltametres-Regulateurs,  by  E.  Reynier ;  Die 
Accumulatoren  fuer'Elektricitaet,  by  E.  Hoppe  ;  Storage  Battery,  by  J.  T.  Niblett.  Also  the 
exhaustive  researches  of  Ayrton  (Proc.  London  Inst.  Elec.  Eng.,  1890);  Richardson  (Journ. 
Soc.  Arts,  London,  December  4, 1891).  Consult  also  the  electrical  journals.] 

Stoves,  Air  Heating  :  see  Air  Compressors. 

STOVES,  HOT-BLAST.  During  the  past  ten  years  a  marked  improvement  has  been 
made  in  blast-furnace  practice  in  the  universal  introduction  in  .arge  furnaces  of  fire-brick 
stoves  instead  of  the  iron-pipe  stoves  formerly  used.  The  improvements  have  consisted  in 
making  them  much  taller,  and  in  providing  better  facilities  for  cleaning  [them  and  better 


FIG.  1.    Fire-brick  stoves.     FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3.— Hot-blast  stove. 


valves  for  distributing  the  gas  and  air.  It  is  now  generally  customary  to  provide  a  short 
chimney  on  top  of  each  stove,  instead  of  one  tall  chimney  for  a  series  of  stoves,  connected 
to  them  by  underground  flues. 

The  Qprdon-Whitwell-Cowper  Fire-brick  Stove,    built  by  the  Philadelphia   Engineering 
Works,  is  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2. 

The  arch  spanning  the  combustion  chamber  and  covering  the  first  down  pass  has  a  span 
of  just  half  the  diameter  of  the  stove,  under  which  there  is  ample  play  for  the  gases,  giving 
every  opportunity  for  a  utilization  of  all  the  checker-work  of  the  down  pass.  On  top  of  this 
short-span  arch  are  built  the  flues  to  convey  the  gases  from  the  top  of  the  chimney  pass  to 
the  chimney  and  the  bottom  brickwork  of  the  chimney  proper.  To  reach  the  chimney  the 
gases  pass  down  to  the  bottom  and  up  the  chimney  pass.  The  gases  from  the  com- 
bustion chamber  enter  the  down  pass,  and  having  passed  through  it,  enter  through  large 
arches  into  the  chamber  beneath  the  two  symmetrical  passes,  forming  a  chimney  pass,  and 
rising  through  them,  give  off  their  remaining  heat  to  the  checker  work,  and  are  received  on 
top  into  chambers  above  the  checker-work.  From  each  of  these  segmental  parses  there  are 
two  flues  or  passages,  making  four  in  all,  leading  to  the  base  of 
the  chimney.  The  checker-work  in  all  cases  has  44 -in.  walls  and 
9-in.  openings,  which  are  either  square  or  circular. 

Massick  &  Crooked  Hot-blast  Stove  is  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4. 
This  is  an  English  form  of  stove  recently  introduced  in  the 
United  States  by  McClure  &  Amsler,  of  Pittsburgh.  The  shell 
is  the  ordinary  wrought-iron  cylinder,  with  a  conical-shaped  top. 
Each  stove  has  its  own  draft  stack.  In  the  center  is  a  large  com- 
bustion chamber,  into  which  the  gases  are  admitted  at  the  bot- 
tom, thence  passing  upward  and  down  through  a  series  of  large 
segmental-shaped  flues,  and  upward  through  smaller  flues  to  the  escape  at  the  top.  The 
mushroom  chimney  valve,  down  when  the  gases  are  burning,  and  up  when  the  blast  is  on, 


FIG.  4.— Hot-blast  stove. 


STUMP   PULLERS.  823 


works  automatically  :  the  pressure  of  the  blast  when  on  closes  it,  and  when  the  pressure 
is  relieved  it  opens*  being  counterbalanced  as  shown.  From  the  lever  a  wire  is  attached, 
which  reaches  to  the  ground,  so  that  the  valve  can  be  held  closed  to  retain  the  heat  during 
any  temporary  stoppage  of  the  furnace.  A  door  is  provided  in  the  stack,  so  that  ready 
access  can  be  had  to  this  valve,  either  for  cleaning  or  replacement,  if  this  should  become  nec- 
essary. When  the  valve  is  closed  by  the  incoming  blast,  the  volume  of  air  impinges  upon  the 
under  side,  breaking  its  force  before  reaching  the  brickwork,  thus  preventing  the  cutting  of 
the  brick,  as  takes  place  in  some  stoves  of  other  types.  Both  this  and  the  cold-blast  valve 
are  readily  regulated  from  the  ground.  One  advantage  in  this  stove,  especially  in  localities 
where  there  is  a  scant  supply  of  water,  is  that  it  has  but  one  water  valve— the  hot-blast  valve. 
This  valve  is  of  solid  cast-iron.  Water  is  only  used  in  the  stem  and  seat  ring.  The  valve 
and  stem  being  two  separate  pieces  connected  together  by  a  pin  or  bolt  fitting  loosely  in 
the  holes,  finds  its  bearing  on  the  seat,  should  the  seat  in  any  way  be  out  of  level.  On'the 
stove,  on  the  outside  of  these  flues,  there  is  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  flyback  relief 
doors,  which,  suddenly  opened,  when  the  blast  is  on,  causes  a  rapid  movement  of  the  air  in 
the  direction  of  the  opening.  For  cleaning,  caps  are  taken  off  from  the  2|-in.  pipes  on 
top,  through  which  pipes  a  chain  is  dropped,  connecting  at  the  bottom  with  an  open  steel 
scraper  fitting  the  opening.  This  is  drawn  to  the  top  by  the  portable  crane  shown,  and 
back  again,  freeing  the  walls  of  all  adhering  dust.  The  strong  points  in  these  stoves  are 
moderate  first  cost  ;  minimum  of  water  valves,  always  a  source  of  trouble  and  cost ;  thick- 
ness of  walls,  storing  up  the  heat ;  the  proper  burning  of  the  gases  throughout  the  stove  ; 
ease  in  making  repairs  to  brickwork.  The  first  stoves  built  in  this  country  were  put  up  for 
Messrs.  Shoenberger,  Speer  &  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  They  were  three  in  number,  16  ft.  6  in. 
in  diameter  and  57  ft.  high  to  the  eaves;  tli'e  furnace  was*l4  ft.  bosh  and  62  ft.  high,  at  that 
time  making  450  to  500  tons  per  week  with  pipe  stoves.  The  difference  found  on  blowing- 
in  the  improved  plant  was  at  once  apparent  ;  the  output  rose  to  800  tons  per  week,  and  the 
fuel  consumption  diminished  to  1,900  and  2,000  Ibs.  per  Ion  of  iron,  instead  of  from  2,700  to 
3,000  Ibs.  See  FDRXACES,  BLAST. 

Straightening  Machine:  see  Rolls,  Bending. 

STUMP  PUtLERS.     Machines  for  clearing  lands  of  stumps  without  the  use  of  methods 
involving  explosives. 

The  Chamberlin  Stump  PuUer  has  three  legs  from  12  to  18  ft.  high,  according  to  size  of 
machine.     The  legs  are  bolted  at  the  tops  to  a  round  iron  cap  with  a  concave  depression  in 


FIG.  1.— The  Bennett  stump  puller.  FIG.  2.— Harvey's  stump  puller. 

its  upper  surface,  into  which  fits  a  convex  washer,  on  which  rides  a  large  internally  threaded 
nut.  The  lifting  screw  of  the  machine  passes  downward  through  the  nut.  The  cap  and 
washer  constitute  a  ball- joint,  and  allow  the  lifting  screw  to  work  at  any  accidental  angle 
and  still  maintain  a  safe  bearing  on  the  tripod.  The  screw  has  a  double  thread,  beveled. 
A  drooping  sweep,  attached  above  to  the  nut  and  operated  at  the  lower  end  with  a  horse, 
rotates  the  nut  and  lifts  the  enclosed  screw.  The  latter  is  to  be  attached  by  means  of  a 
chain  and  hook  to  one  of  the  side  roots  of  the  stump  to  be  removed.  Two  of  the  legs  are  fitted 
at  the  foot  with  wheels,  and  the  third  with  a  shoe  and  draw-hook,  to  which  horses  are 
attached  to  move  the  machine  from  stump  to  stump,  though  for  long  distances  a  wagon  is 
needed.  It  is  possible  for  only  one  man,  with  a  team,  to  operate  the  apparatus,  but  one 
horse  will  easily  lift  the  stump  as  fast  as  three  or  four  men  can  clean  it  of  earth.  From 
four  to  six  circuits  of  the  horse,  according  to  the  size  of  the  machine,  raise  the  stump  one 
foot,  and  it  should  be  cleaned  as  it  is  being  pulled,  leaving  the  dirt  in  the  hole  instead  of  at 
one  side. 


824 


SWAGING   MACHINES. 


The  Bennett  Stump  Puller,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  requires  no  horse.  It  hangs  from  a  tripod, 
the  feet  of  which  are  carried  on  runners  for  convenient  locomotion.  The  whole  operating 
parts  depend  from  a  swivel  supported  by  a  clevis.  They  consist  of  a  large  ratchet  wheel 
having  a  small  sheave  fastened  at  one  side,  upon  which  is  to  be  wound  the  lifting  chain  by 
the  consecutive  upward  and  downward  movement  of  the  hand  lever,  which  rotates  the 
ratchet  wheel  by  means  of  a  dog,  while  another  dog  prevents  the  ratchet  wheel  from  revert- 
ing. The  lever  can  be  shifted  on  a  notched  fulcrum  so  as  to  change  the  leverage  for  greater 
or  less  strains  ;  thus  the  ratchet  wheel  may  be  moved  through  an  arc  covered  by  several  of  its 
teeth,  when  the  work  is  light,  for  each  vibration  of  the  hand  lever,  greatly  expediting  the 
work.  A  lower  pulley  is  used  in  very  heavy  work,  doubling  the  power  at  the  sacrifice  of 
speed.  The  lifted  stump  is  lowered  to  the  ground  steadily  by  the  use  of  the  brake,  M.  The 
hook,  0,  is  hooked  over  the  end  of  the  short  pawl,  P.  The  link,  G,  is  hooked  over  the  end 
of  the  brake,  M.  The  hand  lever  is  then  depressed,  permitting  the  pawl,  II,  to  disengage  by 
the  action  of  the  spring  in  the  hook,  0.  The  weight  of  the  stump  then  causes  it  to  run 
down  according  as  the  hand  lever  is  eased  up.  A  spring,  T,  serves  to  restrain  the  link,  G, 
from  flying  away  from  the  large  ratchet  wheel  while  the  operator  is  plying  the  hand  lever. 

Harvey's  Stump  Puller,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  pulls  trees  as  well  as  stumps,  as  it  may  be  placed 
at  a  distance  from  the  work,  and  the  stump  or  tree  pulled  in  any  direction  by  introducing 
an  intermediary  block.  In  the  drawing,  one  of  the  corner  posts  is  omitted,  to  expose  the 
construction.  It  consists  of  an  upright  loose  drum  and  ratchet,  through  which  passes  a  shaft, 
round  within  the  drum,  and  square  at  the  upper  portion,  to  carry  with  it  a  clutch  with  teeth 
for  engaging  and  rotating  the  drum.  The  shaft  has  top  and  bottom  bearings,  and  projects  at 
top  through  an  iron  cap,  which  surmounts  the  timber  framework  of  the  machine,  and  is 
there  fitted  with  a  sweep  seat  for  the  sweep  lever,  to  which  one  horse  is  attached  to  do  the 
work.  In  practice,  the  machine  is  set  in  the  ground  firmly,  and  used  without  change  of  posi- 
tion to  clear  stumps  from  the  surrounding  land  to  the  extent  of  as  much  as  two  acres  of 
area  without  removal.  Should  any  stump  stand  where  the  cable  used  in  connection  with  the 
wind  ing  drum  interferes  with  either  corner  post  of  the  machine,  the  horse  is  made  to  travel 
the  other  way,  winding  the  cable  onto  the  opposite  side  of  the  drum,  thus  allowing  the  cable 
to  swing  clear.  The  safety  pawl  is  held  to  the  check  ratchet  by  a  spring,  and  is  so  made 
that  it  holds  in  either  direction  in  which  it  may  be  set.  The  power  of  this  machine  can  be 
indefinitely  increased  by  the  use  of  block  and  tackle  attached  to  a  second  stump  as  a  pur- 
chase, and  it  is  therefore  specially  useful  in  regions  of  heavy  timber,  where  the  stumps  are 
large.  It  is  known  as  the  "  California"  stump  puller. 

Silver  Machinery  :  see  Evaporators. 

SUPERHEATER.  STEAM.  The  BulJcley  Steam  Superheater  is  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  It 
consists  of  a  group  of  cast-iron  pipes  filled  with  iron  wire  coils  closely  packed,  the  surfaces 


PIG.  1.— The  Bulkley  superheater. 


FIG.  2.  -The  Bulkley  superheater. 


of  which  act  as  additional  heating  surface  to  that  of  the  cast-iron  pipe  to  transmit  heat  to 
the  steam  which  is  passed  through  the  pipes.  The  group  of  pipes  may  be  set  either  in  the 
rear  of  the  steam  boiler  furnace,  or  in  a  special  furnace,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  latter  plan 
is  preferable  where  a  high  degree  of  heat  is  desired.  The  steam  may  be  superheated  in  this 
apparatus  to  1,000°  F.  Steam  of  from  500°  to  700°  temperature  is  frequently  used  in  chemi- 
cal, oil,  gas  works,  etc.  The  temperature  is  ascertained  by  a  pyrometer  set  in  the  outlet 
steam  pipe,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

SWAOING  MACHINES.  Figs.  1,  2,  and  3  represent  the  Dayton  swaging  machine, 
as  used  by  the  Excelsior  Needle  Co.,  at  Torrington.  Conn.,  for  the  swaging  of  needle 
blanks.  It  contains  a  revolving  shaft  having  across  its  end  a  mortise  or  groove,  and  a 


SWAGING  MACHINES. 


825 


pair  of  sliding  dies.  Around  this  is  arranged  a  cylindrical  shell,  and  there  are  rollers  be- 
tween the  dies  and  the  shell,  having  their  axes  in  ring  bearings,  so  as  to  roll  around  within 
the  shell  by  the  action  upon  them  of  the  dies. 
The  ends  of  the  dies  coine  into  contact  with 
the  rollers  successively,  and  these  being  at 
opposite  sides  within  the  shell,  act  as  rolling- 
toggles  to  press  the  dies  together.  In  this 
manner  there  are  as  many  closures  of  the 
dies  at  each  revolution  of  the  shaft  as  there 
are  rollers  in  the  circular  range,  and  the 
parts  are  constantly  in  motion,  so  that  there 
is  an  extended  wearing  surface  on  the  in- 
terior of  the  shell  and  the  exterior  of  the 
rollers.  Hence  the  apparatus  is  very  dur- 
able, and  there  is  but  little  friction  of  the 
parts.  The  partial  sections  represent  enlarged 
views  of  the  dies  and  of  the  grooved  shaft. 
The  dies  fitted  in  the  groove  are  double- 
that  is  to  say,  there  is  a  die  face  at  each 
end  of  the  blocks,  G  C,  and  there  are  follow- 
ers, 6"  C",  against  the  rounded  ends  of  which 
the  rollers,  It,  act  in  the  swaging  operation. 
When  the  die  faces  in  the  center  are  worn 
they  are  resurfaced  and  rebored,  and  it  be- 
comes  necessary  to  use  filling  pieces  to  com- 
pensate  for  the  metal  removed.  These  filling 
pieces  or  shims,  which  may  be  of  any  con- 
venient thickness  or  number,  are  placed  be- 
tween the  blocks,  C  and  C'.  The  die  blocks 
having  faces  at  both  ends  allow  of  their  being 
turned  end  for  end  and  used  for  a  longer 
period  without  requiring  to  be  resurfaced  and 
bored.  The  dies  and  rollers  do  not  slide  on 
one  another,  but  the  contact  is  a  rolling  move- 
ment. Hence,  there  is  but  little  friction,  and  FIG.  1.— The  Dayton  swaging  machine, 
the  power  is  expended  to  the  best  advantage 

in  compressing  the  article  that  is  placed  between  the  dies,  thereby  cold  swaging  the  same, 
so  as  to  reduce  a  wire  to  a  needle  blank,  or  to  straighten  or  point  wires  or  rods,  or  to  straighten 
and  render  rods  or  shafts  uniform  in  size.  The  main  casting,  S,  is  fittted  with  a  steel  ring, 
H,  against  which  the  rollers,  R,  bear.  These  rollers  are  mounted  and  turn  on  spindles,  the 
ends'of  which  are  cut  down  so  as  to  fit  in  narrow  slots  cut  in  the  ring  bearings,  G  and  G'. 
The  manner  in  which  this  is  accomplished  is  clearly  shown.  There  are  eight  rollers  in  this 
case,  though  there  may  be  more  or  less.  The  rollers  roll  upon  the  interior  surface  of  the 


rm 


FIG.  y.— The  Dayton  swaging  machine. 


FIG.  3. — The  Dayton  swaging  ma- 
chine. 


ring.  H;  and  the  ends  of  the  dies,  C'  C ,  as  they  are  revolved,  come  into  contact  with  the 
rollers  in  succession,  and  act  to  turn  such  rollers  progressively,  and  each  roller  forms  a 
toggle  between  the  interior  surface  of  the  shell  and  the  end  of  the  die.  The  latter  is  closed 
to  the  full  extent  when  the  center  of  the  die  is  in  a  radial  plane  passing  through  the  axis  of 
the  roller  with  which  the  die  is  in  contact.  The  shaft,  A,  is  tubular  for  the  passage  of  the 


826 


SWITCHES   AND    SIGNALS,    RAILROAD. 


wire,  rod,  shaft,  or  bar  that  is  operated  on,  and  its  grooved  portion  is  of  enlarged  diameter. 
If  the  shaft  is  revolved  by  the  pulley,  the  article  to  be  acted  upon  will  only  require  to  be 
fed  in  gradually,  and  be  free  to  be  revolved  by  the  action  of  the  dies  as  they  move  slightly 
while  grasping  the  work. 

In  Fig.  2,  D  D  are  screws  passing  through  a  plate  secured  to  the  face  of  the  shaft,  A. 
The  points  as  shown  project  into  enlarged  holes  in  the  blocks,  O  C',  and  limit  the  extent  of 
outward  motion  of  these.  An  outside  ring,  F,  is  screwed  to  the  casting,  _Z?,  making  the 
machine  ready  for  work.  Where  two  dies  are  used  there  must  be  an  even  number  of  rollers, 
so  that  they  act  at  opposite  sides  of  the  shell.  Three-die  machines  built  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple require  6,  9,  or  12  rollers,  the  dies  being  placed  at  angles  of  120°.  Near  the  bottom 
of  Fig.  2  is  shown  a  specimen  of  work  done  in  the  machine — a  drawn-down  sewing-machine 
needle  blank.  Comparison  of  the  lower  with  the  upper  of  the  two  engravings,  which  latter 
represents  the  blank  originally,  shows  that  the  whole  amount  of  metal  in  the  elongated  por- 
tion corresponds  to  that  embraced  between  the  lines,  a  ~b.  The  diameters  of  the  blank  orig- 
inally and  of  the  drawn-down  portion  are  0*081  and  0'012  in.  respectively.  At  the  works 
of  the  Excelsior  Needle  Co.  a  number  of  the  machines  are  engaged  exclusively  in  the 
swaging  of  sewing-machine  needle  blanks,  though  obviously  they  are  applicable  to  a  variety 
of  other  work.  Machines  of  larger  size  are  used  for  pointing  rods  preparatory  to  drawing 
into  wire,  and  also  for  working  in  iron  and  steel  in  various  lines  of  manufacture. 

SWITCHES  AND  SIGNALS,  RAILROAD.  ROAD  SIGNALS.— The  practice  has  become 
quite  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  use  of  semaphore  signals  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the 
movements  of  trains,  as  the  semaphore  most  easily  lends  itself,  through  the  simplicity  of  its 

form,  to  all  of  the  many  requirements  of  traffic.  The  most 
prominent  forms  of  the  semaphore  are  the  home,  distant, 
and  dwarf  signals,  all  of  them  modifications  of  the  same  idea. 
Home  Signal.— The  home  signal,  Fig.  1,  consists  of  a 
blade  about  5  ft.  long,  with  a  square  end,  mounted  on  a  post 
about  25  ft.  above  the  rail  level.  It  is  usually  painted  red 
on  the  side  toward  approaching  trains  which  it  governs, 
and  white  on  the  other  side.  On  double  track,  right-hand 
running,  the  blade  points  to  the  right ;  on  double  track,  left- 
hand  running,  the  blade  points  to  the  left  in  some  cases,  and 
in  others  to  the  right.  When  in  a  horizontal  position,  or 
showing  a  red  light  at  night,  it  indicates  danger  or  stop. 
When  inclined  at  an  angle  of  from  60°  to  90°,  or  showing 
a  white  light  at  night,  it  indicates  safety,  or  go  ahead.  It  is 
only  used  in  connection  with  movements  in  the  direction  of 
the  traffic  on  the  main  track,  or  to  control  movements  from 
the  main  track  to  facing  point  diverging  tracks,  or  facing 
point  cross-overs. 

Distant  Signal. — The  distant  signal,  Fig.  2,  consists  of  a 
blade  about  5  ft.  long,  with  a  forked  end,  mounted  on  a  post 
about  25  ft.  above  the  rail  level.  It  is  usually  painted  green 
on  the  side  toward  approaching  trains  which  it  governs,  and 
white  on  the  other  side.  Its  location  with  regard  to  the 
tracks  and  the  direction  in  which  it  points  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  home  signal.  When  inclined  at  an  angle  of  from  60°  to  90°,  or  showing  a  white 
light  at  night,  it  indicates  that  the  home  signal  in  connection  with  which  it 
works  is  in  the  safety  position,  and  that  trains  may  proceed  with  speed. 
When  in  a  horizontal  position,  or  showing  a  green  light  at  night,  it  indi- 
cates that  the  home  signal  is  probably  at  danger,  and  that  trains  must 
proceed  with  sufficient  caution  to  enable  them  to  stop  before  reaching  the 
home  signal,  if  necessary.  It  is  used  always  in  connection  with  a  home 
signal,  and  serves  only  to  show  the  position  of  the  home  signal,  which  con- 
trols movements  over  the  fastest  and  most  important  route. 

Dwarf  Signal.— The  dwarf  signal,  Fig.  3,  consists  of  a  blade  about  12  in. 
long,  with  a  square  end,  mounted  on  a  post  about  2  ft.  above  rail  level. 
The  painting  of  the  blade,  its  relative  positions  of  danger  and  safety,  and 
the  position  with  regard  to  the  tracks  are  the  same  as  described  in  the  case  of 
the  home  signal.  It-  is,  in  fact,  a  diminutive  home  signal,  but  is  used  only 
to  control  movements  in  a  reverse  direction  on  double  track,  and  for  move- 
ments from  side  track  to  main  track,  and  from  side  track  to  side  track. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  semaphore  form  is,  that  identically  the  same 
signal  can  be  used  for  both  block  and  interlocking  purposes. 

BLOCK  SIGNALS. — The  question  of  blocking  a  piece  of  track  has  resolved 
itself  into  the  two  principles  of  time  and  positive  block  signaling.  The  time 
signals  are  most  prominently  represented  by  the  Fontaine  signal,  which 
consists  of  a  track  instrument  controlling  a  dash-pot  and  the  operation  of 
some  clock-work  which  may  be  set  to  run  any  desired  number  of  minutes  after 
the  passage  of  a  train.  The  two  great  objections  to  this  method  are  :  First, 
that  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that  a  train  has  passed  out  of  the  block  simply 
because  the  hand  indicates  that  it  has  been  gone  a  certain  number  of  min- 
utes ;  and,  second,  that  the  indications  of  the  signal  are  visible  at  only  a  short  distance. 


FIG.  1.— Home 
signal. 


FIG.  2.— Dis- 
tant signal. 


FIG.  3.— Dwarf 

signal. 


SWITCHES   AND   SIGNALS,    RAILROAD. 


827 


Positive  Block  Systems  are  to  be  divided  into  two  classes :  First,  that  class  which  is  op- 
erated by  men  stationed  in 
cabins  a  certain  distance  apart, 
but  having  electrical  com- 
munication with  each  other, 
and,  second,  by  those  signals 
which  are  controlled  entirely 
by  the  presence  of  a  train  in 
their  section,  or  automatic  sig- 
nals. The  most  successful  of 
the  first  of  these  two  methods 
is  the  Sykes  system.  The 
Sykes  system  is  "the  applica- 
tion to  an  ordinary  block  sys- 
tem of  certain  electrical  and 
mechanical  devices  which  in- 
sure the  fact  that  the  signal 
governing  the  entrance  to  a 
given  block  cannot  be  cleared 
until  the  last  train  which  en- 
tered that  block  has  passed  out 
of  it,  and  the  operator  at  the 
end  of  the  block  has  given  his 
consent.  These  results  are  se- 
cured by  the  use  of  a  Sykes  lock 
instrument  and  an  interlock- 
ing relay,  which  are  illustrated 
in  Fig.  4,  and  a  very  short  in- 
sulated section  of  track,  with 
proper  metallic  circuits  con- 
necting the  same,  together  with  (mBIB  |(  HBHH  i 

^ 


7 

: 

i  I 

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| 

< 

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-= 

j 

n 
-^~  i 

OX** 

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~^iJ 

, 

a  bell  wire  or  telegraph  line  for 
communication    between    ad- 


jacent block  stations.  The 
Sykes  lock  instrument  is  lo- 
cated in  the  operator's  office, 
immediately  over  the  lever  by 
which  he  controls  his  signal. 
The  interlocking  relay  is  lo- 
cated in  any  convenient  place, 
usually  in  a  closet.  The  in- 
sulated section  of  track  is 
located  at  the  entrance  of  the 
block,  and  is  usually  about  60 
ft.  long.  The  bell -wire  push 
buttons  are  located  near  the 


FIG.  4.— The  Sykes  block  eignal  system. 


signal  lever  and  the  Sykes  instrument.  The  operation  in  practice  is  as  follows,  everything 
being  normal ;  levers  home,  signals  at  danger,  and  tracks  unoccupied.  If  the  operator  desires 
to  allow  a  train  to  enter  one  of  the  blocks  which  his  signals  control,  he  notifies  the  operator 
next  in  advance  by  his  bell  wire  or  telegraph  line  ;  the  advance  operator,  if  everything  is 
all  right,  responds' by  "  plunging"  on  that  instrument  which  connects  with  the  signal  lever 
of  the  man  in  the  rear.  This  has  the  effect  of  releasing  the  signal  lever  at  the  original 
block  station. 

The  only  function  of  the  Sykes  system  so  far  alluded  to  is  that  by  which  one  operator,  en 
request  of  an  adjacent  operator,  may  "  plunge  "  and  thus  release  the  latter's  signal  lever. 
The  additional  and  important  function  of  the  combined  apparatus  is  to  prevent  an  operator 
from  plunging  a  second  time  until  the  train  for  which  the  preceding  operator  desired  to  clear 
his  signal  has  passed  into,  through,  and  out  of  the  block  in  question.  This  result  is  secured 
by  the  combined  action  of  the  Sykes  instrument,  the  interlocking  relay,  and  the  insulated 
section  of  track.  When  an  adjacent  operator  "plunges"  he  passes  a  current  through  the 
electro-magnets  of  his  neighbor's  instrument,  and  in  that  manner  releases  the  signal  lever. 
When  the  plunger,  however,  is  released  and  forced  by  a  spring  at  its  rear  out  of  its  original 
position,  a  rod  is  released,  which  drops  down  in  front  of  the  plunger  and  prevents  it  from 
being  forced  in  again  until  the  signal  lever  above  which  it  is  situated  is  reversed.  The  func- 
tion of  the  insulated  section  of  track  is  to  automatically  restore  the  interlocking  relay  to  its 
normal  position,  which  has  been  disturbed  by  the  act  of  plunging.  This  method  of  block 
signaling  has  been  applied  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  United  States.  It  is,  however,  extremely 
expensive  to  operate,  and  in  its  simple  form  is  somewhat  objectionable  from  the  fact  that  if 
a  train  should  leave  the  main  track  between  any  two  block  stations  it  would  be  necessary  to 
send  the  following  train  past  a  block  station  with  a  hand  signal,  for  the  reason  that  the 
towerman  in  advance  would  be  unable  to  release  the  man  in  the  rear  more  than  once  between 
the  passage  of  any  two  trains. 

AUTOMATIC  SIGNALS. — The  best  known  automatic  signals  are  the  Union  electric  signal 


828 


SWITCHES   AND   SIGNALS,    RAILROAD. 


and  the  Westinghouse  pneumatic  signal,  both  owned  and  manufactured  by  the  Union 
Switch  and  Signal  Co  ,  and  the  Hall  signal,  owned  and  manufactured  by  the  Hall  Signal  Co. 

The  Hall  Signal  is  described  in  Appletons'  Cyclopedia  of  Applied  Mechanics,  but  certain 
changes  have  been  made  which  permit  the  entrance  of  a  second  train  into  an.  already  occupied 
section,  while  still  maintaining  a  danger  signal  in  its  rear.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  inter- 
vention of  a  combination  of  relays  and  track  instruments,  whereby  the  second  train  on  passing 
the  clearing  track  instrument  for  the  section  which  it  has  just  left  cuts  out  the  clearing  track 
instrument  for  the  section  which  it  occupies,  so  that  the  first  train  cannot  clear  the  signal 
for  that  section. 

The  Union  Electric  Signal  and  the  Westinghouse  Pneumatic  Signal  both  depend  funda- 

TKACK  BXTTERY 


ORDINARY        TRACK       CIRCUIT 

TRACK   REUA>Y 

FIG.  5.— Electric  and  pneumatic  signal.    Details. 


mentally  on  the  use  of  the  track  circuit,  which  is  illustrated  in  Pig.  5.  The  track  circuit 
is  a  section  of  both  rails  of  a  piece  of  single  track  in  which  the  ends  of  adjacent  rails  are 
connected  by  a  piece  of  wire  (see  Fig.  6),  and  the  ends  of  the  rails  in  one  section  are  insu- 


INSULATE1D  JOINT 


WOODEN  SPLIC 


FIG.  6.— Track  circuit. 

lated  from  the  ends  of  the  rails  in  the  section  adjacent  to  it. 
In  each  section  the  ends  of  the  two  lines  of  rails  of  one  end 
are  connected  together  through  a  battery,  while  the  two  lines 
of  rails  at  the  other  end  of  the  section  are  connected  by  a  re- 
lay which  controls  the  signal  circuit.  The  presence  of  a  train 
on  any  portion  of  a  block,  or  the  opening  of  a  switch,  or 
the  breaking  of  a  rail  will  interrupt  the  track  circuit,  and 
thus  set  the  signal  to  danger,  which  is  operated  by  it.  So 
far  this  method  is  common  to  both  systems. 

The  Union  Electric  Signal  consists  of  a  combination 
of  clock-work  and  electric  mechanism  which  is  directly 
controlled  by  the  track  relay  mentioned  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  track  circuit.  The  motive  power  consists  of 
a  heavy  weight.  In  the  past  this  signal  has  been  built 
usually'  as  a  disk  signal,  with  a  continuous  motion  to  the 
right.  The  demand  for  semaphores  has,  however,  caused 
a  change  to  be  made  in  its  form  which  has  entailed  certain 
alterations  in  the  method  of  transmitting  the  motion  from 
the  operating  mechanism  to  the  vertical  shaft  on  which  the 
semaphores  are  mounted.  This  motion  is  now  reciprocal 
instead  of  continuous.  The  present  external  appearance  of 
the  signal  is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  the  signal  presenting  alter- 
nately the  edge  and  surface  of  its  two  blades  to  the  view  of 
an  approaching  train.  The  blades,  which  are  of  the  ordi- 
nary home  or  distant  signal  form,  as  the  case  may  be,  are 
placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other  on  a  revolving  shaft, 
which  moves  through  an  arc  of  90°  in  one  operation,  and 
returns  to  its  original  position  in  the  next.  The  mechanism 
operating  and  controlling  this  signal  is  outlined  in  Fig.  8. 
The  rotary  movement  of  the  shaft,  S.  obtained  by  the  weight 
passing  over  a  sprocket  wheel  secured  to  it,  is  transmitted  to 
one  of  a  higher  speed  in  a  second  horizontal  shaft  immediately 
above  it,  to  which  the  cross,  C,  is  secured  by  means  of  a 
large  gear  wheel  and  a  pinion.  The  motion  of  this  shaft, 


FIG.    7. — Union  electric  signal. 


besides  revolving  the  cross,  C,  causes  a  vertical   shaft  projecting  through  the  top  of  the 
machine  to  revolve  at  the  same  rate  of  speed   through   the  engagement  of  two  beveled 


SWITCHES   AND   SIGNALS,    RAILROAD. 


829 


gears  secured  to  them.  This  vertical  shaft  is  the  one  from  which  the  signal  banner  is 
operated.  The  cross,  (7,  on  the  intermediate  shaft  is  that 
part  of  the  driving  mechanism  by  which  its  operation  is 
controlled.  The  shaft,  S,  is  the  means  by  which  the 
weight  is  wound  up,  and  is  also  used  to  operate  the  device 
by  which  the  danger  position  of  the  signal  is  insured 
When  the  weight  has  nearly  run  down.  Secured  to  the 
frame  of  the  machine  is  an  electro-magnet,  M,  and  hori- 
zontally above  it  is  pivoted  its  armature  bar,  A,  the 
outer  end  of  which  projects  between  two  peculiarly  shaped 
levers,  D  and  E,  known  as  detent  toes,  and  engages  one 
or  the  other  of  them  when  they  are  elevated,  depending 
upon  the  condition  of  the  electro-magnet.  As  shown  in 
the  cut,  the  magnet  is  demagnetized,  and  the  detent 
toe,  D,  is  held  in  the  upright  position  by  the  armature, 
but  should  the  magnet  become  charged  and  the  outer  end 
of  its  armature  bar  be  elevated,  the  detent  toe,  D, 
would  become  disengaged  and  would  drop  upon  the  rest, 
R,  raising  at  the  same  time  the  hook,  H,  from  engage- 
ment with  the  pin  in  the  back  of  the  cross,  C,  by  striking 
a  small  pin,  shown  in  the  cut,  located  in  the  outer  ex- 
tremity of  the  hook,  H.  The  cross  thus  released  turns  a 
quarter  revolution,  when  it  is  again  stopped  by  a  second 
pin  in  the  opposite  side  of  its  next  arm,  which  engages 
with  a  second  hook  pivoted  directly  back  of  and  on  the 
same  center  as  the  first  one.  The  detent  toes  are  alter- 
nately restored  automatically  to  their  elevated  positions, 
and  consequently  the  hooks,  H,  to  their  position  of  en- 
gagement with  the  pins  in  the  cross  at  each  quarter  turn 
of  the  cross.  This  arrangement  entirely  removes  the 
strain  and  jar  of  the  operating  parts  from  the  electro- 
magnet, and  reduces  the  friction  in  its  armature  bar  to 
a  very  trifling  amount,  thus  insuring  great  freedom  in  its 
action.  On  the  main  spindle  of  the  machines  a  thread 
of  a  very  fine  pitch  is  cut  where  it  projects  through  the 

front  of  the  frame,  and  a  cylindrical  nut,  provided  with       FIG.  8.— Union  signal.    Mechanism, 
a  pin  of  hard  rubber  on  one  side,  is  placed  thereon  and 
held  from  turning  by  the  guide,  Gr,  but  permitted  to  travel  in  the  direction  of  the  length 


FIG.  9. — Westinghouse  pneumatic  signal  system. 
of  the  shaft  as  it  turns.      As  the  machine  runs  down  and  this  nut  travels  outward,  the 


830 


SWITCHES    AND   SIGNALS,    RAILROAD. 


rubber  pin  in  the  nut  approaches  the  point  of  contact  between  two  springs  through  which 
the  current  controlling  the  magnet  of  the  signal  is  made  to  pass,  and  causes  their  separation 
( just  before  the  operating  weight  has  reached  the  bottom  of  the  post,  thus  cutting  off  all 
'  current  from  the  magnet,  and  thereby  causing  it  to  stop  in  the  danger  position  before  the 
operating  power  is  exhausted.  A  considerable  momentum  is  gained  by  the  revolution  of  the 
semaphore  arm,  which  would  cause  heavy  strains  were  it  not  taken  care  of.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  separating  the  external  shaft  and  semaphores  entirely  from  the  rest  of  the 
mechanism.  Secured  to  the  base  of  the  external  shaft  and  to  the  top  of  the  internal  shaft 
are  friction  clutches  which  correspond  and  fit  into  each  other.  When  the  shaft  revolves  the 
clutch  permits  a  revolution  a  little  greater  than  the  normal  one,  but  as  the  sides  of  the 
clutch  are  inclined  the  shaft  immediately  drops  back  into  the  proper  position. 

The  Westinghouse  Pneumatic  Signal  system,  as  before  stated,  is  controlled  by  the  location 
of  the  trains  which  are  passing  over  the  road.  It  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  9,  and,  as  its  name 
implies,  the  signals  are  brought  to  the  clear  position  by  the  presence  of  compressed  air  in 
the  cylinder.  The  magnet  which  controls  the  admission  of  air  into  the  cylinder  is  directly 
controlled  by  the  track  relay,  which  is  located  on  the  signal  post  and  is  mentioned  in  the 
description  of  the  rail  circuit.  A  clear  section  permits  the  current  from  the  track  battery 
(see  Fig.  5)  to  pass  through  the  track  relay,  completing  the  circuit  through  the  signal  battery 
and  energizing  the  magnet.  This  unseats  the  valve  which  is  connected  directly  with  the 
armature  of  the  magnet,  and  permits  the  compressed  air  from  the  main  pipe  line  to  pass 
into  the  cylinder,  thus  driving  out  the  piston,  and  lowering  the  signal  to  which  it  is 
directly  connected.  In  actual  practice  the  distant  signal  Cor  a  succeeding  block  is  located 
on  the  same  post  with  the  home  signal  for  the  block  immediately  in  advance.  This  arrange- 
ment is  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  to  trains  a  considerable  distance  in  advance  as  to  what 
condition  the  track  is  in,  and  permits  of  a  much  higher  rate  of  speed  than  if  trains  received 
their  signals  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  block  on  which  they  wished  to  enter.  The  dis- 
tant signal,  however,  may  be  located  any  desired  distance  from  its  home  signal.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  pneumatic  block  signaling  system,  a  pneumatic  lock  is  located  at  each  switch 
connecting  with  the  main  track,  which  prevents  the  opening  of  a  switch  after  a  train  has 
entered  upon  that  section,  and  which,  when  the  switch  is  once  opened,  sets  all  the  signals 
controlling  that  section  to  danger.  The  compressed  air  which  operates  this  system  is  derived 
from  air-compressors  located  at  any  convenient  point  near  the  right  of  way,  not  to  exceed  &0 
miles  apart.  As  will  be  explained  further  on,  this  air  can  be  and  is  used  for  operating  the 


switches  at  interlocking  points. 
INTERLOCKING. — Mechanic 


lanical  Interlocking. — The  method  of   interlocking  known   as  the 
Saxby  &  Farmer,  and  described  in  the  previous  issue,  has  been  abandoned,  and  the  Stevens 

type  has  now  entirely  taken  its  place.     The 


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FIG.  10.— Interlocking  system. 


Stevens  locking  has  two  forms.  In  the  orig- 
inal form,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  10, 
the  tappet,  which  is  directly  connected  with 
the  lever,  operates  the  locking  bars,  which 
run  parallel  with  the  greatest  "length  of  the 
machine,  or,  in  other  words,  at  right  angles 
to  the  motion  of  the  levers.  This  is  objea- 
tionable  from  the  fact  that  in  large  machines 
the  locking  bars  become  very  long  and 
heavy,  and  the  method  of  driving  them  by 
the  tappet  creates  a  large  amount  of  friction 
and  results  in  considerable  lost  motion  in 
time.  In  the  latest  form,  see  Fig.  11,  the 
Saxby  &  Farmer  arrangement  is  retained, 
the  flop  of  the  Saxby  &  Farmer  machine 
being  replaced  by  a  simple  shaft  connected 
with  the  link  by  a  universal  joint.  A  move- 
ment of  the  latch  handle  of  the  lever  rotates 


this  shaft  and  transfers  the  movement  to  the  locking  bar,  which  slides  in  a  direction  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  the  movement  of  the  lever.     By  this  arrangement  the  locking  is  made 


I! 


FIG.  11. — Stevens  interlocking  system. 

extremely  compact,  and  is  located  in  plain  view  above  the  floor  of  the  cabin,  easy  of  access 
for  cleaning  and  repairs. 


SWITCHES   AND   SIGNALS,  RAILROAD. 


831 


The  demands  for  more  and  cheaper  interlocking  have  been  met  by  the  invention  of  several 
devices  intended  to  combine  the  work  of  several  levers  into  one.  "The  most  important  of 
these  is  the  selector,  S,  see  Fig.  12,  which  is  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  several  signals  from 
the  same  lever.  Theoretically,  any  number  of  signals,  no  two  of  which  should  be  given  at  the 
same  time,  can  be  worked  from  the  same  lever,  but  in  practice  it  is  found  best  to  limit  this 
number  to  six  or  seven.  The  Selector  is  connected  directly  with  the  lever  in  the  tower  and 
also  t€  the  different  switches,  which,  when  they  are  in  one  position  or  the  other,  determine 
as  to  which  signal  can  be  thrown.  The  movement  of  a  switch  alternately  connects  or 


rrro~i  S/CAML 


PIG.  12.— Stevens  system.    Plan. 

disconnects  each  of  the  rods  leading  to  the  different  signals  with  the  signal  lever,  but  never 
connects  more  than  one  of  these  rods  with  the  signal  lever  at  the  same  time. 

The  /Switch  and  Lock  Movement  (for  illustration,  see  Pneumatic  Interlocking),  which  is 
now  in  general  use  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  is  a  device  for  operating  a  switch,  lock, 
and  detector  bar  from  the  same  lever.  The  original  practice  was  to  operate  the  switch  by 
one  lever,  and  the  lock  and  detector  bar  from  another  lever,  and  it  is  still  adopted  in  many 
cases.  It  is  an  expensive  method,  however,  and  is  in  many  cases  well  replaced  by  the  use  of 
the  switch  and  lock  movement.  In  the  operation  of  a  switch  through  a  switch  and  lock 
movement,  the  detector  bar  is  first  raised  and  the  lock  withdrawn  ;  immediately  afterwards 
the  switch  begins  to  move,  when,  upon  reaching  its  other  position,  it  is  again  locked  and  the 
detector  bar  lowered.  This  sequence  of  movement  is  necessary  in  order  to  be  certain  that  if 
a  train  were  standing  over  a  switch,  the  switch  shall  not  be  moved. 

The  Westinghouse  Pneumatic  Interlocking  System  is  the  application  of  compressed  air  for 
the  operation  of  signals  and  switches  which  are  electrically  controlled  from  a  central  point. 
The  appearance  of  the  machine  in  the  tower  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  levers,  which  are  at 


FIG.  13. — The  Westinghonse  pneumatic  interlocking  system. 

the  top  of  the  machine,  and  which  all  incline  to  the  left,  are  those  used  for  operating  the 
switches.  The  vertical  levers,  which  are  placed  just  to  the  right  of  and  below  the  switch 
handles,  are  those  which  control  the  position  of  the  signals. 

A  model  of  tracks  is  attached  to  the  top  of  the  machine,  the  switches  on  which  receive 
their  movement  from  the  switch  levers  and  which  move  in  accordance  with  the  position  of 
the  switch  levers,  showing  at  a  glance  the  condition  of  the  switches  outside.     Running 
through  the  machine  parallel  to  its  shortest  axis  are  rollers  formed  of  hard  rubber,  which, 
according  to  their  position,  make  and  break  a  contact  through  the  different  circuits.     At  the 
back  of  the  machine  are  located  a  row  of  magnets  con- 
necting with  each  lever,  called  the  indication  magnets. 
In  the  operation  of  the  machine,  the  switch  lever  is  not 
moved  its  full  throw  at  first,  but  must  be  held  for  a 
moment  in  an  intermediate  position.     This  is  necessary 
in  order  that  no  mistake  shall  be  made  in  the  clearing 
of  the  signals.     The  first  movement  of  the  switch  lever 
operates  the  valve  which  moves  the  switch.     During 
the  movement  of  the  switch  the   indication  circuit  is 
temporarily  closed,  thereby  releasing  one  portion  of  the 
lock  on  the  back  of  the  switch  roller.     Upon  the  com- 
pletion of  the  movement  of  the  switch  the  indication 
circuit  is  again  broken,  and  permits  the  operator  to  com- 
plete the  threw  of  the  switch  lever.    The  only  communi- 
cation between  the  tower  and  the  different  switches  and       FIG.  14.— Swatch  valve  and  cylinder, 
signals  is  by  insulated  copper  wire.      In  the  smaller 
machines  a  gravity  battery  is  used  to  furnish  the  current,  but  in  the  largest  recent  machines 


832  TABULATING   MACHINE. 

the  current  is  taken  directly  from  a  storage  battery.  The  signal  movements  used  in  the  pneu- 
matic interlocking  are  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  pneumatic  block  signaling,  which  have 
already  been  described.  The  Pneumatic  Switch  Valve  and  Cylinder  is  illustrated  in  horizon- 
tal section  in  Fig.  14,  and  in  external  appearance,  together  with  the  switch  and  lock  move- 
ment, in  Fig.  15.  The  outside  magnets,  A  and  (7,  control  alternately,  depending  on  the  position 
of  the  lever  in  the  tower,  the  admission  of  air  into  the  valve  cylinder.  The  central  magnet, 
B.  controls  the  valve  lock.  By  moving  a  switch  lever  in  the  tower,  the  following  operation 
takes  place  :  The  magnet,  B,  is  first  charged  (it  is  so  shown  in  the  drawing),  which  admits 
air  into  the  lock  cylinder  and  releases  the  slide  valve,  leaving  it  free  to  move  as  soon  as 
the  pressure  shall  be  applied  to  it  from  cylinder  1.  Magnet  C  is  then  charged,  and 
magnet  A  is  discharged,  permitting  the  entrance  of  air  into  cylinder  1  and  opening  the  ex- 
haust port  of  cylinder  2.  This 
forces  over  the  slide  valve  to 
its  other  position,  allowing  the 
entrance  of  pressure  to  the 
right-hand  side  of  the  main 
cylinder,  and  connecting  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  main  cyl- 
inder with  the  atmosphere. 
The  last  movement  of  the  lever 
—  in  the  tower  cuts  the  current 
"*"  out  of  the  magnet  B,  thereby 
locking  up  the  slide  valve  in 
its  new  position. 

The  switch  movement  shown 
in  Fig.  15  is  the  same  as  that 

Fio.  15.-Valve  and  cylinder  with  lock.  described   under   the   head    of 

mechanical   interlocking.       A 

pin  in  the  slide  bar  transmits  the  power  to  the  wide  jaw  to  which  the  switch  is  con- 
nected. The  detector  bar  and  lock,v  however,  are  connected  directly  to  the  slide  bar,  and 
move  during  its  whole  stroke,  while  the  switch  moves  only  during  the  middle  part  of  the 
stroke. 

TABULATING  MACHINE.  The  Hollerith  Electric  Tabulating  System  may  be  con- 
sidered the  mechanical  equivalent  of  the  method  of  compiling  statistics  by  writing  on  slips 
or  cards  the  various  items  regarding  the  units  to  be  compiled,  one  such  written  card  repre- 
enting  a  single  unit,  as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  a  census,  a  person  ;  and  then  sorting 
and  re-sorting  these  written  cards  according  to  the  characteristics  of  the  individuals,  and 
counting  the  number  of  cards  finally  in  each  group.  In  this  mechanical  equivalent  the 
characteristics  or  items  of  the  individuals  are  transcribed  to  the  cards  by  punching  holes  in 
different  positions  instead  of  writing,  and  then  counting  and  sorting  these  punched  cards 
in  the  electrical  tabulating  machines.  The  work,  therefore,  naturally  divides  itself  into — 
first,  the  transcription  of  the  record  ;  and,  secondly,  the  tabulation  of  the  data.  As  the 
system  has  been  mostly  used  for  the  compilation  of  the  eleventh  census  of  the  United  States, 
the  following  description  will  be  based  upon  such  work  : 

In  order  to  transcribe  the  particulars  as  to  each  individual  from  the  original  schedules,  a 
keyboard  punch  is  used  about  the  size  of  a  type-writer  tray,  having  in  front  a  perforated 
punch-board  of  celluloid.  Over  this  keyboard  swings  freely  an  index  finger,  whose  move- 
ment, after  the  manner  of  a  pantagraph,  is  repeated  at  the  rear  by  a  punch.  The  movement 
of  the  punch  is  limited  between  two  guides,  upon  which  are  placed  thin  manilla  cards  61  in. 
long  by  3|  in.  high,  with  the  lower  corner  slightly  clipped.  The  keyboard  has  12  rows  of  20 
holes,  and  each  hole  has  its  distinctive  lettering  or  number  that  corresponds  to  the  inquiry 
and  answer  respecting  every  person.  Hence,  when  the  index  finger  is  pressed  down  into 
any  one  of  these  holes,  the  punch  at  the  back  stamps  out  a  hole  in  the  manilla  card.  At  first 
glance,  perhaps,  the  keyboard  looks  complicated,  but  it  is  scientifically  grouped  and  is  very 
readily  learned.  For  such  inquiries  as  are  answered  by  one  of  a  very  few  possible  classes- 
sex,  for  example,  which  recognizes  only  two  parties  in  the  State — the  answer  is  simply 
"male"  or  "  female,"  or  "M  "  and  "  F."  So,  too,  in  regard  to  conjugal  relationships,  where 
the  answer  would  be  either  single,  married,  widowed,  or  divorced,  and  one  punch  suffices 
for  each  of  these  conditions. 

To  assist  the  clerks  in  memorizing  the  keyboard  for  punching,  classification  lists  are  used. 
That  the  work  of  punching  became  as  easy  as  any  other  task  requiring  ordinary  intelligence 
is  shown  in  the  fact  that  during  the  tabulating  of  the  eleventh  census,  the  estimated  average 
of  500  cards  per  day  per  clerk  resolved  itself  very  soon  into  an  actual  average  of  700.  An 
expert  puncher,  working  from  9  A.  M.  to  4  P.M.,  has  done  2,521  cards,  each  card  having  on 
an  average  about  15  holes  in  it  that  relate  specifically  to  the  individual  whose  life  history  is 
thus  condensed. 

After  the  cards  leave  the  punching  clerks,  they  are  kept  in  their  Enumeration  Districts, 
and  they  have  now  to  be  further  punched  to  show  the  exact  locality  they  belong  to — i.e.,  the 
civil  division  of  which  the  enumeration  district  formed  a  part.  For  this  purpose  the  space 
of  about  1  in.  across  the  left-hand  end  of  the  card  was  left  blank,  no  portion  of  it  being 
punched  on  the  keyboard  punch.  This  space  is  further  divided  by  imaginary  lines  into 
48  squares,  in  the*  combinations  of  which  every  enumeration  district  can  be  recorded 
[in  the  U.  S.  census  over  40,000  such  districts  were  thus  recorded],  and  it  is  perfo- 


TABULATING   MACHINE. 


833 


rated  by  means  of  the  "  gang  punch,"  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  combination  for  any  given  enu- 
meration  district  is  ar- 
ranged in  this,  and  then 
all  the  cards  of  that  dis- 
trict are  passed  through. 
From  3  to  6  cards  can  be 
punched  at  a  time,  hence 
the  name,  and  pressure 
may  be  applied  by  either 
the"  hand  or  the  foot. 
When  this  is  done,  the 
cards -are  complete. 

So  familiar  do  the 
clerks  become  with  the 
position  of  the  holes  in 
these  cards,  they  can  read 
them  off  at  a  glance.  As 
a  means  of  verifying,  how- 
ever, a  ' '  reading  board  " 
is  provided  for  that  pur- 
pose, the  same  size  as  the 
card,  and  having  also 
each  of  the  240  abbrevia- 
tions in  a  quarter-inch 
space,  so  that  when  a  per- 
forated card  is  put  on 
this  templet  the  abbre- 
viation will  show  wher- 
ever a  hole  has  been 
punched.  This  templet 
is,  practically,  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  original  key- 
board. 

The  punched  cards 
are  then  tabulated  on 
the  machine  shown  in 
Figs.  1,  2,  and  3.  It 
consists  of  three  main 
parts,  namely,  the  press 
or  circuit-closing  device, 
the  dials  or  counters,  and 
the  sorting  boxes.  Above 


FIG.  1.— Perspective  of  circuit-closing  press. 


a  hard-rubber  plate 
swings  a  reciprocating 
pin  box,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  number  of  projecting  spring-actuated  points,  so  hung  as  to  drop  exactly 

into  the  center  of  the  lit- 
tle mercury  cups  below. 
These  pins  are  so  con- 
nected that  when  a 
punched  card  is  laid  on 
the  rubber  plate  against 
the  guides  or  stops  and 
the  box  is  brought  down, 
all  the  pins  that  are 
stopped  by  the  unpunched 
surface  will  be  pressed 
back,  while  those  that 
correspond  with  punched 
spaces  pass  through,  close 
the  circuit,  and  count  on 
the  dials.  The  circuit 
is  really  closed  through 
platinum  contacts  at  the 
back  of  the  press,  not 
shown  in  the  cut.  In  this 
way  no  difficulty  is  expe- 
rienced from  the  oxidation 
of  the  mercury  from  the 
spark  as  would  be  the 

FIG.  3.-Detail  of  circuit-closing  press.  case  without   this  precau- 

tion. 

The  dials  are  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  4,  and  may  also  be  seen  grouped  in  position  in 
53 


834 


TABULATING   MACHINE. 


Fig.  5.     The  front  of  each  counter  is  3  in.  square,  and,  as  now  made,  consists  of  paper  ingen- 
iously coated  with  celluloid,  ensuring  a  smooth,  bright,  clean  face.     Each  dial  is  divided  into 

100  parts,  and  two  hands  travel  over  the  face, 
one  counting  units  and  the  other  hundreds. 
The  train  of  clockwork  is  operated  electrically 
by  means  of  the  electro-magnet,  whose  arma- 
ture, as  it  moves  each  time  the  circuit  is 
closed,  carries  the  unit  hand  forward  one 
division,  while  every  complete  revolution  actu- 
ates a  carrying  device,  which,  in  turn,  causes 
the  hundred  hand  to  count.  In  this  way  each 
dial  will  register  up  to  10,000.  A  noteworthy 
feature  of  these  ingenious  little  dials  is  that 
they  can  quickly  be  reset  at  zero,  while  they 
are  also  removable  and  interchangeable.  The 
electrical  connections  are  made  simply  by 
slipping  them  into  frames  and  clips. 

The  third  element  in  the  system  is  the 
sorting  box,  shown  in  Fig.  6  in  perspective. 
The  box  is  divided  into  numerous  compart- 
ments, each  of  which  is  kept  closed  by  a  lid. 
The  lid  is  held  closed  against  the  tension  of  a 
spring  by  a  catch  at  the  free  end  of  the  arma- 
ture of  a  suitable  magnet.  If  the  circuit 
through  this  magnet  is  closed,  by  the  press  on 
the  machine,  the  armature  is  pulled  down, 
releasing  the  trigger  of  the  lid,  which  is  at 
once  thrown  up  by  the  spring,  and  remains 
open  until  flipped  back  by  a  slight  touch  of 
the  operator's  hand.  The  connections  with 
the  machine  are  made  by  means  of  the  short 
table  seen  at  the  left  of  the  sorting  box.  In  the 
cut  the  wires  are  shown  attached  to  binding 
posts  on  a  small  board,  but  a  minor  change  has  been  made  by  which  the  board  is  pushed  in 
between  contact  clips  in  the  machine,  thus  saving  valuable  time  by  obviating  the  necessity 
of  screwing  and  unscrewing  so  many  binding  posts  whenever  it  is  desired  to  remove  the  box 
for  any  reason. 

If,  now,  it  is  desired  to  know  in  a  given  enumeration  district,  or  all  of  them,  the  number 


FIG.  4. — Counter. 


FIG.  5. — The  Hollerith  electric  tabulating  machine. 

of  males  and  females,  white  and  colored,  single,  married,  widowed,  etc.,  the  binding  posts  of 
the  switchboard  corresponding  with  this  data  are  connected  with  the  binding  posts  of  the 


TABULATING   MACHINE. 


835 


dials  on  which  these  items  are  to  be  counted.  If  it  is  also  desired  to  assort  the  cards  according 
to  age  groups,  for  example,  the  binding  posts  of  the  switchboard  representing  such  groups 
are  connected  with  the  clips  into  which  the  sorting  box  plug  fits.  The  circuits  being^  thus 
prepared,  when  a  card  is  placed  in  position  in  the  press,  and  the  handle  of  the  pin  box  is 
depressed  by  the  operator  so  that  the  circuit  is  closed  through  each  hole  in  the  card,  not 
only  will  the  registration  be  effected  on  the  counting  dials,  but  the  sorting  box  that  has  been 
selected  for  a  given  age  group  is  opened.  The  operator  releases  the  handle,  removes  the  card 
deftly  from  the  press,  deposits  it  in  the  open  sorting  compartment  with  her  right  hand  and 
pats  the  lid  down  again,  at  the  same  time  bringing  another  card  into  position  under  the  press 
with  her  left  hand.  It  is  done  much  more  quickly  than  it  is  described.  When  all  the  cards 
in  the  tin  case  of  any  district  have  thus  gone  through  the  press,  the  record  taken  from  the 
dials  will  show  the  number  of  males,  females,  white,  colored,  etc.,  while  the  cards  will  have 
been  assorted  into  age  groups. 

The  machine,  however,  is  capable  of  more  than  this.  In  statistical  work  it  is  found  that 
the  most  valuable  information  does  not  consist  in  these  elementary  items,  but  in  facts  that 
are  more  difficult  to  obtain,  namely,  combinations  of  these  items.  Thus,  it  is  interesting  to 


FIG.  6.-  Hollerith  sorting  box. 

know  how  many  dwellers  in  this  country  are  males  and  how  many  are  females  ;  also  how 
many  are  whitefand  how  many  are  colored.  But  it  is  at  least  as  essential  to  know  how  many 
of  the  white  males  are  native  born  or  foreign  born,  and  how  many  are  the  children  of  native 
born  or  foreign  parents.  Hence  it  is  desirable  to  provide  means  for  counting  not  simply  the 
number  of  white  males,  but  the  number  of  white  males,  native  born,  of  native  parents.  The 
machines  do  this  as  easily  as  they  do  the  lighter  work.  The  principle  of  the  relay  is  brought 
into  play  by  means  of  instruments  which  are  mounted  together  in  the  racks  at  the  bottom  of 
the  machine.  In  the  case  just  suggested  the  wire  is  brought  from  the  binding  post  of  the 
switch-board  corresponding  to  male  to  one  contact  of  the  relay  operated  from  the  binding 
post  corresponding  to  white.  From  this  relay  the  circuit  runs  to 'another  relay  operated  from 
the  binding  posts  that  correspond  to  native  birth-places.  Thence  again  the  circuit  goes  to  the 
relay  operated  by  the  binding  post  that  corresponds  to  native  born  father,  thence  again  to  the 
relay  operated  by  the  binding  post  corresponding  to  native  mother  ;  and  finally  to  a  counter. 
It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  counter  will  only  be  operated  when  a  card  which  has  been 
punched  for  "native,"  "white,"  "male,"  "nfitive'born  father,"  "native  born  mother,"  and 
of  the  given  age,  is  put  under  the  press.  If  the  card  is  not  so  punched  the  circuit  remains 
open  at  one  or  more  points,  and  no  counting  is  effected,  Evidently  the  most  complex  com- 


836 


TABULATING   MACHINE. 


bination  can  be  effected  in  this  manner.  An  elementary  manner  of  building  up  the  com- 
bination is  shown  in  diagram  in  Fig.  7.  It  is  simply  a  question  of  arranging  the  counting 
dials  and  the  relays,  or,  if  desired,  the  sorting  boxes  can  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  When 
the  machine  is  once  connected  up,  the  combination  sought  yields  its  results  just  as  readily  as 
though  it  were  a  single  item. 

There  is  another  side  of  this  method.  We  have  just  indicated  refinement  in  detail  of  one 
kind,  but  the  machine  lends  itself  to  analytical  work  not  less  than  synthetical.  In  statistical 
investigation  the  analysis  naturally  becomes  finer  as  the  area  enlarges,  and  here  the  sorting 
box  is  of  great  service.  As  has  already  been  stated  the  cards  are  primarily  massed  in  enu- 
meration districts  For  such  small  areas,  the  information  required  groups  the  population 
under  comparatively  few  heads.  In  practice  it  is  found  that  such  classification  can  generally 
be  counted  on  the  40  dials  that  the  machine  embraces  normally  as  a  full  equipment  ;  and 
the  arrangement  is  made  accordingly.  But  while  counting  this  classification,  the  cards  can 
also  be  assorted  into  groups  that  will  form  the  basis  of  the  analysis  for  the  next  larger  group 
of  territorial  areas  ;  so  that  if  the  cards  are  divided  into  twenty  groups,  we  shall  have  at  the 
next  handling  of  the  cards,  a  classification  of  20x40,  or  800  heads.  If,  at  the  next  step,  we 
subdivide  each  one  of  these  twenty  groups  into  twenty  more,  the  third  handling  of  the  cards  will 
give  us  20  x  20  x  40,  or  no  fewer  than  16,000  heads.  Thus  a  very  few  manipulations  will 
give  an  extraordinarily  fine  degree  of  analysis,  and  the  compilation  will  have  a  value  from 
its  minuteness  that  could  be  reached  in  no  other  way. 

Added  to  the  ability  to  secure  special  details,  finer  analysis,  and  the  economy  in  time  and 
labor,  we  have  the  greater  accuracy.  The  machine  automatically  throws  out  any  card  that  is 

wrong.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  age  or  sex 
has  not  been  punched.  Where  there  should 
be  a  hole  for  the  plunger-pin  to  go  through, 
closing  the  circuit,  the  card  is  intact.  The 
circuit  is  open,  and  the  monitor  bell  just  to 
the  left  of  the  press,  refuses  to  give  its  cheery 
signal  of  correctness.  It  is  then  a  very  easy 
matter  to  refer  back  to  the  schedule  stowed 
away  in  the  old  church  across  the  street,  and 
fill  up  the  deficiency  by  the  paradoxical  pro- 
cess of  making  a  hole.  Suppose  it  was  desired 
to  connect  up  the  machine  so  that  only  cards 
for  New  York  should  be  counted.  A  mis- 
sorted  card  belonging  to  Chicago  woulu  at 
once  be  rejected.  The  gang  punches  of  the 
two  cities  not  agreeing,  the  wrong  cards 
would  leave  the  circuit  open. 

That  all  of  a  batch  of  cards  purporting  to 
represent  some  one  class  are  properly  assort- 
ed, is  simply  ascertainable  by  passing  a  wire 
or  needle  through  the  holes  representing  the 
given  class.  This  could  evidently  not  be 
done  with  written  cards,  and  locating  a  mis- 
placed written  card  among  a  million  other 
cards  is  practically  impossible.  The  proba- 
bilities of  error  in  reality  narrow  themselves 
down  to  the  punching,  and  even  then  the 
only  errors  that  escape  detection  are  those  in 
which  the  information  given,  while  it  may 
not  furnish  the  exact  fact,  is  still  consistent 
with  the  other  facts  punched.  Even  these 
could  be  eliminated  by  comparison  or  check 
of  every  card.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  too, 
that  a  card  wrongly  punched  involves  only  the  possible  miscounting  of  a  single  unit,  whereas 
in  all  previous  methods  the  counting  up  on  sheets  has  involved  possible  miscount  at  each 
footing  up  of  a  column. 

In  the  compilation  of  census  statistics,  such  as  those  of  population,  mortality,  etc.,  or  the 
bulk  of  the  work  to  which  this  apparatus  has  heretofore  been  applied,  the  person  forms  that 
unit,  so  that  each  card  represents  simply  that  unit.  But  the  census  includes  agricultural,  manu- 
facturing and  similar  statistics,  and  it  is  evident  that  in  the  figuris  of  agriculture  or  manu- 
facture, while  a  card  might  represent  a  farm  or  a  factory  unit,  the  value  of  that  unit  might  vary 
greatly.  Thus  it  might  be  a  farm  of  100  acres  or  of  500,  and  we  would  thus  have  to  record 
amounts.  This  is  done  by  a  specially  constructed  machine  containing  a  cylinder  around  whose 
circumference  studs  are  set  ;  spring  contact  points  connected  to  the  mercury  cups  of  the 
press  ;  a  motor  for  revolving  the  cylinder,  and  a  device  for  starting  and  stopping  the 
motor  so  that  the  cylinder  will  make  one  revolution  for  each  card.  The  operation  can  be 
readily  understood.  A  card  being  put  in  the  press,  the  circuit  is  closed  through  a  given 
counter  to  the  battery,  to  the  cylinder  of  the  integrating  device,  from  one  of  the  nine  con- 
tact strips  of  the  integrator  through  the  corresponding  mercury  cup  uncovered  by  the  punched 
hole  of  the  card  through  the  plunger  of  the  pin  box  corresponding  to  that  hole,  and  back  to 
the  counter.  At  the  same  time,  when  the  handle  is  brought  down,  another  circuit  is  closed 


FIG.  7.— Method 


combination 


TELEGRAPH 


837 


through  the  magnet,  which  allows  the  train  to  revolve  the  cylinder  of  the  integrating  device 
one  revolution.  During  that  revolution  the  circuit  through  the  dial  counter  will  be  made 
and  broken  from  one  to  nine  times,  according  to  the  contact  strip  which  is  brought  into 
operation.  Any  number  of  counters  can  thus  be  operated  at  the  same  time,  they  being  con- 
nected in  multiple  arc.  The  registration  thus  secured  gives  totals  from  any  number  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  or  amounts,  and  the  device,  therefore,  answers  a  most  useful  purpose. 

Tank,  Glass  :  see  Glass-making. 

Tapering:  Machine  :  see  Molding  Machines,  Wood. 

Tapping"  Machine  :  see  Pipe-cutting  and  Nut-tapping  Machines. 

TELEGRAPH.  I.  OCEAN  TELEGRAPHY. — During  the  last  few  years  few  radical  innova- 
tions in  ocean  telegraphy  have  been  suggested,  while  practically  none  of  fundamental  im- 
portance have  been  introduced.  There  has,  however,  been  marked  improvement  in  details, 
and  many  valuable  refinements  have  added  to  the  speed  and  accuracy  of  working. 

A  Selenium  Cable  Recorder. — The  currents  employed  in  submarine  telegraphy  are  so  min- 
ute that  the  method  first  employed  in  receiving  messages  was  that  of  the  deflections  of  a  very 
delicate  mirror  galvanometer.  Later,  Sir  William  Thomson  introduced  his  siphon  recorder, 
which  leaves  a  permanent  record,  consisting  of  a  continuous  curve  of  varying  amplitude,  the 
reading  of  which,  however,  requires  considerable  practice.  With  the  idea  of  obviating  this 
difficulty,  Eugene  Baron,  of  Taund-Szyll,  Germany,  has  recently  devised  a  form  of  recorder 
in  which  the  record  is  considerably  simplified,  and  approaches  more  nearly  to  the  Morse 
characters.  Broadly  stated,  the  deflecting  coil  of  the  ordinary  siphon  recorder  is  made  to 
change  the  position  of  a  light  screen,  which,  moving  before  two  small  slits,  admits  light  to 
and  shuts  it  off  from  two  selenium  cells,  which  then  act  in  the  manner  described  below. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  show  the  details  of  the  apparatus.  The  box,  K,  Figs.  1 
and  2,  is  divided  into  two  compartments,  the  first  of  which  contains  the  electro-magnetic 
part  of  the  relay  and  the  selenium  cells.  This  disposition  is  not  essential,  however,  as  they 


*  I" 


FIG. 1. 


FIG.  2. 

Selenium  cable  recorder. 


FIG.  3. 


can  be  removed  to  any  desirable  place,  and  the  recording  apparatus  proper  need  only  be  in 
the  operating  room.  The  second  compartment  contains  a  bright  source  of  light,  such  as  an 
incandescent  lamp,  F,  Fig.  3.  The  dividing  wall  between  the  two,  T^,  has  two  slits,  through 
which  the  light  enters  when  permitted  to  by  the  screen,  V.  The  relay  consists,  as  stated 
above,  of  the  siphon  recorder  coil,  r,  placed  in  the  magnetic  field  of  the  magnets,  N  S,  and 
deflected  in  either  direction,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  currents  in  the  cable.  The 
coil  carries  a  downward  projection  in  the  shape  of  a  triangular  prism,  V,  Figs.  1  and  3. 
When  the  latter  is  in  its  central  position  it  covers  both  slits,  a^  and  «2,  and  prevents  the  light 
from  passing  either  one.  A  current  passing  through  the  coil  deflects  the  latter  correspond- 
ingly, and  with  it  the  triangular  screen,  which  then  permits  the  light  to  pass  in  the  same 
side,  as  shown,  in  the  direction.  F  J,  Fig.  3.  After  passing  the  slits,  the  light  is  concen- 
trated on  the  selenium  cells.  Z\  Z*,  by  the  lenses.  L,  L».  Fig.  2. 

Light  falling  on  the  cells  reduces  their  resistance,  as  is  well  known,  and  the  two  local  bat- 
teries being  in  circuit  with  the  cells,  Z\  Z^.  the  current  is  varied  accordingly.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  recording  apparatus  is  shown  diagrammatically  in  Fig.  2.  M\  and  M2  are  two  pow- 
erful horseshoe  magnets,  the  poles  of  like  name  being  diagonally  opposite  each  other.  Between 
the  poles  of  these  magnets  there  is  pivoted  a  bar  magnet,  A,  supported  by  the  spindle,  X. 
This  polarized  armature  can  be  regulated  to  a  central  position  by  the  springs,  /,  /2,  and  the 
coils,  u\  u-z,  of  very  fine  wire,  are  included  in  the  local  circuits.  The  poles,  n\  Si,  act,  the 
one  attractively,  the  other  repulsively,  upon  the  armature  ;  s2  n*  act  similarly.  A  small  dif- 
ference in  the  strength  of  these  four  poles  causes  a  deflection  of  the  armature.  It  is  apparent 
that  as  light  is  admitted  to  either  cells,  the  armature  will  be  deflected  in  one  direction  or  the 
other,  and  the  armature  can  be  made  to  record  these  movements,  either  directly  or  through 
the  medium  of  another  recording  apparatus,  by  the  closing  of  an  auxiliary  local  circuit. 

The   Cuttriss  Siplion    Vibrator  for   Ocean   Cables.— The    use  of    static  electricity  to 


838 


TELEGRAPH. 


vibrate  the  siphon,  with  the  object  of  preventing  friction  at  the  marking  point  of  Sip  William 
Thomson's  siphon  recorder,  has  always  been  the  one  defect  in  this  otherwise  most  perfect  and 
beautiful  instrument ;  for.  as  is  well-known,  in  damp  weather,  static  electricity  is  difficult 
to  produce  and  weli-nigh  impossible  to  control. 

The  invention  of  Mr.  C.  Cuttriss,  Fig.  4,  obviates  all  this  trouble  by  the  use  of  magnetism, 


FIG.  4.— Cuttriss  siphon  vibrator  for  ocean  cables. 

and  the  instrument  works  just  as  perfectly  be  the  weather  damp  or  dry.  The  siphon,  M,  is 
made  slightly  thicker  toward  the  point  ;  this  is  caused  by  a  small  particle  of  iron  wire,  No.  30 
or  32,  about  nj  or-^-  of  an  inch  in  length,  fastened  to  it  by  a  little  shellac  varnish.  The  mag- 
netic recording  table,  B,  opposite  the  point  of  the  siphon,  over  which  the  paper  slip  passes,  is 
made  partly  of  iron,  and  to  the  back  of  it  is  the  electro-magnet,  C.  The  principal  part  of 
the  invention  is  the  adjustable  vibrator  at  the  right  of  the  illustration.  The  glass  tube,  E, 
and  armature,  L  which  are  supported  by  the  steel  rod,  P,  are  vibrated  by  an  electro-magnet,  D. 
Continuous  vibration  is  maintained  by  means  of  the  battery,  Q,  and  the  contact  points,  F. 
The  upright  mercury  reservoir,  K,  has  a  regulating  screw,  6f,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  made 
to  act  as  a  plunger  ;*a  small  india-rubber  tube  connects  the  mercury  reservoir  with  the  glass 
tube,  E,  so  that  by  raising  or  depressing  the  plunger  the  mercury  can  be  forced  and  main- 
tained at  any  required  height  in  the  glass  tube,  and  by  this  means  its  rate  of  vibration  can 
be  changed  as  may  be  required.  When  a  siphon  is  attached  to  the  strained  wire,  X,  and  it 
has  become  filled  with  ink  from  the  ink  reservoir,  Y,  the  pmnger  is  manipulated  until  the 
siphon  attains  its  maximum  arc  of  vibration.  A  perfectly  steady  dotted  line  is  then  obtained, 
and  will  continue  without  any  other  regulation  so  long  as  it  remains  filled  with  ink. 

Transmissi'tn  of  Morse  Characters  on  Submarine  Cables. — Mr.  Patrick  B.  Delany  has 
perfected  an  invention  by  which  long  cables  may  be  operated  by  any  Morse  operator,  and  by 
which  the  received  characters  are  not  only  greatly  improved,  but  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
may  be  transmitted  greatly  increased.  When  the  key  is  pressed  down,  a  current  of  one  polar- 
ity is  sent.  If  it  is  immediately  lifted  up,  a  current  of  opposite  polarity  is  sent,  lasting  for 
the  short  time  between  the  downward  and  upward  movement,  forming  a  dot.  If  the  key  be 
held  down,  a  dash  is  formed,  not  by  the  passage  of  a  long  impulse,  but  because  the  opposite 
polarity  which  terminates  each  signal  is  deferred  until  the  key  is  lifted  up.  One  current  is 
the  beginning  of  all  signals,  the  other  is  the  ending  ;  the  time  between  the  beginning  and 
the  end  determines  whether  the  signal  is  a  dot  or  a  dash.  There  are  no  dashes  sent  into  the 
line,  but  all  currents  are  of  equal  duration  and  alternating  in  polarity. 

On  the  9th  and  16th  of  September,  1888,  Mr.  Delany's  transmitter  was  tried  over  the 
Anglo-American  cable  from  Duxbury,  Mass.,  to  St.  Pierre,  and  the  results  obtained  more 
than  confirmed  expectations.  The  cable  is  878  miles  in  length,  8,390  ohms  resistance,  and 
256  microfarads  capacity.  We  reproduce  in  Fig.  5  the  record  received  at  St.  Pierre  at  differ- 

ent  rates  of  speed,  varying  from 
13  to  34  wor(?s  Per  minute,  with 
accurate  timing  and  five  letters 
to  a  word.  During  the  same 
test,  Mr.  Delany  transmitted 
twenty  words  per  minute,  every 
letter  of  which  was  received  per- 
fectly at  St.  Pierre,  on  a  Morse 
sounder.  This  is  by  far  the 
longest  cable  circuit  ever  work- 
ed by  sound,  and  the  speed  of 
twenty  words  per  minute  on 
such  a  circuit  is  a  great  stride 
in  cable  telegraphy.  Mr.  Delany 
believes  that  he  can  increase  the 
speed  to  thirty  words  per  minute,  and  has  strong  hopes  of  working  the  main  Atlantic  cables 
by  sound  at  no  very  distant  day. 


FIG.  5.— Cable  transmission. 


TELEGRAPH.  839 


II.  MULTIPLEX  TELEGRAPHS. — The,  system  of  Mr.  Delany  is  based  upon  two  main  prin- 
ciples :  First,  that  of  synchronism,  or  the  simultaneous  motion  of  similar  pieces  of  apparatus 
at  two  different  places  ;  and,  secondly,  that  of  distributing  to  several  telegraphists  the  use  of 
a  wire  for  very  short  equal  periods  of  "time,  so  that  practically  each  telegraphist  has  the  line 
to  himself  during  these  periods. 

The  combination  of  these  principles  of  working  by  synchronism  and  multiplex  telegraphy 
on  the  same  wire  was  first  attempted  by  Moses  G.  Farmer  in  1853,  using  two  wires,  one  for 
maintaining  in  synchronism  the  distributors  which  put  four  operating  instruments  in  con- 
nection with  the 'others.  This  was  introduced  by  Meyer  in  1878  ;  it  was  improved  upon  by 
Paul  la  Cour  in  1878,  and  Baudot  in  1881;  synchronism  was  perfected  by  Delany  in  1882, 
and  the  system  completed  in  1884,  and  is  now  extensively  used  by  the  British  Postal  Tele- 
graph department,  where  it  has  reached  its  highest  development  under  direction  of  W.  H. 
Preece,  F.H.S.,  electrician-iu-chief. 

The  instruments  at  each  station  are  connected  to  identical  "distributors,"  consisting  of 
a  number  of  segments  arranged  in  a  circle  over  which  travels  an  arm.  If  each  segment  be 
divided  into  four  segments,  and  by  means  of  these  be  connected  with,  say,  four  instruments 
instead  of  with  only  one  of  them,  then  during  one  complete  rotation  each  arm  will  place  cor- 
responding instruments  in  communication  with  each  other  four  times.  Or  if  each  circle  be 
divided  into  40  segments,  and  each  of  these  into  four  segments,  then  corresponding  instruments 
will  be  in  communication  with  each  other  forty  times  during  each  complete  rotation  of  the 
arms.  In  the  British  post-office  apparatus  there  are  168  segments,  and  these  are  grouped 
differently,  according  to  the  number  of  ways  of  working.  Sextuplex  working  requires  one 
grouping,  quadruplex  another,  triplex  another,  and  so  on. 

Two  tuning  forks  pitched  to  absolutely  the  same  note,  and  set  in  vibration  by  currents 
like  an  electric  trembling  bell,  will  move  in  synchronism,  but  the  synchronism  can  not  be 
maintained.  The  deposition  of  dirt,  dust,  or  moisture,  changes  of  temperature,  variation  of 
current,  produce  changes  which  affect  the  rate  of  motion.  Paul  la  Cour,  of  Copenhagen, 
invented  an  ingenious  way  to  maintain  the  synchronism,  the  principle  of  wliich  has  been 
introduced  into  the  Delany  system.  A  simple  reed  is  now  used  as  the  means  of  keeping  the 
distributor  in  synchronous  motion.  The  electro-magnet  of  the  reed  is  wound  to  a  resistance 
of  30  ohms.  Its  local  circuit  includes  the  lever  and  lower  contact  of  a  relaying  sounder. 
The  correction  for  synchronism  of  the  two  revolving  arms  is  effected  by  causing  this  lever  to 
rise,  thus  breaking  the  circuit  of  the  reed  magnet  when  a  correcting  current  is  received. 

The  distributing  circle  is  divided  into  168  equal  spaces,  furnisned  with  segments  insulated 
from  each  other  ;  144  of  these  segments  are  connected  to  form  twelve  groups  for  telegraphing, 
the  remaining  spaces  being  fitted  with  segments  for  synchronizing  purposes.  Segments  1 
and  1,  2  and  2,  3  and  3,  am?  so  on,  are  electrically  connected  together  to  form  the  groups, 
and  each  group  of  twelve  segments  thus  arranged  is  connected  to  a  terminal  on  the  base  of 
the  distributor.  An  arm,  or  trailer,  passes  lightly  over  the  surface  and  moves  continuously 
round  the  circle,  coming  successively  in  contact  with  every  segment,  moving  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  that  of  the  hands  of  f&  watch.  It  is  electrically  connected  to  the  line  wire.  In 
every  rotation  it  makes  168  electrical  contacts,  144  of  which  are  for  telegraphing,  while  the 
others  are  for  maintaining  synchronism. 

The  function  of  the  trailer  is  to  place  the  line  wire  successively  in  connection  with  the 
segments  in  the  different  groups.  The  currents  of  electricity  that  flow  through  the  line  wire 
are  dependent  upon  the  operations  performed  upon  the  telegraphic  apparatus,  and  they  are 
broken  up  into  short  pulsations  or  impulses  by  the  momentary  contact  made  by  the  trailer. 
The  relay  is  of  the  standard  form,  but  it  is  much  larger  ;  its  cores  are  nearly  4  in.  long  by 
|  in.  in  diameter,  and  it  is  wound  to  a  resistance  of  1,200  ohms  with  copper  wire  y^o  in.  in 
diameter. 

Working  in  either  direction,  sextuplex  transmission  is  feasible  between  London  and 
Brighton,  London  and  Birmingham,  and  London  and  Bristol ;  but  quadruplex  is  the  limit  to 
Liverpool.  In  one  direction,  however,  to  Manchester,  even  six  circuits  have  been  operated  as 
an  experiment,  so  that  with  two  wires  twelve  circuits  might  possibly  be  worked,  six  in  each 
direction. 

The  Patten  Synchronous  Multiplex  Telegraph. — This  system  is  the  invention  of  Lieut.  F. 
J.  Patten,  U.  S.  A.,  and  depends  1'or  its  operation  upon  the  synchronous  and  uniform  move- 
ment of  two  or  more  electric  motors  placed  at  distant  points.  It  is  evident  that  an  ordinary 
Siemens  armature  in  a  two-pole  field  must  reverse  its  current  at  every  half  revolution.  If 
by  any  means  two  such  machines  be  caused  to  reverse  their  armature  currents  simulta- 
neously, they  would  necessarily  move  in  synchronism.  The  system  will  be  readily  understood 
from  the  illustration.  Fig.  6.  which  is  a  diagram  of  all  the  operative  circuits,  including  two 
terminal  stations.  In  the  two-line  system  a  single  synchronizing  line  is  used  for  controlling 
a  movement  of  electric  motors,  and  may  be  used  to  synchronize  the  motors  for  any  number 
of  lines  In  the  single-line  system  the  synchronizing' current  is  used  both  for  synchronizing 
and  telegraphing,  without  either  function  interfering  with  the  operation  of  the  other.  For 
the  sake  of  simplicity  the  two-line  system  is  selected  for  description. 

In  Fig.  6,  X  and  Y  represent  two  terminal  stations  of  a  telegraph  line.  The  synchroniz- 
ing line,  L  L.  extends  from  the  earth  £*  at  X  to  E4  at  Y,  reversing  the  polarized  relays,  P1 
and  P~,  at  these  stations.  At  any  intermediate  point  in  the  line,  whether  at  For  X,  of 
midvay  between,  is  placed  a  revolving  pole  changer,  the  function  of  which  is  to  constantly 
reverse  a  current  on  this  line  derived  from  the  synchronizing  battery,  9.  This  pole  changer 
is  driven  by  an  electric  motor  having  independent  field  and  armature  circuits,  by  which 


840 


TELEGRAPH. 


FIG.  6. — Patten  synchronous  multiplex  telegraph. 


means  its  speed  may  be  regulated  and  controlled  ;  it  is  shown  in  the  middle  of  the  Diagram. 
The  lamps,  11,  are  in  the  armature  ciicuit  in  multiple  arc,  and  by  turning  them  on  or  off, 
the  speed  of  the  pole  changer  may  be  varied,  the  field  remaining  of  uniform  intensity  excited 
by  the  battery,  10.  This  pole  changer  sends  rapidly  reversed  currents  continuously  to  line, 
and  maintains  the  polarized  relays  at  X  and  Fin  constant  and  rapid  vibration.  They  nec- 
essarily beat  in  syn- 
chronism, and  are  re- 
versed by  every  half 
revolution  of  the  con- 
trolling motor.  These 
alternations  set  the 
pace  of  as  many  ma- 
chines as  it  may  be  de- 
sired to  place  in  cir- 
cuit. Very  little  cur- 
rent is  used  for  this 
purpose,  the  battery 
line  on  a  one  hundred 
mile  circuit  having 
only  about  30  volt? 
potential.  The  cur- 
rent is  necessarily  very 
weak,  and  the  vibra- 
tion of  the  polarized 
relays  is  delicate  but 
constant. 

The  armatures  of 
these  polarized  relays 
drive  a  powerful  vi- 
brator in  the  same 
way  that  a  relay  ac- 
tuates a  sounder,  the  vibrator  being  placed  upon  a  local  circuit  of  low  tension,  vl  «8,  and 
this  is  given  sufficient  strength  and  a  suitable  form  to  both  rapidly  reverse  and  convey 
the  heavy  currents  of  the  motor  armatures.  These  vibrators  are  shown  at  v-  in  the  diagram, 
which  is  sufficiently  clear  to  explain  their  operative  parts.  The  polarized  relay,  as  it  vibrates 
to  and  fro,  places  alternately  one  side  and  the  other  of  the  vibrator  in  circuit,  and  its  arma- 
ture is  rapidly  and  strongly  pulled  first  against  one  contact  point  and  then  the  other. 

It  being  now  understood  how  the  regulator  at  some  intermediate  station  keeps  the  polar- 
ized relays  in  unison  movement,  and  they  in  turn  maintain  the  local  vibrators  in  correspond- 
ing unison  movement,  it  will  be  explained  how  this  system  of  devices  maintains  the  motors 
at  distant  stations  in  synchronous  rotation.  The  motors  are  shown  at  JTand  Fby  diagram 
circuits,  Ml  and  M  '2:  the  fields,  NS,  are  constantly  and  separately  excited  by  the  batteries,  P1 
and  P2,  while  the  armatures  receive  their  current  alternately  in  opposite  direction  from  the 
batteries,  ra1  m3,  at  X,  and  m?  m*  at  Y,  as  the  vibrator  armatures  move  to  and  fro. 

The  motor  armatures  are  of  peculiar  construction,  and  will  continue  in  rotation  when 
supplied  with  a  current  of  rapidly  reversed  direction,  the  connections  being  such  that  a  con- 
stant polarity  of  the  armature  is  maintained  with  reversed  currents,  provided  the  armature 
turns  through  a  certain  arc  of  the  circumference  at  each  reversal  of  the  current.  As  the 
system  is  now  used,  they  are  so  connected  that  they  move  one-fourth  of  the  revolution  at  each 
reversal  of  current.  The  synchro- 
nism is  thus  corrected  automatic- 
ally four  times  in  each  revolution; 
it  may  be  made  eight  or  twelve, 
or  more,  if  desired.  The  spindles 
of  the  armature  have  secured  to 
them  revolving  trailer  arms  carrying 
brushes  which  sweep  over  the  seg- 
mental  distributors,  s1  and  s2.  They 
are  shown  flat  in  the  diagram,  for 
clearness,  but  are  evidently  at  right 
angles  to  the  spindles,  which  in 
practice  are  vertical,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  7,  which  represents  the  machine 
in  perspective. 

The  telegraph  line  extends  also 
from  earth,  El  at  X,  to  E'2  at  Y,  one 
set  of  instruments  being  shown  in 
detail   at  each  end.      The    circuit 
may  be  traced  as  follows,  the  oper- 
ator at  Jf  being  supposed  to  be  send- 
ing, and  the  operator  at  Y  receiving  :  From  earth,  El,  through  the  line  battery  positive  to 
line,  transmitter  contact,  tl,  switch,  d\  segment  No.  1  of  the  distributor,  and  through  the 
trailing  brush  to  the  large  segment  of  the  distributor,  to  which  the  line  is  connected  at  X; 


FIG.  7. — Distributor  motor. 


TELEGRAPH. 


841 


thence  over  the  telegraph  line,  T  L,  to  the  distributor  parts  at  F,  out  through  the  switch, 
d-,  transmitter  back  contact,  receiving  relay  R\  and  completing  the  circuit  at  E*. 

The  speed  is  so  regulated  in  practice  as  to  give  each  instrument,  when  its  circuit  is  closed, 
30  contacts  with  the  line  per  second,  which,  admitting  four  contacts  per  revolution,  would 
mean  an  average  speed  of  7i  revolutions  per  second,  or  450  per  minute.  But  as  the  dis- 
tributor motors  (Fig.  7)  move  at  half  the  speed  of  the  controlling  motor  in  the  middle  of  the 
line,  this  one,  which  carries  the  pole  changer,  is  driven  at  about  900  revolutions  per  minute, 
producing  therefore  1,800  reversals  of  current  per  minute  on  the  synchronizing  line,  and 
a  corresponding  number  of  vibrations  of  the  polarized  relay  armatures.  But  as  four  of 
these  are  required  to  produce  a  single  revolution  in  the  armatures  in  the  distributor  motors, 
their  speed  is  brought  to  about  450,  as  stated. 

The  Field  Sextuplex  Telegraph. — An  ingenious  improvement  in  multiplex  telegraphs 
is  that  of  Mr.  S.  D.  Field,  operating  as  a  sextuplex.  Three  different  qualities  of  cur- 
rent are  employed,  viz. :  a  direct  current  of  increasing  and  decreasing  strength,  operating 
a  neutral  relay  ;  a  reverse  current,  operating  a  polarized  relay  ;  and  a  rapid  vibratory  cur- 
rent, which  sets  a  telephonic  diaphragm  in  rapid  vibration.  These  three  currents  acting 
upon  corresponding  receiving  instruments,  do  not  interfere  with  each  other,  as  will  be  shown 
below  ;  and  as  each  one  type  of  working  is  duplexed  by  the  well-known  compensating 
method,  the  line  is  evidently  capable  of  transmitting  three  messages  in  either  direction,  or 
six  simultaneously. 

The  arrangement  of  circuits  and  apparatus  by  which  these  results  are  effected  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  diagram,  Fig.  8.  Both  the  main  line  and  locals  derive  current  from  a 
dynamo.  The  latter  is  shown  at  F,  and  the  armature,  as  will  be  seen,  is  provided  with  two 
independent  sets  of  windings,  which  deliver  current  respectively  to  the  commutators,  E  and 

D.  The  local  currents  are  taken  off  the  commutator,  E,  the  circuit  connecting  with  the  three 
local  transmitters,  1, 2,  and  3,  ^^ 
which  are  manipulated  in  the 

ordinary  way  by  the  keys,  K±, 
-ZT-,  Kz.  The  main  current  is 
taken  from  the  armature  from 
the  commutator,  D,  this  cur- 
rent serving  to  actuate  the 
neutral  and  polarized  relays, 
which  are  shown  diagrammat- 
ically  at  2  and  1'  respectively. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
dynamo,  F,  is  shunt-wound. 
Its  armature  is  of  150  ohms 
resistance,  and  it  has  an 

E.  M.  F.  of  300  volts  at  500 
revolutions.     The   shunt  coil 
is  divided  so  as  to  give  a  long 
and  a  short  shuntat  the  points, 

G,  If,  depending  upon  whether  the  transmitter  2  be  closed  or  open.  The  resistance  of  the 
short  shunt  is  540  ohms,  and  that  of  the  long  shunt  is  6,000  ohms.  Hence  it  follows  that  by 
pressing  R-,  the  armature  of  transmitter  2  is  attracted  to  the  front  stop,  and  short -circuits 
the  long  shunt  of  the  dynamo.  This,  of  course,  causes  an  increase  of  current  in  the  short 
shunt,  the  strength  of  the  field  magnets  remaining  constant ;  and  hence  there  ensues  a  de- 
creased effect  in  the  line  current,  and  it  is  upon  this  increase  and  decrease  of  the  direct  cur- 
rent that  the  neutral  relay  ~  operates. 

Transmitter  1  operates  a  pole  changer,  by  which  reverse  or  alternate  currents  are  sent  over 
the  line,  which  actuate  the  polarized  relay  shown  diagrammatically  at  1'.  The  pole  changer 
is  so  adjusted  as  to  be  continuity-preserving  as  regards  the  line,  but  with  a  very  slight 
break  to\vard  the  dynamo. 

It  is  evident  that  the  continuous  current  designed  to  operate  the  neutral  relay  has  no  effect 
upon  the  polarized  relay  ;  but  the  reverse  currents  designed  for 
the  latter  would  affect  the  neutral  relay  if  some  provision  were 
not  made  to  prevent  this  disturbance.  This  has  been  recognized 
by  Mr.  Field,  and  he  overcomes  the  difficulty  in  a  very  simple 
manner. 

The  neutral  relay  2  is  shown  in  part  perspective  in  Fig.  9.  To 
understand  its  operation,  we  will  premise  that  when  ordinary 
reverse  currents  are  sent  through  a  neutral  relay  the  armature 
is  kept  in  a  state  of  vibration,  breaking  contact  momentarily  at 
each  reversal,  but  being  immediately  re-attracted.  With  the 
arrangement  of  the  neutral  relay  shown  in  Fig.  9,  the  reverse 
current  has  no  effect  on  the  armature.  This  result  is  obtained  by 
taking  advantage  of  the  induced  currents  generated  by  the  re- 
versals. As  will  be  seen,  the  core  of  the  relay  is  lengthened, 
and  has  a  bobbin,  B,  surrounding  it.  The  latter  is  connected  to 
another  small  bobbin,  0,  surrounding  a  core,  H,  which  is  placed 
opposite  a  small  cylinder  of  iron,  E,  acting  as  an  armature  and  attached  to  the  lever  of 
the  relay.  The  reversal  of  current  in  the  relay  bobbin  causes  a  change  of  polarity  in  the 


FIG.  8.— The  Field  sextuplex  telegraph. 


FIG.  9. — Xeutral  relay. 


842 


TELEGRAPH. 


core,  and  the  tendency  is  to  momentarily  throw  off  the  armature  ;  but  at  the  same  instant 
of  the  reversal  of  polarity  an  induced  current  is  set  up  in  the  bobbin,  B,  which  is  in  opposite 
direction  to  the  primary,  and  which,  in  circulating  through  G,  tends  always  to  magnetize  the 
core,  H,  oppositely  to  that  of  the  main  core,  and  hence,  with  a  corresponding  influence  upon 
the  small  armature,  K.  The  result  of  this  is,  evidently,  that  with  two  opposite  influences  act- 
ing upon  the  lever,  it  will  remain  stationary  and  insensible  to  the  effects  of  the  reverse  currents. 
We  come  now  to  the  third  and  last  method  employed  in  transmission,  which  consists  in 
sending  a  rapidly  vibrating  current  over  the  line,  which  is  made  to  set  a  telephonic  dia- 
phragm in  vibration. 

The  source  of  the  vibratory  current  is  the  small  dynamo  shown  at  A .  From  the  arrange- 
ment of  circuits,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  commutator*  B,  cuts  the  line  coils  of  the  vibratory 
magneto,  that  is,  the  outer  ring  of  magnets,  out  of  circuit,  except  at  the  instant  of  passage 
of  the  poles,  and  thus  reduces  the  resistance  of  the  circuit  from  160  to  5  ohms,  which  changes 

evidently  occur  in  continuous  rapid  succession,  sending  a 
vibratory  current  over  the  line.  These  currents  charge  the 
condenser,  0*,  at  the  distant  station,  which  tends  to  increase 
their  abruptness,  and  thence  pass  into  the  vibratory  re- 
ceiver or  relay  «?'.  The  latter  is  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  10. 
It  consists  of  a  horseshoe  magnet,  M,  upon  which  are 
mounted  the  coils,  F,  through  which  the  vibratory  currents 
from  the  line  are  made  to  pass.  Opposite  the  poles  of  the 
magnet  is  placed  the  diaphragm,  1),  which  has  a  platinum 
pin,  C,  mounted  on  its  center.  Besting  upon  this  pin  is  an- 
other, B,  which  is  attached  to  the  end  of  a  lever,  which, 
together  with  the  diaphragm,  D,  is  in  circuit  with  a  sounder, 
8.  A  local  battery  is  here  shown  in  circuit  merely  for  the 
sake  of  clearness,  the  current  being  in  reality  taken  from 
the  local  leads  of  the  dynamo. 

Now,  when  the  key,  K3,  is  open,  the  armature  of  the 
transmitter,  3,  is  on  its  back  stop,  and  closes  a  circuit  in- 
cluding a  40-ohm  resistance,  so  that  the  current  from  the 
vibratory  generator  is  short-circuited  and  does  not  go  out 
over  the  line.  When  the  key,  K3,  is  depressed,  however,  the 
armature  of  3  is  attracted,  breaks  the  short  circuit,  and  the 
FIG.  10.— Condenser.  vibratory  currents  then  pass  out  to  the  line.  Arriving  at 

the  receiver,  shown  at  3,  Fig.  8,  they  set  the  diaphragm,  D,  in 

rapid  vibration,  so  that  the  pins,  B  and  (7,  are  given  a  rapid  make-and-break  motion  ;  in  fact, 
so  rapid  is  the  motion  and  so  short  a  time  are  the  pins  in  contact,  that  the  local  circuit  is 
practically  open,  and  the  sounder  has  not  time  to  act,  being  purposely  made  sluggish  in  its 
movements  ;  the  local  circuit  remains  open,  then,  as  long  as  the  key,  K3,  is  depressed.  The 
dots  and  dashes  of  the  key  are  therefore  received  on  the  vibratory  receiver  as  a  series  of 
"  buzzes,"  which  are  transformed  in  the  manner  described  into  dots  and  dashes  on  the  local 
sounder,  S.  Both  the  relays  as  well  as  the  vibratory  receiver  are  wound  differentially,  as  in 
the  ordinary  duplex  service. 

The  Edison  Phonoplex. — The  ordinary  duplexing  of  a  wire,  which  increases  facilities 
between  terminal  points  only,  has  been  largely  applied,  but  until  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Edison 
devised  this  new  method  of  transmission  no  means  were  available  by  which  the  capacity  of 
intermediate  offices  on  a  single  Morse  circuit  could  be  increased.  Through  the  use  of  the 
phonoplex  system  extra  circuits  are  provided,  by  means  of  which 
more  than  double  the  amount  of  service  may  be  derived  from  a 
single  wire  than  is  at  present  obtained,  while  its  extreme  sim- 
plicity of  detail  and  adjustment  places  it  within  the  easy  control 
of  ordinary  operators. 

The  principle  upon  which  the  system  is  operated  is  induction. 
The  instruments  employed  for  signalling  respond  only  to  in- 
duced currents  thrown  upon  the  line  by  transmitting  devices, 
which  currents  interfere  m  no  way  with  Morse  instruments  in 
the  same  circuit,  being  made  to  pass  around  them  through  con- 
densers, while  Morse  waves  in  turn  have  no  perceptible  effect 
upon  the  phonoplex  apparatus  ;  thus,  two  or  more  independent 
circuits  may  be  provided  on  a  single  wire,  as  will  be  more  fully 
explained  hereafter. 

The  apparatus  for  the  equipment  of  an  office  consists  of  a 
key,  transmitter,  magnetic  coil,  small  resistance  box,  and  the 

phone,  which  last  responds  to  incoming  signals,  two  condensers,  

battery ;  and  the  whole  is  arranged  to  occupy  no  more  space  than  FIG.  11.— The  phone, 

ordinary  Morse  instruments.     Fig.  11  represents  the  phone.     A 

hollow  column  of  brass  resting  upon  a  wooden  base  encloses  the  magnets.  At  the  lower  end 
is  a  rack  and  pinion  by  which  these  can  be  adjusted  with  reference  to  the  diaphragm.  To 
the  center  of  the  latter  there  is  attached  a  sorew-threaded  pin  with  thumb-nut  and  binder  at 
the  top,  and  encircling  the  pin  loosely  is  a  split-hardened  steel  ring  which  rests  upon  the  dia- 
phragm. When  the  latter  is  snapped  by  the  attraction  of  the  momentary  current  in  the  mag- 
net, it  throws  the  ring  violently  against  the  stop  nuts  and  produces  a  sharp,  loud  click, 


TELEGRAPH. 


843 


FIG.  12. — The  transmitter. 


The  steel  ring;  has  a  pin  projecting  from  its  side  that  passes  between  two  prongs,  which, 

while  permitting  free   up  and  down   motion, 

prevents  the  ring  from  turning  and  altering  the 

sound.     Over  the  top  of  the  phone  there  is 

clamped  a  thin  brass  plate  as  a  protection  for 

the  projecting  screw. 

The  transmitter,  Fig.  12,  is  interposed  be- 
tween the  key  and  the  magnetic  coil.  The 
former  operates  the  magnet  of  the  transmitter 
the  object  of  which  is  to  send  uniform  currents 
to  the  line,  and  also  to  short-circuit  the  phone, 
each  time  the  coil  battery  circuit  is  broken, 
and  thus  obviate  the  annoyance  which  would 
otherwise  be  caused  by  the  violent  discharge 
close  to  the  diaphragm. 

In  a  small  magnet.  Fig.  13,  is  stored  the  en- 
ergy which  is  exerted  on  the  line  for  the 

purpose  of  operating  the  phones.  As  it  is  necessary  to  produce  an  instantaneous  dis- 
charge, a  condenser 'is  connected  around  the  points  of 
the  transmitter,  which  makes  and  breaks  the  circuit 
around  the  coil. 

The  key,  Fig.  14,  is  so  constructed  that  when  the 
lever  is  "opened,"  or  thrown  to  the  right,  it  closes  the 
circuit  around  the  magnetic  coil  through  the  points  of  the 
transmitter,  and 

FIG.  13.— Magnetic  coil.  when  "closed," 

or  thrown  to  the 

left,  it  opens  this  battery  and  at  the  same  time 
short-circuits  the  magnetic  coil.  The  necessity 
for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  an  open-circuit  electro- 
poion  battery  of  low  resistance  is  employed,  which 
it  is  desirable  to  use  only  when  occasion  requires 
the  transmission  of  signals,  and  also  that  the  re- 
sistance of  the  coil  has  an  audible  effect  in  the 
phone  when  it  remains  in  the  line  to  retard  incom- 
ing currents. 

Thus,  while  the  manipulation  of  the  key  accom- 
plishes all  the  objects  it  is  desirable  to  attain,  it 
introduces  no  innovation,  as  the  same  movements  to 

which   operators  are  accustomed  are   maintained — "opening"   for   the  transmission   and 
"closing"  for  the  reception  of  business. 

A  small  resistance  box,  Fig.  15,  is  interpolated  in 

through  the  magnetic  coil  is  broken  on  the  up  stroke  it  passes  through  the  spools, 
to  produce  an  audible  distinction  between  the  up  and 
down  movement  as  manifested  in  the  phone,  the  former 

being  lighter  than 
the  latter,  so  as  to 
prevent  confusion 
that  otherwise  would 
be  occasioned  by 
operators  getting  the 
"back-stroke." 

The  diagram. 
Fig.    16,   shows    all 


FIG.  14.— The  key. 


a  way  that  when  the  current 
This  is 


FIG.  15. — Resistance  box. 


FIG.  16. — Phonoplex  transmission. 


the  instruments  in  place.    All  Morse  keys  and  relays  within  the  limits  of  a  phonoplex  circuit 

are  bridged,  as  represented,  by 

a  condenser,    through   which 

pass  the  induced  currents  that 

operate  the   phones.     It  will 

be  readily  seen  that  the  main 

line,    which    passes    through 

the  magnetic  coil  and  through 

the  phone,  is  never  broken, 

the  former  being  charged  and 

discharged  by   means   of   an 

extra  circuit  around  it  through 

its  key  and  the  points  of  the 

transmitter. 

The  Cassagnes-Jfi chela 
Steno-  Telegraph .  —  Among 
the  various  methods  of  in- 
creasing the  number  of  words 
which  can  be  transmitted  over  FIG.  ir.— Stenographic  system. 


844 


TELEGRAPH. 


FIG.  18.— Steno  printer. 


a  telegraph  line,  is  that  in  which  stenography  is  called  into  play,  invented  by  Michela  and 

perfected  by  (  assagnes. 
The  stenographic  system 
employed  subdivides  words 
into  their  phonetic  ele- 
ments, which  are  repre- 
sented graphically  by  vari- 
ous combinations  of  a  very 
small  number  of  different 
signs.  The  apparatus  con- 
sists  of  a  key-board  at  one 
end  of  the  line  and  at  the 
other  a  series  of  type 
levers,  upon  which  the 
various  stenographic  char- 
acters are  carried.  By 
pressing  a  key  at  the  send- 
ing end,  the  corresponding 
lever  is  raised  at  the  re- 
ceiving end,  and  the  char- 
acters are  printed  upon  a 
roll  of  paper  which  ad- 
vances a  step  after  each  imprint  of  one  or  more  signs,  according  to  the  number  of  keys  de- 
pressed at  a  time.  The  method  employed  being  a  phonetic  one,  it  is  applicable  to  any  language. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  receiving 
station  is  shown  in  Fig.  17.  Each  sector  D'  of 
the  phonic  wheel  is  connected  with  one  of  the 
polarized  relays  Ra,  JR4,  etc.,  which  close  the 
circuits  of  the  electro-magnets  e  e  e  through  bat- 
tery P3'.  The  printer  P  in  Fig.  17  is  shown  in 
perspective  in  Fig.  18,  and  consists  of  20  printing 
levers  which  carry  the  stenographic  signs.  As 
each  electro-magnet  is  energized  it  attracts  its 
hinged  armature  from  below  and  pushes  up  its 
printing  lever.  At  the  transmitting  station  the 
20  keys  on  the  board  are  connected  to  the  sectors 
of  the  phonic  wheel  corresponding  to  those  of 
the  receiving  station,  so  that  the  pressing  of  a 
key  causes  the  corresponding  sign  to  be  printed. 
The  polarized  relay  is  shown  in  Fig.  19. 

A  stenographic  line  corresponds  to  the  de- 
pression of  not  more  than  12  keys.  The  last  of 
the  relays  is  not  connected  to  a  printing  electro, 
but  to  the  electro-magnet  MM,  Fig.  18.  The 
movement  of  the  armature  of  the  latter  effects  FIG.  19.— Relay, 

the  movement  of  the  roll  of  paper,  so  that  after 

every  revolution  of  the  phonic  wheel  the  paper  is  advanced  a  step,  on  receiving  its  imprint 
of  signs.  After  each  movement  the  instrument  is  in  condition  to  receive  another  impression. 
III.  AUTOGRAPHIC  TELEGRAPHS. — The  Gray  Telautograph. — This  apparatus,  invented  by 
Prof.  Elisha  Gray,  of  Chicago,  consists  primarily  of  two  instruments,  a  receiver  and  transmit- 
ter, each  provided  with  a  pen.  The  transmitting  pen  is  connected  to  operate  circuit  making 
and  breaking  devices,  termed  "  interrupters."  located  in  two  electric  circuits  and  arranged 
to  interrupt  the  currents  passing  over  the  respective  circuits  at  short  intervals,  producing 
current  pulsations  as  the  pen  is  moved  in  two  directions  crosswise  of  each  other  in  forming 
characters,  the  number  of  pulsations  in  the  respective  circuits  being  determined  by  the  dis- 
tance which  the  pen  is  moved  in  the  respective  directions.  These  two  circuits  pass  through 
the  receiver  and  include  two  pairs  of  "receiving  magnets,"  the  armatures  of  which  act  to 
impart  a  step-by-step  movement  to  the  receiving  pen  in  two  directions  crosswise  of  each 
other,  the  number  of  steps  in  each  direction  being  determined  by  the  number  of  times  the 
respective  circuits  are  interrupted.  By  this  means  the  movements  of  the  transmitting  pen 
in  the  two  directions  operate  through  the  interruptions  in  the  currents  passing  over  the  cir- 
cuits to  impart  corresponding  movements  to  the  receiving  pen,  and  thus  reproduce  the 
matter  written  by  the  operator. 

The  accompanying  illustrations,  Figs.  20  and  21,  show  respectively  a  general  plan  of  the 
transmitter  and  receiver.  The  transmitting  pen,  A,  is  connected  at  its  point  to  two  cords  or 
other  flexible  connections,  F  G,  which  extend  horizontally  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and 
operate  the  two  circuit  making  and  breaking  devices,  B  C,  termed  the  "interrupters," 
located  in  the  two  main  circuits,  connected  to  B  and  G.  The  arrangement  is  such  that  as 
the  pen.  A,  is  moved  from  left  to  right  and  vice  versa,  the  circuit  of  B  is  made  and  broken 
repeatedly  in  quick  succession,  producing  pulsations  therein,  varying  in  number  with  the 
linear  extent  of  the  movement  of  the  pen,  and  varying  in  speed  of  succession  with  the 
rapidity  of  such  movement  ;  while,  as  the  pen  is  moved  up  and  down  in  forming  the  charac- 
ters, the  circuit  of  £7  is  interrupted  and  pulsations  produced  therein  in  the  same  manner. 


TELEGRAPH. 


845 


The  two  interrupters,  B  (7,  are  exactly  similar  in  construction.  Each  of  the  cords,  FG,  is 
wound  upon  a  small  drum  upon  a  shaft  to  which  one  wire  of  the  circuit  is  connected.  The 
shaft  is  provided  with  an  arm,  the  end  of  which  carries  a  brush  which  sweeps  in  contact  with 
the  face  of  a  metallic  disk,  to  which  the  other  wire  of  the  circuit  is  connected.  The  face 
of  the  disk  over  which  the  brush  sweeps  is  provided  with  insulating  strips,  so  that  as  the 
brush  sweeps  over  the  face  of  the  disk  in  either  direction  the  current  passing  over  the  circuit 
in  which  the  brush  and  disk  are  located  will  be  made  and  broken  repeatedly  in  quick  suc- 


PIG.  20. 


Gray  telautograph. 


FIG.  21. 


cession.  Each  of  the  shafts  is  also  provided  with  a  second  cord,  which  is  wound  upon  the 
shaft  in  the  direction  the  reverse  of  the  cords,  F  G,  and  is  connected  to  a  spring  which  keeps 
the  cords,  F  and  G,  taut  at  all  times.  Each  of  the  cords  passes  between  guides  located 
between  the  pen  and  the  shafts,  and  the  cords  are  provided  with  stops  wliich  engage  with 
the  guides  and  arrest  the  cords  and  limit  the  movement  given  to  the  shafts  and  brushes. 

The  transmitting  instrument  is  also  provided  with  two  local  circuits,  which  include  local 
batteries  and  a  pair  of  pole  changers,  D  E,  which  are  located,  respectively,  in  the  main  cir- 
cuits of  B  and  O,  and  wliich  act  to  automatically  change  the  polarity  of  the  currents  passing 
over  the  respective  circuits  whenever  the  movement  of  the  transmitting  pen  in  either  direc- 
tion is  reversed. 

The  pole  changers,  D  E,  are  connected  to  the  two  poles  of  the  main  batteries,  and  to  the 
two  wires  of  the  respective  main  circuits,  in  the  usual  manner.  For  the  purpose  of  operating 
the  pole-changers,  the  cords,  F  Cr,  pass  around  pulleys,  P  P,  mounted  upon  shafts,  which 
operate  circuit  makers  and  breakers,  included  in  the  respective  local  circuits.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  shafts  are  provided  with  arms,  which  are  frictionally  connected  to  the  shafts,  and 
have  a  limited  movement  between  fixed  stops.  The  arms,  and  one  of  the  stops  of  each  arm, 
are  included  in  the  respective  local  circuits,  so  that  the  rocking  of  the  arms  between  their 
stops  operates  to  make  and  break  the  local  circuits,  and  thus  operate  the  pole  changers,  D  E, 
to  change  the  polarity  of  the  currents  passing  over  the  main  circuits  of  B  and  C  at  each  vibra- 
tion of  the  arms. 

It  will  now  be  readily  understood  that,  as  the  pen  makes  the  down  strokes  in  forming  the 
characters,  the  cord,  F,  will  be  unwound  from  the  shaft  of  the  interrupter,  C,  revolving  the 
shaft,  and  moving  the  brush  over  the  disk,  and  interrupting  the  current  over  that  circuit 
repeatedly  and  in  quick  succession,  the  number  and  rapidity  of  the  interruptions  being  deter- 
mined by  the  speed  and  extent  of  the  movement  of  the  pen. 

As  the  pen  makes  the  upstrokes,  the  spring  will  rewind  the  cord,  F,  and  move  the  brush 
in  the  reverse  direction,  interrupting  the  current  in  the  same  manner.  It  will  also  be  under- 
stood that,  as  the  pen  moves  upward,  the  cord,  passing  around  the  pulley,  P,  will  close  the 
local  circuit  of  the  pole  changer,  E,  and  send  currents  of  one  polarity  over  the  line  to  C;  and, 
as  the  pen  moves  downward,  the  pulley  will  open  the  circuit  of  the  same  pole  changer,  so  as 
to  send  currents  of  opposite  polarity  over  the  same  line. 

What  has  just  been  said  with  regard  to  the  C  circuit  also  applies  to  the  circuit  of  B  when 
the  pen  is  removed  from  right  to  left,  the  pole  changer,  D,  being  then  operated  by  the  lower 
pulley  and  arm,  B,  so  as  to  change  the  polarity  of  the  current,  according  as  the  motion  is 
from  left  to  right,  or  vice  versa. 

We  now  come  to  the  operation  of  the  receiving  instrument,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  21. 
This  consists  of  a  pen,  connected  by  means  of  a  tube  with  a  supply  of  ink,  shown  at  the 
right,  adjoining  the  upper  receiving  magnets.  The  pen  is  connected  to  two  rods,  which  are 
placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  similar  to  the  cords  in  the  transmitter,  and  are  jointed, 
so  as  to  have  a  free  movement  sidewise.  One  of  these  rods  passes  through  the  frame  carry- 
ing the  magnets,  H II,  which  are  included  in  the  circuit  of  the  interrupter,  C,  of  the  trans- 


846 


TELEGRAPH. 


mitter.  and  are  provided  with  armatures,  which  act  upon  the  rod  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
impart  a  step  by- step  movement  to  it  in  opposite  directions,  according  as  one  or  the  other  of 
the  magnets  is  energized.  The  rod  and  the  magnets,  H  H ' ,  and  their  armatures,  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  rod  passes  between  the  adjacent  ends  of  the  two  parts  of  each  armature  in 
such  a  manner  that,  when  the  two  parts  of  either  armature  are  moved  toward  each  other, 
they  will  act  first  to  grip  the  rod  between  them,  and  being  then  moved  toward  the  magnet, 
they  will  carry  the  rod  with  them,  and  impart  a  corresponding  movement  to  the  pen,  O. 

In  connection  with  the  magnets,  HE,  there  is  a  polarized  relay,  /,  which  is  so  arranged 
that  when  its  armature  is  on  one  contact,  due  to  a  current  coming  over  the  line  in  a  certain 
direction,  it  sends  that  current  into  the  lower  magnets,  HH  ;  but  when  a  current  of  opposite 
polarity  comes  over  the  line,  it  is  carried  to  the  other  stop,  and  the  current  is  sent  into  the 
upper  magnets,  the  lower  magnets  being  then  short-circuited. 

Now,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  when  the  pen,  A,  at  the  transmitting  station  is  moved 
upward,  it  sends  current  pulsations  of  one  direction  over  the  line.  These  are  received  by  the 
relay,  /,  and  sent  into  the  lower  magnets,  H  H,  which  act,  as  described  above,  to  grip  and 
raise  the  rod  to  correspond  exactly  with  the  number  of  pulsations,  which,  of  course,  are  deter- 
mined by  the  amount  of  movement  given  to  the  transmitting  pen,  A.  When  the  latter  is 
moved  downward,  the  current  impulses  are  sent  in  similar  way  into  the  upper  magnets,  which 
grip  and  lower  the  rod  in  an  analogous  manner  at  each  pulsation.  The  identical  action 
also  takes  place  with  the  current  transmitted  over  the  main  line,  connected  to  the  inter- 
rupter, B,  the  current  passing  into  the  relay,  /,  and  magnets,  K  K,  which  act  upon  the  rod 
at  right  angles  to  the  first  to  move  the  pen  sidewise  in  either  direction. 

From  this  it  follows  that  any  movement  of  the  transmitting  pen  in  any  direction  oblique 
to  the  line,  or  intermediate  between  these  two  directions,  will  cause  the  receiving  pen  to  move 
in  a  corresponding  direction,  but  with  a  compound  movement  made  up  of  a  number  of  steps 
taken  at  right  angles  to  or  crosswise  of  each  other,  the  relative  number  of  steps  in  each  direc- 
tion depending  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  direction  in  which  the  transmitting  pen  is  moved. 
By  this  means  the  receiving  pen  is  caused  to  substantially  follow  any  movement  of  the  trans- 
mitting pen,  and  thus  reproduce  a  fac-simile  of  whatever  is  written  or  traced  by  the  latter. 
The  Writing  Telegraph. — This  is  the  latest  and  most  perfect  form  of  the  Cowper  telegraph, 
and  is  being  used  in  this  country  by  the  Writing  Telegraph 
Co.  with  many  radical  improvements.  The  system  consisted 
in  the  use  of  a  transmitter,  which  served  to  vary  the  current 
on  two  lines  connected  to  the  receiver.  The  latter  consisted 
of  a  pair  of  electro- magnets  placed  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  and  acted  upon  an  armature  which  followed  exactly  the 
movements  of  a  stylus  in  the  transmitter  ;  this  stylus  served 
to  vary  the  currents  on  She  connecting  lines  by  cutting  in  or 
out  a  set  of  resistances. 

The  transmitter,  which  fully  meets  all  the  requirements  for 
electric  writing,  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Harry  Etheridge. 
This  part  of  the  apparatus,  which  is  shown  in  perspective  in 
Fig.  2'2,  consists  of  a  top  plate,  which  rests  on  the  top  of  the 
case.  A  rod  depends  from  this  plate  and  supports  the  base. 
Secured  to  this  base,  and  arranged  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  are  two  receptacles,  in  which  two  series  of  steel  spring 
tongues,  S  S,  are  separately  held  in  a  vertical  position  by  an 
insulating  cement. 

The  spring  tongues  are  placed  in  line  with  each  other,  edge 
to  edge,  with  a  sufficient  space  between  them  to  avoid  con- 
tact. They  are  also  hardened  and  tempered  so  as  to  readily 
return  to  their  normal  position  after  pressure  on  them  is  re- 
leased. To  the  lower  end  of  these  tongues  a  series  of  resist- 
ances, R,  are  secured,  while  their  upper  ends  are  provided  with 
platinum  contacts. 

Supported  from  each  holder  by  two  spring  strips,  which  are  insulated,  is  a  brass  contact 
bar,  B,  having  its  side  next  to  the  steel  tongues 
and  arranged  at  an  angle  thereto.  These  two  con- 
tact bars  are  each  provided  with  a  platinum  wire 
placed  opposite  the  platinum  contacts  of  the  spring 
tongues,  and  by  reason  of  their  spring  supports 
can  be  brought  in  contact  with  the  tongues,  each 
tongue  making  contact  independently  of  the  rest. 
The  stylus  rod,  C,  is  screwed  into  the  base, 
and  its  spring  at  the  lower  end  allows  of  a  free 
movement  of  the  upper  end  in  any  direction.  A 
pressure  block,  P,  as  shown,  is  secured  to  the 
stylus  rod.  Two  adjustable  pressure  heads  are 
screwed  into  this  block,  and  held  tightly  by  lock 
nuts  in  whatever  position  adjusted. 

When  the  stylus  is  in  its  normal  position,  the 
pressure  heads  are  so  adjusted  that  contact  is 
made  with  the  projection  on  the  contact  bar,  and  the  contact  bar  with  the  first  spring  tongue, 


FIG.  22.— The  transmitter. 


FIG.  23. — Resistance  circuit. 


TELEGRAPH. 


847 


whereby  any  lost  motion  is  prevented.  When  the  stylus  is  operated,  the  contact  bar  is 
pressed  against  the  tongues,  making  contact  with  a  greater  or  less  number,  according  to  the 
extent  of  movement  of  the  stylus,  thus  cutting  in,  or  out,  the  resistances  required  to  reg- 
ulate the  movement  of  the  receiving  pen.  The  resistances  are  arranged  to  avoid  any  break 
of  circuit  or  oxidation  at  the  contact  points. 

There  are  two  series  of  resistances  employed  for  each  set  of  tongues,  and  both  connected 


a1,  but  is  the  same  resistance  as  b\  and  so  on  ;  the  resistance  continuing  to  decrease  from 

__  a  maximum  resistance  arranged  farthest  from 
the  receiver,  to  a  minimum  resistance  ;  the 
last  tongue  to  make  contact  with  the  contact 
bar  controlling  the  lowest  resistance. 

The  operation  is  as  follows  :  When  the 
tongues  are  out  of  contact  with  the  contact  bar, 
the  current  circulates  in  every  branch,  being, 
of  course,  proportional  to  the  resistance.  When, 
through  the  movement  of  the  stylus,  the  con- 
tact bar  touches  tongue  No.  2,  the  resistance, 
a1,  is  placed  in  parallel  arc  with  resistance,  a, 
while  the  resistance,  &,  of  resistance  equal  to  a1, 
is  practically  electrically  cut  out.  The  resistance, 
b,  therefore,  prevents  an  open  circuit  in  a1 


FIG.  24.— Curve  of  resistances. 


FIG.  25.— The  receiver. 


when  contact  2  breaks  contact  with  the  contact  bar,  bal- 
ancing the  resistance,  a1.  In  other  words,  the  resistance, 
I),  offers  another  and  equivalent  passage  for  the  current  the 
moment  a1  is  separated  from  a,  and  so  on  throughout  the 
remainder  of  the  arrangement  of  resistances. 

This  transmitter  has  been  used  in  commercial  work 
with  heavy  battery  for  months,  and  has  never  required 
touching.  *  It  has  been  tried  in  every  style  of  work  expected 
of  the  system,  and  been  found  reliable. 

Twelve  contacts  give  all  the  variation  required  for  any 
length  of  line.  A  parabolic  curve  (Fig.  24 1  describes  the 
curve  of  resistances,  and  the  same  curve  is  used  for  all 
lines.  The  current  used  varies  from  a  minimum  of  '0165 
to  a  maximum  of  '03  of  an  ampere. 

The  receiver  is  shown  in  Fig.  25.  The  only  adjusting 
screws  about  the  apparatus  are  one  for  each  magnet,  and 
these  raise  or  lower  the  cores  to  or  from  the  armature, 
when  being  adjusted  to  the  line.  The  double  armature, 
magnetically  connected,  and  the  float  employed  to  remove 
the  tremor  of  the  armature  rod,  are  retained.  There  is  an 
armature  (not  shown)  under  the  cores  of  the  magnets, 
which  releases  the  paper-moving  mechanism.  Under  the 
top  plate  of  the  transmitter  are  contacts  which  automati- 
cally cut  out  the  transmitter  when  the  stylus  rod  is  released,  and  also  a  contact  for  call- 
ing "up  when  placed  in  an  exchange  system. 

IV.  FAC-SIMILE  TELEGRAPHS.     The  Glen-Melville  Map  Telegraph. — Lieutenant  Glen  and 

Lieutenant  Colonel  Melville,  of  the  British  army,  have 
devised  an  ingenious  system,  by  which  the  ordinary 
operation  of  telegraphing  may  be  made  to  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  reproducing  sketches  and  plans.  The  method 
consists  of  either  drawing  the  design  to  be  transmitted 
on  ruled  paper,  divided  into  little  squares  by  vertical  and 
horizontal  lines,  or  laying  a  transparent  paper,  tracing 
cloth,  or  other  transparent  sheet,  divided  by  lines  into 
squares,  over  the  drawing.  The  squares  in  each  compart- 
ment, as  shown  in  Fig.  26,  are  denoted,  respectively,  by 
pairs  of  letters,  the  alphabet  running  down  the  outer 
side  for  the  horizontal  rows  of  squares,  and  along  the 
top  for  the  squares  in  vertical  series.  A  corresponding 
paper,  which  may  be  of  a  different  scale  if  convenient, 
is  kept  at  the  receiving  station.  The  operator  at  tho 
transmitting  station  can  thus  indicate  by  alphabetical 
letters  to  the  receiving  station  any  point  on  the  paper 
falling  in  the  center  of  any  of  the  squares  ;  the  person  at  the  receiving  station  will  apply 
his  pencil  to  that  point,  and  will  then  be  directed  to  the  next  point,  drawing  a  line  with  the 
pencil,  and  so  on  to  form  a  complete  outline  drawing.  The  illustration,  Fig.  27,  shows 
two  portraits  ;  the  one  being  the  original,  the  other  the  transmitted  copy.  Patches  of 
shading,  of  the  several  darker  or  lighter  tints  as  shown  in  Fig.  28,  may  be  put  in  by  special 
directions,  the  transmitting  signs  for  which  must  be  preconcerted. 


FIG.  26.— Map  telegraph. 


848 


TELEGRAPH. 


V.  PRINTING  TELEGRAPHS.     The  Essick  Printing  Telegraph. — This  is  the  invention  of  Mr, 
S.  V.  Essick,  of   New  York,   and    is   being  operated  by  the   Essick  Printing  Telegraph 


FIG.  27. 


Fac-simile  telegraphs  (page  847). 


FIG.  23. 


Co.  -  Instead  of   employing  the  tape    heretofore  used   a  paper  roll   is   employed  having 
a  width  of  4£  in.,  upon  which  the   letters  are  printed    in  lines   the  width  of   the  roll, 

so  that  they  can  be  read  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  a  page  of  ordinary  print. 

The  instrument,  Fig*.  29,  consists  of  a 
receiver  which  is  operated  by  impulses  re- 
ceived from  the  line  through  a  polarized 
relay  which  operates  a  type-wheel.  Four- 
teen impulses  represent  the  entire  alpha- 
bet, making  a  complete  revolution  of  the 
type-wheel,  which  is  capable  of  turning  200 
revolutions  per  minute,  and  by  which  it  is 
claimed  50  words  a  minute  can  be  printed. 
The  roll  of  paper,  which  is  continuous,  is 
held  in  a  frame  which  travels  one  space  for 
each  letter  printed,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
line  is  automatically  shifted  back  to  the 
beginning  of  a  new  line,  and  at  the  same 
time  advances  the  space  dividing  two 
lines.  The  impulses  move  the  instrument, 
and  operate  at  the  same  time  all  the  other 
instruments  on  the  line.  Any  break  in  the 
wire,  therefore,  opens  the  circuit,  which 
entails  the  breaking  of  the  communication, 
so  that  the  operator  immediately  becomes 
aware  of  it.  The  system,  it  will  be  seen, 
is  so  arranged  that  'the  transmitting  oper- 
ator records  the  message,  not  only  at  the 
other  end  of  the  line,  but  also  at  his  own 
instrument,  so  that  there  is  constantly 
available  a  copy  of  all  the  messages  sent. 
The  duplicating  of  the  order  transmitted 
by  the  copy  at  the  transmitting  office  is 
evidently  a  valuable  feature  in  many  departments,  especially  in  railroad  work,  as  it  affords 
a  check  upon  all  orders  transmitted. 

VI.  TRAIN  TELEGRAPHY.  Phelps  Induction  Train  Telegraph. — The  principle  upon  which 
the  train  telegraph  system  of  Mr.  Lucius  J.  Phelps  is 
based  is  that  of  induction  according  to  the  law  that  if  a 
current  be  sent  through  one  of  two  parallel  wires  in 
close  proximity  to  each  other,  the  second  wire  (on  closed 
circuit)  will  have  a  momentary  current  induced  in  it, 
the  direction  of  which  will  be  contrary  to  that  of  the 
primary  or  inducing  current ;  while,  if  the  primary  cur- 
rent be  interrupted,  the  induced  current  will  be  re- 
versed, i.e.,  flowing  in  the  same  direction  as  the  pri- 
mary current.  By  utilizing  this  oft-applied  principle, 
therefore,  electrical  effects  and  currents  are  obtained 
at  a  distance  from,  and  without  contact  with,  any 
source  of  electricity.  Thus,  if  in  Fig.  30.  a  current  be 
sent  through  the  bottom  wire  a,  a  momentary  current 
will  be  set  up  in  the  parallel  coil,  which  current  can  be  utilized  to  actuate  a  relay,  and 
through  it  a  sounder.  While  this  particular  employment  of  a  reduced  current  to  actuate  a 
relay  is  not  in  itself  new;  its  modification  and  adaptation  is  very  ingenious.  By  referring 


FIG.  29.— Printing  telegraph. 


FIG.  30.— Train  telegraph  system. 


TELEGRAPH. 


849 


FIG.  31.— Phelps  induction  system. 


also  to  the  diagram,  Fig.  30,  the  general  arrangement  of  the  sending  and  receiving  stations 
will  be  seen,  that  to  the  right  representing  the  moving  car. 

Taking  the  terminal  station  first,  we  find  its  principal  equipment  to  consist  simply  of  a 
main  battery,  a  pole-changing  key  and  a  telephone,  the  latter  taking  the  place  of  the  relay 
and  sounder  shown  in  Fig.  30,  and  all  connected  in  the  usual  way  with  the  line  wire. 

In  this  system  the  line  wire  is  run  between  the  rails,  and  consists  of  an  insulated  copper 
wire  laid  in  a  covered  trough  composed  of  strips  of  wood  hollowed  out  to  receive  the  wire. 
Fig.  31  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  wire  is  secured  and  protected,  the  inclosing  strips 
resting  upon  blocks  secured  to  the  cross-ties.  The  car  equipped  with  this  system  differs  from 
the  ordinary  car  only  in  the  addition  of  a  pipe  running  below  and  along  the  centre  of  the  car 
between  the  trucks,  and  hung  by  suspenders.  This  pipe  is  situated  directly  over  the  line 
wire,  at  a  height  of  seven  inches,  and  consists 
of  a  two-inch  gas  pipe.  This  pipe  contains 
a  11-inch  rubber  hose,  in  which  the  induction 
wire  of  the  car  is  incased.  It  consists  of  No. 
14  copper  wire,  single  braided  and  paraffined. 
One  end  of  this  is  first  drawn  through  the 
pipe,  passed  up  to  the  ceiling  at  one  end  of 
the  car,  back  to  the  other  end.  then  down  and 
into  the  pipe,  and  the  operation  is  repeated 
until  ninety  convolutions  are  completed. 
This  forms  a  continuous  circuit  about  1£ 
miles  in  length,  and  presenting  about  f  of  a 
mile  of  wire  parallel  with  the  main  line  wire 
upon  the  track.  The  circuit  throughout  is  enclosed  in  a  rubber  hose,  the  object  in  carrying 
the  return  leads  along  the  top  of  the  car  obviously  being  to  separate,  as  far  as  possible,  those 
portions  of  the  wire  in  which  the  current  flows  in  opposite  directions. 

The  terminals  of  the  wire  so  wound  around  the  car  are  brought  together  and  carried  to  a 
transmitting  key  placed  on  top  of  the  small  compartment  situated  in  one  corner  of  the 
baggage  car,  as  shown  in  Fig.  32,  which  represents  the  moving  telegraph  station.  The 

equipment  of  this  station  consists  of  a  transmitting  key, 
a  "  buzzer  "  or  vibrator,  a  sounder,  a  polarized  relay,  and 
a  battery  of  five  quart  cells,  one  of  which  constitutes  the 
local  battery.  The  terminals  of  the  coil  are  carried  to  the 
key,  and  connect  through  the  back  contact  of  the  latter 
with  the  polarized  relay,  shown  in  Fig.  33,  the  construc- 
tion of  which  will  be  explained  presently.  This  is  the 
receiving  instrument  on  the  car,  and  closes  the  local 
battery  circuit  through  the  sounder,  which  is  placed  on  a 
sounding-board  supported  by  brackets  above  the  relay. 
For  the  transmission  of  messages  from  the  car,  the  cur- 
rent from  the  four  cells  is  passed  through  the  front  con- 
tact of  the  key  before  mentioned,  through  the  1^  miles  of 
wire  in  the  coil,  and  through  the  buzzer,  which  breaks 
the  current  very  rapidly  and  converts  the  single  *'  click  " 
into  a  humming  sound.  This  rapidly  vibrating  current 
induces  similar  currents  in  the  main-line  wire  on  the 
track,  and  the  operator  at  the  terminal  station  reads  the 
Morse  characters  from  a  telephone,  which  reproduces  the 
humming  of  the  "  buzzer."  If  it  is  desired  to  receive  a 
message  in  the  car,  the  operator  at  the  terminal  station 
merely  manipulates  his  key  in  the  usual  way,  and  the 
pulsations  of  the  current  in  the  main  line  induce  corre- 
sponding effects  in  the  wire  placed  a  few  inches  above  it  on 
the  car.  The  induced  currents  actuate  the  delicate  relay, 
and  the  sounder  gives  forth  its  signals  in  the  same  way  as 
usual  and  can  be  easily  heard  at  a  distance  of  ten 
feet  even  above  the  din  of  a  moving  train. 

It  is  evident  that  the  terminal  station  might  em- 
ploy a  relay  and  sounder  in  place  of  the  telephone, 
but  the  latter  is  naturally  the  most  convenient,  as 
it  requires  only  a  small  battery  on  board  the  train. 
Again,  the  telephone  might,  "with  equal  facility, 
be  employed  as  a  receiver  on  board  the  train,  but 
it  was  found  that  the  noise  which  always  accom- 
panies a  moving  train  prevented  a  distinct  under- 
standing of  the  signals.  A  relay  was,  therefore, 
necessary,  the  principal  requirements  of  which 
were  two-fold.  In  the  first  place  a  very  deli- 
cate relay  was  required  for  the  reception  of  the 
very  weak  induced  currents  ;  and  secondly,  one  in 
which  the  armature  should  not  be  affected  even  by  strong  jarring  and  vibration,  such  as  is 
experienced  on  trains.  These  antagonistic  elements  were,  however,  provided  for  in  the 
54 


FIG.  32.— Train  telegraph  station. 


^      - 
FIG.  33.— The  relay. 


850 


TELEGRAPH. 


relay  designed  by  Mr.  Phelps,  and  which  is  represented  in  Fig.  33.  It  will  be  seen  to  consist 
of  two  steel  magnets,  bent  as  shown,  with  their  like  poles  brought  together  and  carrying  an 
extension  piece  which  has  a  V-shaped  groove  at  the  top.  The  other  ends  of  the  magnets 
carry  extension  pole-pieces  and  fine  wire  helices.  The  armature  is  about  the  same  thick- 
ness and  size  as  a  3-cent  nickel  piece,  but  its  lower  edge  is  straight  and  thinned  down  to  a 
knife  edge,  which  rests  in  the  bottom  of  the  V-shaped  groove.  Thus  we  have  friction  entirely 


FIG.  34.— Edison-Smith  static  train  telegraph. 

removed, .  while  the  small  mass  and  leverage  of  the  armature,  together  with  the  strong 
magnetic  field  in  which  it  is  placed,  prevent  its  moving  under  shock  or  vibration.  It  re- 
sponds, therefore,  only  to  the  impulses  sent  through  the  coils,  and  its  action  is  very  delicate 
in  spite  of  its  shock-resisting  power. 

Edison-Smith  Static   Train  Telegraph. — While  the  Phelps  train  telegraph  is  actuated 
by  dynamic  induction,  the  Edison-Smith  system  is  based  upon  static  induction,  the  metal 


EARTH  I 

FIG.  35.—  Station  connections. 


t 

<£iL 

FIG.  36.— Car  connections. 


roofs  of  the  cars  being  so  charged  that  they  act  inductively  upon  the  telegraph  wires  along 
the  line,  and  thus  render  communication  possible.  In  the  same  way  the  wires  may  act 
upon  the  roofs,  and  a  message  may  be  received  on  the  train. 

The  arrangements  of  the  car  and  the  terminal  station  are  quite  simple  and  consist  of  a 
telephone  receiver  in  lieu  of  a  sounder,  a  Morse  key,  a  vibrator,  and  an  induction  coil.  Pig. 
34  shows  the  operator  seated  at  his  desk,  which  has  been  installed  in  one  of  the  passenger 
cars,  and  having  two  telephones  to  his  ears  while  he  receives  a  message. 


TEMPERING   AND   HARDENING.  851 

The  manner  in  which  the  messages  are  sent  and  received  will  appear  quite  plain  upon 
reference  to  the  diagrams,  Fig.  35  and  Fig.  36.  The  latter  shows  the  apparatus  as  arranged 
on  the  car,  and  the  former,  that  at  the  station  ;  they  do  not  differ  materially  from  one 
another.  Referring  to  Fig.  36,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  metallic  roof  of  the  car  is  connected 
by  wire  to  the  switch  S.  When  turned  toward  the  left,  the  switch  closes  the  circuit  through 
the  telephone,  which  is  connected  to  the  ground  through  the  wheels  of  the  car,  and  this  is 
the  position  of  the  switch  when  a  message  is  being  received.  When  transmitting  a  message, 
however,  the  switch  is  turned  to  the  right,  which  closes  the  circuit  through  the  one  end  of 
the  secondary  of  the  induction  coil  G,  the  other  end  being  grounded  in  the  same  way  as 
mentioned  above.  The  primary  of  the  induction  coil  G,  is  joined  to  a  Morse  key  JT,  and 
battery  B,  And  interposed  in  the  circuit  is  the  vibrator  R.  When  the  switch  S  is  turned, 
the  vibrator  is  started,  so  that  when  the  key  is  pressed  the  primary  coil  of  G  has  a  series  of 
rapidly  intermittent  currents  sent  through  it.  The  secondary  of  G  being  connected  to  the 
roof  o'f  the  car,  it  consequently  sends  into  the  latter  a  series  of  rapidly  intermittent  charges 
of  high  potential.  These  react  upon  the  telegraph  wires  and  influence  the  condensers 
attached  to  the  lines  at  the  terminal  station  shown  in  Fig.  35.  Here  it  will  be  noticed  the 
condensers  are  coupled  in  parallel,  one  side  of  each  being  joined  to  a  wire  and  the  other  to 
the  leading-in  wire.  The  rapidly  alternating  charges  produced  by  the  vibrator  are  received 
in  the  telephone  as  a  series  of  "buzzes,"  or  a  musical  note,  the  duration  of  which  depends, 
of  course,  upon  the  length  of  time  the  key  is  pressed.  In  this  way  the  dots  and  dashes  are 
received  as  short  and  long  notes. 

TEMPERING  AND  HARDENING.  The  Harvey  Steel  Hardening  Process.— In  recent 
trials  of  steel  armor  plate  by  the  United  States  Government  it  was  found  that  plates,  whether 
made  of  ordinary  steel  or  of  nickel  steel,  that  had  been  treated  by  the  Harvey  hardening 
process,  were  superior  in  shot-resisting  power  to  similar  plates  not  so  treated.  (See  AKMOE.) 
The  details  of  this  process  are  thus  described  in  patents  granted  to  the  inventor,  Mr.  H.  A. 
Harvey,  of  Orange,  N.  J. : 

"The  armor  plate  having  been  formed  of  the  desired  size  and  shape  from  a  comparatively 
low  steel,  such  as  Bessemer  steel  or  open-hearth  steel,  containing,  say,  O'lO  per  cent,  to  0*35 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  is  laid,  preferably  flatwise,  upon  a  bed  of  finely  powdered  dry  clay  or 
sand,  deposited  upon  the  bottom  of  afire-brick  cell  or  compartment  erected  within  the  heating 
chamber  of  a  suitable  furnace.  The  plate  may  be  so  imbedded  that  its  upper  surface,  is  in 
the  same  plane  with  the  upper  surface  of  those  portions  of  the  bed  of  clay  or  sand  which 
adjoin  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  plate,  or  the  plate  may,  if  desired,  be  allowed  to  project  to  a 
greater  or  less  distance  above  the  surface  of  the  clay  or  sand.  In  either  case  the  treating 
compartment  is  then  partially  filled  up  with  granular  carbonaceous  material,  which,  having 
been  rammed  down  upon  the  plate,  is  covered  with  a  stratum  of  sand,  upon  which  there  is 
laid  a  covering  of  heavy  fire  bricks.  The  furnace  is  then  raised  to  an  intense  heat,  which  is 
kept  up  for  such  a  period  of  time  as  may  be  required  for  the  absorption  by  the  metal  adjoin- 
ing the  upper  surface  of  the  plate  of,  say,  an  additional  1  per  cent,  (more  or  less)  of  carbon, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  quantity  of  carbon,  in  addition  to  that  originally  present,  which  may 
be  necessary  to  enable  the  said  metal  to  acquire  the  capacity  of  hardening  to  the  desired 
degree.  The  temperature  of  the  heating  chamber  outside  of  the  treating  compartment 
is  brought  up  to  a  height  equal  to  or  above  that  required  to  melt  cast-iron,  and  is  kept  up  for 
greater  or  less  length  of  time,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  stratum  of  steel  which  it  is 
intended  to  charge  with  an  excess  of  carbon.  This  period,  however,  will,  of  course,  vary 
according  to  the  efficiency  of  the  furnace.  As  a  general  rule,  the  thicker  the  armor  plate  the 
greater  will  be  the  permissible  depth  of  supercarburization.  A  lO^-in.  plate  and  a  depth  of 
supercarburization  of  3  in.  are  herein  referred  to  merely  for  the  purpose  of  illustration. 
After  the  conclusion  of  the  carburizing  treatment,  the  plate  is  taken  out  of  the  furnace, 
and  without  removal  of  the  carbonaceous  material  from  its  surface,  is  allowed  to  cool  down  to 
the  proper  temperature  for  chilling.  When  it  is  seen  that  the  supercarburized  surface  is  so 
far  cooled  down  as  to  have  a  dull  cherry-red  color,  the  carbonaceous  material  is  quickly 
removed,  and  the  plate  is  then  chilled  by  being  sprayed  with  torrents  of  cold  fluid  or  by 
being  submerged  and  kept  in  motion  until  cold  in  a  large  body  of  cooling  fluid — as,  for  exam- 
ple, a  more  or  less  rapidly  running  stream  or  river  of  fresh  water,  or  a  tidal  current  of  salt 
water.  The  exercise  of  this  precaution  insures  the  subsequent  uniform  hardening  of  the 
subcarburized  surface  of  the  plate." 

Tempering  steel  axles. — A  method  of  tempering  steel  car  axles,  by  which  it  is  claimed 
that  their  strength  is  increased  and  made  uniform  without  at  the  same  time  making  them 
brittle,  and  used  by  the  Cambria  Iron  Co.,  of  Johnstown,  Pa.,  consists  in  heating  the  axle  to 
a  red  heat,  and  plunging  it  into  a  trough  filled  with  running  cold  water  until  the  red  heat 
visible  on  the  surface  is  just  about  to  disappear.  On  removing  the  car  axle  from  the  water 
the  red  heat  returns  to  the  surface,  by  conduction  from  the  interior.  The  axle  is  then 
allowed  to  cool  slowly  in  the  air,  thus  partially  annealing  it. 

Tempering  steel  in  molten  lead. — For  many  years  it  has  been  a  somewhat  common  practice 
to  use  baths  of  the  easily  fusible  metals  or  alloys  for  quenching  steel,  but  it  has  recently  been 
attempted  on  a  large  scale  at  the  works  of  the  Chatillon  et  Commentry  Company,  in  France. 
An  article  on  the  process  in  use  at  these  works  was  published  in  the  Iron  Age  of  October  10, 
1889. 

The  following  table  of  tests  of  water- quenched,  oil-quenched,  and  lead-quenched  bars  is 
given  by  Henry  M.  Howe,  in  his  work  on  The  Metallurgy  of  Steel,  as  results  obtained  by 
the  Chatillon  et  Commentry  Company  : 


852 


TENONING   MACHINES. 


Properties  of  Steel  annealed  after  Different  Kinds  of  Heat-treatment— Chatillon 

et  Commentry. 


1! 

Tensile  strength,  pounds  per  square 
inch,  when  annealed  atter 

Elastic  limit,  pounds  per  square  Inch, 
when  annealed  after 

Elongation,  per  cent.  In  8  inches, 
when  annealed  after 

i 

!! 

forging. 

quench- 
ing 
In  water. 

quench- 
ing 
In  oil. 

quench- 
ing 
In  lead. 

forging. 

quench- 
ing 
In  water. 

quench- 
ing 
In  oil. 

quench- 
ing 
In  lead 

forg- 
ing. 

quench- 
in  £ 
in  water. 

quench- 
in  oil. 

quench- 
In  lefd. 

44  090 

51  628 

26  170 

35  130 

30 

20 

2 

0-20 

43,379 

64,429 

48,499 

44,375 

25,601 

48,357 

36,979 

26,738 

34 

28 

%30 

31 

3 

0-30 

65.567 

80,785 

71,256 

72,251 

36,979 

52,340 

41,815 

43,806 

24 

21 

24 

22 

4 

0-40 

70,402 

88,039 

81,496 

74,100 

39,112 

59,024 

53,477 

45,939 

20 

18 

22 

21 

5 

0-50 

77,941 

105,391 

98,706 

86,190 

43,806 

72,251 

65,567 

51,486 

21 

15 

19-5 

20-5 

6 

0-60 

85,336 

112,360 

102,404 

89,603 

46,935 

81,070 

70,402 

53,193 

18 

13 

17 

17 

7 

0-70 

91,026 

126,583 

113,782 

99,559 

52,624 

88,181 

73,958 

61,158 

16 

14 

14 

16 

8 

0-80 

93,870 

137,961 

119,472 

106,671 

54,046 

92,448 

76,803 

56,891 

17 

11 

13 

14 

9 

0-90 

98,137 

140,806 

123,739 

108,093 

54,046 

93,870 

79,647 

64,002 

16 

10 

13 

15 

10 

i-oo 

106,671 

153,606 

129,428 

115,205 

55,469 

106,671 

81,070 

69,691 

17 

10-5 

11 

15 

11 

1-10 

113,782 

163,562 

145,072 

129,428 

56,891 

116,627 

92,448 

79,647 

14 

7 

9'5 

12 

12 

1-20 

122,316 

170,674 

163,562 

150,761 

64,002 

128,005 

115,205 

98,137 

12 

8 

9 

10 

13 

1-30 

128,005 

180,629 

163,562 

156,451 

69,691 

125,161 

116,627 

95,292 

10 

6 

9 

10 

Thirteen  sets  of  1^-in.  square  steel  bars,  apparently  8  in.  long  between  marks,  each  set  being  of  constant 
composition,  are  tested  tensilely  in  four  different  conditions.  These  conditions  are  as  follows  : 

(1)  Simply  annealed,  apparently  by  slow  cooling  from  dull  redness  after  previous  forging. 

(2)  Quenched  in  cold  water  from  about  a  low  yellow  heat,  then  reheated  to  750°  P.  (400°  C.)  and  cooled 
slowly. 

(3)  The  game,  except  that  they  are  quenched  in  oil  instead  of  water. 

(4)  The  same,  except  that  they  are  quenched  in  molten  lead  instead  of  water. 

The  proportion  of  carbon  is  approximately  that  given  in  the  second  column,  and  but  little  silicon,  man- 
ganese, etc  ,  is  present— i.e.,  the  metal  is  true  carbon  steel. 

Tempering  Wheel :  see  Clay- working  Machines. 

TENONING  MACHINES,  Tenons  may  be  made  entirely  with  saws,  or  entirely  with 
rotating  cutters,  or  with  a  combination  of  both.  Where  cutters  are  used,  one  head  may  be 
made  to  cut  a  single,  a  double,  or  a  treble  tenon  entire,  at  one  operation.  Where  saws  are 
used  it  is  always  necessary  to  have  two  sets.  To  cut  a  tenon  with  one  cutter  necessitates  that 
the  stick  and  the  cutter-head  shall  have  relative  motion  to  each  other  parallel  to  the  plane  of 
the  cheek  of  the  tenon  ;  the  cutter  projecting  over  the  stick  to  an  extent  equal  to  the  desired 
length  of  tenon.  This  motion  of  the  stick  or  of  the  cutter-head  in  a  plane  parallel  with  the 
cheek  of  the  tenon  will,  if  the  cutter  has  the  proper  outline,  cut  both  cheeks,  both  shoulders, 
and  the  end  of  the  tenon. 

By  the  use  of  a  single  cutter  having  a  central  tongue  projecting  beyond  the  rest,  there 
may  be  made  a  double  tenon  having  no  shoulders  on  the  outside,  but  having  any  desired 
amount  of  shoulder  between  the  two  tongues. 

Where  two  cutter-heads  are  used,  their  axes  are  parallel  with  the  length  of  the 
stick,  and  the  latter  is  fed  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  its  own  length  and  to 
that  of  the  cutter  mandrels.  Each  of  these  cutter-heads  is  practically  making  a  gain  or 
kerf,  which  has  only  one  side,  the  side  kerf  making  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon.  The  distance- 
between  the  cutter-heads  determines  the  thickness  of  the  tenon  ;  the  height  of  the  stick  with 
respect  to  that  of  the  mandrels,  the  shoulders.  By  raising  the  stick,  or  both  the  heads 
together,  the  shoulders  may  be  made  of  the  same  width,  or  one  wider  than  the  other,  with  a 
fixed  thickness  of  tenon.  By  keeping  the  stick  in  a  plane  parallel  to  those  of  the  cutter- 
heads,  but  inclining  it  so  that  its  length  is  inclined  to  those  of  the  cutter  mandrels,  there  may 
be  made  a  tenon  having  a  bevel  shoulder  ;  but  the  end  will  be  square  with  the  timber,  as  for 
ordinary  use,  unless  the  cutters  are  arranged  one  in  advance  of  the  other,  and  one  of  their 
mandrels  bears  a  cutting-off  disk  ;  in  which  case  there  may  be  made  a  tenon  having  both  the 
shoulder  and  the  end  beveled  to  the  stick,  but  parallel  to  each  other. 

Tenoning  machines  producing  their  work  by  the  action  of  cutters  which  remove  chips  have 
the  advantage  of  doing  work  that  is  smooth  in  surface  and  of  great  accuracy  in  dimensions, 
but  they  consume  more  power  than  those  which  operate  by  saws.  To  cut  tenons  with  saws 
there  are  required,  to  produce  one  double-shouldered  tenon  at  one  operation,  two  parallel 
mandrels,  each  bearing  a  cross-cut  saw,  and  one  bearing  two  ripping  saws,  the  latter 
mandrel  at  right  angles  to  the  former  two  and  to  the  stick.  To  make  a  tenon  with 


TENONING   MACHINES. 


853 


square  shoulders,  the  stick  is  fed  in  crosswise,  while  lying  parallel  to  the  mandrel  bearing 
the  cross-cut  saws,  the  stick  being  parallel  to  them.  To  produce  a  double  shoulder,  it  must 
be  fed  in  askew.  The  power  required  to  remove  two  blocks  of  wood  by  four  saw-cuts  is  for 
tenons  even  of  the  ordinary  width  of  shoulder  less  than  that  needed  to  cut  up  into  chips  the 
material  of  the  same  blocks  ;  and  the  advantage  in  favor  of  the  sawing  system  increases  with 
the  width  of  shoulder.  But  it  is  evident  that  double  tenons  cannot  be  cut  with  circular 
saws  alone.  To  mount  upon  the  same  mandrel  with  the  ripping  saws,  a  grooving  saw,  so- 
called,  would  accomplish  the  desired  result  in  the  same  machine,  but  of  course  the  grooving 
saw,  so-called,  is  not  really  a  saw,  as  it  performs  its  work  by  the  utter  destruction  of  the 
material  removed,  instead  of  by  taking  it  out  in  bulk,  with  only  the  kerf  as  the  waste. 

I.  HORIZONTAL  TENONING  MACHINES. — The  Fay  Tenoning  Machines. — In  older  forms  of 
tenoning  machines  the  stick  is  placed  parallel  with  the  axes  of  the  cutters,  and  there 
are  two  mandrels,  one  working  the  material  away  from  the  upper,  and  the  other  from 
the  lower,  surface  of  the  stick  ;  each  set  of  cutters  working  from  one  side  to  the  other  of 
the  piece.  In  one  machine  for  heavy  work,  the  frame  carrying  the  cutters  traverses  across 
the  stick  ;  in  another,  for  light  work,  the  cutters  have  no  traverse,  and  the  stick  or  other 
piece  to  be  tenoned  is  moved  at  right  angles  to  the  cutter  mandrels  and  to  the  plane  contain- 
ing them.  Such  a  machine  can  make  only  single  tenons.  In  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
the  same  features  are  preserved,  of  two  parallel  mandrels,  one  above  the  other,  and  each 
bearing  cutters  which  work  their  way  through  the  material  from  one  side  to  the  other  ;  but 
for  double  tenoning  the  material  is  cut  away  from  the  tenon  left  by  the  other  cutters,  by  a 
separate  cutter-head  rotating  on  a  vertical  axis.  The  vertical  position  of  this  cutter-head 
may  be  varied  to  suit  the  thickness  of  tenon.  In  this  machine  the  work  is  fed  across  the 
cutters,  the  table  having  friction  rollers  running  on  planed  ways,  arranged  to  retain  the  table 
and  keep  it  at  a  constant  right  line  with  the  line  of  the  heads.  There  are  steps  and  gauges 


FIG.  1.— The  Fay  tenoning  machine. 

which  can  be  set  to  suit  pieces  of  various  lengths,  and  an  adjustable  fence  and  road  for  hold- 
ing the  timbers  in  position.  The  heads  have  an  adjustment  for  making  the  shoulder  per- 
fectly square,  or  out  of  square,  as  desired.  This  machine  is  for  car  work. 

A  development  of  this  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  is  called  a  gap-tenoning  machine,  and 
has  the  peculiarity  that  its  frame,  between  the  table  and  the  standard  bearing  the  cutter- 
heads,  has  a  deep  gap  for  the  passage  of  timbers  endwise  between  the  cutter-heads. 
By  the  application  of  a  gaining  head  on  the  top  spindle,  it  will  do  over-gaining  ;  and 
by  placing  a  gainer  on  the  lower  spindle  will  do  under-gaining  on  the  ends.  By  taking 
off  the  lower  cutter-head  and  putting  on  a  circular  saw  it  will  do  heavy  cutting  off.  In  this 
machine  the  carriage  is  self-acting,  being  driven  by  a  screw  worked  *by  friction  gears,  the 
pressure  of  a  lever  causing  it  to  travel  in  either  direction  or  stopping  it.  For  short  work  the 
power  feed  may  be  disengaged  so  that  the  feed  may  be  by  hand. 

The  Rogers  Tenoning  Machine. — Fig.  3.  a  car  tenoning  and  gaining  machine,  made  by 
C.  B.  Rogers  &  Co.  for  the  heaviest  class  of  work,  and  brought  out  within  the  past  two  years, 
is  of  the  class  taking  in  the  timber  horizontally  and  cutting  tenons  upon  its  ends  by  rotating 
cutters,  the  timber  being  fed  cross-wise.  The  lower  head  can  be  run  below  the  carriage  so 
that  the  upper  head  can  be  used  for  cutting  relishes  upon  the  end  of  the  timber  ;  the  upper 
head,  which  is  also  on  a  horizontal  axis,  can  be  raised,  and  the  lower  one  used  for  the  same 
purpose,  if  desired.  There  is  a  third  head,  which  is  upon  a  vertical  axis,  carrying  a  throating 


854 


TENONING   MACHINES. 


cutter  for  making  double  tenons.  In  working  with  this  machine,  the  timber  is  placed  on  the 
carriage,  which  moves  on  rollers,  and  is  passed  between  the  tenoning  heads,  thus  cutting  one 
thick  tenon  ;  it  then  goes  on,  and  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  cutter-head  upon  the 
vertical  shaft,  which  passes  through  the  center,  taking  out  a  space  according  to  the  thickness 


FIG.  2.— Gap-tenoning  machine. 

of  cutter  used,  which  completes  the  double  tenon.  There  is  a  special  attachment,  independ- 
ent of  the  tenoning  part  of  the  machine,  for  cutting  gains,  operating  upon  the  under 
side  of  the  timber,  which  is  placed  on  the  carriage  and  passed  over  the  head.  There  is 
used  an  expanding  head,  that  will  cut  from  £  to  3  in.  deep  and  from  2  to  4  in.  wide. 
The  countershaft  that  drives  the  vertical  shaft  and  the  gaining  head  is  a  part  of 


FIG.  3.— The  Rogers  tenoning  machine. 

the  machine.  When  it  is  used  as  a  gaining  machine,  it  is  worked  from  the  back  ;  when  used 
as  a  tenoning  machine,  from  the  front  ;  when  it  is  being  used  as  a  gaming  machine,  the 
tenoning  part  is  made  idle  simply  by  casting  off  the  belt ;  and  the  same  way  with  the 
gainer  head  when  the  tenoner  is  in  use. 

The  Egan  Co.'s  Tenoner  Machine  will  make  tenons  on  both  ends  of  a  stick  at  once,  besides 
which,  instead  of  making  the  tenons  by  the  cutter-heads  rather  too  long,  and  then  cutting 
them  off  to  the  desired  length,  thus  leaving  a  burr  or  ridge,  it  first  cuts  the  stick  to  the 
proper  length,  and  thus  makes  and  finishes  the  tenons,  leaving  them  with  a  smooth  end 
finish. 


TENONING   MACHINES. 


855 


In  this  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  4,  there  is  a  bed  like  an  ordinary  lathe-bed,  and  bearing 
on  the  left-hand  end  a  fixed,  and  on  the  right-hand  end  a  laterally  adjustable,  housing,  each 
housing  carrying  two  pairs  of  cutters,  on 
parallel  horizontal  axes  which  lie  in  the 
same  horizontal  plane.  The  front  cutter- 
head  in  each  housing  bears  a  cutting-off 
saw ;  the  back  one,  two  sets  of  cutters,  one 
for  making  each  side  of  a  tenon.  A  hand 
wheel  at  the  right  of  the  machine  regulates 
the  lengthwise  distance  between  the  housings 
and  between  their  cutter-heads  to  suit  the 
length  of  stock  to  be  worked.  The  feed  is 
across  the  machine,  the  stock  being  fed  cross- 
wise, and  it  is  effected  by  sprocket  chains 
along  the  face  of  each  housing,  each  chain 
bearing  dogs,  the  distance  between  which  is 
adjustable  to  suit  the  width  of  the  stock  being 
tenoned.  The  material  is  fed  away  from  the 
operator,  and  passing  under  the  saws  is  cut  to  length;  then  passing  between  the  back  cut- 
ters, has  both  sides  of  both  tenons  worked  on  it.  Pressure  bars  over  the  endless  beds,  or 
feed  chains,  keep  the  stock  down  on  the  latter  while  it  is  being  cut  by  the  saws  and  the  cutters. 
These  cutter  bars  will  hold  the  stock  down,  even  if  one  end  is  thicker  than  the  other.  The 
feed,  which  is  automatic  in  its  operation,  is  driven  from  a  countershaft  under  the  bed,  and  is 


FIG.  4. — The  Egan  tenoner  machine. 


PIG.  5. — Double  hand-tenoning  machine. 

controlled  by  a  lever  handy  to  the  operator.  Suitable  provision  is  made  for  varying  the  angle 
of  the  cut  and  the  length  of  the  tenon.  Each  mandrel  and  slide  has  separate  adjustment  up 
and  down  on  the  housings,  to  suit  the  thickness  of  the  tenon  ;  and  the  upper  mandrels  have 
also  side  adjustment,  to  allow  a  tenon  to  be  cut  longeron  one  side  than  on  the  other,  if  neces- 
sary. There  are  four  changes  of  feed. 

The  H.  B.  Smith  Co.  Double  Hand-tenoning  Machine,  shown  in  Fig.  5,  has  a  bed  much 
like  an  ordinary  lathe.  At  one  end  is  a  fixed  column,  bearing  upper  and  lower  cutter-heads 
on  horizontal  axes.  At  the  other  end  is  a  sliding  column,  bearing  similar  cutter- spin  dies. 
A  horizontal  shaft,  running  the  length  of  the  machine,  drives  the  cross-feed  works,  which 
are  endless  sprocket  chains  with  projections,  carrying  the  stick — which  is  presented  parallel 
with  the  machine — across  it  and  between  the  two  cuttei'-heads  on  each  end  of  the  machine. 
Each  of  these  cutter-heads  has  vertical  adjustment  independently  of  the  others,  so  that  single 
tenons  may  be  cut  on  both  ends  of  the  stick  at  the  same  time,  but  varying  in  thickness  and 
in  position  on  the  end  of  the  stick.  The  feed  chain  is  grooved  to  receive  small  angle  plates, 
which,  being  adjustable  in  distance  apart,  may  be  removed  or  set  to  any  width  of  stock. 
Over  the  feed  are  pressure  bars,  which  are  adjustable  independently  of  the  head,  and  held  so  as 
to  support  narrow  stuff  which  may  vary  slightly  in  thickness.  These  pressure  bars  hold  the 
stock  down  to  the  angle  plates  on  the  feed  chain.  In  front  on  the  left  is  an  adjustable  fence 
against  which  to  support  the  lumber,  so  that  pieces  very  close  to  length  may  be  worked.  The 
rate  of  feed  is  about  12  ft.  per  minute. 

In  hand-tenoning  machines  the  work  is  sometimes  done  by  cutters  like  those  of  rebating 
planes,  cutting  across  the  stuff,  each  time  taking  a  shaving  from  the  full  width  of  the  stick, 
and  each  time  leaving  a  clean,  smooth  cut,  so  that  at  any  point  at  which  the  cutting  is 
stopped  the  work  is  left  clean  and  smooth.  Of  course,  in  sicTi  work  as  this  it  is  desirable  to 
take  as  heavy  cuts  as  possible  until  the  required  amount  has  near.V  been  cut  away,  when  the 
thickness  of  shaving  may  be  reduced  in  the  interest  of  accuracy  of  dimension  and  smoothness 


856 


TENONING   MACHINES. 


of  cut.  The  power  to  work  these  plane  tenoning  machines  may  be  greatly  increased  by  the 
use  of  rack  and  pinion  gears.  It  is  seldom  that  the  foot  is  used  in  driving  such  machinery, 
the  arm  being  more  delicate  as  regards  the  adjustment. 

II.  VERTICAL  TENONING  MACHINES. — The  Fay  Car-tenoning  Machine,  shown  in  Fig.  6, 

is  for  completing  the 
tenon  on  large  tim- 
bers for  car  work 
without  reversal ;  and 
it  will  cut  single, 
double,  or  triple  ten- 
ons on  both  ends  of 
long  timber  from  one 
face  without  turning 
it  end  for  end.  This 
is  done  by  a  machine 
which  presents  the 
stick  at  right  angles 
to  two  cutter  man- 
drels and  to  the  plane 
which  contains  them, 
but  in  this  case  the 
saddle  containing  the 
cutter- heads  has  a 
vertical  traverse,  and 
the  tenon  is  vertical 
instead  of  horizontal. 
There  are  two  tables, 
one  before  and  the 
other  back  of  the  part 
bearing  the  cutter- 
saddle,  and  the  stick 


FIG.  6.— The  Fay  car-tenoning  machine. 


is  first  clamped  to  the 
one  before  the  cutters ; 
the  heads  traverse 

down,  cutting  the  tenon  on  one  end;  then  the  stick  is  shifted  lengthwise  to  the  table  back  of 
the  cutters,  and  the  heads  traverse  up,  cutting  the  tenon  on  the  other  end  of  the  stick. 
There  is  an  adjustable  fence  for  the  thickness  of  the  shoulder  on  the  face  side  of  the  timber, 
and  suitable  gauges  determine  the  length  of  the  tenons.  The  head  and  attached  moving 
parts  are  counterbalanced. 

The  Rogers  Car-tenoning  Machine,,  to  cut  double  tenons,  Fig.  7,  is  for  work  up  to  16  in. 
square.  There  is  a  table  on 
which  the  timber  is  laid,  and 
that  holds  the  timber  in 
place  by  clamps,  which 
are  set  by  cranks  in  front. 
The  bed  adjusts  to  and  from 
the  double  column  of  the 
machine  by  screws  at  the 
base,  and  has  a  movable  sec- 
tion each  side  of  the  cutter- 
head  for  end  adjustment  of 
the  timber  to  the  cutters. 
The  cutters  are  borne  on  a 
horizontal  axis  passing  be- 
tween the  two  columns  at 
the  back  of  the  machine,  and 
bolted  from  the  back.  The 
saddle  carrying  the  cutter- 
head,  which  is  counterbal- 
anced, is  raised  and  lowered 
by  a  large  hand  wheel. 
Hand  wheels  in  front  move 
the  timber  endwise,  so  as  to 
bring  the  proper  part  of  its 
length  in  contact  with  the 
cutters.  The  head  is  brought 
down,  cutting  as  it  goes,  and 
passing  into  a  recess  in  the 
table ;  then  the  timber  is 
shifted  lengthwise,  and  the 
head  on  the  upward  move- 
ment cuts  the  opposite  end.  _  ^ 

stated  as  necessary  to  drive  the  machine  is l-horse7applied  by-'anlB-lnTbelt. 


FIG.  7. — The  Rogers  car-tenoning  machine. 
There  is  a  gauge  by  which  the  work  may  be  set.     The  power 


TENONING   MACHINES. 


857 


FIG.  8.— Tenon 
cutter. 


A  tenoning  attachment,  Pig.  8,  for  a  vertical  mortising  machine,  which  works  by  chisels 
only,  and  not  by  boring,  consists  of  a  stock  bearing  a  clamp,  between  the 
blades  of  which  two  chisels  are  held  by  their  ends,  their  distance  apart  being 
regulated  by  a  scale  upon  the  clamp.  This  tool,  used  in  a  mortising  machine, 
will  cut  tenons  from  one-eighth  to  one  inch  thick,  three  inches  deep,  and 
should  prove  useful  for  making  window  and  door-screen  frames,  and  for  all 
light  tenoning.  The  cutters  may  be  adjusted  together  to  form  one  wide  cut- 
ter for  cornering  and  shaping  shingles  in  the  same  machine. 

OTHER  FORMS  OF  TENONING  MACHINES. — Blind-slat  Tenoning  Machines. — 
In  the  blind-slat  tenoning  machine  shown  in  Fig.  9  the  tenons  are  produced  by 
saw-like  cutters  borne  on  a  horizontal  mandrel,  which  is  parallel  with  the 
slat.  The  slat  is  fed  in  to  a  stop-gauge  through  a  rotating  chuck,  and  then 
brought  down  upon  the  rotating  cutter,  which  cuts  and  divides  two  tenons  at 
once  with  one  cutter-head  at  one  operation.  As  the  slat  rotates,  a  cylindrical 
form  is  given  to  the  tenon,  and  the  latter  is  central  in  the  width  of  the  slat. 
The  cut  being  made  from  the  outside  to  the  center,  tearing  or  splitting  of  the 
wood  is  done  away  with.  Releasing  the  table  stops  the  chucks,  and  allows 
the  slat  to  be  fed  forward  to  the  gauge. 

The  slat  tenoner  shown  in  Fig.  10,  and  made  by  Rowley  &  Hermance,  has  a 
self-centering  device  for  holding  the  slats,  thus  making  a  tenon  in  the 
center  of  the  slat  width,  although,  if  desired,  it  may  be  made  nearer  one  edge 
than  the  other.  The  slat  is  firmly  held  when  being  cut,  and  is  not  released 
until  the  tenon  has  been  fitted  and  the  slat  cut  off.  The  slat  is  moved  to  the  saws,  and  two 
tenons  cut  by  one  motion  of  the  lever.  There  is  a  stop  to  determine  the  length  of  the  slats. 
A  self -feed  blind-slat  tenoning  machine,  made  by  the  H.  B.  Smith  Machine  Co.,  has  a 
vertical  iron  column  bearing 
at  its  upper  end  a  rotating 
gear-wheel,  through  the  cen- 
ter of  which  the  blind  slat  is 
fed.  The  slat  is  passed,  while 
rotating,  by  a  tenoning  saw, 
which  works  away  the  stock 
so  as  to  leave  a  cylindrical 
tenon  in  the  center  of  width 
and  thickness  of  the  slat,  the 
slat  going  on  until  it  strikes 
a  rear  stop,  which  may  be 
adjusted  to  make  any  length 
of  slat  desirable  up  to  17  in. 
There  is  a  front  guide  stop 
by  which  the  full  length  of 
stock  may  be  gauged  in  length 
and  tenoned  ;  so  that  if  either 

the  stock  or  the  last  piece  is  short,  the  piece  may  be  turned  about  and  gauged  from  the  front; 
and  if  the  piece  is  too  short  to  handle,  a  plunger  on  the  front  stop  will  push  it  within  the  jaws 

of  the  clamp,  thus  preventing  waste 
from  inability  to  feed  short  pieces. 
The  stock  is  undamped  on  the  deliver- 
ing side  of  the  machine  or  saws,  doing 
away  with  the  liability  of  two  clamps 
getting  out  of  alignment  and  doing 
inaccurate  work,  or  of  the  finished 
piece  getting  caught  against  the  stops. 
The  clamp,  which  will  hold  stock  of 
any  length,  rotates  by  power,  coming 
in  contact  with  a  spring  stop  each 
round,  where  it  remains  in  position 
until  released  by  raising  or  lowering 
the  hand  lever,  which  moves  the  saws 
to  or  from  the  slat  in  the  act  of 
making  or  dividing  the  tenon.  When 
this  lever  is  released,  the  saws  auto- 
matically resume  a  position  which 
leaves  the  clamp  with  the  slat  central, 
so  that  when  the  slat  is  pushed  forward  it  cannot  come  in  contact  with  the  saws. 

Dovetailing  machines,  which  are  really  tenoners,  are  of  several  classes.  In  the  most 
common,  the  cutter  is  of  the  ordinary  fly  type,  cutting  with  its  side  and  end,  and  producing 
both  the  mortise  and  the  tenon.  In  some  *of  these,  for  work  in  drawer  fronts  and  similar 
pieces,  the  cutting  tools  are  in  sliding  frames,  adjustable  for  the  length  of  the  pin  or  tenon  ; 
the  carriage  bearing  the  material  is  moved  vertically  and  lengthwise,  automatically,  cutting 
at  each  movement  of  the  crank  wheel  a  pin  and  a  recess,  cutting  and  feeding  in  both 
directions.  The  material  is  supported  bj 
which  the  cutters  pass  to  their  work. 


FIG.  9.— Blind-slat  tenoning  machine. 


FIG.  10.— Slat  tenoner. 


a    [Jin    aiiu.    a    leccos,  uutLiiig    aiiu    xccu.iiij;    111    UULU. 

by  a  comb-like  arrangement,  between  the  teeth  of 
This  being  a  species"  of  tenoning  which  demands 


858 


THRESHING   MACHINES. 


special  treatment,  one  of  the  machines  for  effecting  a  class  of  work  which  may  be  classed 
as  dovetailing,  arid  in  some  senses  as  tenoning,  will  be  found  described  under  the  head 
of  DOVETAILING. 

TERRA.  COTTA  LUMBER  is  the  trade  mark  by  usage  and  commercial  name  given  to 
a  composition  of  kaolinic  clays  and  sawdust,  in  such  proportions  that,  when  the  latter  is 
burned  out  in  the  firing  process,  the  brick  residue  is  sufficiently  porous  or  cellular  to  be 
profitably  worked  with  carpenters'  tools,  constituting,  in  fact,  a  lumber  indestructible  by 
fire  or  age,  and  suitable  to  be  used  wherever  pieces  of  not  greater  length  than  2  or  8  ft. 
or  less  thickness  than  1  in.  can  be  employed.  It  is  made  up  in  various  cellular  shapes  for 
building  purposes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

A  large  variety  of  porous  earthenwares  are  now  manufactured  for  structural  uses.     A 


FIG.  1.— Terra  cotta  lumber. 

comprehensive  account  of  these  will  be  found  in  a  paper  delivered  by  Mr.  C.  C.  Gilman,  be- 
fore the  Illinois  Brick  and  Tile  Association,  at  its  convention,  January,  1891.  See  Scientific 
American  Supplement  for  May  30,  1891. 

Tests  of  Engines :  see  articles  under  Engines.  Of  Brakes  :  see  Brakes.  Of  Pumps  : 
see  Pumps,  Reciprocating.  Of  Boilers  :  see  Boilers,  Steam.  Of  Rope  :  see  Rope-making 
Machines.  Of  Emery  Wheels  :  see  Grinding,  Emery.  Of  Ice  Machines  :  see  lee-making 
Machines.  Of  Locomotives  :  see  Locomotives.  Of  Water  Wheels  :  see  Water  Wheels. 

Threading  Tools  :  see  Tool  Cutter,  Lathe  Tools,  and  Pipe  Cutting. 

THRESHING  MACHINES.  Threshers  (colloquially  "separators,"  because  of  the  added 
duty  of  removing  straw,  chaff,  and,  to  a  great  extent,  grass  seeds,  weed  seeds,  and  kernels 
of  grain  different  in  kind  from  the  crop  threshed)  have  remained  for  many  years  unchanged 
in  main  principles,  but  have  far  greater  capacity  and  efficiency  than  formerly,  and  have 
some  novel  features  added. 

Fig.  1  is  a  representative  improved  American  thresher  and  supplemental  high  stacker, 
made  by  Russell  &  Co.,  shown  ready  for  work,  the  machine  here  represented  traveling  on  the 
road  by  the  locomotive  power  of  the  farm  steam-engine  used  to  furnish  power  when  thresh- 
ing. Specialist  threshermen  thus  move  the  outfit  from  farm  to  farm,  and  thresh  under  con- 
tract for  a  fixed  charge  per  bushel.  For  the  interior  arrangement  of  the  same  thresher  see 
Fig.  2.  It  has,  just  beyond  the  threshing  cylinder,  a  novel  distributing  "beater,"  consisting 
of  a  central  tube  with  radial  flanges  arranged  in  spirals  reversed  from  the  middle  cir- 
cumference of  the  tube  toward  either  end  (Fig.  3).  As  the  beater  revolves,  the  central  beaks 
of  the  flanges  strike  into  the  flying  mass  shot  from  the  cylinder  and  distribute  it  the  full 
width  of  the  machine.  The  prominence  of  the  flanges  is  so  modified  as  they  approach  the 
sides  of  the  machine  as  to  equalize  distribution  and  cause  immediate  separation  to  begin. 
This  spiral  beater  is  supplemented  by  the  ordinary  four-winged  beater  to  whip  the  straw 
open,  from  which  the  mass  of  straw  and  grain  falls  upon  the  picker  table,  and  then  upon 
a  series  of  lifting  fingers  to  lightly  toss  it  with  a  fan-like  motion,  imparted  by  rock  shafts. 
The  throw  of  the  fingers  is  adjustable  to  suit  the  condition  of  the  material  threshed. 
Beyond  these  fingers  is  a  series  of  connected  alternating  open  pickers,  with  a  tedder  action, 
passing  the  straw  onward  while  the  kernels  drop  between  them.  Over  the  picker  tail  the 
straw  falls  15  in.  upon  the  extension  table,  which  has  a  vertical  motion  at  the  first  or  lower 
end,  and  a  vibrating  motion  at  the  other  end,  raising  the  straw  on  saw-tooth  edges,  but 
urging  the  grain  kernels  in,  backward,  down  its  inclined  floor.  Meanwhile  a  drag-up 
chain -elevator- way  captures  and  returns  to  the  threshing  cylinder,  up  along  the  outside  of 
machine,  any  incompletely  threshed  ears,  to  be  rethreshed.  To  improve  the  cylinder  spikes 
and  enable  them  to  stand  the  work  of  the  high-speed  machines  of  the  day,  a  steel  poll  is 
welded  upon  a  basis  of  tough  iron  (Fig.  4),  greatly  increasing  the  wearing  quality  of  the  tip 


THRESHING   MACHINES. 


859 


A  stacker  propels  the  straw  and 


of  the  spike  without  rendering  its  shank  liable  to  snap, 
chaff  up  the  incline  of  its  floor  by  traveling  slats 
of  wood  with  their  ends  secured  to  a  pair  of 
moving  belts.  The  stacker,  though  driven  by 
belt  from  the  thresher,  is  mounted  independently 
on  its  carriage,  and  can  be  folded  for  transport 
(Fig.  5).  In  operation  it  swings  slowly  from 
side  to  side  on  a  pivot  on  its  carriage,  by  a 
self-reversing  gear,  and  forms  a  lunette-shaped 
stack  (Pig.  6).  The  delivery  end  of  the  stacker 
can  be  raised  gradually,  as  the  stack  grows,  by 
means  of  a  cross-shaft,  central  under  the  car- 
riage, engaging  an  upright  screw  at  each  end. 
The  driving  power  from  the  thresher  can  be 
diverted  by  a  shifter-lever  to  actuate  either  the 
raising  screws  or  the  conveyor.  To  maintain  a 
uniform  delivery  distance,  and  build  the  stack 
plumb,  it  is  necessary  for  the  outer  end  of  the 
stacker  to  rise  vertically,  and  this  is  accom- 
plished by  a  link  movement  of  the  two  posts 
supporting  the  heel  of  the  stacker,  which  is 
designed  to  deliver  straw  up  to  as  high  as  23  ft. 
above  ground  level. 

The  Pitts  (Buffalo,  N.  Y.)  thresher  has  the 
right-and-left,  spirally- flanged,  transverse  re- 
volving distributor  marked D,  in  Fig.  7.  The  card 
rack  (above  and  beyond  the  ordinary  beater, 
here  marked  C)  stops  access  of  straw  to  the 
distributor,  but  permits  the  large  proportion  of 
hulled  kernels  always  shot  over  the  beater  by 
the  whirling  cylinder  to  fall  into  the  distributor 
and  be  moved  by  it  at  once  along  an  iron  trough, 
B,  to  either  side  of  the  machine,  and  drop  upon 
the  grain-belt  cells,  where  they  are  sure  to  be 
unoccupied  by  straw  and  chaff.  This  portion 
of  the  grain,  always  a  large  part,  is,  therefore 
preserved  separate,  instead  of  needlessly  mingling 
with  straw  only  to  be  sifted  from  it. 

Fig.  8  is  a  bagger  attachment  on  the  "  Min- 
nesota '"  thresher,  consisting  of  an  erect  revolv- 
ing drum,  with  four  half-bushel  compartments 
to  receive  the  cleaned  grain  from  a  cup  elevator. 
As  each  half  bushel  of  grain  is  passed  into 
the  bag,  it  is  automatically  tallied.  In  the 
Nichols-Shepard  thresher,  two  gangs  of  vibra- 
tors are  used,  comprising  five  vibrating  shakers. 
The  first  two  and  last  three  are  repectively 
connected.  While  the  duplex  gang  is  movecl 
backward  and  downward,  the  triplex  gang  is 
moved  forward  and  upward,  to  pull  the  straw 
apart  transversely  about  midway  of  its  course 
through  the  machine,  to  facilitate  separation. 
The  counter-motions  of  the  two  shaker  gangs 
are  so  proportioned  as  to  steady  the  whole  ma- 
chine while  running. 

Fig.  9,  interior  of  the  Huber  thresher,  pre- 
sents a  novel  and  effective  arrangement.  The 
"beater"  is  placed  low  in  the  machine,  and 
revolved  with  moderate  speed  near  to  and  in 
reverse  direction  of  the  cylinder  rotation.  The 
effect  is  to  lift  the  straw  on  the  edges  of  the 
beater-flanges  and  receive  loose  kernels  in  the 
angular  spaces  between  the  beater  wings,  and 
allow  them  to  slide  downward  upon  the  grain 
pan  at  the  very  outset  of  the  career  of  the 
threshed  material.  The  other  features  of  this 
thresher  are  comprehensible  in  the  figure  with- 
out verbal  description. 

Automatic  Feeder  for  Threshers. — Ander- 
son's automatic  band  cutter  and  feeder,  Figs. 
10  and  11,  is  an  attachment  for  threshing  ma- 
chines to  cut  the  bands  of  the  sheaves  and  feed 
the  grain  evenly,  by  maintaining  a  steady  delivery  of  it  to  the  thresher  cylinder. 


Only  very 


860 


THRESHING   MACHINES. 


expert  operators  can  do  this  by  hand,  and  the  labor  is  onerous,  and  usually  very  trying  to 


throat  and  lungs  by  reason  of  the  fine  dust  which  is  thrown  out  from  the  machine  ;  an  assist- 
ant is  also  required  to  stand  by  and  cut  the  bands  of  the  sheaves,  and  his  position  is  danger- 


THKESHING   MACHINES. 


861 


FIG.  4.— Spike. 


FIG.  5. — Stacker. 


FIG.  6.— Stacker  at  work. 


862 


THRESHING   MACHINES. 


ous.  This  attachment  is  provided  with  a  row  of  belts  which  intercept  the  sheaves  of  grain 
delivered  by  a  man  with  a  pitchfork  haphazard  into  the  receiver,  down  the  shake-table  of 
which  they  are  propelled  by  raking  teeth  fixed  to  its  surface.  This  surface  has  a  recip- 
rocating movement  longitudinally.  A  row  of  spring-teeth  is  adjustably  suspended  above 


FIG.  7.— Pitt's  thresher. 

the  descending  stream  of  grain,  to  retard  its  upper  stratum  whenever  it  runs  thicker  than 
a  determined  gauge,  while  the  shake-table  uninterruptedly  propels  the  lower  stratum  at  a 
constant  rate  of  speed  into  the  thresher.  A  gang  of  half-moon  vibrating  knives  cut  the 
bands  of  the  sheaves  from  above.  It  is  made  at  Racine,  Wis. 

Tru8ser,for  Threshing  Machines. — Fig.  12  is  a  pair  of  twine-binding  machines,  of  the 


FIG.  8.— Thresher  and  bagger. 

Appleby  type,  driven  by  one  knotter  shaft  and  one  needle  shaft  for  both,  by  a  chain  belt 
from  the  neighboring  shaker  spindle  of  a  thresher.  When  the  thresher  presents  sufficient 
threshed  straw  to  fill  the  binder  receptacles  and  trip  either  knotter,  both  are  tripped  in 
unison  by  its  pressure  on  the  trip  lever  ;  the  needles  rise  and  compress  the  straw  into  a  long 


THRESHING   MACHINES. 


863 


truss,  to  be  bound  in  two  places  by  the  two  knotters,  and  ejected.      The  attachment  is 
mounted  on  an  independent   transport  axle,  with  two  wheels  and  thills  for  a  horse.     The 


threshed  straw  on  leaving  the  shakers  is  forced  between  two  canvas  conveyors  against  the 
trip  levers  of  the  attachment  until  enough  straw  accumulates  to  overcome  the  resistance  of 
these  levers,  and  thus  start  the  binding  mechanism,  which  automatically  stops  again  after 


864 


TORPEDOES. 


ejecting  each  truss,  ready  for  the  next  presentation  of  straw.  In  binding  trusses  of  about 
20  Ibs.  weight,  the  consumption  of  twine  will  be  about  600  ft.  to  the  ton  of  straw.  The 
trusser  can  be  applied  to  threshers  of  all  patterns. 

The  "Cyclone"  or  Pneumatic  stacker  for  threshers  consists  of  revolving  fans    driven 


10. — Automatic  feeder  for  thresher. 


from  the  thresher,  and  directing  an  air-blast  into  a  receiving  cylinder,  from  which  straw  and 
chaff  pass  through  a  pneumatic  spout  out  upon  the  stack  at  any  desired  height  as  the 


FIG.  11. — Automatic  feeder  for  thresher. 


FIG.  12. — Trusser  or  binder. 


growth  of  the  stack  progresses.  The  spout  is  swung  automatically  side  wise  through  an  arc 
to  form  a  long  stack.  The  weight  of  this  stacker  complete  is  about  400  Ibs. 

Throating  Machine  :  see  Wheel-making  Machines. 

Ties  :  see  Rails. 

Tile  Machines  :  see  Brick  Machines. 

Tires  :  see  Carriages  and  Wagons,  and  Rolls,  Metal-working. 

TORPEDOES.  An  examination  of  the  details  of  vessels  designed,  built,  and  building 
in  all  the  countries  making  any  attempt  to  progress  in  this  art,  discloses  the  application  of 
torpedoes  to  vessels  of  all  classes  and  dimensions,  from  the  smallest  second-class  torpedo- 
boat  to  the  monstrous  armored  battle-ship.  In  addition  to  the  boats  being  built  by  firms 
making  that  a  specialty,  naval  constructors  are  giving  particular  attention  to  a  ship  of  aver- 
age dimensions  to  meet  the  requirements  of  torpedo  warfare.  The  development  has  already 
carried  us  from  second-class  torpedo-boats,  up  through  boats  of  the  first  class.  Fig.  1, 
torpedo  dispatch  vessels,  torpedo  gunboats,  to  torpedo  cruisers  and  torpedo  depot  ships. 

For  all  naval  warfare  there  is  needed  a  torpedo  possessing  high  speed,  good  range,  as- 


TORPEDOES. 


865 


sured  directive  power,  simplicity,  and  handiness  ;  it  must  have  inherent  and  positive  directive 
force  to  resist  anv  efforts  to  cause  deviation.    In  order  to  be  launched  without  deflection  from 


FIG.  1. — Torpedo  cruiser. 

a  vessel  running  at  high  speed,  Fig.  2,  it  must  possess  this  paramount  quality  of  maintaining 

the  direction  in  which 
it  is  pointed.  Such 
a  torpedo  will  also  be 

&%?/^^\       m  ^f       J       the  most  efficient  for 

use  in  defending  or 
taking  the  place  of 
fixed  mines,  and  for 
other  harbor  de- 
fenses ;  for  automatic 
torpedoes,  fired  from 
bomb-proof  casemates 
and  torpedo  boats, 
will  certainly  be  re- 
lied upon  as  most 
important  harbor  de- 
fenses. 

As  a  torpedo  is  an 
engine  or  machine 
invented  for  the  pur- 
pose of  destroying 
ships  by  blowing  them 
up,  and  as  it  is  a  pro- 
jectile which  may  be 
projected  either  in 
the  air,  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  or 
under  it,  for  conven- 
ient reference  the  fol- 
FIG.  -2.—  Torpedo  launched  from  moving  vessel.  lowing  Subdivisions 

are  made  : 

I.— Air  torpedoes  (although  a  small  part  of  their  trajectory  may  te  subaqueous),  in- 
cluding rockets  and  dynamite  shell. 
II.— Ground  and'buoyant  mines. 
III. — Spar,  towing,  and  submarine  shells. 
IV.— Controllable. 
V. — Automatic,  automobile,  or  fish. 

Types  I.,  II.  and  IV.  will  probably  be  found  useful  for  discharge  from  fixed  defenses. 
Type"  I.  are  now  passing  through  a  series  of  tests  which  should  determine  their  usefulness. 
Type  II.  are  for  harbors,  channels,  and  rivers.  There  may  be  some  isolated  cases  where  cir- 
cumstances may  afford  a  chance  to  use  Type  III.  Great  development  has  gone  on  with 
controllable  torpedoes.  Type  IV.,  but  none  of  them  have  equalled  the  possibilities  of  the  self- 
contained  fish-torpedo,  which  will  more  efficiently  supplement  the  ground  and  buoyant  mines 
for  fixed  defenses  than  any  other. 

I.  AIR  TORPEDOES. — Rockets  have  been  familiar  for  many  years,  and.  although  still  fur- 
nished for  signaling  purposes,  they  have  not  undergone  any  great  development  as  aerial  or 
aqueous  torpedoes  during  the  past  decade.  Those  that  were  tried  in  the  water  have  been 
very  difficult  to  control,  particularly  if  there  was  a  rough  sea,  which  deflected  them  from 
their  course  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  have  been  known  to  jump  up  in  the  air,  and  upon 
again  striking  the  water,  to  take  a  course  just  opposite  that  in  which  they  originally  started. 
Those  intended  to  pass  through  the  air  have  been  too  much  influenced  by  wind  and  other 
conditions  to  admit  of  any  degree  of  accuracy. 
55 


866  TORPEDOES. 


Dynamite  Projectiles. — There  are  two  types  of  projectiles  thrown  by  the  dynamite  gun 
now  in  use,  in  various  sizes,  known  as  full-calibers  and  sub-calibers.  The  tail-caliber, 
which  fills  the  bore  of  the  gun  completely,  consists  of  a  light,  strong  case  containing  the 
explosive,  fuse,  etc.,  with  a  small  tube  in  the  rear  supporting  the  rotating  blades  or  vanes 
which  control  the  direction  of  the  flight.  The  case  or  body  consists  of  a  steel  or  iron 
tube  ^  to  -j36-  in.  thick,  closed  at  the  front  end  by  a  brass  conoidal -shaped  head,  and  at  the 
rear  by  a  hemispherical  base  casting  of  bronze.  The  base  casting  has  a  socket  in  the  center 
to  attach  a  small  tube  that  supports  the  rotating  blades.  Eight  blocks  of  vulcanized  fiber, 
on  each  end  of  the  shell,  center  it  in  the  bore,  causing  thereby  friction,  heat,  vibration,  etc. 

Shells  for  a  15-in.  gun  are  usually  about  10  ft.  long  over  all,  the  body  being  about  7  ft. 
and  the  rear  extension  3  ft.  These  have  a  total  weight,  when  filled,  of  1,000  Ibs.,  and  contain 
5.)0  Ibs.  of  explosive.  The  fuse  is  placed  either  in  the  point  or  base,  according  to  its  design. 
The  sub-caliber  projectiles  are  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  bore  of  the  gun,  and  have  no 
rear  extension  carrying  rotating  blades.  The  blades  are  attached  directly  to  the  body,  near 
the  rear  end.  They  occupy  a  portion  of  the  space  between  the  body  of  the  shell  and  the 
bore  of  the  gun,  at  the  same  time  serving  to  center  the  rear  end  of  the  shell  in  the  bore. 
The  front  end  is  centered  by  four  wooden  blocks  which  drop  off  as  soon  as  the  shell  leaves 
the  muzzle.  They  are  held  in  place  by  pins  entering  into  the  shell.  A  wooden  disk  or  gas 
check  is  placed  in  rear  of  the  projectile,  filling  the  bore  completely,  and  preventing  any 
escape  of  air. 

The  body  of  the  projectile  is  made  up  similarly  to  the  full-caliber,  except  that  the  charge 
only  fills  about  three-fourths  of  it,  the  remaining  space  at  the  rear  being  left  empty.  This  is 
done  to  keep  the  center  of  gravity  forward  of  the  center  of  figure,  and  so  maintain  steadiness 
of  flight.  Sub-caliber  shells  6  in.  in  diameter,  and  about  6  ft.  long,  weighing,  filled.  150  Ibs., 
contain  a  charge  of  50  Ibs.  ;  those  8  in.  in  diameter,  6  ft.  5  in.  long,  weighing,  filled,  3oO 
Ibs..  contain  a  charge  of  100  Ibs.  ;  and  those  10  in.  in  diameter,  7  ft.  8  in.  long,  weighing, 
filled,  500  Ibs.,  contain  a  charge  of  200  Ibs. 

Fuses  of  various  kinds  have  been  used  the  most  noted  being  Captain  Zalinski's  electrical 
fuse.  It  consists  of  two  fuses,  one  to  act  instantaneously  upon  striking  a  solid  target,  such 
as  the  hull  of  a  ship  ;  the  other  to  act  upon  entering  the  water,  either  instantly  or  after 
some  seconds  of  delay.  The  first  may  be  called  an  impact  fuse,  and  the  second  an  immer- 
sion fuse.  The  former  consists  of  a  battery  containing  liquid,  ready  for  action,  connected 
through  a  "low  tension"  primer.  Upon  striking  the  target,  the  circuit  is  closed  and  the 
primer  exploded.  This  explodes  the  detonating  charge  of  dry  gun-cotton  or  dynamite,  and 
that  in  turn  explodes  the  whole  charge.  In  case  the  shell  misses  the  target  and  enters  the 
water,  the  immersion  fuse  acts.  This  is  similar  to  the  other  except  that  the  battery  contains 
no  exciting  liquid — is  perfectly  dry.  As  the  shell  enters  the  salt  water,  the  battery  becomes 
wet  and  active,  which  immediately  causes  explosion,  unless  a  delay  is  desired,  in  which  case 
a  powder  train  is  used.  Mechanical  fuses  have  been  sometimes  used.  These  generally  act 
by  impact  either  against  a  solid  target  or  the  water.  An  ingenious  fuse  of  this  class  was 
designed  by  Mr.  H.  P.  Merriam.  One  of  its  most  peculiar  features  is  a  small  wind-mill  at 
the  point  of  the  shell,  which  unlocks  the  firing  hammer  as  the  shell  passes  through  the  air. 
It  has  two  sets  of  caps,  one  intended  to  act  when  the  shell  strikes  a  solid  target,  the  other 
when  it  strikes  the  water.  The  water  enters  an  opening  in  the  point  and  presses  a  plunger 
backward,  driving  the  caps  against  the  hammer,  which  in  this  case  is  a  steel  ball.  When 
a  solid  target  is  struck,  the  point  of  the  shell  is  crushed  in,  thus  firing  a  set  of  caps  arranged 
inside.  Delay  action  can  be  given  by  a  powder  train. 

The  projectiles  are  not  designed  for  penetration,  but  at  Shoeburyness  in  England,  a  10-in. 
sub-caliber,  weighing  500  Ibs.,  was  fired  into  a  butt  of  sand,  situated  000  yds.  from  the  gun, 
and  it  penetrated  47  ft.  The  accuracy  of  fire  is  very  remarkable,  even  when  compared  with 
modern  rifles.  The  following  table  is  a  record  of  the  ranges  and  deviations  obtained  at 
Shoeburyness  during  experiments  by  the  English  Government. 

8-in.  Sub-calibers.     Initial  Pressure,  1,000  Ibs.     Wind,  8  ft.  per  second. 


Number  of  round. 

Elevation. 

Range. 

Deviation  from  line  of  flre. 

1 
2 

20° 

3,647  yards. 
3,643     « 

17'2  yards  left. 
20-8 

3 

" 

3,647      " 

18-6 

4 

" 

3,640      " 

22-6 

5 

3,644      " 

21-2 

See  GUN,  DYNAMITE. 


II.  SUBMARINE  MINES. — Some  of  the  most  important  improvements  in  submarine  mining  are 
the  following  :  The  modern  high  explosives  and  smokeless  powders  have  largely  superseded 
gunpowder,  making  it  possible  to  have  much  less  bulk,  while  retaining  an  eq'ual  amount  of 
explosive  force.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  this  is  an  extremely  important  consideration, 
since  upon  the  size  of  the  torpedo  depends  the  depressing  effect  of  the  current ;  hence  the 
amount  of  buoyancy  necessary  to  keep  the  case  always  high  enough  to  be  touched  by  an 
enemy's  vessels  in  passing.  This  buoyancy  regulates  the  weight  of  anchors  and  mooring 
connections  that  hold  the  buoys  in  place,  and  in  fact  the  principal  dimensions  of  the  system. 


TORPEDOES. 


867 


The  increase  in  intensity  of  explosive  action  is  also  of  importance.    A  long  series  of  tests  have 
been  conducted  to  determine  the  effective  range  of  different  charges  of  various  explosives, 


FIG.  3.— The  Sims-Edison  torpedo. 

sunk  at  varying  depths  below  the  surface  of  the  water.     By  careful  measurements  of  several 

hundred  explosions,  the  matter  has  been  successfully  brought 

within  the  scope  of  mathematical  analysis.      It  is  consequently 

•well  determined  as  to  the  best  method  of  planting  these  sub- 

inarine  mines,  so  that,  while  having  their  maximum  effect  on  the 

enemy,  their  action  on  each  other  will  be  at  a  minimum.     Plans 

of  mining  fields  for  the  protection  of  all  of  the  principal  harbors 

are  now  well-recognized  features  of  a  general  system  of  defense. 

III.  SPAR  TORPEDOES   have  undergone  but  little  change  in 
recent  years,   the  substitution  of  a  hollow  iron  spar  for  wood, 
and  the  changes  made  necessary  by  the  adoption  of  gun  cotton 
for  gunpowder,  being  the  most  important. 

IV.  CONTROLLABLE   TORPEDOES  are  those  which,  by  wire  or 
other  connection,  are  constantly  under  the  direction  of  the  op- 
erator, and  are  found  to  be  most  effective  when  operated  from  the 
shore  against  ships  in  narrow  channels.     The  location  of  those 
requiring  a  fixed  plant  will  be  known  and  their  attack  visible  or 
anticipated. 

The  Brennan  Torpedo  has  been  adopted  by  Great  Britain  as 
an  auxiliary  weapon  for  harbor  defense.  It  is  said  to  have  at- 
tained a  speed  of  20  knots;  its  weight  fully  equipped  is  25  cwt., 
and  it  can  be  regulated  to  run  on  the  surface  or  submerged  ;  it 
can  be  steered  30°  to  403  to  port  or  starboard,  but  cannot  be 
maneuvered  back  to  its  starting  point.  It  is  launched  down 
ways,  and  further  propelled  by  the  unwinding  of  wire  from  reels 
in  the  torpedo.  The  wire  is  drawn  in  and  wound  up  by  two 
drums  driven  at  a  high  speed  by  a  stationary  engine  on  shore, 
close  to  the  ways.  The  unwinding  wire  turns  two  reels  in  the 
torpedo  on  concentric  shafts.  The  immersion  is  regulated  by 
two  horizontal  bow  rudders,  worked  automatically  by  a  pendulum 
and  hydrostatic  piston. 

The  Patrick  Torpedo  is  about  24  in.  in  greatest  diameter  and 
40  ft.  long.  There  is  a  float  attached  to  the  torpedo  46  ft.  in 
length,  so  placed  as  to  overlap  the  rear  of  the  torpedo  6  ft. ;  its 
greatest  diameter  is  18  in.  The  torpedo  is  submerged  about  3  ft. 
below  the  surface.  The  weight  complete  is  about  7,->00  Ibs.,  the 
explosive  charge  being  200  Ibs.  The  result  of  four  runs  showed 
an  average  speed  over  a  measured  mile  of  20' 21  statute  miles. 
For  this  torpedo  are  claimed  good  speed,  great  regularity  during 
entire  run,  and  considerable  mobility.  An  elaborate  and  special 
fixed  plant  is  not  necessary,  the  motive  power  being  carbonic  acid 
carried  in  the  torpedo. 

The  Nordenfeldt  Torpedo  is  cigar-shaped,  like  the  majority  of 
its  class,  and  it  moves  6  ft.  below  the  surface,  two  floats  indicat- 
ing its  position  to  the  manipulator.  The  motive  power,  the  pro- 
pelling and  steering  apparatus,  and  the  cable,  are  all  in  the  tor- 
pedo. The  electric  motive  power  is  supplied  by  120  storage  cells, 
the  steering  being  done  by  a  balanced  rudder  manipulated  from 
the  shore. 

The  Sims-Edison  Torpedo,  Fig.  3,  has  two  parts,  the  float  and 
the  fish,  connected  by  means  of  steel  bars.  The  former  is  filled 
with  stuff  having  cotton  as  its  chief  component,  while  the  latter, 
6  ft.  under  water,  contains  the  explosive  matter,  cable,  electric 
motor,  steering  device,  rudder,  propelling  screw  and  cable  tube. 
There  are  four  compartments  ;  in  the  forward  is  the  explosive  ; 
the  second  is  the  buoyant  chamber  ;  the  third  holds  the  cable, 
not  on  a  reel,  but  ingeniously  wound  into  a  hollow  coil ;  while  the 
fourth  has  the  electric  motor  and  steering  gear.  There  is  a  series 
of  magnets  for  steering  and  handling  the  engine,  all  of  which  are  connected  through  the 
cable  to  the  operator  at  the  pole-changing  key  and  switch  on  shore.  This  torpedo  has  been 


I! 


868  TORPEDOES. 


largely  experimented  with  in  this  country,  and  is  now  being  made  in  France  as  well  as  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Victoria  Torpedo,  Fig.  4,  is  designed  for  both  coast  defense  and  ships'  use.  The 
forward  compartment  contains  the  explosive  charge  in  its  lower  part,  and  Holme's  light 
composition  in  the  upper.  The  depth,  when  running,  is  controlled  by  a  horizontal  rudder, 
actuated  by  a  pendulum  and  servo-motor.  In  rear  of  this  is  the  electrical  cable  chamber, 
containing  1,200  yards  of  cable.  Vertical  steering  rudders  are  controlled  by  a  motor  in  the 
rear  part  of  the  torpedo.  An  arrangement  is  also  made  by  which  the  torpedo  can  be 
launched  from  fixed  under- water  positions  well  clear  of  the  shore,  a  buoy  containing  cable 
being  sent  with  the  torpedo.  To  operate  the  torpedo  from  such  a  position,  it  is  started  off, 
pulling  cable  out  of  the  buoy,  the  starting  effected  by  means  of  cable  connection  with  the 
shore. 

V.  AUTOMOBILE,  OR  FISH  TORPEDOES  — The  Whitehead  Automobile  Torpedo  consists  of  a 
cigar-shaped  envelope  of  steel  or  phosphor  bronze,  containing  six  compartments  for  its  pro- 
pelling, directing,  and  exploding  mechanism.  Its  motive  power  is  compressed  air  ;  it  is 
propelled  by  two  two-bladed  screws,  revolving  in  opposite  directions  about  the  same  axis,  in 
order  to  neutralize  their  individual  tendencies  to  produce  lateral  deviation  ;  and  it  is  main- 
tained at  a  constant  depth  by  horizontal  rudders,  and  on  a  straight  course  by  vertical  vanes 
set  at  an  angle  predetermined  by  experiment.  The  forward  compartment  contains  the 
explosive  cartridge  and  the  firing  arrangements.  The  cartridge  is  made  of  disks  of  wet  gun 
cotton,  contained  in  a  metallic  case,  shaped  to  fit  the  chamber,  and  held  in  place  by  a  feit 
buffer.  The  cartridge  primer  is  made  of  dry  gun  cotton,  and  is  inserted  in  the  hole  in  the 
center  of  the  disks.  The  detonating  primer  contains  fulminate  of  mercury,  protected  from 
moisture  by  gumlac.  The  firing  arrangement  is  made  up  of  a  small  propeller,  working  in  a 
sleeve,  in  rear  of  which  is  the  firing  pin,  held  in  place  by  a  lead  safety-pin.  The  arrange- 
ment is  such  that  when  the  firing  gear  is  taken  from  the  torpedo,  the  cartridge  primer  goes 
with  it,  rendering  the  torpedo  inoffensive. 

The  immersion  regulators  are  contained  in  the  "secret  chamber,"  and  their  office  is  to 
control  the  horizontal  rudder  after  launching,  so  as  to  bring  the  torpedo  to  a  predetermined 
immersion,  and  keep  it  there  during  its  flight.  The  pressure  of  water  due  to  depth  below 
the  surface  acts  against  a  piston,  the  motions  of  which  are  communicated  to  the  horizontal 
rudders,  so  that,  when  the  torpedo  is  below  its  plane  of  immersion,  the  increased  pressure 
will  elevate  the  rudders,  and  when  it  is  above,  the  decreased  pressure  will  depress  them. 
When  the  torpedo  is  in  its  plane  of  immersion  the  piston  is  kept  in  mid-position  by  an  equi- 
librium between  the  pressure  of  the  water  and  the  tension  of  three  steel  springs.  A  pendulum 
works  in  connection  with  the  above  apparatus,  so  that  should  the  rudders  be  "  hard  up,"  and 
the  torpedo  in  consequence  turn  its  nose  up,  the  pendulum  would  swing  gradually  aft,  reduc- 
ing the  rudder  angle  until  the  action  of  the  piston  has  been  neutralized,  and  the  rudders 
are  straight. 

The*  impulses  of  the  mechanism  in  the  secret  chamber  are  insufficient  to  move,  unaided, 
the  numerous  cranks  and  rods  connecting  it  with  the  horizontal  rudder.  A  device  called 
a  servo-motor  is,  therefore,  interposed,  so  that  the  impulses  of  the  regulators  are  transmitted 
only  to  a  valve  in  the  machinery  chamber,  and  by  the  motion  of  this  valve,  augmented  im- 
pulses are  transmitted  to  the  rudder  rods  by  means  of  compressed  air  from  the  reservoir, 
which  latter  is  made  of  cast-steel  forged  on  a  mandrel.  A  Brotherhood  or  Whitehead  engine, 
having  three  cylinders  fixed  radially  upon  the  shaft,  works  the  propelling  machinery.  The 
compressed  air  is  admitted  behind  the  pistons,  and  evacuated  in  proper  order  by  three  slide 
valves.  The  buoyancy  chamber  is  an  air-tight  compartment,  the  use  of  which  is  to  give  a 
certain  preponderance* of  buoyancy  to  the  torpedo  during  its  flight,  to  insure  its  returning  to 
the  surface,  or,  by  flooding  the  chamber,  to  cause  it  to  sink.  The  bevel-gear  chamber  comes 
next,  and  contains  the  gearing  for  making  the  propellers  revolve  in  opposite  directions. 
Next  comes  the  tail  of  the  torpedo,  consisting  of  the  rudder  support  and  the  rudders,  both 
vertical  and  horizontal. 

The  launching  apparatus  consists  of  a  torpedo  tube,  closed  at  its  outer  end  by  a  sluice 
door,  and  either  permanently  set  into  the  ship's  side,  or  fitted  with  a  ball-and-socket  joint  for 
lateral  train,  or  on  trucks  for  transporting.  This  tube  encases  a  sliding  bronze  shield,  which, 
by  means  of  compressed  air,  can  be  made  to  slide  in  and  out  on  rollers.  A  hinged  door  at 
the  breech  of  the  tube  is  opened,  and  the  torpedo  pushed  forward  into  the  shield  until  it 
brings  up  against  a  stopper ;  a  strut,  pushed  in  after  the  torpedo,  prevents  any  motion  to  the 
rear.  When  the  torpedo  is  set  free,  the  shield  doors  are  all  open,  and  the  inrushing  water, 
exerting  an  equal  lateral  pressure,  simply  presses  the  torpedo  directly  side  wise  aft,  without 
deflecting  it  at  an  angle  from  the  desired  course.  The  18-in.  Whiteheads  have  a  speed  of 
from  32  to  33  knots  for  437  yards,  and  30  knots  for  875  yards. 

The  Howell  Torpedo. — The  general  profile  of  the  Howell  torpedo,  Fig.  5,  is  that  of  a 
spindle  of  revolution,  the  after  body  being  a  true  spindle,  the  middle  body  a  cylinder,  and 
the  fore  body  an  approach  to  an  ogive.  There  are  four  detachable  sections.  The  first  '(a)  is 
the  nose,  carrying  the  firing  pin  and  its  mechanism.  The  latter  is  permanently  fixed  in  a 
hollow  bronze  casting,  attached  to  the  front  end  by  a  bayonet  catch  for  ready  handling.  The 
outer  end  of  the  firing  pin  is  provided  with  fan-shaped  corrugated  horns,  to  prevent  glancing 
or  sliding  along  the  object  struck.  The  condition  of  the  firing  pin  is  at  all  times  plainly 
visible,  its  length  beyond  the  nose  showing  whether  it  is  cocked  or  not.  The  dummy  and 
the  fighting  heads  are  both  made  of  sheet  brass,  the  former  being  the  lighter,  so  as  to  give 
about  13  Ibs.  buoyancy.  In  the  fighting  head  the  main  part  is  filled  with  wet  gun  cotton  (b), 


TORPEDOES. 


869 


a  small  water-tight  chamber  being  reserved  for  the  dry  gun-cotton  primer  (c).  Two  small 
holes  are  drilled  through  the  cap  of  the  primer  compartment,  and  are  filled  with  a  substance 
that  is  soluble  after  long  contact  with  water.  This  is  to  insure  drowning  the  dry  gun-cotton 
primer,  and  so  preventing  accidents. 

The  main  section  contains  the  fly-wheel,  with  its  frame,  the  propeller  gears  (g),  for- 
ward sections  of  shafting,  and  the  thrust  bearings.  The  fly-wheel  is  gun  steel,  has  a  heavy 
rim  and  solid  web  connection  with  the  hub,  and  is  provided  with  frictionless  bearings,  no 
matter  what  be  the  plane  of  the  axle  when  rotating.  The  connection  between  the  fly-wheel 


FIG.  5.— Howell  torpedo. 

and  the  steam  motor  that  rotates  it  is  made  through  the  starboard  side  of  the  torpedo  by 
means  of  clutch  couplings  to  the  end  of  the  axle.  The  balance  of  the  torpedo  is  preserved 
by  means  of  a  lead  disk  (k),  which  is  regulated  by  inserting  a  key  through  a  hole  tapped 
through  the  shell.  The  fly-wheel  is  geared  up  to  the  propeller  shafts,  which  are  carried 
straight  to  the  rear  to  the  right  and  left-handed  screws.  The  stern  section  is  divided  into 
two  compartments,  the  forward  of  which  contains  the  diving  mechanism,  and  is  open  to 
free  access  of  water  ;  while  the  after  one  is  water-tight,  and  practically  empty.  The  rudder 
is  a  steel  rectangular  plate  completely  filling  the  space  between  the  outer  ends  of  the  screw- 
shaft  tubes.  The  steering  tillers  are  directly  connected,  the  one  to  a  hydrostatic  piston 
and  the  other  to  a  spring.  Should  the  immersion  be  less  than  that  determined  upon,  there 
will  be  less  pressure  on  the  piston,  and  the  spring  will  hold  the  rudder  partially  down  and  so 
steer  the  torpedo  down  to  its  proper  depth,  and  vice  versa. 

A  pendulum  (p)  has  been  introduced  and  suspended  so  as  to  swing  in  a  fore-and-aft 
direction  and  insure  the  torpedo  remaining  in  a  horizontal  position.  It  is  connected  with  the 
tiller  rod,  and  by  it  to  the  rudder.  Two  brass  air  tubes  (H  H)  are  connected  with  the  main 
launching  tube,  Fig.  6,  similar  to  the  Whitehead,  and  connected  at  their  forward  ends  by  a 
cross  tube  (/).  The  right-hand  tube,  called  the  firing  tube,  carries  a  little  block  (K  K}',  in 
which  is  fitted  a  hammer,  sear  and  mainspring.  In  this  tube  is  placed  an  ordinary  metallic 
cartridge  carrying  less  than  half  a  pound  of  powder,  sufficient,  however,  to  give  the  500-lb. 
torpedo  a  discharge  speed  of  over  35  knots.  The  rear  end  of  the  left-hand  pipe,  called  the 
compression  pipe,  connects  by  an  elbow  with  the  main  tube.  The  explosion  of  the  cartridge 
compresses  the  air  in  this  tube,  which,  when  it  enters  behind  the  torpedo,  ejects  it  with 
sufficient  force  to  keep  it  from  taking  the  water  until  it  is  30  ft.  from  the  ship.  The  entire 
time  from  pulling  the  firing  lanyard  until  the  torpedo  leaves  its  tube  is  but  little  over  one 
second,  most  of  which  is  taken  up  by  the  torpedo  itself  gathering  movement. 

The  Hall  Torpedo  has  three  compartments,  the  forward  containing  the  magazine  and  the 
firing  apparatus  ;  the  middle,  the  air  flask  and  engine  ;  the  after,  the  diving  and  righting 


FIG.  6.— Howell  torpedo. 

valves.  The  motive  power  is  compressed  air  in  a  flask  8  ft.  long,  the  engine  case  forming 
the  after  end  of  the  flask.  There  is  a  single  direct-acting  engine  for  each  screw.  The  pro- 
peller shafts  are  geared  to  the  crank  shafts  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  1.  The  after  section — 
the  depth-regulating  compartment — has  in  its  top  an  adjustable  telescopic  tube  and  in  the 
bottom  an  aperture  ;  by  both  of  these  the  compartment  is  accessible  to  water,  which  rises 
above  the  bottom  of  the  telescope  until  the  water  and  imprisoned  air  are  in  equilibrium. 
There  is  a  righting  valve,  workecTby  an  arm  connected  with  a  float  resting  on  the  water  in 
the  after  compartment,  which  gives  outlet  to  the  air  so  as  to  bring  the  torpedo  to  a  proper 
immersion.  The  magazine  is  pivoted  at  its  after  end,  suspended  'by  hangers  at  its  forward 
end,  and  centered  by  springs,  permitting  lateral  movement  which  actuates  pectoral  fins. 
When  the  torpedo  rolls,  the  lower  fin  is  pressed  out  and  the  upper  one  pulled  in,  thereby 
preventing  a  deflection  of  the  torpedo  from  its  course  due  to  rolling. 


70 


TRAPS,    STEAM. 


TRAPS,  STEAM.  The  Thocns  Balanced  Steam  Trap,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  consists  of  a 
cast-iron  casing,  enclosing  a  galvanized-iron  float,  open  at  the  top.  To  the  bottom  of  the 
float  is  attached  a  sleeve,  with  a  valve  seat,  which  is  fitted  around  a  vertical  pipe.  The  latter 
is  fastened  to  the  base  of  the  trap,  and  connects  with  the  outlet  pipe.  This  vertical  pipe  is 
provided  with  openings  at  the  upper  end  to  discharge  the  water  from  the  float.  As  the 
condensed  water  accumulates  in  the  trap,  the  float  rises,  and  the  sleeve  closes  the  openings  in 
the  vertical  pipe  until  the  water  overflows  the  top  of  the  float,  when  the  weight  of  the  water 


FIG.  1.— Balanced  steam  trap. 


PIG.  2.— The  Morehead  steam  trap. 


depresses  the  float,  allowing  the  water  to  pass  out  through  the  openings  in  the  vertical  pipe 
to  the  discharge  pipe  until  the  float  becomes  light  enough  to  rise  again,  when  the  operation 
is  repeated. 

The  Morehead  Steam  Trap,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  consists,  as  shown,  of  a  tank  so  supported 
as  to  be  free  to  tilt  upon  a  bearing  between  the  two  check  valves,  the  nearer  of  which  is 
marked  F.  The  open  end  of  the  valve,  D,  is  connected  with  the  steam  dome  of  the  boiler. 
The  water  of  condensation,  returning  through  the  check  valve.  F,  enters  the  tank  ;  and 
when  a  sufficient  accumulation  has  taken  place  to  overcome  the  effect  of  the  weight,  B,  the 
trap  will  tilt  until  the  left-hand  end  is  received  in  the  hollow  block  below.  In  a  socket  in 
the  arm  carrying  the  weight,  B,  is  secured  a  standard,  upon  which  is  a  roller,  C.  When  the 

trap  tilts,  this  roller  is  brought  against  the 
end  of  the  lever  of  the  valve,  I),  raising  the 
valve  and  admitting  steam  from  the  boiler 
to  the  interior  of  the  trap.  The  pressure 
thus  being  the  same  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water  as  that  in  the  boiler,  the  water  descends 
by  its  own  gravity,  entering  the  boiler 
through  the  check  valve  opposite  F.  When 
the  trap  is  emptied,  the  weight,  B,  returns 
it  again  to  the  position  shown  in  engraving, 
in  which  it  is  supported  by  the  standard, 
carrying  the  roller,  C.  The  valve  lever  is 
attached  to  a  rod,  which  engages  with  the 
base,  so  that  when  the  trap  is  in  the  position 
shown,  the  valve  connected  with  that  lever 
will  be  open,  relieving  any  pressure  inside 
the  trap.  When,  however,  the  trap  tilts 
again,  this  valve  is  seated  by  the  weight  upon 
the  lever. 

Pratfs  Return  Steam  Trap,  shown   in 
Fig.  3,  has  a  receiving  vessel,  inside  of  which 
is  a   water-tight  cast-iron  float,   suspended 
on  one  end  of  a  lever.     The  other  end  of  this 
lever  is  fast  to  a  spindle  passing  through  a 
stuffing-box,  and  carrying  on  its  outer  end  a 
lever    with    a  weight,  which   counterpoises 
half  the  weight  of  the  float.    A  rocking  lever 
is  provided  with  a  weight,  which  rolls  to  either  end,  alternately,  as  the  feeder  fills  and  is 
emptied  of  water,  the  rolling  ball  acting  at  exactly  the  same  point  everv  time  to  open  and 
close  the  steam  valve. 
Tricycle :  see  Cycle. 
Trimmer  :  see  Book-binding  Machines. 
Tripod  :  see  Drills,  Rock. 
Trucks,  Fire  :  see  Fire  Appliances. 
Trusser  :  see  Threshing  Machines. 


FIG.  3. — Pratt's  steam  trap. 


TYPESETTING   MACHINES. 


871 


TUBE  EXPANDER.— A  novel  form  of  this  implement  is  clearly  illustrated  in  the  accom- 
panying cut.  It  is  made  entirely 
of  steel,  except  the  head,  which  is 
of  case-hardened  wrought-iron. 
The  grooved  rollers  are  jour- 
naled  in  the  solid  body  of  the 
tool.  Frictional  wear  is  limited 
to  the  rollers  and  their  pin. 
Each  size  of  tube  requires  an  ex- 
pander of  similar  diameter. 


FIG.  1.— Tnbe  expander. 


Turbine  :  see  Engines,  Steam,  Rotary,  and  Water  Wheels. 

Twister  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Machines. 

Twist  Machine  :  see  Carving  Machines. 

TYPESETTING  MACHINES.  Of  the  various  styles  of  machines  for  setting  and  for 
distributing  type,  several  have  proven  of  considerable  value  in  the  printing  of  magazines, 
weekly  papers,  and  books,  but  until  quite  recently  no  apparatus  has  been  found  equal  to  the 


)uting  machine. 


special  requirements  of  large  newspaper  offices.  A  machine,  combining  in  one  structure  the 
functions  of  setting  and  distributing,  appears  to  be  the  desideratum,  and  several  journals  are 
now  successfully  using  a  machine  which  admirably  suits  their  purpose. 


872  TYPESETTING   MACHINES. 

TJie  Thome  Typesetting  Machine,  of  which  there  are  a  large  number  in  use,  has  been 
lately  remodeled  and  improved,  and  is  now  considered  to  be  a  practically  perfect  newspaper 
machine,  combining  the  features  of  typesetting  and  the  automatic  distribution  of  the  type, 
after  it  has  been  used,  back  into  the  machine  for  repeated  use.  A  general  description  of 
the  machine,  which  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  is  as  follows  :  As  will  be 
seen  on  reference  to  the  general  view,  Fig.  1,  the  two  principal  features  of  the  Thorne  type- 
setting and  distributing  machine  are  a  keyboard,  and  two  vertical  cylinders,  having  the  same 
axis,  the  upper  cylinder  resting  upon  a  collar  on  the  lower  one.  Both  cylinders  are  cut  with 
a  number  of  vertical  grooves,  of  such  form  as  to  receive  the  type,  which  is  to  be  first  distrib- 
uted, and  then  reset.  There  are  ninety  of  these  vertical  grooves  in  each  of  the  cylinders, 
sufficient  to  contain  all  letters,  and  all  kinds  of  characters  that  are  wanted  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses. The  keyboard  carries  a  number  of  keys  corresponding  to  that  of  the  grooves,  and 
when  the  machine  is  in  operation,  whatever  key  is  depressed,  the  letter  corresponding  to  it  is 
ejected  from  its  proper  groove  in  the  lower  cylinder  upon  a  circular  and  revolving  table, 
which  has  the  same  axis  as  the  cylinder,  but  is  of  larger  diameter.  Of  course,  quite  a  num- 
ber of  types  may  thus  be  ejected  from  the  grooves  in  each  revolution  of  the  disk,  and  all  are 
brought  round  in  their  proper  order  to  a  point  of  delivery,  where  they  are  conveyed  by  a 
traveling  band  into  a  guide,  and  are  forced  into  a  parallel  position  with  each  other  and  proper 
alignment  by  a  striker  as  they  travel  in  the  guide,  and  they  are  also  gradually  turned  upward 
by  a  twisted  portion  of  the  slide  ;  that  is  to  say,  so  as  to  present  the  face  of  the  letters  upward. 

The  types  thus  set  are  discharged  in  lines  into  a  galley,  and  by  an  attendant,  provided 
with  a  case  containing  "spaces,"  are  "justified  ;"  that  is  to  say,  the  spaces  between  words 
are  increased  equally  until  the  last  word,  or,  if  a  syllable,  with  its  required  hyphen,  in  each 
line  reaches  the  end  of  the  line.  Proof  corrections  are,  of  course,  done  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  control  of  the  types  is  effected  by  forming  on  the  side  of  each  character  recesses 
something  like  the  wards  of  a  key,  the  arrangement,  of  course,  being  different  for  each  char- 
acter. The  upper  ends  of  the  grooves  in  the  lower  cylinder  are  provided  with  projections 
corresponding  to  these  grooves  on  the  types,  so  that  no  type  will  fall  into  any  groove  other 
than  that  for  which  it  is  intended.  This  arrangement  applies  only  to  the  lower  cylinder, 
which  does  not  revolve.  The  grooves  in  the  upper  or  distributing  cylinder  are  large  enough 
to  receive  all  the  types,  indifferently,  that  are  fed  into  them.  The  work  of  distribution  is 
effected  as  follows  :  A  suitable  attachment  to  the  side  of  the  upper  cylinder  enables  the  op- 
erator to  place  the  galley  containing  the  type  to  be  distributed  in  contact  with  the  cylinder, 
and  by  a  very  simple  device,  line  after  line  of  type  is  fed  into  the  cylinder  until,  if  desired, 
every  groove  is  nearly  filled,  and  the  upper  cylinder  is  caused  to  revolve  upon  the  lower  one, 
with  which  it  is  in  contact.  As  the  columns  of  mixed  type  pass  over  the  heads  of  the 
differently  shaped  grooves  of  the  lower  cylinder,  letter  by  letter  falls  into  its  proper  groove 
as  soon  as  the  nicks  in  the  types  find  their  corresponding  wards. 

This  machine,  it  will  be  seen,  requires  accuracy  in  construction,  as  do  also  the  types  that 
are  used  with  it,  and  this  has  been  reduced  to  an  exact  system.  The  types  prepared  by 
casting  in  the  usual  manner,  are  set  in  line,  clamped  in  a  slide,  and  the  lines  of  notches  or 
grooves  upon  the  edges  are  plowed  or  planed  in  them  ;  the  accuracy  of  the  tools  employed 
in  these  operations  determines  the  accuracy  and  perfect  working  of  the  machine.  The 
grooves  have  been  cast  in  the  characters  in  several  cases.  By  the  use  of  this  machine,  types 
made  in  the  highest  perfection  of  type  founding  are  used,  which  is  not  the  case  in  the  type 
of  stereotyping  or  line  casting,  because  the  differences  in  the  form  or  character  of  different 
parts  of  the  same  font  of  letters  demand  for  the  best  perfection  differences  of  temperature  and 
of  metal,  which  are  regulated  by  the  skill  and  care  of  the  workmen  in  making  the  type. 

In  handling  the  type  by  this  machine,  contact  of  the  face  of  the  letter  with  any  of  the 
parts  of  the  machine  is  avoided,  so  that  the  best  possible  typography  is  secured  by  it.  The 
only  apparatus  or  adjunct  requisite  for  this  machine  is  steam  power,  or  other  propelling- 
power.  As  compared  with  other  machines  requiring  the  melting  and  cooling  of  metals,  and 
electric  batteries  for  checking  errors  arising  from  the  derangement  of  the  machine,  and  air 
currents  for  imparting  motion  to  matrices,  or  other  equivalent  parts,  it  is  said  to  be  simpler 
and  superior.  The  use  of  these  machines  involves  the  expense  of  the  wages  of  these  opera- 
tives, to-wit :  One  compositor,  one  justifier,  and  one  boy  for  distribution,  per  machine,  and 
one  man  to  set  the  head  lines  for  a  number  of  machines. 

The  Lanston  Type  Machine  belongs  to  a  new  class  in  the  typographical  art.  It  is,  in  fact. 
"a  machine  that  reads  copy,  and  automatically  rewrites  it  in  type  metal."  By  means  of 
the  devices  invented  by  Mr.  Tolbert  Lanston,  the  functions  of  the  type  caster  and  the  com- 
positor are  combined  in  a  single  mechanical  process,  the  type  metal*  being  transferred  from 
the  crucible  to  the  galley  in  the  form  of  composed  type,  ready  for  the  press.  The  only  man- 
ual part  of  the  work  is  the  manipulation  of  a  keyboard,  operated  independently  as  to  time 
and  place  from  the  type  machine  proper,  the  movements  of  the  latter  being  entirely  auto- 
matic. This  keyboard  contains,  a  separate  key  for  every  character  and  space  type  contained 
in  a  complete  font.  They  are  225  in  number  in  the  machine  now  in  use,  and  these  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  bank  of  15  rows,  of  15  keys  each.  The  depression  of  any  key  punches  a,  round 
hole  in  a  paper  ribbon.  When  the  last  syllable  which  can  be  put  in  any  line  has  been  re- 
corded by  these  holes  in  the  paper  ribbon,  the  extent  to  which  the  spaces  of  that  line  must 
be  varied  (by  being  made  either  smaller  or  larger)  to  justify  the  line,  is  indicated  by  a  scale, 
and  a  record  of  the  degree  of  variance  is  made  by  means  of  holes  punched  in  singly  in  the 
paper.  The  roll  of  paper  ribbon  having  been  filled  with  such  holes  punched  at  definite  close 
intervals  along  its  length,  is  next  transferred  to  the  type  machine  proper.  It  is  evident  that 


TYPESETTING  MACHINES. 


873 


as  the  paper  ribbon  is  placed  in  the  type  machine  just  as  it  comes  from  the  keyboard,  the 
holes  enter  the  type  machine  in  the  inverse  order  to  that  in  which  they  were  made,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  justifying  holes  will  enter  the  machine  immediately  before  the  line  to  which 
they  apply,  and  by  their  presence  devices  are  first  put  in  operation  which,  while  permitting 
the  character  types  to  be  formed  of  proper  normal  width,  automatically  alter  the  width 
of  the  space  types  in  the  line  in  the  amount  previously  read  on  the  scale  at  the  keyboard 
as  being  necessary  to  secure  the  justification  of  that  particular  line.  The  automatic  con- 
tinuance of  these  processes  results  in  casting  the  types  composing  the  line  in  the  inverse 
order  of  their  arrangement  therein,  and  in  their  being  placed  in  the  galley  accurately  justi- 
fied, ready  to  be  arranged  in  the  form  on  the  imposing  stone. 

As  a  general  conclusion,  it  can  be  said  that  these  inventions  automatically  make  and  set 
type  at  a  rate  daily  which  will  supplant  the  labor,  in  its  present  form,  of  the  type  caster,  of 
those  engaged  in  the  hand  finishing  of  type  at  the  foundries,  and  of  5  compositors,  a  total 
of  8  persons.  To  do  this  requires  the  services,  on  an  average,  of  li  persons  to  each  type 
machine  and  keyboard. 

The  perfected  Lanston  keyboard  is  operated  by  electricity,  and  has  the  power  to  repeat 
the  same  letter  or  space  continuously,  so  long  as  any  one  key  is  held  down,  at  a  rate  very 
much  more  rapid  than  can  be  with  comfort  accomplished  by  repeated  strokes  of  the  same 
key.  This  faculty  of  automatic  repetition  enables  all  "fat"  matter  to  be  filled  in  with 
surprising  rapidity.  Thus,  if  a  line  is  to  be  cast  blank,  the  key  of  the  "  em  "  quad  is  held 
down,  and  the  index  races  to  the  end  of  the  line  without  any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  oper- 
ator. In  comparing  the  work  of  the  keyboard  operator  with  that  of  the  typewriter,  the 

latter  has  no  equivalent  to  this  mechanical  repetition  in  such  work  as  dashes,  thus, , 

which  requires  a  separate  key  movement  at  each  one. 

The  Rogers  Typograph. — In  this  machine  the  matrix  bars  are  hung  suspended  on  wires 
attached  to  a  tilting  frame,  and  are  released  one  at  a  time  by  touching  a  key  on  the  key- 
board, or  bank,  somewhat  similar  to  a  typewriter  keyboard.  These  matrix  bars,  when  thus 
unlatched,  travel  for- 
ward by  gravity  on 
their  respective  wires, 
and  are  assembled  in 
a  channel,  and  when 
the  line  is  complete, 
the  operator  puts  his 
foot  upon  a  treadle, 
and  by  depressing  it 
the  machine  automat- 
ically justifies,  aligns, 
compresses,  and  casts 
the  line,  and  releases 
and  d  ep  o  s  i  t  s  the 
formed  type  bar  in  a 
galley.  These  opera- 
tions, in  a  foot-power 
machine,  require 
about  five  seconds;  in 
the  steam-power  ma- 
chine, requiring  one- 
eighth  of  a  horse, 
power,  the  operation 
takes  but  three  sec- 
onds, during  which 
time  the  operator  is 
getting  his  line,  so 
that  the  work  of  the 
machine  is  practically 
continuous. 

The  justification 
is  accomplished  by  the 
rotation  of  a  rocking 
composite-disk  of  cir- 
cular form,  which  at 
the  initial  point  is  thin- 
ner than  a  three-em 
space.  By  the  use  of  an 
off-set  in  the  type  bar 
itself,  the  justification 
is  done  at  the  point  of 
contact  by  the  justi- 

fiers   with   the   mold.  FIG.  2.— The  Rogers  typograph. 

By  the  sole  use  of  the 

justifiers  the  spacing  is  made  absolutely  uniform,  but  by  employing  three-em  spaces  between 
short  words,  un-uniform  spacing  may  be  had.  Before  commencing  work,  the  frame  carrying 


874  TYPESETTING   MACHINES. 


the  various  wires  and  matrix  bars  is  swung  down  into  position,  with  its  front  leg  resting  on 
a  base  formed  on  the  center  shaft,  as  seen  in  Fig.  2,  and  the  compressing  arm  is  swung 
to  the  left  of  the  path  of  movement  of  the  matrix  bars  ;  the  latter,  by  the  key  action  men- 
tioned, form  the  line  of  composition  in  front  of  the  mold,  the  latches  retaining  the  matrix 
bars  having  their  appropriate  lips  inserted  between  any  two  matrix  bars  by  reason  of 
inclines  on  the  latter,  so  as  to  cause  the  release  from  the  latches  of  only  the  proper  matrix 
bars.  When  the  desired  line  has  been  thus  formed,  the  operator  desists  from  further  key 
manipulation,  and  gives  the  treadle  its  primary  stroke. 

This  operates,  first,  to  bring  the  compressing  arm  into  position  parallel  with  the  line  of 
composition,  and  to  a  predetermined  point  positively  fixed  for  the  length  of  the  line  when  it 
is  finally  justified  ;  second,  to  rotate  and  move  longitudinally  a  space  shaft,  which  causes 
disk  sections  of  the  compound  spaces  to  move  together  to  cause  the  spaces  to  expand  the 
line  of  composition  to  the  full  extent  as  limited  by  the  set  position  of  the  compressing  arm  ; 
third,  to  move  the  mold  slide  toward  the  line  of  justified  composition,  said  mold  slide  car- 
rying the  aligning  plate,  which  engages  with  the  matrix  bars  to  place  their  matrices  in  line, 
and  the  slide  also  operates  a  space  supporter  so  that  the  latter  may  provide  rear  bearing  for 
the  spaces  as  they  are  pressed  at  their  forward  edges  by  the  mold  ;  fourth,  to  swing  the 
melting  pot  forward  and  upward  so  that  its  discharge  conduit  will  register  tightly  against 
the  casting  chamber  ;  fifth,  to  actuate  the  pump  plunger  in  discharging  the  molten  type 
metal  into  the  casting  chamber. 

The  production  of  each  cast  type  bar  is  caused  by  one  complete  revolution  of  the 
main  driving  shaft,  subdivided  into  two  semi-revolutions  in  the  same  direction,  respect- 
ively a  primary  and  secondary  movement,  so  that  each  said  complete  revolution  of  the 
main  shaft  is  the  result  of  two  full-stroke  movements  of  the  treadle.  After  a  brief  du- 
ration, sufficient  to  ensure  the  cooling  and  proper  setting  of  the  cast  type  bar,  the  treadle 
is  given  its  secondary  movement.  This  rotates  the  driving  shaft  the  final  half  of  its  revo- 
lution, which  acts  to,  first,  withdraw  the  plunger  of  the  pump  ;  second,  to  withdraw  the 
melting-pot  discharge  conduit  from  the  casting  chamber  ;  third,  to  move  the  mold  slide 
toward  the  left  of  the  machine,  thereby  releasing  the  line  of  composition  from  pressure  of 
the  mold,  releasing  the  spaces  from  the  pressure  of  the  space  supporter,  swinging  up  the 
upper  mold  section,  and  actuating  the  mechanism  which  ejects  the  type  bar  from  the  cast- 
ing chamber  ;  fourth,  to  rotate  the  space  shaft  in  reverse  to  its  previous  movement,  and 
place  the  connecting  mechanism  in  suitable  position  for  a  repetition  of  the  operation  de- 
scribed under  the  first  treadle  movement  ;  fifth,  to  move  the  compressor  shaft  rearwardly, 
and  throw  its  arm  out  of  the  path  of  movement  of  the  matrix  bars  in  reverse  to  its  first 
described  movement. 

The  matrix  carrier  can  then  be  swung  backwardly,  so  as  to  distribute  the  matrix  bars 
which  were  previously  in  the  line  of  composition  ;  each  travels  back  to  its  own  place  by  grav- 
ity, and  the  spaces  which  were  in  the  same  line  may  be  moved  by  the  space  distributor  rear- 
wardly, and  off  from  the  space  shaft,  on  to  a  space  way,  and  upwardly  on  the  latter  until 
they  are  locked  by  a  special  latch.  The  cast  type  bar,  which  constitutes  the  product  of  the 
above-described  operation,  is  then  ready  for  trimming,  which  is  done  by  mechanism  operated 
automatically  by  means  of  connections  with  the  treadles  and  main  driving  shaft. 

The  length  of  line  and  body  of  the  type  bar  may  be  altered  very  quickly,  and  the  machine 
may  be  converted  from  a  minion  to  a  nonpareil,  or  to  any  other  face  for  which  extra  sets  of 
matrices  and  extra  casting  boxes  may  be  supplied.  An  eight-page  section  of  the  New  York 
Sunday  World  was,  with  the  exception  of  the  displayed  advertisements  and  heads,  set  up  on 
a  Rogers  typograph.  The  composition  was  done  entirely  on  one  machine,  by  three  oper- 
ators, working  in  turn,  8  hours  at  a  time,  in  4  days,  23  hours,  and  35  minutes,  in  which  time 
the  proof  was  read,  corrections  were  made,  the  heads  set,  and  the  type  placed  in  chases  and 
made 
being 
set  by 

would  have  cost,  including  time,  making  ready,  and  proof  reading,  $173.01.  A  speed  of 
over  7,000  ems  an  hour  has  been  attained  in  setting  memorized  matter  on  a  sixteen-em  pica 
line,  minion  machine,  and  this  seems  likely  to  be  excelled. 

The  Linotype  (Hfergenthaler's  patent)  is  a  machine  now  extensively  used,  and  which 
enables  an  operator  working  at  a  keyboard  attached  to  the  machine  to  set  lines  of  type  of 
any  required  length  ;  such  lines,  upon  completion  and  perfect  justification  mechanically, 
are  then  cast  as  solid  lines,  and  dropped  into  a  galley  while  the  succeeding  line  is  being  set 
and  justified.  The  linotype  has  a  keyboard  of  107  separate  keys,  arranged  in  six  rows,  and 
this  number  of  keys  is  said  to  be  sufficient  to  cover  not  only  all  required  faces  of  type  to  be 
used  as  from  one  font,  but  also,  on  some  machines,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  many  logo- 
types with  faces  set  bodyways,  such  logotypes  being  much  used  in  printing  addresses  for 
wrappers,  thus  :  |  John  Jones  :  the  twelve  months,  expressed  by  three  letters  each,  Jan  , 
Feb.,  Mar.,  etc.  ;  Mr.,  Mrs..  Dr.,  Prof.,  etc.,  to  the  extent  perhaps  of  20  additional  keys. 
The  fundamental  parts  of  the  machine  are  a  series  of  female  type  or  matrices,  each  con- 
taining a  single  letter  or  character,  and  a  series  of  spacing  devices  or  guides,  each  of  which 
is  capable  of  movement  to  variable  thickness.  The  assorted  matrices  are  arranged  in  the 
channels  of  a  magazine,  provided  with  escapement  devices  connected  with  finger  keys,  so 
that  the  operation  of  a  key  is  followed  by  the  discharge  of  a  matrix  bearing  the  same  char- 
acter. The  space  bars  are  arranged  in  a  magazine,  and  discharged  in  like  manner. 


TYPESETTING   MACHINES. 


875 


As  the  matrices  emerge  from  the  magazine,  they  are  received  on  an  inclined  traveling  belt, 
bv  which  they  are  delivered  one  after  another  into  a  receiver,  in  which  they  are  composed  or 
assembled  in  line  together  with  the  spaces.  The  composition  continues  until  all  the  char- 
acters to  appear  in  a  line  are  assembled.  The  operator  then  depresses  a  lever,  and  the 
assembled  line  of  matrices  and  spaces  is  transferred  to  the  face  of  a  mold  having  the  internal 
dimensions  of  the  required  linotype.  The  matrices  and  spaces  th.us  assembled  act  jointly  to 
close  the  face  of  the  mold,  and  while  in  this  position  the  spaces  are  automatically  adjusted 
to  elongate  the  line  to  the  required  limit,  or,  as  technically  termed  by  the  printer,  to  "justify 
the  line."  A  melting  pot,  containing  at  all  times  a  supply  of  molten  type  metal,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  force  pump,  is  connected  with  the  mold,  and  after  the  line  of  matrices  is  pre- 
sented to  the  font,  the  pump  causes  the  molten  metal  to  flow  into  and  fill  the  mold,  where  it 


FIG.  3.— Mergenthaler  linotype  machine. 

solidifies  in  the  form  of  a  bar  or  "  linotype,"  bearing  on  its  edge  the  impress  of  the  matrices 
which  are,  for  the  time  being,  assembled  in  the  front.  After  the  linotype  is  thus  formed, 
the  matrices  are  withdrawn,  the  mold  moved,  and  the  linotype  automatically  ejected  and 
added  to  the  series  which  preceded  it.  As  soon  as  the  line  of  matrices  and  space  bars  is 
removed  from  the  mold,  the  spaces  are  separated  and  returned  to  their  magazines,  while  the 
matrices  are  transferred  to  a  distributing  mechanism,  by  which  they  are  returned  to  the 
magazine  channels  from  which  they  started. 

The  distributing  mechanism  is  of  extreme  simplicity.  It  consists,  essentially,  of  a  single 
bar  extending  horizontally  above  the  upper  ends  of  the"  magazine  channels,  and  having  along 
its  sides  a  series  of  horizontal  ribs,  which  differ  in  number  and  arrangement,  over  the 
respective  channels.  The  matrices  have  their  upper  ends  notched  and  provided  with  teeth, 
by  which  they  may  be  suspended  from  this  bar  while  being  moved  lengthwise  thereunder. 
As  each  matrix  is  thus  moved  along  the  bar,  its  teeth  may  engage  and  disengage  certain  of 


876  TYPESETTING   MACHINES. 

the  rib?,  and  when  the  matrix  reaches  a  point  directly  over  its  appropriate  channel,  ail  of  its 
teeth  are,  for  the  first  time,  disengaged,  and  it  is  permitted  to  descend  by  gravity  into  the 
magazine,  there  to  remain  until  all  of  its  predecessors  in  that  channel*  have  been  called 
into  use. 

A  simple  mechanism  is  provided  for  transferring  the  matrices,  one  at  a  time,  in  rapid 
succession,  to  the  distributor  bar,  and  for  carrying  them  along  the  bar  to  the  points  of  dis- 
charge. The  organization  of  the  machine  is  such  that  the  manipulation  of  the  keys  to 
assemble  the  characters  for  one  line,  the  casting  of  the  preceding  fine,  and  the  distribution 
of  a  still  earlier  line,  are  carried  on  concurrently  and  independently.  The  machine  is 
operated  by  a  small  expenditure  of  power.  Its  principal  parts  move  slowly,  and  the  task  of 
the  operator  is  limited  to  the  manipulation  of  the  finger-keys  and  the  simple  movement 
required  to  start  the  line.  As  soon  as  one  line  is  completed  and  started  to  the  caster,  he 
proceeds  to  set  up  another  line.  The  keys  are  operated  with  a  lighter  touch  than  those  of  a 
typewriter.  The  capacity  of  this  machine,  as  now  speeded,  is  from  8,000  to  10,000  ems 
per  hour. 

Fig.  3  is  a  perspective  of  the  complete  Mergenthaler  linotype  machine. 

The  Munson  Method  of  Power  Type  Composition  has  been  recently  simplified  and  improved, 
so  that  features  -formerly  criticised  or  excepted  to  by  practical  printers  hare  been  eliminated. 
It  has  been  considered  that  most  of  the  typesetting  and  composing  machines  heretofore 
placed  before  the  public  were  limited  in  their  capacity  for  work  by  the  ability  of  the 
operator,  and  that,  with  the  average  manipulation,  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  the 
capacity  of  a  well-constructed  machine  remains  idle.  The  object  of  Mr.  Munson's  inventions 
is  to  overcome  this  defect  in  typesetting  machinery,  and  to  make  it  possible  to  work  up  to 
the  absolute  maximum  speed.  He  uses  three  machines,  viz.:  A  preparatory  perforating 
machine,  a  typesetting  machine,  and  a  type-distributing  machine.  The  preparatory  per- 
forating machine  is  small  and  simply  constructed.  It  is  provided  with  a  keyboard  that  can 
be  worked  by  any  typewriter  operator  at  any  time  or  in  any  place,  and  the  result  (a  strip  of 
paper  having  a  series  of  transverse  rows  of  perforations)  can  afterward  be  used  to  operate  the 
typesetting  machine.  By  this  plan  two,  three,  or  possibly  more  persons  can  be  employed 
simultaneously  in  keeping  one  typesetting  machine  constantly  at  work.  This  preparatory  or 
"  compositor's  "  machine  works  as  follows  :  To  each  letter,  point,  figure,  space,  quadrat,  etc., 
is  assigned  a  particular  row  of  perforations  in  the  ribbon,  the  rows  being  made  to  differ  from 
one  another  by  changes  in  the  combinations  of  their  perforations.  The  operator  has  only  to 
see  that  he  depresses  the  proper  keys  in  their  right  order,  the  machine  itself  taking  care  of  the 
combinations  and  insuring  the  correct  perforations  of  the  ribbon.  The  operator  determines 
as  he  goes  along  where  each  column  line  of  type  shall  end,  in  substantially  the  same  way 
that  a  typewriter  operator  decides  where  each  li'ne  of  typewriting  shall  end.  That  is,  he  is 
guided  by  an  index  moving  along  a  graduated  scale,  and  also  by  the  sound  of  a  bell  that 
is  struck  automatically  a  little  before  the  end  of  the  line  is  reached,  just  as  the  typewriter 
operator  is  guided  by  the  "  carriage  scale  "  index  and  bell  of  that  machine.  When  the  end 
of  a  column  line  is  thus  fixed  upon  by  the  operator  (whether  the  division  comes  after  a  word, 
after  a  hyphen  dividing  a  word,  or  after  a  point,  figure,  or  other  character),  he  marks  the 
terminus  "of  the  line  by  touching  a  key  that  causes  to  be  inserted  at  that  point  in  the  ribbon 
a  row  of  perforations  that  represents  a  peculiar  type,  called  the  "line  divider."  He  then 
proceeds  in  like  manner  to  compose  the  next  line. 

The  typesetting  machine  has  no  keyboard,  but  is  automatic  in  its  action,  and  is  operated 
entirely  by  mechanical  power,  its  work  being  directed  by  the  perforated  strip.  Automatically 
it  does  the  following  things  :  (1)  It  sets  matter  in  a  long,  continuous  line  of  type,  this  line 
consisting  of  a  succession  of  separated  short  lines,  each  of  which  has  the  requisite  length  and 
the  proper  terminal  division  to  make  it,  when  spaced  and  justified,  a  correct  and  suitable 
column  line.  (3)  It  spaces  evenly,  and  justifies  with  exactness  each  of  such  column  lines,  and 
then  deposits  it  with  the  column  of  type  on  the  galley.  (3)  When  matter  is  required  to  be 
leaded,  it  inserts  leads  between  the  lines  of  type  as  they  are  moved  on  to  the  galley. 

The  type  used  with  these  machines  is  the  ordinary  type  made  and  sold  by  typefounders. 
The  power  type  distributor  is  entirely  automatic  ;  that  is,  it  will  not  require  the  "dead" 
matter  for  distribution  to  be  fed  into  it  by  hand,  but  a  whole  page  or  column  of  type  may  be 
placed  on  its  table,  and  the  machine  itself  will  do  the  rest.  It  separates  the  foremost  line  of 
type  from  the  others,  and  then  picks  off  each  individual  type  and  places  it  in  its  proper 
reservoir. 

The  Electric  Linotype  Machine,  based  upon  the  inventions  of  Mr.  Shuckers,  and  further 
improved  by  Mr.  Homer  Lee,  is  an  automatic  type-bar  casting  machine,  differing  from  the 
Mergenthaler  and  Rogers  machines  in  that,  instead  of  using  female  characters  of  the  matrix 
order,  it  employs  male  or  cameo  characters  secured  to  the  ends  of  bars  arranged  in  the  arc  of 
a  circle  over  a  key-assembling  channel,  the  bars  being  arranged  in  lines  radial  to  their  key 
channel.  Any  number  of  bars  with  like  characters  may  be  used.  The  bars  are  released,  one 
at  a  time,  by  electro- magnets  operated  from  a  keyboard.  When  released,  each  bar  falls  by 
gravity  with  its  type  end  in  place  in  the  assembling  channel  in  front  of  the  operator,  each  suc- 
ceeding bar,  as  it  falls,  taking  its  place  alongside  of  the  preceding  bar.  The  automatic  justi- 
fying spaces  are  similarly  released  by  a  proper  key  and  electro-magnet  to  fall  in  place  between 
the  type  bars,  and  when  the  line  is  completed  the  machine  automatically  clamps  the  types  in 
place,  and  at  the  same  time  moves  the  justifying  spaces  simultaneously  all  to  equal  distances, 
so  that  the  line  is  automatically  justified  at  the  time  it  is  clamped  rigidly  in  place.  The  soft 
lead  bar  is  then  fed  beneath  the  line  of  clamped  type  bars,  and  is  moved  up  into  forcible 


TYPEWRITER  OR   WRITING   MACHINES. 


877 


contact  with  the  type  faces  by  a  proper  plunger,  which  causes  the  soft  lead  bar  to  be 
impressed  with  a  line  of  characters  which  thus  appear  in  the  bar  in  female  or  intaglio  form. 
The  plunger  then  withdraws,  the  soft  lead  bar  is  released  and  moves  forward  into  position  in 
line  with  the  mouth  of  a  type-bar  mold.  The  molten  type  metal  is  then  automatically 
forced  into  the  mold  against  the  face  of  the  matrix,  the  mold  withdraws  slightly,  and 
carries  the  cast  type  bar  around  in  contact  with  a  rear  knife,  that^trims  the  under  face  of  the 
type  bar  and  deposits  it  in  proper  order  into  a  galley,  to  be  afterward  taken  to  the  composing 
table.  As  soon  as  the  plunger  withdraws,  and  the  soft  metal  bar  is  thus  released,  other  bars 
may  be  fed  in,  one  at  a  time,  automatically,  so  that  the  matter  of  the  first  bar  may  be  dupli- 
cated one  or  more  times,  as  may  be  necessary.  When  a  new  line  is  to  be  set  up.  the  operator 
pulls  a  candle,  and  the  type  bars  move  back  to  their  normal  positions  ready  for  the  operator  to 
assemble  another  series  of  bars.  The  automatic  justifier  referred  to  is  the  invention  of  Mr. 
Shuckers,  and  forms  a  very  important  part  of  the  machine,  and  is,  in  fact,  necessary  to  all 
automatic  linotype  machines,  and  is  one  of  the  most  ingenious  parts  of  the  machine. 

TYPEWRITER  OR  WRITING  MACHINES.  Typewriting  machines  may  be  divided 
into  four  general  classes,  viz. :  Type-bar  machines,  or  those  having  type  attached  to 
the  ends  of  bars,  so  arranged  as  to  strike  at  a  common  printing  point ;  'wheel  machines, 
or  those  having  type  arranged  upon  segments  of  a  wheel,  which  are  swung  into  a 
printing  position  by  modified  levers ;  cylinder  machines,  or  those  having  type  ar- 
ranged upon  cylinders,  and  so  governed  by  levers  and  auxiliary  levers  as  to  oscillate  to 
a  proper  printing  position  ;  and  one-hand  machines,  so-called,  as  they  are  designed  to  be 
operated  by  one  hand.  There  are  more  type-bar  machines  in  use  than  all  other  classes  com- 


-\-rRONT   RAIL 

-\-RIBBON  SWITCH 


TURN  BUCKLE 


UNIVE 


FIG.  1.— Caligraph  typewriter. 

bined.  There  are  two  classes  of  type-bar  machines— those  printing  with  an  upward  stroke, 
and  those  printing  with  a  downward  stroke.  The  Caligraph,  Remington,  Smith  Premier, 
Yost,  Densmore.  and  National  belong  to  the  first  class.  The  Franklin,  Bar-lock,  and  Will- 
iams belong  to  the  second. 

I.  TYPE-BAR  MACHINES. — Tlie  Caligraph  Typewriter,  Fig.  1,  is  a  type-bar  machine,  hav- 
ing a  common  printing  point,  at  which  the  type  strike  by  an  upward  motion  of  the  type  bar. 
This  point  is  exactly  in  the  center  of  the  basket,  and  when  any  key  is  touched  the  type  cor- 
responding to  it  rises  with  a  sharp,  quick  blow,  leaving  an  imprint*  at  that  particular  point. 
By  an  automatic  escapement,  the  carriage,  with  its  load  of  paper,  is  allowed  to  glide  easily 
onward  so  that  the  next  character  will  appear  at  its  proper  space  distance  from  the  preced- 
ing one.  This,  in  a  general  way,  explains  the  operation  of  the  machine,  but  a  number  of 
mechanisms  are  set  in  motion  by  simply  touching  the  key.  The  carriage  movement  and 
ribbon  movement  are  effected  simultaneously.  A  rectangular  rocker  bar  is  pinioned  at 
the  rear  base  of  the  machine  by  means  of  a  pair  of  studs  and  check  nuts.  It  rises  in  a 
perpendicular  position,  reaching  across  the  top  plate  at  the  back.  Below,  it  is  connected 
to  a  U  shaped  universal  bar,  which  reaches  out  under  the  key  levers  in  such  a  way  that 


878  TYPEWRITER   OR   WRITING   MACHINES. 

when  they  are  depressed  the  same  motion  is  given  to  it,  and  in  turn  carried  forward  to  the 
rocker  bar,  which  receives  a  -[-in.  vibration  at  its  upper  part.  In  the  middle  upper 
part  of  the  rocker  bar  a  dog  is  pinioned,  which  engages  the  teeth  of  a  double  rack  hung 
directly  over  it  from  the  carriage.  A  driving  arm  is  connected  to  a  strong  torsion  spring 
underneath  the  machine,  and  then  in  turn  to  the  forward  rack,  by  means  of  an  ordinary  link 
and  stud,  so  that  there  is  a  continual  pressure  upon  the  rack  and  carriage  from  right  to 
left.  The  dog  engages  the  rear  rack  when  the  machine  is  at  rest.  The  two  racks  have  an 
independent  action  within  the  limits  of  one  rack  tooth.  Between  the  two  is  a  small  spiral 
spring,  which,  when  the  machine  is  at  rest,  is  stretched  by  the  stronger  tension  of  the 
torsion  spring  ;  thus  when  the  dog  engages  the  teeth  of  the  front  rack,  the  strain  is  taken 
from  the  rack  spring,  which  resumes  its  normal  position,  carrying  the  rear  rack  with  it  the 
distance  of  one  tooth.  In  this  way,  the  teeth  of  one  rack  are  always  opposite  those  of  the 
other,  and  the  dog  plays  back  and  forth,  allowing  the  carriage  to  travel  easily  onward  one 
space  at  a  time.  The  vibration  of  the  rocker  bar  gives  the  forward  and  back  action  to  the 
dog,  which  engages  first  one  rack  and  then  the  other. 

At  each  side  of  the  rocker  bar  is  attached  a  pawl,  engaging  the  teeth  of  a  ribbon  ratchet, 
which  works  on  an  eccentric  giving  a  lateral  movement  to  the  ribbon.  The  ratchet  is  at  one 
end  of  a  short  shaft,  having  at  the  other  a  small  cog,  geared  to  a  larger  one.  The  larger  cog  is 
pinioned  to  another  shaft,  which,  as  it  turns,  reels  the  ribbon.  The  shafts  are  at  right  angles, 
and,  working  together,  give  the  ribbon  two  movements,  thus  exposing  at  the  printing  point  a 
fresh  part  of  the  ribbon  for  each  type  impression.  Thus  a  positive  ribbon  movement  is  se- 
cured, and  the  whole  printing  surface  of  the  ribbon  is  utilized.  By  means  of  a  switch  at  the 
back,  the  cogs  at  either  side  of  the  machine  may  be  thrown  in  and  out  of  gear  at  pleasure. 
Thus  when  the  ribbon  has  been  wound  upon  one  spool,  the  switch  is  reversed  and  it  is  reeled 
upon  the  other.  The  lateral  motion  continues  when  either  is  in  operation. 

The  keyboard,  which  consists  of  78  characters,  is  so  arranged  that  the  letters  most  fre- 
quently used  are  most  conveniently  placed,  and  those  least  often  used  are  in  less  prominent 
positions  The  small  letters  occupy  an  oblong  space  in  the  center,  about  7  in.  long  and  2|  in. 
wide,  distributed  over  three  banks.  Directly  above  the  small  letters,  are  six  characters  in 
common  use ;  above  these  are  the  numerals.  'Below  the  small  letters  are  the  different  punctu- 
ation marks,  and  at  the  right  and  left  appear  capitals,  which  are  white  upon  a  black  back- 
ground. It  is  designed  that  the  left  hand  shall  operate  «•<»,"  "/,"  "w,"  and  those  at  the 
left  of  them,  and  that  the  right  hand  shall  operate  "y,"  "#,"  "£,"  and  those  at  the  right 
of  them.  With  tnis  as  the  dividing  line,  the  letters  are  arranged  as  far  as  possible  so  that  in 
the  majority  of  words  the  hands  will  work  alternately  in  producing  the  letters,  which  is  essen- 
tial for  rapid  work.  The  keys  are  made  from  a  composition  which  is  easy  to  the  touch, 
and  from  its  dull  luster  is  not  trying  to  the  eyes.  Six  bridges  reach  from  one  side  of  the 
frame  to  the  other,  through  which  key-stems  pass,  serving  as  a  guide  to  them.  Below,  the 
stems  are  joined  to  equalized  levers,  which  are  made  to  operate  type  bars  by  means  of  long  con- 
necting rods.  Hangers  radiating  from  the  center  of  the  basket  are  attached  to  the  top  plate, 
supporting  other  levers.  These  are  the  type  bars,  which,  being  struck  up  from  sheet  steel,  are 
hollow,  thus  securing  lightness  and  strength.  A  conical  bearing,  which  is  tightened  by  an 
adjusting  screw,  insures  a  positive  and  permanent  alignment.  The  type  are  set  at  the  ex- 
treme end  of  the  bars,  affording  a  leverage  of  such  power  that  by  means  of  impression  paper 
40  copies  can  be  made  at  once.  For  this  reason  the  Caligraph  is  used  by  press  associations 
and  telegraph  companies  in  taking  matter  for  publication  direct  from  the  wire.  By  means 
of  it,  all  the  New  York  dailies  are  furnished  immediately  with  a  clearly-printed  'copy  of 
important  news.  The  old  method  of  writing  out  messages  as  received  is  gradually  being 
discarded,  and  even  personal  telegrams  are  received  in  the  same  manner. 

The  carriage  glides  easily  forward  upon  a  rod  at  the  back  of  the  machine,  supported  from 
the  frame  by  ordinary  standards.  At  the  front  center,  the  carriage  is  supported  by  a  small 
wheel  of  hardened  steel.  A  yoke  with  steel  collars  connects  the  carriage  to  the  traveling 
rack,  and  thus  they  move  together,  one  space  at  a  time,  and  just  as  fast  as  the  dog  passes  from 
one  rack  to  the  other.  The  paper  is  fed  into  the  machine  from  behind  and  passes  between 
two  rubber  rollers  which  hold  it  firmly  in  place.  The  smaller  of  the  two,  the  feed  roll,  is 
pressed  firmly  against  the  larger  by  means  of  feed  springs,  held  in  place  by  set-screws.  This 
insures  an  even  tension  at  both  ends  and  causes  the  paper  to  feed  straight.  It  also  admits 
paper  of  any  thickness  and  any  number  of  sheets,  as  the  set-screws  make  the  apparatus 
adjustable.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  recent  improvements.  There  are  two  inter- 
changeable rollers  or  platens,  of  different  diameters,  for  each  machine.  These  are  adjusted, 
the  one  for  single  copy  work  and  the  other  for  manifolding. 

The  Remington  Machine  (Pig.  2).— The  printing  is  produced  in  this  machine  by  type 
bars  rising,  so  that  one  set  of  type  strikes  at  one  common  printing  point,  and  another  set  of 
type  strikes  at  another  common  printing  point,  both  of  which  are  a  trifie  off  the  center  of  the 
basket.  These  bars  are  hung  from  the  top  plate  of  the  machine.  The  type,  however,  are 
arranged  in  pairs  upon  the  type  bars,  so  that  one  key  answers  for  two  type,  requiring,  how- 
ever, an  auxiliary  shift  when  any  of  the  upper-case  letters  are  required.  This  gives  a  smaller 
keyboard,  there  being  but  40  keys,  which  obviously  represent  76  characters,  as  two  keys  are 
used  for  shifting.  While  this  arrangement  gives  a  more  compact  keyboard,  two  separate 
strokes  are  required  to  produce  any  of  the  upper-case  letters.  The  stroke  is  made  by  levers 
fulcrumed  at  the  back  of  the  machine.  This  is  an  easy  leverage,  requiring  a  f-in.  stroke. 
The  carriage  is  a  7  x  9}  in.  frame,  which  rides  upon  three  wheels,  two  being  at  the  back 
and  one  in  front.  Those  at  the  back  are  grooved  to  fit  the  back  rail,  while  the  one  in 


TYPEWRITES   OR   WRITING   MACHINES. 


879 


FIG.  2.—  Remington  typewriter. 


front  is  flat  and  has  a  plain  track.      The  platen,  feed  roll,  and  connecting  gear  are  fitted  to 
slide   forward   and  back  when  a  shift  from  one  case  to  the  other  is  required.    Two  yoke 

blocks  connect  these  to'  the 
shift  rail,  which  is  in  front. 
This  rail  has  a  i'orward-and- 
back  movement  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  the  carriage. 
A  strong  spring  holds  it  well 
forward,  so  that  the  printing 
surface  of  the  platen  remains 
directly  over  the  lower-case 
type.  To  print  an  upper- 
case character,  the  shift  key  is 
pressed,  throwing  the  platen 
back,  with  the  printing  sur- 
face directly  over  the  upper- 
case characters.  In  the  Cali- 


*.-.]  f_      __  _ 

graph  the  platen  is  corru- 
gated, giving  a  flat  surface 
upon  which  the  type  strike, 
and  the  type  faces  are  plain  ; 
while  in  this  machine  the 
platen  is  round  and  type 
faces  are  concave.  Two  rub- 
ber straps,  which  pass  be- 
neath the  platen  and  around 
each  end  of  the  feed  roll,  hold 
it  in  place.  By  switching, 
the  platen  may  be  made  to 
hold  a  constant  upper-case  printing  position,  and  then  the  lower-case  shift  must  be  used  to 
find  lower-case  characters.  This  is  useful  in  tabulating  work  and  in  printing  headings.  The 
carriage  is  drawn  from  right  to  left  by  a  coiled  spring  attached  to  it  by  a  leather  strap. 
A  yoke  with  steel  bushings  joins  the  carriage  to  a  rack  which  engages  its  teeth  with  a  dog  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  movement  is  made  one  space  at  a  time.  Here,  however,  the  rack  is 
single  and  the  dog  double,  being  split.  When  the  machine  is  at  rest,  the  forward  dog 
engages  the  rack  teeth  and  is  pressed  forward  against  its  spring  until  aligned  with  the  rear 
dog.  By  a  rocker-bar  movement  both  dogs  are  swung  forward  at  each  stroke,  and  just  far 
enough  to  free  the  forward  dog,  when  its  spring  carries  it  back  the  distance  of  one  tooth.  As 
soon  as  the  rocker  bar,  resuming  its  normal  position,  has  carried  the  front  dog  through  the 
next  tooth,  it  is  again  sprung  forward  and  the  spacing  is  made. 

A  ratchet  is  attached  to  the  shaft  carrying  the  coiled  spring,  and  so  arranged  that  it  gears 
only  when  the  carriage  travels  from  right  to  left.  At  the  other  end  of  this  shaft  is  a  cog, 
which  engages  the  teeth  of  another  cog  turning  a  shaft  at  right  angles  to  it,  which  carries  the 
ribbon  spool.  Thus  the  ribbon  is  reeled  as  the  spring  gradually  unwinds,  and  receives  its 
power  from  that  spring,  thus  lightening  the  touch.  The  intermediate  shaft  just  mentioned 
has  bearings  at  both  sides  of  the  machine  and  is  geared  the  same  at  both  ends.  By  means 
of  a  switch,  either  one  can  be  put  in  gear,  and  when  the  ribbon  has  been  wound  about  one 
spool,  it  can  be  reversed  and  wound  about  the  other. 

The  Smith  Premier  (Fig.  3). — The  impression  of  the  type  is  made  in  this  machine  by 
the  same  upward  stroke  as  in  those  previously  described,  but  the  type  bars  are  arranged  in 
a  different  manner.  They  are  hung  on  1^-in.  bearings,  one  half  of  them  being  supported 
above  the  plate,  and  the  other  half  below.  But 
instead  of  forming  chords  of  the  plate  circle, 
as  in  the  machines  already  described,  the  bear- 
ings are  secant  lines  to  that  circle,  and  the 
type  bar  proper  is  at  the  extreme  inner  bear- 
ing. In  making  a  strong,  firm  stroke,  the  type 
bar  should  be  at  right  angles  to  its  bearing, 
but  from  the  position  of  the  bearing  this  is 
obviously  impossible,  and  so  the  bars  are  bent  in 
such  shape  that  the  line  of  the  bar  at  its  striking 
point  has  such  a  position  relative  to  its  bearing. 
The  theory  is  that  with  the  increased  length  of 
bearing,  the  alignment  will  be  permanent.  The 
rocker-bar  movement  is  used  throughout  the  ma- 
chine. Connecting  rods  are  attached  to  the  other 
end  of  the  type-bar  bearing,  and  thus  the  ends 
draw  against  each  other  when  the  bar  is  in  opera- 
tion. The  key  levers  of  this  machine  are  entirely 
different  from  what  have  been  described.  Circular 
bars.  76  in  number,  and  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  reach  from  front  to  rear  and  below  the  keyboard.  They  have  a  bearing  at 
each  end,  and  work  with  a  circular  movement.  A  rocker-bar  movement  attaches  the  key 


FIG.  3.— Smith  Premier  machine. 


880 


TYPEWRITER   OR   WRITING   MACHINES. 


stem  to  this  bar.  and  the  same  kind  of  an  arrangement  is  used  for  joining  it  to  the  connect- 
ing rods.  These  rocker-bar  levers  are  arranged  in  12  banks,  with  those  of  a  bank  directly 
over  each  other.  The  keyboard  consists  of  76  characters,  corresponding  to  the  same  number 
of  rocker-bar  levers  ano!  type.  Its  arrangement  is  quite  different  from  either  keyboard 
described.  The  capitals  are  arranged  in  three  banks  above,  and  the  small  letters  below, 
where  they  are  conveniently  touched.  The  numerals  are  arranged  at  the  sides,  and  the 
punctuation  marks  occupy  the  remaining  spaces.  The  carriage  moves  upon  ball  bearings, 
which  have  an  enclosed  track  of  their  own.  This  arrangement  insures  a  steady,  even  motion. 
The  platen  is  hung  on  an  open  bearing,  and  is  so  attached  to  another  set  of  bearings  above 
that  it  can  be  swung  out  of  its  true  bearings  forward,  so  as  to  expose  to  the  operator's  view 
the  printing  surface  of  the  platen  and  any  writing  upon  the  paper.  The  feed  roll  is  attached 
to  the  rear  carriage  rod,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  swing  motion,  governed  by  springs  which  press 
it  against  the  platen.  By  pressing  the  paper  table  forward  the  two  are  disengaged  and  the 
paper  can  be  easily  removed.  The  carriage  is  attached  to  a  coiled  spring  at  the  rear  of  the 
machine  by  a  fine  steel  chain,  and  is  carried  from  right  to  left  by  it.  The  spring  is  joined 
to  a  wheel  which  turns  upon  a  shaft,  reaching  from  front  to  rear  as  the  side.  Back  of 
the  spring  wheel  is  a  weight,  hung  on  an  eccentric  which  rises  and  drops  as  the  wheel  turns, 


FIG.  4.— Hammond  typewriter. 

thus  striking  a  bell.  It  is  gauged,  as  in  all  machines,  to  trip  and  strike  at  the  end  of  each 
line  of  writing.  The  ribbon  spool  is  hung  loosely  upon  this  6-in.  shaft,  a  spring  holding  it 
pressed  against  a  spiral  stop  at  the  front  of  the  machine.  As  the  carriage  is  pressed  back 
from  left  to  right,  the  spring  is  wound  up,  the  shaft  is  turned,  and  with  it  the  spiral  stop, 
which  presses  the  spool  along  the  shaft  also. 

The  Yost  Machine. — The  Yost  is  the  only  machine  of  its  class  which  does  not  use  a 
ribbon  ;  a  pad  is  used  instead.  This  is  a  circular  piece  of  felt,  saturated  with  ink,  which  fits 
the  circumference  of  the  machine  disk.  When  at  rest  the  type  bars  stand  in  a  vertical 
position  with  the  type  faces  resting  on  the  pad.  There  is  no  attempt  at  alignment,  as  the 
type  are  forced  to  a  common  printing  point  by  means  of  a  perforated  diaphragm,  having  a 
flaring  opening  which  draws  to  a  center  the  size  of  the  type  shank.  The  type  bars  have 
what  is  known  as  the  "  grasshopper  motion/'  and  are  operated  by  levers  of  the  first  class. 
The  action  is  a  complicated  one,  three  additional  levers  being  necessary,  one  of  the  second 
class  and  two  of  the  third. 

The  Franklin. — This  is  a  type-bar  machine  which  prints  with  a  downward  stroke  ;  thus 
the  writing  is  visible  without  any  movement  of  the  paper  carriage.  There  is  a  direct  connec- 
tion between  the  levers  and  type  bars,  which  are  cog-geared  Teeth  at  the  end  of  levers 
of  the  first  class  engage  similar  teeth  on  the  type  bars,  so  that  the  bars  are  forced  down 
by  a  rolling  motion.  The  machine  has  two  type  on  a-  bar,  the  upper-case  letters  being 


TYPEWRITER   OR  WRITING   MACHINES. 


881 


printed  by  means  of  an  auxiliary  shift.  Type-bar  guides  force  the  type  to  print  at  a  com- 
mon point.  There  are  40  keys,  which  can  be  modified  by  the  shift,  printing  80  characters. 
The  machine  has  a  circular  keyboard,  radiating  from  the  common  printing  point. 

II.  THE  TYPE-WHEEL  MACHINE. — The  Hammond. — This  machine,  Fig.  4,  has  some  features 
similar  to  the  others  which  have  been  described,  but  stands  alone  as  a  type-wheel  instrument. 
It  has  30  keys  :  also  two  shifts,  and  as  each  shift  gives  a  new  meaning  to  every  key,  the 
machine  will  yield  90  characters.  There  is  a  common  printing  point  at  the  back  of  the  disk. 
The  type  are  arranged  on  two  type  wheels,  which  together  form  the  quadrant  of  a  circle,  and 
are  arranged  in  three  rows,  the  upper  row  containing  small  letters  ;  the  middle,  capitals ;  and 
the  lower,  numbers  and  characters.  The  type  wheels  are  arranged  on  a  shaft  which  stands 
perpendicularly  in  the  center  of  the  disk,  and  so  governed  by  a  spring  that,  after  being  raised, 
it  will  be  forcibly  drawn  down.  Thus  each  row  of  characters  can  be  brought  into  line  with  the 
printing  point.  The  shifts  are  upon  levers  which  operate  a  rocker  bar  attached  to  the  wheel 
shaft.  Each  one  has  a  stop,  governing  the  height  to  which  the  wheel  shall  be  carried. 
Thus,  when  figures  are  to  be  printed,  the  wheels  are  carried  to  the  highest  point ;  if  capitals, 
they  will  be  carried  only  half  the  height.  For  small  letters,  which  are  most  used,  they  print 
on  their  normal  level.  Reaching  across  the  levers  beyond  the  fulcrum  are  universal  bars, 
each  of  which  covers  half  of  the  levers,  one  at  one  side  of  the  machine,  and  one  at  the  other. 
Thus,  when  the  keys  on  the  left  are  touched,  the  left  universal  bar  is  raised,  and  when  the 
keys  on  the  right  are  touched,  the  right  universal  bar  is  raised.  Each  is  connected  to  a 
rocker  bar,  acting  one  upon  one  type  wheel,  and  one  upon  the  other,  swinging  them  so  that 
every  part  may  be  brought  to  the  common  printing  point.  Stems  are  placed  in  a  vertical 


FIG.  5. — Crandall  type-cylinder  machine. 

position  over  the  levers,  so  that  when  any  key  is  pressed,  its  stem  will  rise  as  a  stop  directly 
over  that  lever,  preventing  the  wheel  from  turning  past  this  point.  As  the  type  are  placed 
upon  the  wheels  to  be  guided  by  this  action,  each  type  presents  itself  at  the  right  point  to 
print  when  its  key  is  pressed.  The  ribbon  is  coiled  upon  two  spools,  which  are  arranged 
upon  upright  shafts.  Cogs  upon  the  lower  ends  of  these  shafts  engage  spirals  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  another  shaft  reaching  from  side  to  side  of  the  machine  at  right  angles  to 
the  uprights.  The  spirals  work  against  each  other,  and,  consequently,  the  spools  turn  in 
opposite  directions,  if  one  spool  is  tightened  to  its  shaft,  the  other  is  loose  and  turns  easily. 
To  reverse  the  ribbon,  one  spool  is  loosened  and  the  other  is  made  tight.  The  lower  shaft  is 
turned  by  a  universal  bar  above  the  ends  of  the  levers,  which  also  operates  other  mechanism 
in  the  back  of  the  machine.  The  carriage  is  at  the  back  of  the  machine,  and  works  upon 
grooved  guide  wheels.  Two  feed  rolls  are  held  against  each  other  by  a  strong  spring,  and 
are  separated  to  admit  paper  by  a  disengaging  pin.  The  mechanism  which  controls  the 
movement  is  complicated,  and  more  than  a  cursory  description  would  be  unprofitable. 
There  is  an  escapement  wheel  at  the  back,  arranged  on  a  shaft,  having  at  its  other  end  a  cog 
engaging  the  teeth  of  the  rack,  which  in  turn  is  connected  to  the  main  spring  barrel.  The 
spring  draws  the  rack  from  right  to  left,  and  is  held  in  check  by  an  escapement  pawl,  which 
draws  down  upon  it.  When  freed  from  this  strain,  a  spring  of  its  own  draws  it  up,  where  it 
remains  as  long  as  the  carriage  spring  is  held  in  check  by  the  escapement  lever  arm,  but 
when  this  is  removed,  the  next  tooth  of  the  escapement  wheel  engages  the  escapement  pawl, 
and  the  spacing  is  accomplished.  The  action  of  the  mechanism  is  set  in  motion  by  a  uni- 
versal bar  operated  by  the  levers. 

III.  THE  TYPE-CYLINDER  MACHINE.— The  Crandatt.—The,  distinguishing  feature  of  this 
56 


882 


VALVES. 


machine  (Fig.  5)  is  that  all  impressions  are  made  by  the  oscillating  stroke  of  a  type  cylinder, 
Fig.  6.  All  printing  is  visible.  The  cylinder  is  actuated  by  means  of 
28  levers,  together  with  14  auxiliary  levers.  There  are  28  keys.  Two  of 
them  represent  one  character  each ;  the  remaining  26  are  modified  by  two 
shifts,  and  so  the  machine  produces  80  characters.  The  principal  levers 
are  those  of  the  first  class.  The  auxiliary  levers  engage  in  the  differ- 
\~  ¥*  fl  ential  ways  on  the  face  of  a  twirler,  situated  at  the  back  of  the  machine. 
\&  Sf  13  From  the  upper  part  of  the  twirler  is  a  T-shaped  arm  fitted  with  teeth, 
which  engage  the  type-cylinder  gear.  The  type  cylinder  is  held  in  a 
slightly  inclined  position  upon  a  spindle,  supported  upon  a  bracket 
attached  to  the  frame  of  the  machine.  In  printing,  the  type  cylinder  is 
thrown  into  a  perpendicular  position  against  the  face  of  the  platen  at  a 
common  printing  point.  By  the  depression  of  any  key,  its  levers  and 
auxiliary  are  set  in  motion.  This  moves  the  twirler,  and  with  it  the 
T-shaped  arm  which  causes  the  type  cylinder  to  oscillate.  At  the  same 
time  a  cam  movement,  attached  to  a  universal  rocker  shaft,  throws  the 
type  cylinder  against  the  platen. 

IV.  ONE-HAND  MACHINE.—  The  Merritt  Typewriter. — This  machine 
is  designed  to  be  operated  by  one  hand.  The  type  stand  upright,  and 
are  arranged  in  a  movable  trough,  which  is  fitted  into  another  so  that 
it  can  be  moved  easily  from  side  to  side.  In  the  center  is  the  print- 
ing point.  The  type  are  forced  through  a  slot  at  this  point.  Which- 
ever type  is  directly  under  the  slot  is  forced  against  the  platen,  thus 
making  an  impression.  An  index  key  is  attached  to  the  type  trough, 
and  the  type  are  so  arranged  that  each  one  is  brought  beneath  the 
slot  as  the  indicator  is  moved  opposite  the  corresponding  character. 
The  letters  and  characters  are  arranged  in  front,  so  that  those  most  fre- 
quently used  are  nearest  each  other.  This  machine  has  two  shifts,  one 
for  capital  letters,  and  the  other  for  numbers  and  other  characters. 
The  capitals  and  characters  are  arranged  on  either  side  of  a  small  letter, 
so  that  for  one  the  right  shift  is  required,  and  for  the  other  the  left* 
Unlike  most  of  the  other  machines  described,  the  carriage  is  not  moved 
by  a  spring,  but  is  thrust  forward  automatically. 

These  are  the  principal  machines  now  on  the  market.  One  of  the 
many  requisites  of  a  writing  machine  is  its  ability  to  manifold.  Those 
having  type  bars  are  especially  well  adapted  for  this  purpose,  as  the 
leverage  is  much  stronger.  In  a  strong,  well-made  type-bar  machine, 
10  or  15  copies  can  be  made  very  readily,  and  by  using  a  brass  platen 
and  double  carbon,  as  many  as  40  copies  are  often  taken  at  once. 
On  account  of  the  numerous  parts  necessary" to  every  writing  machine,  all  require  more 

or  less  attention,  and  for  this  reason  the  simplest  mechanism  and  that  least  liable  to  get  out 

of  order  is  preferable. 

Valve  :  see  Furnaces,  Blast,  and  articles  under  Engines. 

VALVES. — The  Locke  Renewable-disk  Valve  is  shown,  in  Fig.  1.      When  the  valve  is 


FIG.  6.— Type  cylin- 
der. 


FIG.  2. — Chapman  valve. 


FIG.  4.— Water-relief  valve. 


FIG.  3.— Valve  with  drip. 


VALVES. 


883 


opened  enough  to  admit  steam,  the  soft-metal  seat  is  removed  out  of  the  direct  line  of  the 
steam  current,  thus  bringing  the  cutting  action  of  the  steam  upon  the  cylindrical  projection, 
or  plug,  instead  of  on  the  seat. 

The  C/iapman  Removable-seat  Gate  Valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  This  is  a  valve  specially 
designed  for  high  steam  pressures  of  150  to  200  Ibs.  or  more.  It  has  removable  bronze  seats. 
The  gate  in  one  piece  is  guided  closely  in  the  body  of  the  shell  by  means  of  ribs  which  take 
all  strain.  The  seats  are  pressed  into  their  prope'r  positions  in  the  body  of  the  shell,  and 
are  held  to  line  by  means  o£  a  screw  gland  inserted  through  the  pipe  ends. 

The  Chapman  Valve  with  Automatic  Drip  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  In  many  cases  it  is 
necessary  to  drain  the  water  from  a  pipe,  after  the  supply  has  been  cut  off,  by  closing  the 
main  valve.  To  accomplish  this  it  has  heretofore  been  necessary  to  put  a  T  into  the  pipe, 
with  a  valve  on  it,  that  had  to  be  opened  after  the  main  valve  was  closed.  The  above-named 
valve  is  made  with  a  drip  opening,  which  is  shown  at  the  right  hand  of  the  cut. 

The  Spring  Water-relief  Valve,  used  on  the  Westinghouse  steam  engine,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
4.  The  valve  is  made  a  part  of  the  cylinder  head  of  the  engine,  and  has  a  babbitt  face,  resting 
on  a  seat  of  cast-iron.  The  adjustment  is  accomplished  simply  by  regulating  the  pressure 
on  the  spring  by  means  of  the  bolts  provided  for  that  purpose.  When  about  to  start  the 
engine  for  the  first  time,  the  bolts  are  slackened  sufficiently  to  allow  each  water-relief  valve 
to  puff  steam  at  each  stroke  ;  they  are  then  gently  screwed  down,  thus  compressing  the 
spring,  until  the  puffing  stops. 

The  Ashton  Water-relief  Valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  It  is  used  in  connection  with  steam 
fire-engines,  pumps,  stand  pipes,  and  hose  in  buildings.  With  it  the  stream  can  be  shut  off  at 
will  while  the  engine  is  working,  and  without  increasing  the  pressure  or  bursting  the  hose. 


FIG.  7.  —Richardson's  valve. 


FIG.  6.— Relief  valve. 


The  valve  case  contains  a  spiral  spring,  which,  by  the  hand  wheel  shown,  may  be  adjusted  to 
regulate  the  pressure.  Another  form  of  relief  valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  In  this  valve  the 
nut  is  stationary,  and  the  screw  moves  downward  to  compress  the  spring  and  increase  the 
pressure,  closing  the  valve. 

Richardson's  Combined  Pressure  and  Vacuum  Relief  Valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  This 
valve  is  designed  to  be  placed  in  the  steam  chest  of  locomotives  to  automatically  supply  to 
the  cylinders,  through  the  air  valve,  A.  when  the  engine  is  running  with  steam  shut  off,  a  free 
supply  of  air  from  the  outside  instead  from  the  smoke-box,  laden  with  hot  gases  and  cinders. 
The  pressure  relief  valve,  B.  performs  the  function  of  preventing  the  dangerous  accumulation 
of  pressure  in  the  steam  chest  and  dry-pipe  when  the  engine  is  suddenly  reversed. 

The  3fason  Reducing  Valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  In  this  device  an  auxiliary  valve,  con- 
trolled by  the  low  pressure,  admits  steam  from  the  high-pressure  side  to  actuate  the  main 
valve,  which  is  a  differential  piston.  The  high-pressure  steam  enters  the  reducing  valve 
at  the  side  marked  A.  and  passing  through  the  auxiliary  valve,  K,  which  is  held  open 
by  the  tension  of  the  spring,  S,  passes  down  the  port  marked  "  from  auxiliary  to  cylinder," 
underneath  the  differential  piston,  D.  By  raising  this  piston,  D,  the  valve,  C,  is  opened 
against  the  initial  pressure,  since  the  area  of  C  is  only  one-half  of  that  of  D.  Steam  is 
thus  admitted  to  the  low-pressure  side,  and  also  passes  up  the  port,  X  X.  underneath  the  dia- 
phragm, 0  O,  upon  which  bears  the  spring,  S.  When  the  low  pressure  in  the  system  has 


884 


VALVES. 


risen  to  the  required  point  which  is  determined  by  the  tension  of  the  spring,  S,  the  dia- 
phragm is  forced  upward  by  the  steam  in  the  chamber,  0  0,  the  valve,  K,  closes,  and  no  more 
steam  is  admitted  under  the  piston.  D.  The  valve,  C,  is  forced  to  its  seat  by  the  initial 
pressure,  thus  shutting  off  steam  from  the  low-pressure  side.  This  action  is  repeated  as 
often  as  the  low  pressure  drops  below  the  required  amount.  This  piston.  D,  is  fitted  with  a 
dash-pot,  E,  which  prevents  chattering  or  pounding  when  the  high  or  low  pressure  suddenly 

Locke's  Renewable-disk  Check  Valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  ordinary  form  of  check 
valves  used  in  boiler  feeding  are  liable  to  become  leaky  by  being  beaten  out  by  the  "  water 
hammer,"  caused  by  the  stroke  of  the  pump.  In  this  valve  it  is  sought  to  avoid  this 
trouble  by  employing  a  soft,  renewable  disk  in  the  form  of  a  truck  (as  shown  in  the  cut),  and 
constructing  the  seat  of  the  valve  with  sufficient  bearing  surface  to  prevent  the  soft  packing 
from  having  its  surface  ruptured  by  hammering  on  the  metal  seat  of  the  valve.  This  is 
done  by  constructing  the  valve  seat  with  arms  radiating  from  the  center,  thereby  supporting 
the  packing  at  the  center  and  at  all  points  from  the  center  to  the  circumference.  A  water 
cushion  is  thus  formed,  which  prevents  the  contact  of  the  packing  with  the  metal  seat;  the 


FIG.  9.— Locke's  check  valve. 


FIG.  8.— The  Mason  reducing  valve. 


FIG.  10. — Thomson  faucet. 


valve  really  cushioning  upon  water,  as  the  water  has  to  be  forced  out  before  the  parts  can 
rest  on  each  other. 

The  Thomson  Faucet. — The  faucet  represented  in  Fig.  10  has  recently  been  devised  by  Sir 
William  Thomson.  It  is  made  entirely  of  metal.  The  metal  valve.  A,  on  reaching  the  seat, 
B.  also  of  metal,  is  not  suddenly  arrested  and  compelled  to  seat  itself  hap-hazardly,  but  con- 
tinues to  turn  on  its  seat  as  the  handle  is  turned,  receiving  meanwhile  a  gradually  increasing 
pressure  from  the  spring,  C  (non-corrosive),  centrally  applied  by  the  rounded  head  of  the 
stop.  D.  The  valve  is  thus  rubbed  upon  its  seat  at  every  opening  and  closing,  and  both  valve 
and  seat  acquire  and  maintain  a  perfect  fit  and  finish.  The  manufacturers  state  that  no 
material  wear  is  shown  on  the  valve  and  seat,  even  after  it  has  been  opened  and  closed  as 
much  as  would  occur  in  many  years'  service.  The  spiral  spring  has  been  subjected  to  com- 
pression 700,000  times  without  showing  any  loss  in  power.  The  cock  has  been  opened  and 
closed  by  machinery,  with  water  flowing,  540,000  times,  or  the  equivalent  of  50  years'  use  at 
30  times  a  day.  At  the  end  of  the  test,  the  valve  was  still  tight.  The  method  adopted  to 
avoid  the  use  of  the  ordinary  stuffing-box  is  very  ingenious.  An  "  eduction  tube,"  F,  pro- 
jects into  the  faucet  opening,  and  sucks  out  any  water  which  may  collect  in  the  chamber 
around  the  valve  stem  through  leakage  around  the  screw  when  the  valve  is  opened.  This 
device  is  claimed  to  be  thoroughly  effective. 

(See  GOVERNORS  ;  ENGINES,  STEAM  ;  and  REGULATORS.) 

Vanner  :  see  Ore-dressing  Machinery. 

Vats  :  see  Mills,  Silver. 


WATCHES   AND   CLOCKS.  885 

VENDING  MACHINES.  These  are  more  commonly  known  in  the  United  States  as 
"  nickel-in-the-slot "  machines— the  name  arising  from  the  fact  that  in  the  earlier  appa- 
ratus first  put  into  public  use  a  five-cent  nickel  piece  was  required  to  operate  them.  They 
are  all  constructed  so  that  on  the  insertion  of  some  definite  coin  in  a  locked  receptacle 
some  object  will  be  released  and  made  accessible  to  the  payer,  or  else  some  information,  as, 
for  example,  his  height,  weight,  or  lung  power  will  be  exhibited.  The  applications  of  the 
idea  are  endless.  The  invention  of  the  machine  dates  from  the  time  of  Ctesibius,  about  two 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  and  the  first  application  was  to  the  sale  of  measured 
amounts  of  holy  water  at  the  doors  of  Egyptian  temples.  (See  Ewbank's  Hydraulics;  also 
Hero's  Spiritalia,  Woodcraft's  translation.)  Its  latest  development  is  to  the  automatic 
taking  of  photographs.  (See  Scientific  American  Supplement,  December  21, 1889,  and  May  30, 
1891.)  A  large  collection  of  nickel-in-slot  machines  will  be  found  described  and  illustrated 
in  Scientific  American  Supplement  for  April  11,  1891. 

The  Everett  Weighing  Machine  is  the  type  of  apparatus  of  this  character  in  most  com- 
mon use.  It  may  at  the  present  time  be  found  in  all  public  places  throughout  the  country. 
It  is  an  automatic  weighing  machine.  Its  construction  is  such  that  when  the  person  to  be 
weighed  steps  on  the  scale  platform,  the  descent  of  the  latter  sets  a  stop  in  a  certain  position. 
When  a  coin  is  inserted  in  the  slot,  a  lever  is  tilted,  working  independent  mechanism,  which 
controls  an  index  moving  over  a  dial  marked  to  indicate  weight.  The  dial  mechanism  is 
limited  in  the  extent  of  its  operation  by  the  stop  which  the  weight  of  the  person  adjusts,  as 
already  stated,  in  definite  position.  Therefore,  by  the  coaction  of  the  two  practically  inde- 
pendent mechanisms,  one  actuated  by  the  coin,  and  the  other  by  the  weight  of  the  user,  the 
range  of  movement  of  the  index  is  so  limited  as  to  cause  it  to  stop  on  the  dial  at  the  proper 
indication.  A  full  description  of  this  machine  will  be  found  in  U.  S.  Patent  No.  336,042, 
February  9,  1886. 

VENEER  CUTTING  is  done  in  three  ways;  first,  by  saws,  which,  of  course,  waste  in  kerf 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  stock,  the  greater  proportion  being  in  the  case  of  those  woods 
which,  by  reason  of  their  costliness,  are  made  into  the  finest  veneers  ;  second,  by  knives  which 
slice  the  "material  into  sheets  as  wide  as  the  width  of  the  log  ;  and  third,  by  knives  which 
turn  from  the  log  a  ribbon  of  any  desired  thickness,  as  wide  as  the  length  of  the  log,  and  as 
long  as  desired.  In  the  latter  case,  of  course,  the  natural  pattern  of  the  wood,  as  we  under- 
stand the  pattern,  is  lost,  although  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  pattern  left  by  the  ribbon-turn- 
ing machine  is  as  natural  as  any  other,  the  tree  presenting  to  us,  in  its  natural  state,  neither 
the  one  class  nor  the  other  of  grain  pattern. 

In  veneer-turning  machines,  the  log,  say,  in  sections  48  in.  long,  is  held  between  two  live 
centers,  and  presented  to  the  action  of  a  slicing  knife,  the  full  length  of  the  log,  and  an 
automatic  feeding  attachment  brings  the  knife  closer  and  closer  toward  the  center  of  rota- 
tion as  the  stuff  is  removed  ;  the  distance  advanced  in  one  rotation  being  the  thickness  of 
the  sheet  pared  off.  In  working  in  common  stock,  the  machines  are  furnished  with  scoring 
knives  to  cut  the  stuff  to  length,  or  to  mark  it  for  bending,  as  for  berry  boxes,  grape  baskets, 
etc.  Sometimes  the  machine  has  a  roller  with  knives  on  its  surface,  for  cutting  stuff  to  width 
and  shape.  In  one  of  the  best-known  rotary  veneer-cutting  machines,  the  rough  log  is  cen- 
tered between  chucks  and  rotated  against  a  knife  which  is  moved  forward  upon  a  carriage, 
fed  by  screws  and  a  suitable  system  of  gearing.  The  chuck  arbors  have  two  bearings  far 
apart.  The  knife  has  a  quick-return  motion,  and  can  be  stopped,  advanced,  or  reversed 
by  moving  a  lever  ;  and  there  is  an  automatic  safety  attachment  by  which  the  knife  stops  at 
any  desired  point  in  forward  or  backward  travel.  In  some  machines  there  is  an  especially 
quick  advance  of  the  knife  to  bring  it  up  to  the  cut.  The  desired  thickness  of  veneers  is 
secured  by  a  change  of  feed  gear,  which 
varies  the*  rate  of  rotation  of  the  screws. 
The  knife  is  set  at  an  angle  to  the  log, 
with  its  bevel  side  next  to  it,  thus  en- 
abling the  cutting  edge  to  act  at  the 
center  line  or  a  trifle  above  it  ;  and  this 
angle  is  maintained  down  to  the  small- 
est core  which  can  be  left. 

Vise  :  see  Pipe-cutting  Machinery. 

>Varper  :  see  Cotton-spinning  Ma- 
chines. 

WATCHES  AND  CLOCKS.  WATCH- 
MAKING BY  MACHINERY. — The  process 
now  generally  followed  in  making  a 
modern  watch  is  as  follows  :  The  plates, 
which  are  the  foundation  of  the  watch, 
are  cut  out  by  punches  and  dies,  made 
specially  for  each  design.  In  the  main 
punch  there  are  a  number  of  small 
punches  inserted,  and  so  accurately 
placed  that  the  exact  position  of  the 

holes  required  to  be  drilled  are  marked  FlG.  i._phriOTT<mtting  engine, 

upon  the  plate.     Then  they  are  drilled, 
the  plates   are  ground  flat,  the  edges  turned,  and  all  parts  to  be   turned  out  or  recessed 
for  wheels  to  set  in,  are  done  on  special  chucks,  used  in  a  proper  lathe.      The  other  parts, 


886 


WATCHES   AND   CLOCKS. 


FIG.  2.— Pivot-turning  machine. 


such  as  pillars,  bridges,  etc.,  are  then  fitted  and  the  plates  put  together.  After  all  the  fit- 
ting is  done,  the  parts  are  dismembered,  and  gilded,  and  in  some  instances  nickeled. 

The  wheels  are  punched  out  in  complicated  dies,  which  act  so  as  to  perform  several  oper- 
ations at  one  stroke  of  the 
press.  After  punching, 
they  are  placed  on  what  is 
known  as  a  wheel-cutting 
engine,  a  number  of  wheels 
— generally  about  30  or  40 
— being  put  upon  an  arbor 
at  one  time,  so  that  the 
cutter  passes  through  the 
whole  stack  and  cuts  one 
tooth  in  each  of  the  wheels 
at  each  stroke  of  the  ma- 
chine. 

After  the  teeth  are  cut, 
the  wheels  are  bored, 
ground,  and  gilded  or 
nickeled,  as  the  case  may 
be,  after  which  they  are 
ready  to  be  staked  or  fast- 
ened to  the  pinions.  The 
pinions  are  cut  in  suitable 
lengths  from  a  steel  wire  by  a  special  cutter  or  die,  made  for  that  purpose,  operated  by 
a  press  similar  to  that  used  for  the  plates  and  wheels.  These  wire  pinions  are  then 
chucked  in  a  lathe,  and  a  point,  or  center,  as  it  is  called,  turned  on  each  end,  after 
which  they  are  taken  to  another  lathe,  where,  by  a  tool  carried  in  a  slide  rest,  they  are 
turned  down  rough  nearly  to  size.  From  this  the  pinions  are  set  on  dead  centers  in  an 
automatic  pivot  machine,  and  turned  to  the  exact  size  every  way  ;  after  that  the  teeth  are 
cut,  and  then  they  are  hardened.  After  being  hardened,  the  teeth  are  polished  by  a  machine 
known  as  a  leaf  polisher  ;  then  the  pivots,  staffs,  etc.,  are  polished  with  the  "  wig- wag,"  a 
tool  well  known  to  watchmakers  and  jewelers.  All  the  parts  are  similarly  treated,  begin- 
ning with  the  punch  and  dies  in  the  press,  and  pass  along  from  one  machine  to  another, 
until  they  are  ready  to  be  assembled  in  the  finishing  or  setting  up  room,  and  put  together 
to  form  a  timepiece.  There  are  about  twenty 
different  mechanical  departments  in  a  watch  fac- 
tory, each  performing  a  specific  operation,  and 
their  products  all  center  in  the  finishing  room. 

The  Pinion-cutting  Engine,  manufactured  by 
the  Gesswein  Machine  Co.,  and  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
is  universally  used  for  cutting  the  teeth  in  pinions 
for  watches  and  clocks.  It  has  a  revolving  tool 
head  that  carries  three  spindles.  One  of  these 
drives  a  saw  for  cutting  away  the  stock  in  ad- 
vance of  the  other  cutters  ;  the  second  spindle 
drives  a  cutter  to  rough  out  the  shape  of  the 
tooth,  and  the  third  spindle  operates  the  finishing 
cutter,  which  gives  the  form  to  the  teeth.  The 
operation  of  this  machine  is  simple  and  rapid. 

The  Automatic  Pivot-turning  Machine  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  a  very  ingenious  piece  of  mechanism, 
also  made  by  the  Gesswein  Machine  Co.,  is  for 
turning  the  'staffs  and  pivots  on  all  pinions,  pal- 
let arbor,  etc.  The  wire  is  pointed  and  rough 
turned  in  a  No.  2£  lathe  ;  it  is  then  placed  on 
dead  centers  in  this  machine  and  turned  very 
accurately  to  a  length  from  shoulder  to  shoulder, 
and  also  in  diameter.  The  turned  staffs  and 
pivots  are  then  hardened,  and  after  hardening, 
are  ground  and  finished  on  the  "  wig- wag"  ma- 
chine. 

The  form  of  upright  drill  which  is  mostly 
called  into  use  in  the  manufacture  of  the  several 
parts  of  watches  and  clocks  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  FIG.  3.— Upright  drill. 

3.     The  spring  action  of  the  drill  stock  makes  it 

specially  serviceable  for  this  fine  work,  and  in  the  drilling  of  plates,  bridges,  etc.  Fig.  4 
shows  a  screw-cutting  machine  of  the  Gesswein  Co.'s  make,  largely  used  in  watch  manu- 
facture. A  wire  is  fed  forward  through  the  chuck,  which  projects  between  two  movable  cut- 
ting heads,  and  the  tail  stock  has  a  horizontal  screwed  rod  which  acts  as  an  adjustable  stop 
for  the  end  of  the  wire,  in  determining  the  length  of  screw  to  be  cut.  One  of  the  slide  rests 
or  heads  carries  the  thread-cutting  tool,  and  the  other,  the  cutting-off  tool.  This  figure 
also  shows  a  detached  view  of  a  tail  stock  for  the  same  machine,  with  multiple  stop 


WATCHES   AND   CLOCKS. 


887 


spindles,  to  be  used  when  it  is  desired  to  cut  different  lengths  of  screws  without  changing 
the  tail  stock. 

Stem-winding  Mechanism. — Although  the  manufacture  of  key-winding  watches  has  been 
discontinued  entirely,  and  only  stem-winding  watches  are  now  made,  these  attachments  are 
still  much  in  demand,  in  connection  with  American  watches  such  as  the  Waltham,  Elgin, 
Hampden,  Illinois,  Rockford,  Cornell,  Howard,  etc.  English,  Swiss,  and  other  foreign 
watches,  being  largely  made  by  hand  instead  of  machinery,  the  parts  are  not  interchange- 
able, and  consequently  cannot  be  converted  ordinarily  by  the  same  devices. 

A  novel  stem-winding  attachment  for  watches  has  been  devised  by  Mr.  Henry  Abbott,  of 
New  York  City.  It  is  designed  to  be  applied  to  key-winding  watches  already  in  use,  so  as 


Fi«.  4.— Gesswein  screw-cutting  machine. 

to  convert  them  into  stem-winders.  The  attachment  is  manufactured  by  the  same  kind  of 
machinery  and  m  the  same  manner  as  stem- winding  watches,  and  when  properly  fitted,  the 
watch  is  to  all  external  appearances,  and  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  same  as  if  made 
originally  as  a  stem- winder. 

Fig.    5  shows  the  attachment  itself,  and  Fig.  6  presents  it  combined  with  a  Waltham 

movement. 

The  pendant  of    the  watch    is 

usually  removed,  and  one  suitable 

for  the  new  winding  stem  and  crown 

substituted.  The  stem  projects  with- 
in the  case,  and  carries  on  its  end  a 

small  beveled  winding  pinion,  which 

meshes  with  a  crown  wheel  pivoted 

between  two  plates,  one  called  the 

main  plate  and  the  other  the  yoke  ; 

the  upper  or  yoke  plate  is  of  an 

elongated  shape,  and   mounted  so 

that  it  may  be  rocked  upon  a  pivot. 

On  either  side  of  the  central  screw 

or  pivot  the  yoke  carries  pinions  or 

gear  wheels,  both  meshing  with  the 

crown  wheel,  one  (called  the  inter- 
mediate winding  wheel)  being  some- 
what larger  than  the  other,  on  account  of  its  having 
heavier  work  to  do,  viz. :  the  winding  of  the  watch 
through  its  engagement  with  the  main  winding  wheel. 
The  other  wheel,  carried  by  the  pivoted  plate,  is  called 
the  intermediate  setting  wheel,  and  this  is  thrown  into 
contact  with  a  hub  wheel  by  means  of  the  setting 
lever  acting  upon  a  cam  edge  of  the  pivoted  yoke  ;  the 

hub  wheel  is  in  mesh  with  the  pinion  on  the  "hand  spindle  or  central  arbor.  A  V-spring  acts 
against  the  yoke  to  keep  the  intermediate  winding  wheel  in  contact  primarily  with  the  main 
winding  wheel.  The  same  spring  forms  the  ratchet  when  the  winding  crown  is  turned 
backwards. 

The  Abbott  stem-winding  attachment  for  Howard  watehes,  while  necessarily  somewhat 
different  in  construction  from  that  used  in  Waltham  watches,  embodies  the  saine  essential 
characteristics,  viz. :  that  it  is  complete  in  itself,  and  is  assembled  and  fitted  with  its  several 
parts  connected  in  their  combined  operative  position,  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  watch  by  the 


FIG.  5.— Stem  wind- 
er. 


FIG.  6.— Waltham  watch. 


888 


WATCHES   AND    CLOCKS. 


FIG.  7.— Attachment. 


FIG.  8. — Howard  watch . 


watchmakers  to  whom  the  attachments  are  sold.  Fig.  7  is  a  view  of  this  attachment  look- 
ing at  its  underside,  and  Fig.  8  represents  a  Howard  watch  embodying  the  same.  Upon 
the  winding  stem,  in  addition  to  the  winding  pinion  which  meshes  with  the  crown  wheel, 
is  carried  (upon  a  square  portion)  a  sliding  double-clutch  wheel,  acted  upon  by  a  spring  to 
keep  it  normally  up  to  engagement  with  a  clutch  on  the  lower  side  of  the  above  winding 
pinion.  This  is  the  normal  position,  and  the  one  occupied  by  the  parts  for  winding  the 
watch.  The  movement  of  the  setting  lever  causes  the  spring  to  act  in  the  reverse  direction, 
thus  throwing  the  sliding  clutch 
downward  so  that  the  lower 
teeth  of  the  latter  will  mesh 
with  one  of  two  intermediate 
setting  wheels,  the  latter  of 
which  meshes  with  the  first  and 
engages  also  with  the  usual  min- 
ute wheel,  which  meshes  with 
the  ordinary  cannon  pinion,  on 
the  end  of  which  is  mounted 
the  minute  hand.  Over  the  can- 
non pinion  is  placed  the  hour 
wheel,  carrying  the  hour  hand  as  usual.  The  parts 
being  in  this  position,  the  hands  can  be  moved. 

Marking  Dials. — An  ingenious  invention  of  Mr. 
Abbott  is  the  new  method  of  marking  the  numerals, 
divisions,  letters,  and  ornamentations  upon  watch 
dials,  which  is  controlled  and  largely  used  by  the 
Elgin  Watch  Co.  The  process  does  away  with  all 
painting  or  marking  by  hand  upon  the  dial  itself. 
The  blank  dial  plate  is  made  up  as  usual  of  a  copper 
base  coated  with  enamel,  and  the  design  for  the  face 
is  first  engraved  upon  a  steel  or  copper  plate.  This  is  coated  with  the  ordinary  vitrifiable 
pigment,  and  allowed  to  dry  ;  then  the  surface  of  the  plate  is  brushed  off,  leaving  the  filling 
intact.  A  layer  or  coating  composed  of  a  preparation  of  collodion  is  now  laid  upon  the  entire 
surface  of  the  plate,  and  this  permeates  and  goes  down  through  the  filling  of  pigment,  and 
practically  covers  the  underside  of  the  pattern.  Evaporation  causes  the  formation  of  a 
film  on  both  sides,  with  the  pigment  lying  between,  and  by  this  means  the  complete  pattern 
intended  for  the  dial  plate  may  be  cleared  from  the  engraved  matrix,  preserving  even  the 
very  finest  lines  intact.  This  is  accomplished  by  immersing  the  engraved  plate  in  a  bath 
of  acid  and  alkali.  The  film  floats  off,  and,  being  somewhat  soft,  it  readily  sticks  to  the 
dial  plate  upon  which  it  is  now  placed,  and  after  baking  as  is  usual  with  enameled  plates,  it 
is  found  that  the  collodion  film  has  been  burned  off,  leaving  the  pigment  (the  whole  pat- 
tern) permanently  incorporated  with  the  dial  plate. 

The  Waterbury  Watch  has  probably  taken  first  place  in  the  category  of  cheap  time- 
pieces. It  is  extremely  simple, 
being  made  up  of  less  than  one- 
half  of  the  number  of  parts  usual 
in  a  watch,  and  these  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  easily  cleaned  or 
repaired.  The  great  differences 
between  this  movement  and  others 
are  that  it  has  a  long,  thin  main- 
spring (nearly  four  times  the 
length  of  an  ordinary  watch 
spring),  and  that  the  entire  move- 
ment revolves  in  the  case  once 
every  hour,  and  thus  regulates  or 
adjusts  itself  to  varying  positions. 
The  use  of  the  long  mainspring  is 
consequent  upon  the  reduction  in 
number  of  parts  ;  there  is  no 

barrel  used,  and  two  wheels  and  their  pinions  are  also  dis- 
pensed with  in  the  train,  which  places  the  power  direct  upon 
the  escapement.  The  latter  is  of  the  duplex  pattern,  and  is 
very  light  running  ;  it  has  only  two  pieces,  the  balance  and 
escape-wheel.  There  is  a  stop  work  to  prevent  damage  from 
overwinding  at  the  stem,  and  all  the  parts  are  made  interchangeable. 

The  case  of  this  "long-wind  "  watch  is  stamped  out  in  only  two  pieces,  and  nickeled.  To 
set  the  hands,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  bezel  entirely,  and  use  a  point,  or  the  finger,  in 
this  operation,  as  well  as  in  adjusting  the  regulator,  which  is  approached  from  the  front. 
Fig.  9  is  a  view  of  this  watch  with  the  bezel  off,  and  Fig.  10  represents  the  regulator  and 
part  of  the  movement. 

The  Waterbury  Watch  Co.  is  also  making  cheap  "  short- wind "  watches,  with  cases 
of  nickel,  coin  silver,  oxidized  silver,  and  gold  filled,  and  of  several  sizes  and  various 
designs.  Fig.  11  shows  the  working  parts  of  this  "  short-wind  "  watch,  the  balance  wheel, 


FIG.  10.— Regulator. 


FIG.  9. — Waterbury  watch . 


WATCHES    AND   CLOCKS. 


889 


the 

parts. 


FIG.  11.— Waterbury  "short  wind"  watch. 


independent  bridge,  the  tempered  hairspring,  back  ratchet,  etc. ,  as  well  as  the  winding 
:s.     The  "  wind  "  is  simple,  being  composed  of  only  five  pieces.     Both  the  pillar  and  top 
plates  are  made  double,  which  arrangement  holds  the  winding  work  and  jewels  in  position, 
and    takes    the    place    of    the    ordinary 
bridges,  screws,  etc. 

RECENT  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WATCH- 
MAKING.—The  Waltham  Watch  Co.  in- 
troduced a  novel  improvement  in  the 
movements  of  their  mate  a  few  years  ago, 
which  has  helped  to  offset  any  damage 
done  to  the  train  following  the  breaking 
of  the  mainspring.  The  center  pinion  is 
removably  fixed  to  the  center  staff  ;  the 
pinion  has  its  axial  hole  screw-threaded 
to  correspond  with  a  similar  thread  upon 
the  staff,  the  direction  of  thread  being 
such  that  the  strain  of  the  mainspring, 
acting  through  the  teeth  of  the  barrel 
upon  the  pinion,  will  force  it  against  a 
shoulder  formed  for  the  purpose  on  the 
staff,  making  it  practically  a  single  piece  ; 
but  should  the  mainspring  break,  the 
violent  recoil  of  the  broken  spring  would 
simply  serve  to  unscrew  the  pinion  from 
the  staff  without  harm  to  either,  instead 
of  having  the  effect  of  breaking  the  teeth 
of  the  barrel  and  pinion. 

The  Non-Magnetic  Watch.— The  Wai- 
tham  Watch  Co.  has  recently  perfected 
and  put  on  the  market  the  non- magnetic 
watch,  the  result  of  expensive  experi- 
ments since  1887  ;  such  watches  being 
especially  valuable  to  electricians  and 
other  persons  liable  to  go  near  dynamos, 
electric  car  motors,  and  the  like.  This 
achievement  in  modern  horology  has  been  accomplished  by  substituting  for  steel  as  used  in 
the  balance,  roller,  hairspring,  and  pallet  and  fork  (which  together  constitute  that  portion 
of  the  watch  designated  as  escapement),  metals  or  alloys  which  are  non-magnetic,  and  which 
yet  possess  the  properties  of  elasticity  and  expansion  to  such  relative  proportion  as  to  en- 
able them  to  compensate  for  the  varying  conditions  of  heat  and  cold. 

How  difficult  a  problem  this  has  been  to  solve  may  be  imagined  when  it  is  considered 
that  no  single  known  metal  possesses  all  the  qualities  required.  And,  further,  that  each  of 
the  different  portions  of  the  escapement  requires  to  be  constructed  of  metal  having  certain 
characteristics  which  shall  fit  it  for  the  peculiar  duty  of  that  part,  and  which  may  not  be 
demanded  by  some  other  part. 

There  are,  however,  two  requisite  properties  common  to  all  the  parts  :  First,  sufficient 
ductility  to  be  capable  of  being  brought  into  the  required  form  ;  second,  non-susceptibility 
to  magnetic  influence.  The  function  of  the  fork  demands  a  metal  able  to  withstand  wear  ; 
the  hairspring  must  possess  elasticity  in  a  high  degree,  and  yet  must  be  capable  of  being 
fixed  or  "  set"  in  proper  spiral  form. " 

The  duties  of  the  balance  require  that  its  body  be  made  capable  of  a  certain  degree  of 
expansion  under  the  influence  of  heat,  but  it  mast  not  be  too  expansive;  while  the  outer 
lamina  of  the  rim  must  have  a  very  high  ratio  of  expansion,  without  undue  rigidity. 

CLOCKS. — Recent  Improvements. — Clocks  have  recently  been  combined  with  dating 
stamps,  for  use  in  banks  and  in  city  and  court  offices  of  record,  by  which  the  letters  and 
papers  filed  are  not  only  marked  with  the  day,  month,  and  year,  but  the  hour  and  minute 
of  the  day  the  papers  were  filed. 

Outside  of  the  automatic  novelties  known  as  the  swing  clock  and  the  jumper  clock,  the 
improvements  in  clocks  have  been  limited  to  various  different  constructions  of  the  parts. 
Among  these  various  improvements  may  be  mentioned  the  Blakesley  clock,  which  employs 
in  lieu  of  the  usual  pallet  a  worm  engaging  with  the  escape  wheel,  the  worm  shaft  having 
an  arm  so  connected  with  the  pendulum  as  to  impart  a  rotary  movement  thereto. 

The  late  Henry  J.  Da  vies,  so  long  connected  with  the  Ansonia  Clock  Co.,  made  many 
improvements  in  that  particular  class  of  goods  put  on  the  market  by  the  Ansonia  Co., 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  a  construction  in  which  the  main  wheel  of  the  clock  has 
attached  to  it  the  inner  end  of  the  mainspring,  which  is  arranged  m  concentric  relation 
with  the  center  arbor  of  the  clock.  The  clock  case  has  a  loose  back  or  back  piece,  having 
attached  to  it  a  rigid  ratchet  adapted  to  rotate  freely  around  the  main  wheel  arbor  when 
winding  up  the  clock,  and  having  one  or  more  clicks  to  prevent  the  back  motion  of  the 
mainspring.  The  main  arbor  also  was  tubular,  and  through  this  extended  the  minute- 
wheel  arbor,  having  a  key  at  its  end  for  the  adjustment  of  the  hands  from  the  rear  of  the 
clock. 

Another  form  of  the  escapement  is  that  invented  by  Edinond  Kuhn,  which  employs  a 


890  WATER  METERS, 


pinion  cap  having  four  arms,  which,  upon  rotating,  successively  strike  the  escapement  wheel 
to  rotate  it  as  usual. 

Another  novelty  is  a  clock  made  by  the  New  Haven  Clock  Co.,  which  employs  two  pen- 
dulums suspended  on  trunnions  vertically  in  line,  and  connected  together  by  pinions  which 
transmit  a  reverse  oscillating  movement  from  one  to  the  other,  one  of  the  pendulums  being 
connected  with  the  anchor  of  the  escape  movement. 

A  different  form  of  escapement  lever,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Bannatyre,  is  made  by  the 
Waterbury  Clock  Co.,  which  has  an  impulse  fork  at  one  end,  a  bank  fork  at  the  other  end, 
and  with  a  laterally  projecting  ear  upon  each  side  between  the  forks,  said  ears  being  formed 
integral  with  the  lever.  The  lever  has  two  pallet  pins,  made  wedge-shape  in  cross  section, 
and  the  ears  are  constructed  with  holes  of  corresponding  wedge-shape,  into  which  said  pins 
are  forced. 

A  novel  method  of  making  hairsprings  for  balances  was  invented  by  Mr.  Logan,  of 
Waltham,  Mass.,  which  consists  in  simultaneously  coiling  two  parts  of  a  piece  of  wire 
around  a  suitable  snail  or  former,  beginning  at  a  ligature  which  constitutes  the  central  por- 
tion of  said  piece,  thereby  converting  the  said  two  parts  of  the  single  piece  of  wire  into  two 
coils,  which  are  integral  with  each  other,  their  inner  ends  being  connected  by  the  ligature. 
These  two  coils  are  then  hardened,  in  the  usual  manner,  while  their  ends  are  yet  connected, 
and  are  finally  separated  to  complete  the  springs  by  severing  the  ligature.  This  is  said  to 
be  a  very  efficient  and  cheap  mode  of  making  hairsprings. 

A  further  improvement  in  an  escapement  for  timepieces  was  made  by  Mr.  Hansen,  in 
which  the  balance  wheel  has  a  spring  for  imparting  motion  to  it  in  one  direction,  and  a 
spring-actuated  lever  for  imparting  motion  to  it  in  the  other  direction,  the  lever  being  pro- 
vided at  one  end  with  a  pallet  for  engagement  by  the  escape  wheel,  and  with  a  hook  at  its 
other  end,  and  a  locking  pin  for  effecting  the  disengagement  of  the  hook  and  pin,  which  thus 
permits  the  passage  of  a  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  and  allows  an  impulse  to  the  balance  wheel. 
A  clock-winding  mechanism,  which  permits  the  train  to  continue  its  movement  while 
the  mainspring  is  being  wound,  consists  in  winding  the  spring  from  the  outside  through 
the  barrel  instead  of  through  the  arbor. 

One  of  the  smallest  lantern  pinions  probably  made  is  that  now  used  in  some  of  the 
cheaper  forms  of  clocks,  in  which  the  staff  has  two  collets,  one  of  which  is  constructed  with 
a  circular  series  of  perforations  and  the  other  with  a  series  of  corresponding  seats.  A  series 
of  leaves  extend  through  these  perforations  of  the  one  collet  into  the  corresponding  seats  in 
the  other  collet,  and  a  cap  is  mounted  on  the  staff  so  as  to  bear  directly  against  the  outer 
face  of  the  perforated  collet,  which  thus  prevents  the  leaves  from  becoming  displaced. 

In  a  clock  called  the  ''Independent  Electric  Clock,"  in  which  the  electrical  movement  is 
entirely  independent  of  the  ordinary  pendulum  movement,  there  is  combined  with  the 
escapement  a  spring  for  turning  the  escape  wheel,  a  ratchet  and  pawl  for  winding  up 
the  spring  at  intervals,  the  usual  hands,  and  an  electro-magnet  for  actuating  the  pawl  of  the 
winding  spring  and  for  moving  the  minute  wheel  step  by  step. 

Another  very  important  improvement  is  in  arranging  a  single  spring  to  drive  the  train 
as  well  as  to  operate  the  striking  mechanism,  which  is  made  by  the  Waterbury  Clock  Co. , 
and  in  this  clock  it  is  impossible  to  disarrange  the  striking  mechanism  so  as  to  make  it 
strike  falsely.  The  clock  may  be  turned  to  any  extent  backward,  and  when  moved  forward 
will  strike  correctly  the  half  hours  as  well  as  the  hours. 

WATER  METERS.  The  Thomson  Water  Meter  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  displacing  or 
measuring  member  consists  of  a  flat  disk,  having  a  ball-and-socket  bearing,  and  is  adapted 
to  oscillate  in  a  chamber,  comprised  of  two  sections  joined  together,  in  which  each  of  the 
inside  faces  approximates  the  frustum  of  a  cone,  the  exterior  confining  wall  assuming  the 

form  of  a  circular  zone.  The  disk  has  a  single 
slot  projecting  radially  from  the  ball,  which 
embraces  a  fixed  metallic  diaphragm,  set  with- 
in and  crosswise  of  one  side  of  the  chamber, 
the  disk  being  thus  prevented  from  rotating  ; 
but  when  it  is  caused  to  oscillate  in  contact 
with  the  cone  frustums,  the  chamber,  by  these 
means,  is  divided  into  sub-compartments,  or 
measuring  spaces.  Now,  if  the  ports  of  in- 
gress and  egress  are  properly  disposed  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  diaphragm,  the  disk  will 
act  as  its  own  valve.  The  course  of  the  flow 
through  the  meter  is  as  follows  :  Entering  the 
compartment,  formed  by  the  upper  and  lower 
caps,  the  current  passes  on  all  sides  of  the 
chamber,  to  and  through  the  inlet  port  ;  thence 
through  the  measuring  chamber  (causing  the 
oscillation  of  the  disk),  then  through  the  outlet 
port,  to  the  outlet  spud  and  the  pipe.  At  all 
FIG.  1.— Thomson  water  meter.  sections  in  this  path,  from  the  inlet  to  the  outlet, 

the   velocity  of    flow  is   much   less  than  that 

through  the  pipe.  The  oscillation  of  the  disk  produces  'in  its  central  axis,  at  a  right  angle  to 
the  plane  of  the  disk,  circular  motion.  Advantage  is  taken  of  this  to  control  its  proper  rela- 
tive action  in  respect  to  the  cone  frustums,  by  mounting  a  conical  roller  upon  a  spindle  fixed  in 


WATER   WHEELS. 


891 


the  ball.  This  roller  impinges  upon  and  rolls  around  the  fixed  conical  stud  or  hub,  formed  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  gear  frame.  The  roller  turns  upon  a  conical  sleeve  which  is  screwed 
upon  the  disk  spindle  ;  the  object  of  this  construction  being  to  avoid  any  tendency  to  produce 
end-thrust,  consequent  upon  the  angular  thrust  of  the  spindle,  and  also  to  provide  means 
whereby  to  obtain  the  proper  relative  adjustment  between  the  disk  and  the  cone  frustums. 
The  accidental  displacement  of  the  adjusting  sleeve  is  prevented  by  inserting  a  pin  through 
its  shoulder  and  also  the  body  of  the  spindle,  which  is  then  bent,  each  end  at  a  right  angle 
to  the  other,  to  lock  it  in  place.  This  circular  motion  of  the  spindle  is  also  utilized  to  drive 
the  registering  mechanism  by  means  of  an  arm  secured  to  the  primary  pinion  of  the  train  ; 
the  arm  impinging  upon  and  being  driven  by  the  lower  extension  of  the  roller.  The  trend 
of  the  motion  of  the  disk  is  to  thrust  the  edge  of  the  slot  constantly  against  the  outlet  side 
of  the  diaphragm. 

The  diaphragm  is  made  of  hard  rolled  metal,  which  is  shaped  very  accurately,  and  is 
rigidly  secured  between  the  two  sections  of  the  disk  chamber.  The  internal  gearing  which 
connects  the  disk  to  the  stuffing-box  spindle  is  mounted  between  two  separate  plates  secured 
together  by  pillars,  as  in  clocks,  and,  in  the  smaller  sizes,  the  whole  as  a  single  structure  is 
secured  by  screws  directly  to  the  disk  chamber.  The  gearing  stands  in  the  upper  portion  of 
the  compartment,  and  is  thus  out  of  the  direct  path  of  the  current. 

The  Venturi  Meter,  made  by  the  Builder's  Iron  Foundry,  Providence,  R.  I.,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  2.     It  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Clemens  Herschel,  and  was  first  described  by  him  at  the 
December,  1887,  meeting  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers.     Its  action  is  founded 
on  the  well-known  property  of  a  Venturi  tube 
to  exercise  a  sucking  action  through  holes  bored 

into  its  narrowest  section.     The  construction  Q  Q 

of  the  meter,  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  ^JT       fi^       J|f 

cut, is  merely  a  contraction  of  the  main  pipe,  Ta      ^a        nj 

to  which  two  ordinary  pressure  gauges  are  con- 
nected— one  at  any  convenient  point  before 
contraction  of  pipe  begins  ;  the  other  at  the 
smallest  section.  When  any  flow  in  the  pipe 
occurs  the  pressure  on  throat  gauge  will  fall,  if 
the  flow  becomes  sufficiently  rapid,  all  pressure 
at  the  throat  may  disappear  and  a  vacuum  ob- 
tain. The  other  gauge,  however,  will  continue 
to  indicate  the  pressure  due  to  the  supply.  By  mathematical  calculation  and  experimental 
confirmation,  a  formula,  based  on  the  different  pressures  on  the  gauges,  has  been  obtained, 
which  accurately  indicates  the  velocity  of  flow  through  the  throat  of  the  meter.  An  ordi- 
nary self-recording  differential  gauge  may  be  used  to  obtain  a  diagram  of  these  variations  in 
pressure,  from  which  both  the  velocity  at  any  given  time,  and  the  total  quantity  passed  in 
any  interval,  may  be  readily  determined. 

Water  Tower  :  see  Fire  Appliances. 

WATER  WHEELS,  The  old  "outward  flow"  and  "inward  flow"  turbines  have 
practically  given  place  to  the  "inward  and  downward  flow,"  as  outlined  by  the  Swain 
wheel  (see  APPLETOX'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  APPLIED  MECHANICS);  but  the  change  from  that  wheel 
to  those  of  less  diameter,  with  deeper  buckets,  of  longer  curve,  has  been  very  decided,  and 
resulted  in  higher  efficiency,  as  well  as  greater  economy  in  first  cost.  The  following  com- 
parison illustrates  this  point. 


\ "1 & 1 — 7 


FIG.  2.— Venturi  meter. 


Wheel. 

Diameter. 

Revolutions 
per  minute. 

Cubic  feet  water 
per  minute. 

Horse- 
power. 

Boyden  

36  in 

161 

1  207 

34'2 

Swain  .  . 

30 

197 

2  124 

65'5 

Risdon,  ;'  D.  C.".. 

30 

210 

2959 

95' 

Victor             

30 

183 

3580 

115' 

Hercules  

30 

174 

3,960 

119'6 

The  Risdon   Wheel. — The  foregoing  figures  are  taken  from  the  published  catalogues  of 

the  wheels,  and  are  probably  closely  correct,  although 
there  is  a  discrepancy  in  the  velocities.  The  inward 
portion  of  the  discharge  has  been  practically  abandoned, 
the  buckets  being  closed  down  to  the  bottom  on  a 
central  core,  and  so  curved  as  to  throw  the  water  out 
from  the  centre,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1  of  the  Risdon  "D. 
C."  or  "double  capacity"  wheel  mentioned  above. 
This  form  of  bucket  appears  to  take  advantage  of  the 
centrifugal  motion  given  to  the  water  by  the  wheel  it- 
self, and  which  in  the  case  of  the  (original)  inward  dis- 
charge was  directly  opposed  to  the  effect  of  the  water. 

Another  cause  of  the  displacement  of  the  "  outward 
discharge  "  wheel  was  the  very  poor  result  obtained  at 
"  part  gate,"  or  when  the  water  was  cut  off  by  a  sharp 
FIG.  i.— The  Risdon  wheel.  edged  cylinder,   or  register,  gate.     Placing  the  gates 


892 


WATER  WHEELS. 


externally  has  enabled  them  to  be  so  formed  as  to  deliver  the  water  in  an  unbroken  volume, 
by  ajutages  which  contract  the  flow,  instead  of  cutting  it  partially  off. 

Thus,  while  the  Boyden  dropped  from  an  efficiency  of  79  per  cent,  at  full  gate  to  44 
per  cent,  with  half  water  ;  and  the  Houston  from  81  per  cent,  to  23  per  cent.  ;  the  "  Risdon  " 
falls  from  87  per  cent,  to  70  per  cent.,  and  the  "Hercules"  from  87  per  cent,  to  74  per 
cent.,  in  Professor  Thurston's  best  test.  The  Risdon  wheels  at  the  Jefferson  mill  of  the 
Amoskeag  Manufacturing  Co.,  Manchester,  N.  H.,  consist  of  two  pairs  of  48-in.,  and  one 
pair  of  36-in.  "  D.  C.,"  as  shown  in  cut  of  bucket,  and  are  all  mounted  on  a  9-in.  steel 


FIG.  2.— The  Kisdon  wheels  at  the  Jefferson  mill. 


shaft,  with  couplings  between  the  43-in.  and  the  36-in.,  so  that  the  latter,  which  draw  water 
from  a  lower  level,  can  be  disconnected  if  desired.  The  head  on  the  43-in.  wheels  is  49  ft. ; 
that  on  the  36-in.  ones  is  28  ft.,  giving  them  the  same  circumferential  velocity,  at  225  rev- 
olutions per  minute. 

Fig.  2  illustrates  one  of  the  most  complete  systems  of  horizontal-shaft  turbines  yet  intro- 
duced, viz.:  that  furnished  by  the  Risdon  Co.  (previously  described)  for  the  Jefferson  mill 
of  the  Amoskeag  Co.,  at  Manchester,  N.  H.  It  consists,  as  shown,  of  6  wheels,  in  3  pairs,  on 
one  shaft ;  one  pair,  under  a  lower  head,  being  of  smaller  diameter,  so  as  to  have  the  same 
surface  velocity,  or  62  per  cent,  of  that  due  to  the  head. 

These  wheels  themselves  are  all  solid  bronze  castings,  but  the  cases  and  draft  tubes  are 
cast-iron,  and  the  feeder  pipes  boiler  plate.  Six  small 
wheels  were  here  adopted,  in  place  of  three  large  ones,  as 
first  suggested,  to  obtain  higher  velocity  of  shaft,  smaller 
driving  pulleys  as  a  consequence,  and  the  ability  to  use  as 
large  a  proportion  of  the  very  variable  quantity  of  water 
to  the  best  advantage,  or  as  near  "full  gate  "  as  possible. 

The  Collins  Wheel. — A  form  of  gate,  similar  in  effect 
to  that  used  on  the  Fontaine  turbine,  exhibited  by  Messrs. 
Froment,  Meurice  &  Co.,  in  London,  in  1851,  and  which 
may  be  called  a  "plunger  gate,"  is  used  on  the  Collins 
"  downward  flow"  turbine  shown  in  Fig.  3.  This  form  of 
gate  raised  the  efficiency  of  the  Collins  wheel  to  85  per  cent, 
at  full  gate,  and  66  per  cent,  with  0.565  water,  which  Pro- 
fessor Thurston  says  is  the  best  performance  of  a  Jonval 
turbine  on  record. 

Another  well-known  form  of  the  Jonval  turbine  is  the 
"  Geyelin,"  built  by  Messrs.  R.  D.  Wood  &  Co.,  of  Philadel- 
phia.    One  of  these  wheels,  as  tested  by  the  writer,  at  the  FIG.  3. -The  Collins  wheel. 
Centennial  Exposition  in  1876,  gave  over  84  per  cent,  net 
effect,  and  practically  the  same  result  was  obtained  from  a  7-ft.  wheel  of  the  same  style 


WATER   WHEELS. 


893 


at  the  John  P.  King  mill,  at  Augusta.  Ga.,  475  horse-power  having  been  realized  by  the 
last  test.  All  this  type  of  Jonval  wheels  give  high  results  at  "  full  gate,"  but  are  somewhat 
defective  at  "  part  gate." 


This  name  of  "  Jonval"  is  applied  to  wheels  set  with  a  "draft  tube,"  and  at  some  point 
on  the  fall,  intermediate  from  the  bottom  to  28  or  30  ft.  above  it. 

The  draft  tube  was  patented  in  the  United  States  by  Zebulon  and  Amasa  Parker,  of 
Licking,  0.,  in  1840.  It  has  proved  of  great  value,  by  enabling  turbines  to  be  set  on  hori- 
zontal shafts. 


894 


WATER  WHEELS. 


Figs.  4  and  5  illustrate  the  construction  of  the  Geyelin  turbine  constructed  for  Cornell 
University,  by  Messrs.  R.  D.  Wood  &  Co.  The  turbines  are  84  in.  in  diameter,  and  are 
calculated  to  produce  175  horse-power  at  40  ft.  head.  Their  speed  is  253  revolutions  per 


minute.  Mr.  Geyelin  has  devised  a  novel  and  effective  form  of  glass  suspension  stop,  which 
is  illustrated  in  cross  section  in  Fig.  6.  The  revolving  disk,  A,  which  supports  the  wheel, 
rests  on  the  glass  disks,  B  B. 


WATER   WHEELS. 


The  Hunt  Wheel  has  since  been  improved  by  the  addition  of  "  ajutages  "  to  the  gate, 
bringing  the  half- water  effect  up  to  66  per  cent.  These  "ajutages  "  are  shown  in  Fig.  7, 
appearing  between  the  chutes.  The  next  great  step  in  turbine  construction  has  been  to  set 
them  on  horizontal  shafts,  and,  when 
practicable,  in  pairs,  so  as  to  thrust 
against  each  other,  and  neutralize  step 
friction . 

Glynn,  in  his  Treatise  on  Water 
Power  (John  Weale,  1853),  speaks  of 
this  method  as  being  advised  by  Pro- 
fessor Wedding,  of  Berlin,  for  the 
Archimedian  scroll  wheels,  to  save 
step  and  gear  friction.  About  1861, 
the  late  John  C.  Hoadley  put  in  a 
scroll  wheel  of  this  sort,  in  Manches- 
ter, N.  H.,  and  the  writer  followed 
it  within  two  years  later  by  seven  small 
iron  turbines,  set  in  iron  pipes,  singly, 


FIG.  6. — Glass  suspension  stop. 


and  in  1876  the  Swain  Turbine  Co.  put  in  a  pair  of  wheels  in  this  manner  at  Ticonderoga, 
and  the   plan  is  now  adopted  by  all  prominent  turbine  builders. 

Fig.  8  shows  the  external  case  of  a  pair  of  Hunt  wheels  set  in  this  manner  with 
central  draft  tube.  This  method  of  setting  saves  not  only  the  cost  of  bevel  gears,  but 
the  loss  of  power  by  their  friction,  commonly  estimated  at  about  5  per  cent.  Two  tests 
of  a  Hunt  wheel,  at  the  Holyoke  testing  flume  Con  vertical  shaft),  by  Mr.  Herschel,  gave 
respectively  '8006,  and  -8043  per  cent,  effect,  and  the  same  wheel,  on  horizontal  shaft,  in 
the  mill  at  Lowell,  was  tested  by  Mr.  Francis,  giving  -8030  and  '8036  per  cent. 

The  Humphrey  Wheel  has  a  ' '  parabolif orm 
curve  of  crown  and  chutes,"  so  as  to  deliver  the 
water  to  the  wheel  in  a  tangential  direction,  and 
also  in  the  natural  form  of  discharge  due  to  the 
"vena  contracta."  The  buckets  are  not  closed 
down  to  the  bottom  on  the  outside,  but  have  a  free 
outward  delivery,  as  seen  at  K,  Fig.  9.  Another 
point  claimed  is  the  reduction  in  number  of  the 
guides  or  chutes,  thus  saving  friction,  before  the 
water  reaches  the  wheel  itself,  and  offering  less 
obstruction  to  the  passage  of  small  floating  mat- 
ter, such  as  leaves  or  sawdust  and  chips.  The 
discharge  of  water  from  any  wheel  should  be  such 
that  its  total  velocity  should  be  imparted  to  the 
wheel,  and  that  the  water  should  fall  away  '•  dead," 
thus  doing  away  entirely  with  the  theory  of  any 
result  from  "reaction."  The  writer  has  obtained 
the  best  results,  from  nearly  all  the  wheels  which 
he  has  tested,  when  the  velocity  of  the  wheel 
at  the  point  of  central  discharge  was  from  60  to 
(52  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical  velocity  due  to  the 
head,  or  to  the  velocity  due  the  "contracted 
vein."  A  very  large  wheel  of  this  type,  100  in. 
diameter,  using  214  cub.  ft.  water  per  second, 
under  12£  ft.  fall,  tested  by  Mr.  Francis,  at  Lowell, 
in  1883,  gave  over  240  horse-power,  or  about  82 
per  cent,  net  effect,  at  full  gate,  and  56  per  cent, 
with  half  water,  or  40 '06  per  cent,  gate  opening. 

The  Victor  Turbine,  built  by  the  Stilwell  & 
Bierce  Co ,  of  Dayton,  0. ,  .is  a  popular  and 
effective  form  of  the  latest  modern  turbine,  with 
deep  openings,  and  long  curved  buckets,  discharg- 
ing downward  and  outward.  Fig.  10  represents  the 
wheel  separately. 

Reliable  tests  of  the  Victor  wheel  show  an  effi- 
ciency of  from  SO  to  89  per  cent,  at  full  gate,  the  higher  effect  being  obtained  from  a  very 
small  wheel,  15  in.  diameter,  this  being  the  usual  result  from  all  forms  of  turbine.  The 
efficiency  at  one-half  water,  which  must  be  distinguished  from  "  half  gate,"  is  about  50  per 
cent,  with  the  register  gate,  but  a  cylinder  gate  with  ajutages  is  promised  on  this  wheel.  To 
show  the  power  and  effect  of  one  of  these  small  wheels,  we  give  a  record  of  tests  of  a  lo-in. 
Victor,  made  a  few  years  since  at  the  Holyoke  testing  flume,  in  the  course  of  some  experi- 
ments to  determine  the  friction  of  gearing.  The  wheel  had  been  tested  on  its  own  shaft 
previously,  by  James  Emerson,  giving  a  net  effect  of  93*58  per  cent.,  or  30*62  horse-power,  at 
348'5  revolutions  per  minute,  and  these  tests  show  a  loss  of  about  3  per  cent,  due  to  the  gears. 
Other  tests,  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  tabulate  here,  showed  that  by  changing  the  position 
and  contact  of  the  gears,  this  loss  at  tiraes  might  be  fully  10  per  cent. 

In  these  tests,  the  velocity  of  the  external  surface  of  the  wheel  was  from  68  to  70  per 


FIG.  7.— The  Hunt  wheel. 


896 


WATER   WHEELS. 


FIG.  9.— Humphrey  wheel. 


FIG.  10.— Victor  wheel. 


WATER   WHEELS. 


897 


cent,  of  the  theoretical  velocity  of  the  water.     From  the  shape  of  the  bucket,  it  is  difficult 
to  ascertain   the  velocity  at  the   point   of  maximum   discharge,  but    it   appears   to  have 


been  about  58  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical  velocity.     Emerson's  test  shows  -6345  per  cent, 
with  half-water.     Fig.  11  shows  the  Victor  wheel  on  a  horizontal  shaft. 

Tests  of  a  15-in.  Victor  Wheel,  taken  on  jack  shaft,  after  passing  through  a  pair  of  level- 
gears,  viz.:  crown  gear  on  wheel  shaft,  46  teeth  ;  gear  on  jack  shaft,  26  teeth;  lO/£.  circle  of 
friction  pulley;  6  ft.  weir.  Constant  leak  deducted  =  134-64  cub.  ft.  per  minute. 


No.  test 

Gate  open 
full. 

Head  in 
feet. 

Weir  in 
teet. 

^rte 

Pounds  in 
scale. 

Revolutions 
wheel. 

Revolutions 
shaft. 

Horse-pow- 
er, wheel. 

Net 
effect. 

1 

18'05 

0-962 

960-21 

32-72 

150 

387' 

645 

29-36 

•8973 

2 

IS'04 

•965 

96fi'94 

32-89 

IttO 

34-2-5 

600 

29  '33 

•8  33 

3 

18-05 

•970 

978*60 

38-19 

165 

330- 

584 

29-70 

•87U7 

4 

18'04 

•972 

976-94 

33-23 

170 

315- 

558 

28-74 

•8636 

5 

18-03 

•971 

975-26 

33-21 

180 

286-               50o 

27  'CO 

•8310 

57 


898 


WATER  WHEELS. 


The  Hercules  Wheel.—  This  wheel  in  case  is  very  similar  in  external  appearance  to  the 
Victor,  but  has  a  cylinder  gate,  rising  to  admit  the  water,  and  the  buckets  are  provided  with 
interior  flanges,  which  tend  to  confine  the  water  at  partial  gate,  and  keep  it  from  spreading 
to  waste  over  the  surface  of  the  wheel.  In  this  wheel,  the  buckets  are  cast  singly.  The 
bases  of  the  separate  buckets  fit  together  and  form  the  base  of  the  wheel,  and  are  bolted  to 
an  iron  or  steel  ring  which  surrounds  them.  This  wheel  is  so  constructed  as  to  give  the 
highest  efficiency  at  three-fourth  gate,  or  seven-eighth  water,  and  should  be  run  so  in  prac- 
tical use,  leaving  the  other  quarter  gate  to  be  opened  in  case  of  high  water,  when  the  waste 
can  be  afforded. 

Numerous  tests  in  the  writer's  possession  show  from  80  to  84  per  cent,  efficiency  at 
seven-eighth  water,  and  when  it  is  considered  that  the  apparent  loss  of  15  per  cent,  in- 
cludes all  the  power  required  to  overcome  the  vis  inertia  of  the  wheel,  the  step  and  bearing 
friction,  and  such  small  amount  of  slip  of  water  as  may  be  actually  wasted,  it  will  be  seen 


a  percentage  of  effect  as  some  of  these  wheels  have  since  done,  but  it  shows  a  high  average  per 
cent,  down  to  nearly  half  water,  or  less  than  half  gate,  with  the  highest  results  at  about 
seven-eighth  water,  leaving  the  other  4  in.  of  gate,  equal  to  10  horse-power,  to  be  used  in 
case  of  back  water,  from  floods  in  the  river.  It  is  the  record  of  the  last  series  of  three  days' 
successive  tests,  which  varied  but  a  small  fraction  of  1  per  cent,  in  their  results. 

The  water  was  measured  over  a  12-ft.  weir,  and  a  uniform  "  gate  leak"  of  56*23  cub.  ft. 
per  minute  is  in  all  cases  deducted  from  the  quantity  of  water. 

The  circle  of  the  friction  pulley  was  20  ft.,  which,  multiplied  by  the  weight,  and  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  gives  the  horse-power.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  highest  results  obtained 
from  this  wheel  were  at  a  velocity  of  152  revolutions  per  minute.  This  gives  a  velocity  of 
external  circumference,  at  entrance  of  water,  of  66  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical  velocity  under 
the  head,  and  as  the  buckets  are  so  formed  as  to  discharge  the  water  in  as  centrifugal  a 
direction  as  possible,  the  velocity  at  point  of  maximum  discharge  appears,  like  that  of  the 
Victor,  to  be  about  58  percent,  of  theoretical.  As  the  water  enters  this  wheel  through  con- 
verging chutes,  it  probably  reaches  the  wheel  at  a  higher  velocity  than  the  C6  per  cent,  noted 
by  the  revolutions. 

Talle  allowing  record  of  tests  of  a  Hercules  wheel. 


No.  test. 

Gate  opening. 

Head  on 
wheel     in 
feet 

Head  on 
weir 
in  feet 

Cub.  ft.    wa- 
ter per  min  , 
less  waste. 

Gross 
horse-i  ower 
water. 

Pounds  in 
scale. 

Revs  per 
miu.,  wheel. 

Horse-power 
wheel. 

Net  effect 
percent. 

1 
2 

Full  gate, 
22  turns  shaft. 

17-28 
17'26 

•615 
•610 

4,732-11 
4,710-31 

154-45 
153-54 

1,300 
1,3-25 

155-33 
152-5 

122  38 
122-45 

•7924 
•7975 

3 

44 

•615 

4,732'H 

154-28 

1,350 

143  '25 

12">-11 

•7915 

4 

u 

44 

44 

150'5 

123-14 

'7982 

5 

11 

44 

•616 

4,736-48 

154-42 

1,375 

HIPS 

1W08 

•7906 

6 

Part  gate.  20  turns. 

ir;35 

•566 

4,519-69 

148*14 

1,300 

ISO' 

118-18 

•8000 

7 

•595 

4,515-39 

148- 

1,250 

157" 

118'94 

•8C36 

8 

18     ' 

17-45 

•502 

4,246-77 

139-98 

IO/Vl 

147-5 

1  Si  •  K 

111-74 

1  1O  •  Qf* 

•7983 

•  Q-tfyy 

9 

17"42 

'494 

4,213°02 

138  "62 

.  ,  4UU 

1    OOK 

1*>±  O 

1  ~  o  • 

i  r<j  oo 

olU« 

*  Q1O*7 

10 
11 

16      " 

17  "43 

17-54 

'495 

•417 

4,217"  24 
3,892-45 

138"85 
128-96 

I,QD 

1,150 

lo< 

149-67 

112'85 
104-31 

ol^< 
•8042 

12 

•420 

3,904-79 

129-94 

1,125 

152-5 

103-98 

'8000 

13 

15      " 

17-59 

•375 

3,720-09 

123-63 

1,050 

153'5 

97-68 

•7901 

]4 

14 

17-58 

•330 

3,539-76 

117-55 

u 

146- 

92-91 

•7904 

15 

17-60 

"326 

3,523-8 

117-15 

1,000 

151- 

91-52 

•7818 

16 

it        u 

17-62 

•318 

3,491-95 

116-22 

975 

154- 

91- 

•7830 

13      " 

17-28 

•288 

3,294-82 

107-54 

950 

145- 

83-48 

•7763 

IS 

17-81 

•262 

3,271-39 

106-96 

900 

150-5 

82-09 

•7675 

19 

12      " 

17-25 

•210 

3,070-61 

lOO'OS 

850 

148- 

76-24 

•7620 

20 

•206 

3,055-34 

99-55 

8*6 

151' 

75-62 

•7600 

21 

11      ' 

17-40 

•153 

2,855-12 

93-84 

750 
r-os; 

i4;-s 

-\*L  \    • 

67-10 

ftfi  -  Cf* 

•7157 

•  roo,£ 

22 
23 

10      ' 

17'01 
17-20 

'  146 

•084 

2,829" 
2.600-84 

90  "89 
84-50 

4  V.) 

650 

1O1 

153- 

OP    OO 

60-27 

foo^t 

•7132 

^4 

9*      ' 

17-34 

•050 

2,478-28 

81-17 

600 

153-5 

55-82 

•6877 

23 

26 

'       "        9      " 

17'37 
17-39 

"042 
•040 

2,449  7 
2,442-68 

80  "37 
80-33 

550 
600 

161  ' 
150-5 

53  '  67 
54-73 

"6677 
•6821 

The  Leffel  Wheel,  represented  in  Fig.  12,  is  of  the  horizontal-shaft  type,  and  embodies  the 
latest  improvements  in  the  double-discharge  construction.  The  water  is  divided  equally  at 
the  center,  and  passes  laterally  and  parallel  with  the  shaft  in  opposite  directions,  discharging 
downwards  on  each  side  of  the  wheel  through  curved  pipes.  This  casing  is  made  as  narrow 
through  the  central  portion  as  possible,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  shortest  distance 
between  the  journals,  bringing  them  as  near  to  the  wheel  as  the  discharge  space  will  admit. 
These  wheels  may  be  used  for  various  purposes,  particularly  where  a  large  amount  of  power 
is  transmitted  from  a  main  horizontal  line  of  shafting,  and  from  the  pulleys  of  which  direct 
connection  can  be  made  to  one  or  more  pulleys  on  the  horizontal  water-wheel  shaft.  Many 
applications  of  double-discharge  wheels  have  been  made  to  electric  lighting,  electric  power, 
and  other  uses,  directly  from  pulleys  on  the  water-wheel  shaft  to  the  pulleys  on  the  dynamo, 
the  saw  arbor,  or  the  pumping  machinery. 


WATER   WHEELS. 


899 


A  novel  form  of  the  Leffel  wheel  is  known  as  the  twin  combination.  This  consists  of  two 
regularly  built  James  Leffel  wheels,  either  standard  or  special,  placed  within  a  large  cylin- 
drical wrought-iron  casing,  with  cast-iron  heads,  the  whole  affair  being  substantially  and 
durably  built.  Both  wheels  discharge  the  water  toward  each  other,  which  unites  and  passes 


FIG.  12.-Leffel  wheel. 


downward  through  a  single  central  draft  tube  of  large  capacity.  The  changes  in  general 
design  of  the  standard  Leifel  wheel  which  have  been  made  of  'late  years,  consist  in  wider 
gates  and  correspondingly  wider  buckets.  This  arrangement  secures  a  greatly  enlarged 
capacity  for  water,  and  consequently  a  largely  increased  power  for  the  same  size  of  wheel  ; 
affording  a  concentration  of  power  in  a  smaller  space. 


FIG.  13.— Peltoii  wheel. 


The  Pdton  Wheel— A.  novel  type  of  wheel  of  a  very  different  form  from  the  turbine  has 
been  recently  introduced  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  is  applicable  to  very  high  heads  and  small 
streams  of  water,  and  has  given  very  good  results. 

It  might  be  approximately  described  as  having  "the  outline  of  an   undershot  wheel, 


900 


WATEE   WHEELS. 


with  the  buckets  of  a  turbine."  Its  general  construction  will  be  readily  understood  from 
Fig.  18.  The  important  feature  is  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  bucket,  which  is  illus- 
trated in  section,  Fig  14,  and  in  perspective,  Fig.  15.  The  bucket  is  in  form  of  a  paraboloid, 
and  has  a  central  wedge  which  splits  the  entering  jet  of  water.  This  jet  then  passes  to  the 


FIG.  14.— The  Pelton  bucket. 


FIG.  15.— The  Pelton  bucket. 


right  and  left,  following  the  curve  of  the  bucket,  and  is  discharged  at  its  periphery,  having 
imparted  all  its  energy  and  motion  to  the  wheel,  and  falling  away  as  dead  water.  Mr.  Ross 
E.  Browne,  hydraulic  engineer  of  San  Francisco,  who  has  tested  this  wheel,  reports  an  effi- 
ciency of  82*6  per  cent,  under  50-ft.  head,  with  a  15-in.  wheel,  and  says  that  the  velocity  of 
the  bucket  should  be  one  half  that  of  the  jet.  Other  tests  of  a  6-ft.  wheel,  by  Messrs.  Ed- 
ward Coleman  and  George  Fletcher,  in  1884,  showed  an  efficiency  of  87  per  cent.  In  this  case 
the  velocity  of  bucket  as  compared  to  the  theoretical  velocity  of  jet  was  about  52  per  cent. 

The  great  simplicity  and  economy  of  construction  of  this  wheel  commends  it  to  atten- 
tion, and  it  is  especially  available  for  very  high  heads  and  very  small  volumes  of  water.  In 
the  last  test  quoted,  the  head  of  water  was  880  ft.,  the  diameter  of  pipe,  22  in.,  and  the 
diameter  of  nozzle  through  which  it  was  delivered  was  1-89  in.  The  power  obtained  is 
stated  as  107  horse-power,  and  the  revolutions  of  wheel  per  minute,  255i.  The  water  used 
is  stated  as  2 '819  cub.  ft.  per  second,  or  169 '14  cub.  ft.  per  minute. 

Now,  the  Leffel  6|-m.  wheel,  one  of  the  smallest  turbine  wheels  in  use.  would  use  this 
amount  of  water  under  ICO  ft.  head,  give  27 '8  horse-power,  and  make  2,080  revolutions  per 
minute.  This  shows  the  advantage  of  this  wheel  in  reducing  the  number  of  revolutions  to 
a  more  practical  point,  by  the  use  of  very  small  buckets  on  a  wheel  of  large  diameter. 
Were  a  turbine  to  bo  especially  constructed  for  such  a  head,  a  12-in.  wheel,  having  a  diam 


purpose,  like  Mr  Foumeyron's  celebrated  turbine  of  St   Blaise. 

The  Pelton  wheel  has  proved  especially  efficient  in  the  electrical  transmission  of  power, 
and,  as  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  16,  may  be  placed  directly  on  the  dynamo  shaft.     The  full-page 

illustration  repre- 
sents an  electric 
lighting  station  in 
which  all  the  dyna- 
mos are  driven  by 
these  wheels.  As 
examples  of  the  use 
of  the  wheel  for 
driving  dynamos, 
the  following  may 
be  noted:  The 
power  station  of  the 
American  River 
Syndicate  is  located 
at  Rock  Creek, 
Eldorado  County, 
Cal.  The  plant 
consists  of  an  8-1't. 
Pelton  wheel, 
which,  running  un- 
der a  head  of  310 
ft.  at  100  revolu- 
tions with  a  5A-in.  nozzle,  has  a  maximum  capacity  of  130  horse-power.  To  this  wheel  is 
connected  a  100  horse-power  Brush  generator,  speeded  at  900  revolutions,  the  current  from 


FIG.  16.— Direct  driving  of  dynamo  by  Pelton  wheel. 


WELDING,    ELECTRIC.  901 


which  is  carried  to  the  mill  through  a  single  insulated  copper  wire,  Xo.  3  B.  &*S.  gauge, 
the  return  being  made  by  a  wire  of  the  same  size,  making  a  four-mile  circuit.  The  power 
from  the  generator  is  communicated  to  the  countershaft  of  the  mill  by  a  70  horse-power 
Brush  motor  running  at  950  revolutions.  The  machinery  operated  consists  of  three  centrif- 
ugal roller  mills,  a  ten-stamp  battery,  and  a  rock  breaker.  The  Pelton  wheel  under  the.-e 
conditions  shows  an  efficiency  of  86  per  cent.,  while  about  75  per  cent,  of  the  power  thus 
generated  is  available  for  duty  at  the  mill.  Sufficient  power  is  taken  from  the  main  circuit 
to  run  sixty  incandescent  lamps  for  lighting  the  entire  works. 

It  only  remains  to  be  said  that  the  modern  turbine  has  been  brought  to  such  a  point  of 
perfection  that,  with  proper  attention  to  correct  velocity  of  discharge  and  ample  water  pas- 
sages, from  80  to  85  per  cent,  of  the  gross  power  of  the  water  can  be  safely  estimated  as 
secured  by  8  or  10  of  the  most  popular  types  of  wheel. 

Way,  Balancing  :  see  Balancing  Way. 

AVELDI\(T,  ELECTRIC.  One  of  the  oldest  known  facts  in  the  working  of  iron  is  that 
portions,  when  softened  or  rendered  plastic  by  heat,  could,  under  suitable  conditions,  unite  or 
weld  together.  Owing  to  this  property,  the  earliest  iron  smelters  were  able  to  secure  pieces 
of  moderate  size  from  the  granules  obtained  in  the  reduction  of  the  ores  in  their  crude  furnace 
operations.  These  were  carried  on  on  too  small  a  scale  to  give  rise  to  iron  which  had  in  it  a 
portion  of  carbon  conferring  fusibility,  or  cast-iron.  In  general,  softened  materials,  such  as 
warm  wax,  pitch,  or  heated  glass,  possess  the  property  of  welding  in  an  eminent  degree. 
This  is  probably  due  to  the  existence  of  a  comparative  freedom  of  movement  of  the  molecules 
of  materials  in  a  plastic  condition,  which  allows  the  cohesive  force  to  be  exerted  between 
particles  or  surfaces  brought  very  near  together,  or  into  complete  contact  one  with  the  other. 
For  such  operations  of  welding,  the  surfaces  must  be  clean  and  free  from  interposed  scale 
or  dirt,  or  the  conditions  must  be  such  that  these  latter  are  expelled  from  the  joint  during 
the  operation.  With  platinum  or  glass  in  the  heated  or  softened  state,  the  union  takes  place 
with  great  facility,  owing  to  the  non-oxidability  of  the  surfaces  in  contact,  but  in  the  case 
of  such  a  metal  as  iron,  which  forms  a  scale  of  black  oxide  when  heated  in  the  air,  the  tem- 
perature for  welding  must  either  be  so  high  that  the  oxide  is  liquefied  and  so  made  to  exude 
from  the  joint  or  surfaces  brought  together  ;  or,  for  the  same  exudation  or  auto-cleansing  to 
take  place,  a'  flux  which  dissolves  and  renders  liquid  such  scale  or  oxide  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture is  required.  In  still  another  way— namely,  by  extrusion  of  sufficient  of  the  metal  itself 
outwardly  from  the  joining  surfaces — the  condition  of  absence  of  scale  or  oxide  at  the  joint 
may  be  secured.  The  application  of  the  heating  effects  of  electrical  currents,  together  with 
mechanical  manipulation,  marks  a  recent  advance  in  the  art  of  welding  metals.  The  well- 
.  known  ease  with  which  electrical 'currents  may  be  regulated  or  governed  in  their  effects,  con- 
tributes greatly  to  the  success  of  the  operation. 

The  principles  of  the  Thomson  process  of  electric  welding,  which  principles  are,  with 
some  modifications,  applied  to  the  operations  of  electric  forging  and  shaping,  upsetting, 
riveting,  etc.,  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  :  The  pieces  to  be  operated  upon  are  held  in 
suitable  clamps  or  supports,  and  provision  made  for  the  passage  of  heavy  currents  of  elec- 
tricity at  very  low  pressures  or  potentials  through  the  joint  or  from  piece  to  piece.  The  cur- 
rent usually  enters  by  the  holding-clamps,  though  sometimes  other  means  than  the  clamps 
are  used  to  pass  current  into  the  pieces.  Indeed,  in  some  cases  no  clamps  are  used,  but 
merely  contact  surfaces  bearing  on  the  work- pieces  at  or  near  the  joint.  Various  modifi- 
cations are  made  in  the  devices  employed  so  as  to  suit  the  character  of  the  work  itself.  The 
result  of  passing  a  heavy  current  through  the  metal  of  the  joint  is  a  localization  of  the  heat- 
ing effect  of  the  currents  to  the  joint  itself,  or,  more  correctly,  to  the  metal  at  the  joint 
and  at  a  small  distance  each  side  of  it.  During  the  passage  of  current,  the  pieces  are  pressed 
together  in  firm  contact,  and  since  there  is  no  arc,  the  heating  occurs  by  the  resistance  of 
the  solid  metal,  and  not  by  that  of  any  air  or  gas  in  a  space  between  them.  Neither  does 
the  heating  altogether  depend  on  the  fact  that  the  meeting  portions  do  not  fit  perfectly, 
such  imperfect  fit  giving  increased  resistance  at  the  joint,  for  a  solid  bar  joining  the  clamps 
would  be  heated  between  such  clamps,  though  its  resistance  is  not  increased  by  The  existence 
of  any  break  or  partial  fit  of  surfaces  in  contact.  The  heat  developed  in  any  portion  of  an 
electric  circuit  depends  upon  the  resistance  which  it  offers  to  the  current  and  upon  the  amount 
of  current  passing.  It  is  also  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  strength  of  that  current. 

If  the  resistance  be  great,  a  small  current  will  be  required,  but  the  pressure  of  the  current 
will  need  to  be  high  enough  to  force  the  current  to  pass,  according  to  Ohm's  law, 

E.  M.  F.  or  pressure 

Current  = ~ — r-r-  — 

Resistance 

But  if  the  resistance  in  the  circuit  be  low,  the  current,  to  effect  heating,  wiU  require  to  be 
increased,  while  the  pressure,  or  electro-motive  force,  will  be  less.  It  is  of  course  evident  that 
in  the  case  of  two  bars  or  pieces  of  metal  held  together  firmly,  and  arranged  so  that  a  cur- 
rent when  passed  will  only  go  through  the  pieces  at  the  meeting  portions,  and  a  little  of  the 
metal  each  side  thereof,  a  very  low  resistance  will  exist  in  the  path  of  the  current  through 
the  pieces.  Hence  the  desired  heating  for  welding  will  demand  that  the  current  strength  or 
rate  of  flow  of  electricity  be  very  high.  This  current,  with  bars  of  copper  up  to  1  in.  or  a 
little  more  in  diameter,  "or  with 'bars  of  iron  of  seven  or  eight  square  inches  of  section  at  the 
weld,  may  reach  thirty  or  forty  thousand  amperes,  yet  the  pressure  or  potential  difference 
causing  such  flow  may  be  no  more  than  two  volts.  In  actual  practice  in  electric  welding, 
the  strength  of  current  and  pressure  depend  on  the  conditions  of  the  work,  the  desired 
rate  of  heat  development,  and  other  factors.  It  therefore  varies  greatly.  For  obtaining 


902 


WELDING,    ELECTRIC. 


the  large  currents  at  the  low  pressure  indicated  above,  the  development  of  the  art  has  shown 
that  storage  cells  or  accumulators  may  be  used,  that  dynamo-electric  machines  may  be 
constructed  to  furnish  the  currents,  or  that  currents  of  comparatively  high  pressure  and 
small  flow  may  be  transformed  or  exchanged  by  induction  apparatus  for  currents  of  very 
low  pressure  and  great  volume.  The  latter  method  is  the  one  adopted  in  almost  all  of  the 
apparatus  constructed  for  practical  use  in  electric  welding.  It  enables  the  dynamo,  which  is 
usually  made  to  furnish  alternating  currents  of  about  300  volts  pressure,  to  be  placed 
where  it  is  convenient  to  drive  it  by  power,  while  the  working  apparatus  or  welding 
transformer  may  be  elsewhere  located,  two  wires  of  moderate  section  being  used  to  convey 
the  current  from  the  dynamo  to  the  transformer.  The  dynamo  may  be  of  such  size  as  to  be 
able  to  supply  current  at  the  same  time  to  several  welding  transformers,  or  welders,  as  they 
are  called,  and  located  in  different  parts  of  a  manufacturing  establishment. 

The  general  character  of  the  apparatus  may  readily  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  Fig.  1, 

which  represents  the  second  machine  made,  and  which 
machine  has  become  historic. 

The  primary,  P,  Fig.  1,  is  a  large,  open  ring,  and  is 
composed  of  many  turns  of  insulated  copper  wire.  The 
secondary,  S  S,  is  simply  a  single  heavy  bar  of  copper 
bent  to  make  only  one  turn  outside  the  primary  coil;  its 
ends  are  turned  outward,  and  provided  with  powerful 
screw  clamps,  C  <?',  for  holding  the  pieces,  B  B ,  in  place 
and  in  abutment.  The  form  of  the  secondary  is  somewhat 
like  a  Jew's-harp,  with  the  clamps  on  the  ends  of  the 
parallel  portion.  The  bar,  S,  is  thinned  at  E,  and  broad- 
ened there  so  as  to  give  a  certain  flexibility.  A  powerful 
screw  and  spring  at  Z  J  forces  the  clamps  together  when 
the  apparatus  is  used.  Over  both  primary  and  secondary 
a  heavy  sheathing  of  iron  wire  is  wound,  forming  vir- 
tually an  endless  magnetic  circuit  of  iron  around  them. 
The  iron  wire  is  wound  upon  a  casing  which  encloses  the 
two  coils,  P  and  S,  and  prevents  the  iron  wire  from 
interfering  with  the  free  movement  of  the  parts  of  the 
bar,  S,  and  the  clamps,  C  €'.  The  resistance  of  the 
secondary  bar  is  about  .00003  ohm.  Vigorous  alternating 
currents,  of  comparatively  high  potential,  passing  in  the 
primary  circuit,P,  generate  in  the  bar,  S,  when  its  circuit 
is  closed  by  pieces,  B  S',  to  be  welded,  a  low  electro-motive 
force  acting  over  a  circuit  of  very  low  resistance,  and 
giving  rise  therein  to  currents  of  enormous  volume.  To 
prepare  the  pieces  for  the  operation  of  welding  by  electric 
means,  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  done  is  to  clean  those 
parts  of  ths  pieces  which  enter  the  clamps  by  filing  or 


FIG.  1. — Electric  welding  machine. 


emery,  and  to  see  that  the  ends  or  surfaces  to  be  welded  are  clean  enough  to  effect  a  contact 
when  pressed  together  after  placing  in  the  clamps.  The  shape  of  the  abutted  ends  matters 
little,  as  a  joint  will  be  formed  even  when  the  ends  are  irregular,  but  it  is  better  to  have  the 
surfaces  either  flat  or  with  the  edge  chamfered  a  little,  or  with  one  or  both  surfaces  made 
somewhat  convex,  in  order  that  the  joint  may  begin  in  the  middle  of  the  abutted  section. 
The  pieces  are  placed  in  the  clamps,  with  the  ends  to  be  joined  projecting  therefrom  a  small 
amount,  and  a  moderate  pressure  tending  to  hold  them  in  abutment,  is  applied.  Sometimes 
at  this  stage  a  flux,  as  borax,  is  added,  after  which  the  current  is  put  on.  Heating  of  the 
abutted  ends  at  once  begins  and  proceeds  with  a  rapidity  depending  on  the  current  flow,  and 
the  size  and  nature  of  the  pieces  treated,  reaching  the  welding  heat  or  temperature  of  union 
for  the  metal,  or  even  reaching  the  point  of  actual  fusion.  With  great  energy  of  current, 
joints  on  iron  bars  of  over  \  in.  diameter  have  been  made  in  less  than  three  seconds  after 
applying  the  current,  and  with  small  wires  the  action  is  almost  instantaneous.  The  scale  on 
which  the  apparatus  is  constructed  depends,  of  course,  on  the  character  and  dimensions  of  the 
pieces  to  be  treated  or  worked.  Wires  of  -^  of  an  inch  in  diameter  up  to  bars  of  several 
inches  in  diameter  may  be  welded  by  suitable  sizes  of  welders.  The  current  strength  required 
in  such  case  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  metal  or  alloy  as  regards  fusibility,  specific  heat, 
resistance,  etc.  Easily  fused  metals,  like  tin  or  lead,  require  less  current,  because  the  tem- 
perature of  welding  is  just  short  of  their  fusing  points,  which  are,  of  course,  comparatively 
low,  while  their  higher  specific  resistance  to  the  flow  of  current,  as  compared  with  iron  or 
copper,  still  further  lessens  the  current  required  to  produce  the  heat  in  any  given  section. 

The  metals  silver  and  copper,  which,  in  their  pure  state,  are  the  most  perfect  electrical 
conductors  known,  and  which  at  the  same  time  possess  a  very  high  heat-conducting  power, 
require  for  electric  welding  currents  of  relatively  much  greater  amount  than  do  iron, 
platinum,  gold,  etc.  The  conductivity  for  heat  tends  to  cause  a  rapid  transfer  of  heat  from 
the  joint  to  the  clamps  during  the  operation,  which  loss  of  power  is  largely  kept  down  by 
making  the  weld  in  as  short  a  time  as  possible.  The  conducted  heat,  as  well  as  the  heat 
developed  by  the  current  in  passing  from  the  clamps  or  current-applying  contacts  to  the 
work-piece  to  be  welded,  tends  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  clamps  or  contacts,  and  so  in 
a  measure  lessen  their  efficiency  for  conveying  current,  and  also  to  injure  them  by  oxidation. 
These  parts  of  the  apparatus  being  usually  of  copper,  or  alloys  rich  in  copper,  are,  however, 


WELDING,    ELECTRIC.  903 

in  the  actual  machines  kept  cool  by  a  circulation  of  water,  and  are  in  this  way  preserved 
from  deterioration.  To  this  end  they  are  on  the  larger  machines  constructed  with  water 
passages  which  are  connected  to  a  water  supply.  In  such  machines  also  it  is  not  unusual  for 
hydraulic  force  or  hydraulic  cylinders  to  be  provided  for  forcing  the  pieces  together  during 
welding,  and  sometimes  also  for  holding  the  pieces  in  the  clamps.  The  ease  and  quickness 
of  action  and  perfection  of  control  by  simple  valves  renders  hydraulic  pressure  peculiarly 
well  adapted  to  impart  the  movement  necessary  for  clamping,  unclamping,  pressing  together 
in  welding,  etc.,  during  the  operation.  In  like  manner  the  current  applied  in  doing  the 
work  is  controllable  and  regulable  by  simple  switches  and  regulating  appliances,  so  that  the 
heating  effects  can  be  nicely  adjusted  to  the  size  and  character  of  the  work.  To  such  an 
extent  is  this  true  that  electric  welding  machines  are  constructed  which  are  automatic  in 
character,  or  in  which  the  conditions  for  successful  welding,  including  the  amount  of  current, 
pressure  to  be  exerted,  and  point  of  cutting  off  of  current,  having  been  once  determined  for 
the  sizes  of  work  for  which  the  machine  is  adapted,  such  work  may  be  indefinitely  repeated, 
since  the  placing  of  the  pieces  in  the  clamps  is  in  accordance  with  set  gauges  on  the  welder. 
The  application  of  current  is  after  a  certain  interval  followed  by  its  automatic  cutting  off, 
and  the  pressure  exerted  to  close  or  effect  the  weld  is  automatically  applied  by  springs  or 
by  a  definite  hydraulic  force.  The  tendency  in  the  development  of  the  welding  apparatus  is 
to  have  its  action  automatic  even  in  the  case  of  large  work,  at  least  in  so  far  as  the  application 
of  a  certain  amount  of  pressure  in  forcing  the  pieces  together  is  concerned.  In  some  cases 
the  automatic  character  of  the  apparatus  is  more  complete.  This  is  the  case  in  machines 
which  automatically  feed  the  pieces  into  place  in  the  clamps,  clamp  or  hold  them,  automati- 
cally apply  the  proper  pressure  and  current,  allow  the  proper  amount  of  yield  to  take  place 
in  forming  the  weld,  and  automatically  cut  off  the  current,  followed  by  the  automatic  release 
of  the  clamps  and  discharge  of  the  pieces. 

Concerning  the  form  of  the  pieces  which  can  be  dealt  with  in  the  electric  welder,  there 
are  but  few  limitations.  Of  course,  the  welding  of  uniform  sections  of  wires  or  bars  presents 
the  least  difficulty.  These  sections  may  be  round,  square,  polygonal,  or  irregular,  provided 
the  holding  clamps  are  adapted  to  grasp  them  and  hold  them  securely.  Flat  strips  like 
band  saws  may  be  operated  upon  similarly,  and  even  teeth  may  be  welcled  into  saws  where 
they  have  been  broken  out.  The  edges  6f  sheets  of  considerable  width  may  likewise  be 
united.  The  welding  of  pipe  sections  of  large  or  small  diameter  is  performed  with  facility. 
In  such  work,  as  also  is  the  case  of  solid-bar  welding,  in  many  instances,  the  weld  is  per- 
fected by  hammering,  the  blows  of  a  light  hammer,  rapidly  delivered  at  the  weld  while  the 
metal  is  heated,  being  preferred.  For  such  purposes,  both  mechanical  and  rapid  pneumatic 
hammers  which  can  readily  be  applied  to  the  work  are  in  use.  Pipe  welding  in  the  lighter 
work  may  require  a  mandrel  introduced  into  the  interior  of  the  pipe,  during  the  hammering, 
though  this  is  not  a  necessity  in  the  case  of  pipe  with  heavy  walls.  The  process  finds  appli- 
cation in  the  welding  of  iron  pipe  sections  into  continuous  long  lengths  for  coiling.  It  is 
readily  applied  to  the  joining  of  lead-pipe  sections  without  solder,  and  without  any  enlarge- 
ment at  the  joint.  The  diameter  and  thickness  of  the  pipe  is  preserved,  while  the  metal 
becomes  a  continuous  piece.  When  applied  to  the  welding  of  tires  or  rings,  the  conditions 
are  such  that  it  might  be  expected  at  first  that  the  electric  current,  if  applied  by  contacts  or 
clamps  at  each  side  of  a  break  or  proposed  joint  in  a  ring,  would  be  liable  to  'short-circuit 
itself  through  the  complete  portion.  Some  current  does  pass  around  such  a  ring,  but  it  is 
slight  as  compared  with  that  which  passes  at  the  proposed  weld  or  joint.  This  is  owing  to 
the  greater  resistance  to  the  current  given  by  the  length  of  metal  in  the  path  formed  by  the 
metal  of  the  ring  outside  the  clamps,  as  compared  with  the  short  length  between  the  closely 
approximated  clamps  where  the  joint  is  to  be  made.  Moreover,  with  alternating  currents 
the  path  around  the  ring  has  a  much  higher  self-induction,  which  acts  as  an  opposing  influ- 
ence, and  so  acts  to  check  current  in  that  path.  Further,  if  desired,  the  insertion  of  a 
magnetizable  body  of  iron  in  the  interior  of  the  ring,  such  body  being  made  of  a  bundle  of 
iron  wires  or  plates,  will  give  an  opposing  effect,  or  self-induction  so  greatly  increased  that 
in  most  cases  very  little  current  will  pass  around  the  ring  as  compared  with  that  which 
passes  at  the  joint,  and  which  heats  and  welds  the  same.  It  will  be  evident,  without  fur- 
ther explanation,  that  pieces  of  special  or  irregular  outline  may  be  operated  upon  or  welded 
to  others  by  simply  providing  the  necessary  and  suitable  clamps  and  contacts  for  passing 
into  the  pieces  the  proper  current,  and  for  pressing  the  metal  together  at  the  joint,  provided, 
of  course,  that  the  requisite  projection  of  parts  and  meeting  of  pieces  between  the  clamps 
is  permitted. 

While  in  most  cases  the  operation  of  electric  welding  by  the  Thomson  process  is  effected 
by  butt  welding,  or  joining  the  pieces  in  a  plane  substantially  transverse  to  the  line  joining 
the  pieces,  it  isequal'ly  applicable  to  making  lap  welds  ;  but  practically  the  butt  welds  made 
electrically  are  equal  to  lap  welds  as  ordinarily  made,  and  often  supplant  the  latter  with 
great  advantage.  It  is  customary  to  dress  off  or  hammer  down  the  burr  or  expansion  left 
in  the  butt  welding  of  the  pieces,  due  to  their  being  pressed  together  while  in  a  plastic 
state,  but  in  many  cases  the  presence  of  the  burr  is  not  objectionable,  while  it  is  consider- 
ably conducive  to  strength,  as  it  makes  the  weld  in  most  cases  the  strongest  part  of  the 
structure.  In  other  cases  the  burr  may,  by  suitable  dies,  be  finished  into  a  uniform  bead  • 
which  is  ornamental  in  character.  (See  Fig.  2.)  In  regard  to  the  preparation  which  is  given 
to  the  ends  of  the  pieces  before  welding,  it  is  noticeable  that  for  moderate-sized  wires  the 
ends  may  be  simply  cut  off  in  wire  cutters,  and  abutted  thereafter  for  passage  of  current 
and  welding.  In  larger  work,  such  as  large  bars  of  iron,  the  ends  are  somewhat  rounded 


904 


WELDING,   ELECTRIC. 


or  convex,  and  the  heating  and  welding  therefore  begins  in  the  center,  or  near  the  axis  of 
the  bar.  As  the  metal  heats,  softens,  and  yields,  the  weld  continues  to  spread  laterally  until 
it  includes  the  whole  of  the  section.  It  has  been  proved  possible  to  weld  bars  without 
producing  any  expansion  or  burr  at  the  joint  by  first  preparing  the  ends  suitably—  i.e., 
by  first  removing  from  the  ends  of  the  pieces  just  that 
portion  of  metal  which  during  the  welding  would  have 
gone  to  form  the  expansion.  However,  this  operation  requires 
skill  and  judgment,  and  is  not  generally  practised.  The  de- 
gree of  heat  to  which  a  bar  may  be  brought  in  the  electric 
welder  is  only  limited  by  the  fusing  point  of  the  metal,  unless 
the  losses  by  conduction  and  radiation  from  pieces  too  large  for 
the  machine,  limit  it.  The  fact  that  most  metals  when  heated 
possess  less  conductivity  for  current  is  important,  for  it  lessens 
the  volume  or  flow  of  current  required  to  be  passed.  Other- 
wise the  current  would  need  to  be  increased  as  the  section  welded 
was  increased  during  the  operation.  This,  however,  is  not 
requisite,  for  in  the  case  of  iron,  as  an  example,  the  specific 
resistance  of  the  metal  at  the  welding  heat  may  be  ten  to  twelve 
times  what  it  is  at  ordinary  temperatures.  This  fact  has  also 
another  important  bearing  on  the  operation  of  electric  welding, 
FIG.  2.— Butt  welding.  for  it  leads  to  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  heating  effect  in 

the  different  parts  of  the  weld,  assuming  that  no  disturbing 

effect  which  otherwise  prevents  such  uniformity  exists.  The  action  is  briefly  that  if  in  a 
weld  one  portion  of  the  meeting  surfaces  is  comparatively  cooler  than  another,  its  resistance 
will  be  less,  more  current  will  therefore  be  diverted  to  such  cooler  portions,  and  a  conse- 
quent increased  heat  production  will  ensue  thereat  which  rapidly  brings  the  metal  to  a 
temperature  nearly  uniform  with  the  rest. 

The  development  of  the  Thomson  electric-welding  process  has  shown  that  instead  of  a 
few  only  of  the  metals  and  alloys  being  the  weldable  ones,  there  are  few  if  any  exceptions 
among  the  metals  so  far  as  their  weldability  by  electricity  is  concerned.  It  has  appeared  also 
that  in  many  cases  metals  are  united  with  great  ease  which  before  were  regarded  as  non- 
weldable.  Doubtless  the  reason  for  this  is  that  the  perfect  control  of  temperature  and  pres- 
sure obtained  enables  the  operator  to  work  within  so  much  narrower  limits  of  fusibility  and 
plasticity  as  would  be  impossible  with  the  ordinary  methods.  The  metals  which  have  been 
found  to  weld  with  facility  include  wrought-iron,  cast-iron,  steels  of  various  grades,  steel 
castings,  Bessemer  metal,  copper,  lead,  tin,  zinc,  nickel,  cobalt,  silver,  gold,  platinum,  anti- 
mony, bismuth,  magnesium,  aluminum,  manganese,  cadmium,  and  such  alloys  as  cast  and 
rolled  brass,  bronze,  gun  metal,  aluminum  brass,  aluminum  bronze,  phosphor  bronze,  silicon 
bronze,  coin  silver,  gold  of  varying  fineness,  type  metal,  pot  metal,  pewter,  solder,  German 
silver,  fuse  alloy,  aluminum  iron,  etc.  The  process  permits  the  combination  of  different 
metals  and  alloys  to  be  effected  without  solder,  such  as  copper  to  brass,  copper  to  soft  iron, 
copper  to  German  silver,  copper  to  gold,  copper  to  silver,  brass  to  soft  iron,  brass  to  cast-iron, 
tin  to  zinc,  tin  to  brass,  brass  to  German  silver,  brass  to  tin,  brass  to  mild  steel,  wrought  to 
cast-iron,  wrought-iron  to  cast-steel  and  to  mild  steel,  gold  to  German  silver,  gold  to  silver, 
gold  to  platinum,  silver  to  platinum,  soft  iron  to  cast  brass,  iron  to  German  silver,  iron  to 
nickel,  tin  to  lead,  etc. 

The  joining  is  frequently  effected  without  the  use  of  a  flux,  though  in  some  cases  a  flux, 
such  as  glass  of  borax,  is  found  to  assist  the  operation.  The  energy  required  to  effect  a  weld 
is  of  course  different  with  the  different  metals,  according  to  conductivity  for  heat  and  elec- 
tricity, fusibility,  section,  shape  of  pieces,  and  other  factors. 

The  following  table  shows  some  of  the  results  obtained  in  welding  iron,  etc.,  and  with 
the  time  occupied  in  the  work. 


Energy  absorbed  in  Electric  Welding.     Professor  Thomson's  process. 


IRON  AND  STEKL. 

BRASS. 

COPPER. 

a 

& 

1 

!_.  1 

"K 

a 

•3 

i 

l^s 

"3 

P 

a' 

g'o   . 

j 

1  s 

£ 
c 

a| 

Nl 

H 

a 

|£J 

.as 

|j| 

g* 
n 

Ill    I.S-S 

^li 

1 

*i* 

1 

H 

Wa5 

1 

f|s 

0    0 

§ 

i 

H 

I 

<s 
£ 

ft 

1 

K    -2 

I" 

0'5 
1- 

8,550 
16,700 

33 
45 

14-4 

28'0 

260 
692 

•25 

•5 

7.500 
13,500 

17 

22 

12-6 
32-6 

117 

281 

•125 
•25 

6.000 

14:000 

8 
11 

10- 

23  '4 

44 

142 

1*8 

23,500 

55 

39'4 

1,191 

•75 

19,000 

29 

31-8 

508 

•375 

19,000 

13 

31-8 

227 

r 

2'5 

29,000 
34,000 

65 
70 

48'6 
57-0 

1,738 
2,194 

r 

1-25 

25,000 
31,000 

33 

3S 

42-0 
52-0 

760 

1,087 

•5 
•625 

25,000 
31,000 

16 
18 

42' 
51-9 

369 
513 

3' 
35 

39,000 
44,000 

78 
85 

65'4 
73'7 

2,804 
3,447 

1-5 

1-75 

36,000 
40,000 

42 
45 

60-3 
67-0 

1,390 
1,659 

•75 

•875 

36.500 
43.000 

21       fil'2 
22       72-2 

706 

872 

4' 

50,000 

90 

83-8 

4,148 

2' 

44,000 

48 

73-7 

1,947 

1- 

49,000 

23       82-1 

1,039 

WELDING,    ELECTRIC. 


905 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  foot  pounds  of  energy  for  a  given  section  of  copper  are  about  half 
as  much  again  as  with  the  same  section  of  iron,  and  that  the  figures  for  iron  and  brass  are 
not  very  different.  The  high  heat  conductivity  of  copper,  in  consequence  of  which  more  of 
the  length  of  bar  is  heated,  or  more  heat  conducted  away  from  the  joint,  doubtless  accounts 
for  the  difference  noted.  It  may  also  be  remarked  that  the  energy  required  increases  more 
rapidly  than  the  section,  and  in  a  certain  proportion,  which  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  in 
the  larger  pieces,  though  less  subject  to  radiation  of  heat  during  the  welding  than  smaller 
pieces,  there  is  required  a  longer  time  for  the  welding,  and  consequently  an  increased 
conduction  of  heat  from  the  joint  results.  If  the  time  of  welding  were  made  the  same 
for  varying  sections,  it  would  appear  that  the  energy  used  would  be  more  nearly  in  propor- 
tion to  the  section.  The  end  pressure  in  forcing  the  pieces  together  should,  for  the  best 
work,  be  carefully  kept,  as,  if  a  proper  amount  be  applied,  the  welding  will  be  at  once  effected 
on  the  metal  pieces  arriving  at  a  certain  degree  of  plasticity,  the  quickness  or  slowness  of 
the  heating  simply  governing  the  time  which  will  be  consumed  in  heating  to  that  plas- 
ticity. The  pressure  to  be  applied  in  effecting  butt  welds  electrically  varies  with  the  material 
and  section  of  the  pieces  at  the  weld.  It  is  with  steel  about  1,800  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.;  with 
wrought-iron,  about  1,200  Ibs.;  and  for  copper,  about  600  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

In  the  industrial  application  of  the  process  the  source  of  current  has  usually  been  a 
special  dynamo,  con- 
structed to  deliver 
alternating  currents 
at  about  300  volts, 
and  of  a  periodicity 
of  about  50,  or  100 
alternations  per  sec- 
ond. Where  but  a 
single  welder  has 
been  employed  it 
has  been  customary 
to  regulate  the  weld- 
ing currents  by  va- 
rying the  field-ex- 
citing current  by  a 
resistance  or  other 
device.  Fig.  3  shows 
a  plan  of  the  con- 
nections used  in 
such  a  case.  Fig. 
4  also  shows  the  ar- 
rangement of  a  com- 
posite-field self-ex- 
citing dynamo, 
which  is  controlled 

by  a  variable  reactive  coil  alongside  the  welder,  altering  the  self-induction  in  an  arma- 
ture branch  or  circuit,  which  in  turn  causes  a  variation  in  the  field  current  of  the  dynamo. 

In  other  cases  in  which  quick 
work  is  to  be  done,  the  condi- 
tions at  the  dynamo  are  set 
once  for  all,  and  the  mere  clos- 
ing of  a  switch  effects  the  weld, 
and  the  current  is  self-regu- 
lating. In  this  case  the  dy- 
namo is  greatly  over-com- 
pounded, v/r  increases  its  elec- 
tro-motive force  rapidly  with 
an  increase  of  resistance,  or 
counter  force,  in  its  circuit, 
due  to  heating  of  the  pieces 
during  welding.  In  the  case 
of  several  welders  fed  from  the 
same  dynamo  as  a  source  of  pri- 
mary currents,  such  methods 
are  inadvisable,  and  are  re- 
placed by  constructions  which 
yield  constant  potentials,  or 
the  dynamos  are  self -regulating 
t  IG.  4.-Composite  field  dynamo  and  welder.  in  the  game  SQnse  a§  Jynamos 

used  in  electric  lighting  are. 

The  actual  construction  used  in  the  welders  themselves  undergoes  great  variation, 
according  to  the  size  and  character  of  the  work  for  which  they  are  designed.  The  direction 
and  nature  of  movement  to  be  given  to  the  clamps  in  effecting  the  weld  will  of  course  govern 
the  construction  of  the  welder  itself  to  a  large  extent.  As  the  electric  welding  machine 
may  be  regarded  as  a  special  induction  coil  or  transformer,  combined  with  holding  and 


FIG.  3.— Indirect  electric  welder. 


906 


WELDING,    ELECTRIC. 


moving  clamps  and  pressure  apparatus  simply,  it  will  also  be  understood  that  a  change  in 
the  latter  does  not  necessarily  involve  a  change  in  the  former.  Indeed,  in  the  type  of  welder 
called  "  Universal,"  the  strong  iron  frame  containing  and  supporting  the  transformer 
portion  of  the  apparatus  simply  has  an  upper  double  platform,  the  portions  of  which  are  the 


FIG.  5.—  Electric  welding  for  varying  forms. 


terminals  of  the  heavy  secondary  conductor,  insulated  from  each  other  and  provided  with 
grooves  and  holes  for  bolts  similar  to  an  iron  planer  bed.  These  permit  the  attachment  of 
varying  forms  or  arrangements  of  clamping  devices  to  suit  a  variety  cf  forms  and  sizes 
of  welding  work  or  metal  shaping,  for  which  the  machine  is  adapted.  Such  a  machine  is 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  bearing  clamps  for  axle-welding  bolted  to  its  platen.  Hydraulic  cyl- 

inders are  arranged  to  move  back  and  forth 
one  terminal  of  the  secondary,  arranged  in 
guides,  and  whereby  the  welding  pressure  and 
movement  is  obtained.  In  these  and  other 
machines  for  electric  welding,  the  primary 
coil  of  many  turns,  and  the  very  heavy  sec- 
ondary conductor  of  only  one  turn,  are  con- 
PIG.  6.—  Primary  coil.  structed  so  as  to  be  closely  associated  around 

a  laminated  iron  core.      Arrangements  such 
as  in  Figs.  6  and  7,  where  P  and  S  represent  relatively  the  sections  of  primary  and  sec- 


ondary, and  /  the  iron  magnetic;  circuit,  are  used, 
at  K,  leaving  its  terminals  free  for  conveying  cur- 
rent to  clamps  which  may  be  attached  thereto. 
Fig.  8  shows  a  welder  adapted  for  welding  sec- 
tions of  pipe  by  hand-pressure,  and  gives  a  fair  idea 
of  the  substantial  character  of  work  demanded  in 
these  later  electrical  productions.  A  pipe-welding 
machine  of  more  elaborate  type  is  provided  with 
hydraulic-pressure  cylinders,  for  forcing  the  pieces 
together.  Both  these  pipe  machines  are  provided 
with  water  circulation  through  the  clamps,  for  keep- 
ing them  cool  and  in  working  condition.  A  top 

~^is  9. 


The  secondary  is  cut,  as  in  Fig.  7, 


P-- 


FIG.  7.— Secondary  coil. 


view  of  a  tire-welding  machine  is  given  in  Fig 

the  pipe  for  water  circulation  being  clearly  seen. 

the  special  clamps,  the  pressure  lever,  and  the  tire  in  place  as  welded  in   the   machine. 

The  electric  welding  process  has  ffiven  rise  to  special  ways  of  doing  work,  and  to  special 

manufactures  dependent  on  its  conferring  the  ability  to  do  work  which  otherwise  could  not 

be  attempted.     Examples  of  this  are  easily  found,  and  the  welding  apparatus  in  such  cases 

often  takes  on  a  special  form  peculiarly  fitting  it  for  the  particular  work.     In  the  construc- 


WELDING,   ELECTRIC.  907 

tion  of  metal  wheeJs  the  process  has  been  applied  to  unite  the  two  parts  of  a  hub,  which, 


FIG.  8.— Pipe-welding  machine. 

when  brought  together  and  welded,  serve  also  to  clamp  and  weld  the  iron  or  steel  spokes 
Another  case  of  the  special  character  of  the  work  demanding  welding  machines  of  a 


FIG.  9.— Tire-welding  machine. 


design  and  construction  altogether  different  from  other  work,  is  in  the  manufacture  of  pro- 
jectiles and  shells  for  guns.  The  parts  of  the  projectile,  such  as  the  steel  point  or  tip,  the 
softer  tubular  body,  and  perforated  butt  end,  are  formed  separately  and  accurately  (Fig.  10). 


908 


WELDING,    ELECTRIC. 


FIG.  10.— Welded  projectiles. 


They  are  then  placed  in  the  special  welder,  where  they  are  united  very  accurately  in  their 
axial  relation,  but  little  finishing  being  required  to  complete  the  work.      The  application 

of  the  electric  welding  process  to  wire  jointing  being  one  of 
the  earliest  and  simplest  cases,  has  become  very  extended, 
and  millions  of  joints  are  annually  made  in  wires  of  various 
size  and  of  different  metals.  The  joints  are  usually  as  strong 
as  the  annealed  metal,  or  nearly  so.  When  the  wires  to  be 
united  possessed  a  structure  due  to  working,  such  as  drawing 
through  the  draw  plate,  it  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  expected 
that  such  structure  will  be  retained  at  or  quite  near  the 
joint  welded  electrically,  as  the  heating  anneals  the  wire  and 
takes  away  the  grain  or  toughness  conferred  by  the  mechan- 
ical kneading  of  drawing,  rolling,  or  hammering.  In  such 
cases  it  is  customary,  where  it  is  practicable,  to  hammer  the 
joint  after  welding,  special  devices,  delivering  numerous 
quick  blows  of  small  hammers,  being  made  for  the  purpose. 
Drawing  subsequent  to  welding  restores  the  structure,  and 
the  hammering  is  then  not  usually  required.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  process  to  the  production  of  chain  effects  a  saving 
in  weight,  inasmuch  as  mild  steel  may  replace  wrought-iron, 
and,  therefore,  yield  a  chain  of  equal  strength  of  less  weight 
and  cost.  The  uncertainty  of  steel  welding  by  the  ordinary 
process  has  been  a  bar  to  the  use  of  ordinary  forge  welding, 
and  electric  welding,  on  the  other  hand,  enables  the  milder 
steel  to  be  employed  with  almost  the  same  facility  as  wrought- 
iron.  The  electric  process  also  enables  bars  or  pieces  of  such 
shape  of  section  as  could  not  be  worked  by  the  ordinary  welding  methods,  to  be  dealt  with 
easily,  and  hence  finds  a  wide  field  of  application  special  to  itself,  in  addition  to  its  use  for 
the  ordinary  work  of  bar  welding,  as  in  tires,  axles,  etc.,  pipe  welding,  etc.  Machinery  of 
the  same  general  character  as  electric  welding  machines  is  applicable  to  use  in  electric 
soldering  and  brazing.  In  such  cases  the  current  is  passed  through  one  or  both  pieces,  so 
as  to  bring  them  up  to  the  temperature  at  which  the  solder  melts.  In  the  presence  of  a 
suitable  flux,  the  operation  can  generally  be  performed  with  great  facility  and  rapidity.  A 
number  of  such  machines  have  been  put  in  operation.  They  possess  the  advantage  of  'local- 
izing the  heat  almost  solely  in  the  portions  of  metal  at  the  joint,  as  in  electric  welding.  In 
consequence,  the  extensive  scaling  of  partly  finished  surfaces  on  each  side  of  a  brazed  joint 
(such  as  occurs  with  the  fire  or  blow-pipe  often  employed)  is  prevented,  and  the  heating  action 
is  under  the  most  perfect  control.  The  clamps  for  holding  the  work  may,  of  course,  remain 
stationary  in  the  case  of  electric  soldering  or  brazing,  though  they  are  often  made  movable 
and  adjustable  for  the  placing  of  the  pieces  in  proper  relative  positions  prior  to  the  heating. 
The  welding  machinery  is  also  applied  with  but  slight  modifications  (generally  of  a  purely 
mechanical  nature)  to  such  operations  as  electric  forging  and  shaping,  including  upsetting 
and  riveting.  The  portions  of  metal  to  be  heated  for  such  operations  are  included  between 
the  terminals  of  the  heavy  secondary,  and  are  quickly  brought  to  the  proper  working  heat 
by  the  passage  of  the  heavy  current.  After  this,  either  by  a  movement  imparted  to  the 
pieces  clamped  and  heated,  or  by  separate  dies  or  formers,  the  desired  shape  is  given  to  the 
plastic  metal,  and  the  pieces  may  be  heated  and  pressed  a  number  of  times  in  succession,  in 
case  the  nature  of  the  work  is  such  as  to  require  it. 

The  operation  of  electric  riveting  is  a  form  of  upsetting,  and  is  accomplished  by  making 
the  rivet  blank  the  path  for  the  heavy  secondary  current.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  include  the  blank,  with  or  without  head,  between  the  heading  tools  of  heavy  bronze 
or  copper,  kept  cool  by  water  circulation  through  them,  and  when  the  blank  has  reached  a 
plastic  state  by  the  current  heating  it,  to  force  the  tools  one  toward  the  other  until  the 
heads  are  sufficiently  formed  (Fig.  11).  With  sufficient  energy  of  current  the  rivet  body 
actually  welds  into  the  plates,  and  the  plates  themselves  may,  in 
part,  be  welded  together.  The  heating  of  pieces  for  hot  spinning 
or  rolling  may  be  accomplished,  and  the  rotation  of  the  pieces, 
even  during  the  passage  of  current,  presents  no  considerable  dif- 
ficulty. The  apparatus  in  this  case  resembles  a  lathe,  the  heads 
of  which  are  insulated,  and  then  connected  to  the  terminals  of 
a  secondary  circuit  of  a  transformer  of  the  same  construction  as 
for  welding.  The  tool  post,  or  the  part  corresponding  thereto, 
carries  rolls  or  formers  for  manipulating  the  revolving  hot  metal, 
through  which  the  current  is  passed  for  heating,  and  the  work- 
ing may  proceed  while  the  heating  is  in  progress.  The  heat  may 
also  be  maintained  at  the  proper  degree  for  giving  the  requisite 
plasticity  or  continuous  annealing.  In  this  way  iron  tubing 
rotated  may  be  reduced  or  expanded,  its  ends  closed,  beads  rolled 
in  its  sides,  etc. 

Adapting  the  strength  of  the  current,  or  rather  the  heating 
effect  of  the  current,  to  the  size  of  the  pieces  in  electric  welding, 
brazing,  forging,  shaping,  etc.,  is  a  matter  easily  provided  for  by  suitable  regulators.    Where 
the  pieces  included  in  the  circuit  are  of  different  sections  or  resistances,  they  will  not  heat 


FIG.  11.— Electric  riveting. 


WHEEL-MAKING   MACHINES.  909 

equally,  unless  special  precautions  are  taken,  such  as  proportioning  the  currents  traversing 
each  piece,  or  arranging  the  conduction,  or  cooling  of  the  pieces  during  work  so  as  to  affect 
in  greater  degree  the  piece  of  higher  resistance,  which  would,  otherwise,  tend  to  overheat. 
In  welding,  this  is  frequently  done  by  giving  but  a  relatively  smaller  projection  from  the 
clamps  to  the  piece  of  smaller  section  or  higher  resistance. 

In  some  instances  in  practical  work  it  has  been  found  that  some  saving  of  energy  in 
electrical  welding  can  be  obtained  by  heating  the  pieces  to  a  red  heat  before  insertion  into 
the  clamps  of  the  welding  machine,  which  then  raises  the  temperature  to  the  welding  heat, 
and  only  at  the  joint.  This,  for  special  kinds  of  work,  may  be  made  to  save  the  energy 
required  for  the  incipient  heating  during  welding.  Frequently,  also,  fuel  products  which 
are  wastes  of  other  parts  of  the  manufacture  can  be  employed  to  generate  steam  for  electric 
welding,  and,  of  course,  where  water-power  is  abundant  the  energy  of  the  water  may  be 
turned  into  heat  for  the  same  uses. 

Welding  Tubes  :  see  Pipe  and  Tube-making  Machines. 

WHEEL-MAKING  MACHINES.  The  manufacture  of  wheels  has  received  a  great 
impulse  in  America  by  reason  of  the  superiority  of  our  native  woods,  and  the  severe 
demands  made  upon  wheeled  vehicles  by  our  poor  roads  ;  and  in  this  line  of  manufacture 
our  machine  designers  and  builders  have  nobly  met  the  call  made  upon  them.  There  is 
scarcely  any  part  of  a  wheel  which  is  not  now  made  by  machinery,  mostly  automatic  ;  and 
among'the  ingenious  and  productive  machines  for  making  and  assembling  the  parts  may  be 
reckoned  the  felly  and  rim  sawing,  rounding,  planing,  mortising,  and  polishing  machines  ; 
spoke  lathes,  tenoners,  and  throaters  ;  hub  turning,  boring,  finishing,  and  boxing  machines  ; 
special  machines  for  inserting  and  driving  the  spokes,  trimming  the  ends  of  the  tenons, 
driving  screws  into  the  felly,  and  cutting  off  their  ends  ;  wheel  presses,  etc. 

In  one  of  the  cutting-off,  boring,  and  doweling  machines  made  by  the  Bentei  &  Marge- 
dant  Co.,  the  spoke  tenon-boring  device  has  a  hollow  mandrel,  which  rotates,  but  has  no 
reciprocating  motion,  and  a  sliding  mandrel  inside  this,  which  has  lengthwise  motion  only, 
so  that  it  may  be  brought  forward  to  the  work  without  in  any  way  interfering  with  the 
truth  of  the  journal  and  bearings  of  the  outer  rotating  mandrel.  Where  the  work  is 
brought  up  to  the  boring  bed,  such  a  precaution  is  not  necessary. 

In  the  Egan  double  spoke-throating  machine,  the  upright  column  has  two  housings  or 
slides,  and  a  mandrel  fitted  to  each  slide  and  carrying  a  cutter  head,  which  has  bits  of  the 
exact  shape  to  hollow  out  the  part  of  the  stock  w'hich  is  to  come  against  the  hub.  These 
cutter  heads  are  placed  at  a  certain  distance  apart.  The  spoke  is  placed  on  a  rotating  table, 
which  has  pins  against  which  the  spoke  rests,  and  which  carry  the  stock  between  the  cutter 
heads.  On  the  outer  end  of  the  rotating  table  there  are  tw'o  cams,  which  causes  the  small 
end  of  the  spoke  to  work  up  and  down,  giving  the  desired  shape  to  the  throat  of  the  spoke. 

In  some  machines  to  accomplish  this  purpose,  the  cutter  heads  swing  from  a  common 
center  ;  but  on  this  one  the  stock  is  made  to  adjust  up  and  down,  and  the  cutter-heads  are 
stationary. 

In  the  manufacture  of  fellies  there  is  usually  employed  a  machine  having  two  concave  or 
dished  saws  on  the  same  mandrel,  at  a  distance  apart  governed  by  the  desired  thickness  of 
the  felly  ;  and  the  material,  is  clamped  on  a  sector,  the  radius  of  which  is  of  such  a  length, 
and  the  centre  so  placed,  that  when  the  stock  is  swung  around  to  the  action  of  the  two  saws, 
there  will  be  cut  a  rim  having  concentric  inner  and  outer  edges.  Different  saws  are 
employed  for  fellies  of  different  radii.  It  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  that  the 
plane  "in  which  the  sector  bearing  the  stock  has  its  vibration  is  not  parallel  with  any  one  in 
which  the  saw  arbor  lies  ;  thus,  if  the  saw  arbor  is  horizontal,  the  sector  is  inclined  from  the 
horizontal  to  a  degree  corresponding  to  the  distance  above  the  saw  center  at  which  the  stock 
is  presented. 

Rim  Planer. — A  machine  for  planing  wheel  rims  or  fellies  on  all  four  sides  at  one 
operation,  either  straight  or  bevelled,  is  brought  out  by  the  Bentei  &  Margedant  Co.,  and 
calls  for  a  very  different  construction  from  that  required  in  ordinary  planing.  The  require- 
ments are  that  it  shall  plane  all  the  four  sides  of  a  felly  or  of  the  rim,  of  any  desired 
diameter  and  thickness,  with  continuous  feed  and  without  splintering  or  gouging  the  ends 
of  the  fellies  or  rims.  It  consists  of  a  horizontal  table,  with  a  geared  feed,  which  has  such 
adjustment  that  the  center  line  of  the  feed  roll  points  to  the  center  of  gravity  of  any  rim  or 
felly,  no  matter  for  what  diameter  of  wheel,  gripping  the  felly  in  the  true  radial  line  of  its 
circle,  and  feeding  it  in  that  line— thus,  of  course,  lessening  the  friction  on  the  guides  and 
giving  greater  immunity  from  stoppage.  There  are  two  horizontal  mandrels,  the  cutters 
on  which  work  the  two  sides  of  the  felly  or  rim.  Their  housings  are  on  a  special 
bed  plate,  on  which  they  can  be  set  to  any  required  angle  or  bevel  of  the  felly,  in 
accordance  with  a  scale  placed  in  the  bed  plate.  The  bed  plate  rises  and  lowers  in 
a  vertical  line  by  a  crank  and  screw.  The  housings  thus  arranged  do  not  require 
resetting  for  bevel  or  angle,  but  retain  the  given  angle  for  wide  or  narrow  fellies,  unless 
a  change  in  the  bevel  is  desired.  The  table  back  of  the  lower  cutter  head  slides  on  the 
lower  bracket,  and  can  be  raised  and  lowered  to  suit  the  desired  depth  of  cut.  The  side 
or  vertical  cutter  housings  are  so  arranged  that  the  outside  cutter  head,  which  planes  the 
inner  side  of  the  felly,  remains  fixed,  while  the  inside  one,  which  planes  the  tread,  can  be 
adjusted  for  thickness. 

A  Felly-rounding  Machine  made  by  the  Bentei  &  Margedant  Co.  has  for  a  frame  a 
heavy  column,  cast  with  the  journals  all  in  one  piece,  with  a  wide  base,  the  column  being 
parted  so  as  to  give  one  bearing  on  the  front  and  the  other  on  the  back  part  ;  the  driving 


910  WHEEL-MAKING   MACHINES. 

belt  coming  in  the  space  between,  and  the  mandrel  pulley  between  the  two  journal  boxes. 
The  tight  and  loose  pulleys  are  outside  of  the  frame,  so  that  the  belt  connection  may  be 
made  from  either  above  or  below.  There  are  two  horizontal  turned  bars,  one  each  side  of  the 

frame  top,  forming  a  support  for  a  half -circle  side 
guide,  which  may  be  adjusted  thereon  for  wide 
or  narrow  fellies.  The  circular  side  guides  may 
be  adjusted  for  greater  or  less  distance  apart 
while  the  machine  is  in  motion.  The  one  on 
the  back  is  wider  than  the  front  one,  but  both 
fit  close  to  the  circle  of  the  cutter  heads.  The 
center  guide  or  rest  between  the  two  cutter 
heads,  on  which  the  felly  rests,  can  be  raised 
or  lowered  at  will  during  the  operation  of 
rounding.  The  cutter  heads  are  of  the  Denison 
pattern,  and  the  head  in  which  they  are  held  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1. 

The  Bentel  &  Margedant  Felly-boring  Ma- 
chines have  an  arrangement  for  the  accurate 
and  positive  clamping  of  the  felly,  doing  away 
with  trouble  on  account  of  the  irregularity  of 
Fio.  1.— Felly-rounding  machine.  the   spoke  holes.       The  felly  rests  on  two  steel 

straight-edges,  which  afford  it  only  two  rest- 
ing places,  establishing  the  height  of  each  hole  uniformly  from  the  face  of  the  straight- 
edges, regardless  of  any  twist  or  bend  in  the  sides  of  the  felly.  A  double  clamp,  operated 
by  a  treadle,  presses  the  felly  uniformly  against  the  stop  bars  at  two  points  on  the  inside  of 
the  felly,  establishing  thereby  an  accurate  and  uniform  angle  for  each  hole.  On  the  left 
side  of  the  treadle  there  is  an  adjusting  spacer,  for  spacing  the  holes  accurately  after  the  first 
one  is  bored  ;  and  this  is  set  to  point  toward  the  center  of  the  felly  arc,  so  that  the  holes  will 
be  laid  off  accurately. 

A  felly-boring  and  screwing  machine  made  by  the  same  company  consists  in  the  main  of 
a  vertical  column  bearing  a  cross  arm,  at  the  short  end  of  which  there  is  a  vertical  boring 
mandrel  having  vertical  feed  by  a  balanced  lever.  The  same  cross  arm  bears  a  spindle, 
having  a  detachable  screw-driver,  encased  by  a  countersunk  cup  for  leading  the  screw  head 
to  the  screw  driver,  or  a  milled  grip  cup,  which  takes  hold  of  the  rim  of  the  screw  at  several 
points  and  drives  the  screw  into  place  ;  this  latter  method  of  taking  hold  of  the  screw  being 
preferred,  as  it  is  quick  in  action  and  does  away  with  the  danger  of  splitting  the  head. 
Both  the  boring  and  the  screwing  mandrel  are  worked  by  the  same  lever.  By  raising  it,  the 
boring  spindle,  which  runs  twice  as  fast  as  the  screw-driver  spindle,  descends  and  bores  the 
hole  ;  then  pushing  the  lever  down,  the  boring  spindle  is  raised  and  the  screw-driver  spindle 
lowered,  driving  the  screw  into  the  felly.  The  spindles  are  connected  by  a  chain,  which 
may  be  unhooked  if  desired.  The  rim  of  the  wheel  rests,  during  the  operation,  upon  a 
small  adjustable  table  ;  the  hub  being  held  by  a  chuck  with  jaws,  operated  by  a  screw. 
Adjustment  for  wheels  of  different  diameters  and  thicknesses  is  effected  by  a  rod  passing 
through  the  column  connecting  with  the  wheel  holder,  being  movable  in  and  out  by  a  hand 
lever.  By  running  wood  screws  into  the  felly  where  the  tenon  of  the  spoke  enters,  the 
splitting  of  the  former  is  prevented. 

The  enormous  development  of  special  machinery  may  be  pointed  out  by  one,  for 
instance,  which  is  intended  to  supersede  the  heretofore  annoying  operation  of  cutting  off 
that  part  of  the  screw  head  which  remains  projecting  on  the  face  of  a  wheel  after  the  felly 
or  rim  screw,  used  by  many  manufacturers  to  bind  and  strengthen  the  rims  or  fellies 
of  wheels,  is  driven  home.  In  one  of  these  machines,  made  by  the  Bentel  &  Margedant  Co., 
the  wheel  is  placed  on  a  short  upright  mandrel,  which  is  adjustable  horizontally  to  suit 
different  wheel  diameters  ;  and  the  internal  surface  of  the  felly  is  presented  to  the  action  of 
two  heavy  shears,  having  tool-steel  dies,  one  of  which  is  stationary  as  to  movement,  but 
adjustable  for  taking  up  wear.  The  other  shear  is  in  exact  line  with  an  opposite  or  station- 
ary shear,  and  has  a  reciprocating  movement  to  and  from  it.  By  this  action  the  projecting 
part  of  the  screw  will  be  cut  off  close  to  the  face  of  the  rim,  when  the  wheel  is  properly  set 
and  the  screw  head  brought  between  the  jaws  of  the  shears.  The  wheel  itself  rests  upon  an 
adjustable  pivot,  upon  which  it  can  be  moved  up  and  down,  back  and  forward,  and  set  at  an 
angle,  thus  permitting  changes  for  various  sizes  and  kinds  of  wheel.  The  machine  is  driven 
by  a  pulley  on  a  horizontal  shaft,  which  by  beveled  wheels  drives  the  cutting  mechanism 
through  a  short  vertical  shaft. 

The  Bentel  &  Margedant  Wheel-polishing  Machine  is  used  for  producing  a  finish  on  the 
treads  of  large  wagon  wheels  ;  it  sands,  sizes,  and  polishes  both  sides  of  the  wheel  at  one 
operation.  The  wheel  holder  consists  of  a  planed  base  sliding  on  flat  surfaces  to  and 
from  the  sanding  disks,  to  accommodate  large  and  small  wheels  ;  and  to  this  base  there 
are  pivoted  upright  rigid  double-ribbed  supports  for  the  wheel  chuck  ;  these  supports  being 
swung  to  and  from  the  sanding  disks  by  a  treadle,  for  entering  and  withdrawing  the  wheel. 
On  one  side  there  is  a  centering  chuck  with  adjusting  jaws  and  scroll  gearing.  On  the 
opposite  side  is  a  large  scroll  chuck,  which  centers  from  the  hub,  and  holds  and  rotates  the 
wheel  while  it  is  being  sanded.  Each  sanding  disk  has  its  own  mandrel  and  housing,  and 
the  latter  can  be  set  for  any  bevel  of  rim,  an  index  scale  showing  the  amount  of  bevel  per 
foot.  The  disks  adjust  to  and  from  each  other  for  different  rim  thicknesses,  and  after  being 


WHEEL-MAKING   MACHINES. 


911 


set  can  be  thrown  together  or  drawn  apart  by  a  hand  lever,  to  permit  the  finished  wheel 
being  withdrawn  and  another  one  placed  in  the  machine.  In  applying  the  sandpaper  a 
number  of  pieces  cut  to  size  are  put  on  each  disk  in  layers,  one  over  the  other,  and  held  by  a 
screw  ring,  without  glue  ;  and  when  one  layer  is  worn  out  this  ring  is  unscrewed  a  little,  the 
top  layer  of  sandpaper  picked  off  with  a  pointed  instrument,  and  a  fresh  one  thus  presented. 
The  Automatic  Hub-turning  Machine  shown  in  Fig.  2  is  specially  designed  for  making 
carriage  and  wagon  hubs  up  to  20  in.  diameter,  and  18  in.  long.  It  receives  the  blocks 
in  the  rough  state,  roughs,  turns,  cups,  finishes  the  ends,  cuts  the  beads  and  shoulders 
for  the  bands,  and  makes  the  hubs  of  any  shape  or  size,  at  one  operation.  The  table  is  built 
in  two  parts.  The  lower  half  is  gibbed  and  fitted  to  the  frame  in  V-shaped  ways,  with 
adjustment  horizontally  in  line  with  the  mandrel,  by  hand  wheel  and  screw,  to  center  the 
knives  with  the  hub  block.  The  upper  table,  with  roughing  and  finishing  knives  at  either 
end,  is  mounted  upon  and  gibbed  to  the  lower  table,  and  slides  from  right  to  left  at  right 
angles  with  the  mandrel  by  turning  the  large  hand  wheel,  to  bring  either  the  roughing  or 


FIG.  2.— Automatic  hub-turning  machine. 

the  finishing  knives  to  the  hub  block.  The  roughing  knife,  with  a  straight  face  18  in. 
long,  is  held  in  a  stand  at  the  back  of  the  sliding  carriage,  with  its  cutting  edge  extending 
downward,  and  when  working  takes  off  surplus  material  from  the  hub  block  in  the  form  of 
a  ribbon  i  in.  thick,  the  full  length  of  the  hub  ;  the  gauge  governing  the  depth  of  cut  or 
feed.  The  finishing  knives  are  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  carriage  from  the  rougher,  with 
their  cutting  edges  extending  upward,  consisting  of  a  body  knife  with  a  cutting  edge 
shaped  to  correspond  with  the  style  of  hub  to  bo  turned  ;  and  a  flat  knife  at  either  end 
upon  the  same  stand,  for  cutting  the  front  and  back  bands,  with  adjustment  for  cutting 
bands  of  different  widths  and  diameters.  The  cutting-off  knives,  for  finishing  the  ends  of 
the  hub,  are  on  separate  stands,  below  and  in  advance  of  the  body  and  band  knives.  The 
cupping  attachment  is  gibbed  to  the  tail  stake  and  provided  with  a  gauge  to  regulate  the 
depth  of  the  cut.  The  shape  of  the  knife  governs  the  style  of  cup.  A  friction  clutch  turns 
the  hub,  the  frictions  being  disengaged  by  a  treadle. 

The  Automatic  Hub-turning  and  Finishing  Machine  shown  in  Fig.  3  is  for  the  purpose  of 
turning  plain,  beaded,  banded,  Sarven,  and  Warren  hubs  complete,  with  unskilled  labor. 
The  rough  hub  block  is  placed 
in  the  machine,  which  first 
roughs  it  down  to  the  proper 
size  by  a  roughing  knife  having 
a  straight  "face  12  in.  long, 
and  which  is  fastened  to  a  stand 
at  the  back  end  of  the  sliding 
carriage,  with  its  cutting  edge 
extending  downward,  taking  off 
a  ribbon  about  \  in.  thick  of 
the  full  length  of  the  hub  at  one 
cut,  a  gauge  limiting  the  depth 
of  cut.  By  a  reverse  movement 
of  the  hand  wheel,  the  roughing 
portions  retreat  and  the  fin- 
ishing knives  come  into  play, 
the  diameter  to  which  they  turn 
being  regulated  by  screws  at- 
tached to  the  carriage,  so  that, 
once  adjusted,  the  machine  turns 
out  hubs  of  onlv  one  finished 


FIG.  3.— Hub-turning  and  finishing  machine. 


diameter.  The  finishing  knives  are  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  carriage  from  the  roughing, 
and  their  cutting  edges  extend  upward.  At  each  end,  upon  the  same  stand  as  the  finishing 
knives,  are  the  knives  for  cutting  band  seats  ;  on  separate  stands,  the  knives  ibr  finishing  the 


912 


WHEEL-MAKING   MACHINES. 


ends  ;  these  last  being  in  advance  of  the  body  and  band  knives.  A  single  set  of  knives  will 
turn  and  finish  hubs  of  the  same  shape  to  any  diameter  within  the  machine's  capacity.  The 
feed  is  by  friction. 

The  hub-boring  machine  shown  in  Fig.  4,  and  made  by  the  Defiance  Machine  Works,  is 
for  boring  hub  blocks  up  to  12  in.  diameter  and  15  in  long.  The  block  may  be 
inserted  with  the  hard  or  soft  part  central  with  the  boring  bit,  regardless  of  its  external 

shape.  The  removal  of  this 
soft  part  keeps  the  block  from 
checking  when  seasoning,  and 
adds  to  the  value  of  the  prod- 
uct. The  carriage  is  gibbed 
to  the  frame,  and  slides  to  and 
from  the  boring  bit  by  turning 
the  hand  wheel  30°.  The  jaws 
which  receive  the  hub  are 
mounted  upon  the  sliding 
carriage,  the  boring  tool  travel- 
ing through  the  jaws.  The  jaw 
at  the  back  part  of  the  machine 
can  be  adjusted  to  receive 
hubs  of  various  lengths,  and 
FIG.  4.-Hub-boring  machine.  is  connected  with  the  hinge 

joint.     The  upper  end  is  fitted 

with  a  weighted  eccentric  lever  to  open  and  close  the  jaws'.  In  operation,  the  end  of  the 
boring  tool  should  extend  slightly  through  the  hole  in  the  first  jaw,  the  operator  centering 
one  end  of  the  block  by  the  boring  tool,  the  other  end  being  set  by  the  hole  in  the  jaw  at  the 
back  part  of  the  machine  ;  then  the  weight  of  the  lever  will  hold  the  block  while  being  bored. 
The  capacity  is  200  blocks  per  hour. 

The  Heavy  Hiib-boring  Machine  shown  in  Fig.  5  receives  the  hub  block  between  powerful 
universal  jaws,  which  hold  it  central  with  the  boring  tool.  In  boring,  the  soft  central  part 
of  the  block  is  removed.  By  the  use  of  solid  steel  reamers,  the  hole  is  bored  in  the  block 
complete  at  one  operation  to  the  proper  size,  and  tapered  to  fit  the  hub  lathe  mandrel  upon 
which  the  block  is  to  be  turned  and  finished.  The  hub  block  is  placed  in  and  removed  from 


FIG.  5.— The  heavy  hub-boring  machine. 

the  jaws  when  the  carriage  is  moved  to  the  back  end  of  the  machine,  which  is  open,  so  that 
the  material  may  be  handled  without  lifting  it  over  the  frame.  In  operation  the  hub  is 
clamped  between  the  jaws,  which  are  self- centering,  and  is  presented  to  the  action  of  the 
reamer  by  turning  the  large  hand  wheel  shown. 

Wheel-box  Making.— In  cutting  the  seat  for  the  box  in  a  wheel  hub  there  are  two 
principal  methods — in  one  of  which  the  cutter  remains  at  rest,  the  wheel  turning  at  slow 
speed  around  the  advancing  but  not  rotating  cutter-head  ;  in  the  other  both  the  wheel  and 
the  cutter-bar  turn.  To  turn  a  wagon  or  buggy  wheel  at  high  enough  speed  to  do  free 
cutting  is  impracticable  by  reason  of  the  wheel  not  being  in  accurate  balance  for  high  speed, 
so  that  it  would  either  fly  apart  or  fly  from  the  wheel  chuck.  The  method  of  slow  turn- 
ing of  the  wheel  about  a  non-rotating  cutter  is  claimed  by  many  to  tear  and  splinter  the 
wood,  and  so  disturb  the  fiber  as  to  shorten  the  life  of  'the  hub,  as  the  spokes  and  box 
can  not  be  given  firm  support  in  the  disarranged  fiber. 

The  Bentel  &  Margedant  Wheel-boxing  Machine. — In  this  machine,  Fig.  6,  the  wheel  is 
turned  slowly  to  secure  perfectly  true  center  cutting,  but  the  cutter  is  also  rotated  at  high 


WHEEL-MAKING    MACHINES. 


913 


speed.  There  is  a  solid  cast  column,  having  a  double  slide,  and  set  at  a  right  angle  to  the 
center  line  of  the  whole  machine.  The  bed  plate  resting  on  these  slides  can  be  moved  back 
and  forth  across  the  machine  by  a  large  hand  wheel  in  front,  setting  the  whole  mechanism 
of  the  cutter-bar  in  exact  line  with  the  center  line  of  the  wheel  chuck,  or  within  any  distance 
of  either  side  of  this  center  line.  The  advantage  arising  from  this  adjustability  of 
the  carriage  into  or  across  the  center  line  of  the  wheel  chuck  consists  in  admitting  the  use  of 
cutters  or  reamers  of  the  exact  diameter  of  the  hole  desired,  or  in  producing  a  hole  of  larger 
diameter  than  the  cutter  by  moving  it  out  of  center.  It  also  permits  of  enlarging  or 
recessing  the  hole  between  the  hub  ends,  cutting  away  the  projecting  ends  of  the  spokes,  so 
that  they  will  not  rest  on  the  box,  and  producing  offsets  or  shoulders  in  conformity  with  the 
shape  of  the  box.  For  angular  or  tapering  shapes  of  wheel  boxes  another  adjustment  is 
provided,  independent  of  this,  but  which  can  be  operated  in  connection  therewith.  It 
consists  in  arranging  the  lower  adjustable  sliding  bed  plate  on  its  center  with  a  strong 
circular  turning  slide,  to  which  the  long  cutter-bar  carriage  is  attached  by  compensating 
rotating  slides,  permitting  the  carriage  to  be  swiveled.  By  this  adjustment  the  long  cutter- 
bar  slide  on  which  the  cutter-bar  housings  travel  can  be  thrown  into  the  desired  angle  for 
cutting  the  sides  of  the  box  angular  or  beveled,  to  conform  to  the  various  shapes  of  boxes. 
In  connection  with  the  movement  of  the  bed  plate  across  the  machine,  this  adjustment 


FIG.  6.— Wheel-boxing  machine. 


admits  cutting  wide,  narrow,  or  angular  sides  or  offsets  inside  the  hubs.  An  eccen- 
tric clamp  operated  by  a  lever  on  the  inside  of  the  machine  at  the  end  of  the  radial 
plate,  changes  from  straight  to  taper  boring.  The  cutter-head  housing  is  mounted  on 
the  long  carriage  slide  by  dovetailed  slides,  giving  a  movement  of  20  in.  back  and  forth 
for  the  cutter-bar  and  its  housing.  This  movement  is  under  control  of  the  operator,  and 
may  be  made  fast  or  slow  by  hand  or  by  power,  at  will.  The  feed  screw  passes  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  carriage,  and  is  constantly  turned  by  a  large  pulley  at  the  end  of  the 
carriage.  There  is  in  line  with  the  carriage,  a  small  hand  wheel  having  a  journal  and  a 
wheel  fitting  closely  into  the  threads  of  the  feed  screw,  and  by  turning  this  hand  wheel,  the 
cutter  may  be  moved  to  and  from  the  hub  at  the  speed  given  by  the  hand  motion  on  the  feed 
wheel,  so  'that  the  cutter  may  enter  and  return  from  the  hub  at  fast  or  slow  speed  at  will. 
By  grasping  and  holding  the  hand  wheel  at  rest,  not  turning  it  either  way,  the  automatic 
feed  is  brought  into  action,  and  the  cutter-bar  started  forward  at  a  uniform  speed  given  by  the 
large  feed  pulley.  The  framing  of  the  machine  consists  of  two  columns  on  the  bed  plate. 
The  column  bearing  the  chuck  for  the  wheel  is  at  the  back  or  left-hand  end,  the  right- 
hand  or  front  one  carrying  the  boring  tool.  The  wheel  chuck  consists  of  three  well-con- 
nected heavy  arms,  each  having  a  movable  clamp  block  operated  by  clamp  screws  meeting  on 
the  common  central  circular  rack.  By  applying  a  socket  wrench  to  the  square  end  of  any 
one  of  the  three  clamp  screws,  the  three  clamp  blocks  may  be  moved  together  or  apart,  alike 

58 


914 


WHEEL-MAKING  MACHINES. 


and  at  the  same  time.  The  wheel  is  clamped  at  the  rim  while  resting  on  planed  plates,  thus 
securing  a  true  position,  being  guided  by  three  points  of  the  rim.  The  wheel  chuck  has  a 
hollow  mandrel  resting  in  two  bearings,  an  adjustable  rotating:  bearing  being  provided  in  its 
rear,  taking  the  weight  of  the  chuck  from  its  bearings.  The  cutter-bar  for  finishing  the 
front  or  end  of  the  hub  passes  through  the  hollow  chuck  mandrel,  and  has  its  own  bearings  and 
pulley,  and  movement  back  and  forth  for  cutting  the  "crozing"  of  the  hub.  It  is  operated 


PIG.  7. — Automatic  wheel-boxing  machine. 

by  a  treadle  placed  near  the  operator's  stand  at  the  front  of  the  machine  by  the  shifter  bar 

controlling  the  chuck  belt. 

I'he  Automatic  Wheel-boxing  Machine  shown  in  Fig.  7  is  for  boring  and  finishing  the  hole 

in  a  wagon  hub  for  receiving  the 
boxes,  doing  this  at  one  cut  to  any 
regular  or  irregular  shape,  relieving 
the  center  of  the  hub  around  the 
spokes,  and  cupping  both  ends  of  the 
hub  to  any  desired  shape.  All  these 
operations  are  done  at  one  starting 
and  stopping.  There  is  a  universal 
chuck  fastened  to  a  6-in.  spindle,  all 
three  of  the  dogs  of  which  are  ac- 
tuated at  once  by  turning  with  a 
wrench  any  one  of  the  three  screw 
threads,  the  range  being  for  wheels 
from  20  to  60  in.  diameter.  There 
is  a  boring  bar,  having  lengthwise 
and  crosswise  adjustment,  for  boring 
holes  of  any  taper,  size,  or  contour  de- 
sired ;  and  it  has  auxiliary  cutter- 
heads  to  "depth"  the  backs  of  the 
hubs  to  accommodate  the  axle  shoul- 
der. After  completing  the  cut  the 
feed  is  disengaged  automatically. 
The  boring  cutter  consists  of  three 
independent  cutters  of  square  tool 
steel. 

A  Power  Wheel  Press  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8,  for  pressing  axle  boxes  into 
wheel  hubs  and  pressing  bands  and 
flanges  thereon  ;  taking  the  place  of 
the  hydraulic  presses  often  used  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  screw  has 
an  up-and-down  movement  of  24 
FIG.  8.— Power  wheel  press.  in.,  and  the  machine  will  take 

in    a   60-in.    wheel,    upon    which    it 

will  exert  a  pressure  of  60,000  Ibs.     The  direction  of  motion  of  the  screw  is  regulated  by  the 

position  of  the  hand  lever  which  operates  the  friction  clutch. 


WINDLASS,    STEAM   CAPSTAN. 


915 


A  hydrostatic  power  wheel  press  made  by  the  Bentel  &  Margedant  Co.  has  a  vertical  col- 
umn, containing  the  cylinder,  and  supplied  with  crude  petroleum  under  pressure  from  two 
vertical  pumps,  operated  by  eccentrics  upon  a  shaft  driven  by  a  sprocket  chain.  A  lever  in 
front  of  the  machine  permits  the  oil  to  flow  from  a  pressure  reservoir  to  the  rim  cylinder, 
and  the  same  lever  releases  the  pressure  and  permits  the  oil  to  flow  back  to  the  suction  side 
of  the  pumps.  A  pop  valve  permits  escape  of  the  liquid  when  the  pressure  in  the  ram 
reaches  80  tons.  The  ram  rises  jj  in.  for  every  rotation  of  the  pump-driving  eccentric  haft. 

WINDLASS,  STEAM  CAPSTAN.  Fig.  1  represents  a  new  form  of  steam  capstan  wind- 
lass,  manufactured  by  the  American  Ship  Windlass  Co.,  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  which  has 
become  almost  exclusively  adopted  on  American  vessels.  Among  the  novel  features  are  the 
following  :  The  valves  of  the  engines  are  driven  by  a  straight  eccentric,  without  rocker 


-  _=  - 


FIG.  1.— Steam  capstan  windlass. 


shafts.  There  is  a  steam  reverse  valve  for  reversing  the  windlass  in  case  of  jamming  of  the 
ropes.  The  solid  center  bearing  of  the  main  shaft  is  arranged  close  to  the  gearing,  so  as  to 
prevent  any  springing  of  the  shaft  under  sudden  strain.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  the 
power  is  transmitted  directly  from  engine  to  windlass,  with  no  intermediate  gearing.  Engine 
and  windlass  are  connected  to  one  plate,  by  which  the  parts  are  tied  together  so  that  they 
can  not  get  out  of  line.  If  the  deck  above  twists  or  strains,  or  even  is  entirely  swept 
away,  the  windlass  can  still  be  efficiently  operated  by  steam.  A  novel  lubricating  contrivance, 
which  constantly  applies  oil  to 
the  teeth  of  the  'worm  gear,  and 
a  crank-shaft  counterbalance, 
which  balances  the  weight  of  the 
cranks,  pistons,  and  rods,  and 
prevents  jerking  motion,  are 
added.  The  general  construc- 
tion is  simple,  strong,  and  ef- 
fective. A  detailed  account  of 
the  mechanism  will  be  found  in 
the  United  States  patents  for 
the  device,  granted  July  31, 
1888,  and  March  14  and  July  2, 
1889. 

The  Ravelli  Windlass,  Fig. 
2,  consists  simply  of  a  strong 
iron  frame,  of  a  bevel  gearing, 
whose  pinion  is  keyed  to  the 
winch  shaft,  and  of  a  pair  of 
helicoidal  gearings.  Upon  the 
shaft  that  connects  the  two 

bevel  wheels  is  keyed  a  drum,  provided  with  depressions  for  the  reception  of  the  chain  to 
which  the  load  to  be  lifted  is  attached.  The  endless  screw  has  several  threads,  but  the  latter 
do  not,  as  usual,  run  around  the  entire  circumference.  If  there  are  four  threads,  each  of 
them  covers  but  a  quarter,  and  if  there  are  six,  each  embraces  but  a  sixth  of  the  surface. 


FIG.  2.— Ravelli  windlass. 


916  WIRE   STRAIGHTENING. 

Upon  the  whole,  this  endless  screw  constitutes  a  sort  of  a  disk,  upon  the  circumference  of  which 
are  arranged  a  variable  number  of  pins  that  are  slightly  inclined  with  respect  to  the  bases  of 
the  disk.  At  every  fraction  of  a  revolution  corresponding  to  the  number  of  the  pins,  one  of 
them  abandons  the  tooth  of  the  gearing  while  the  following  pin  and  tooth  engage.  In  order 
to  diminish  passive  resistances,  the  teeth  do  not  rub  against  the  inclined  planes  formed  by 
the  pins,  but  roll  over  them.  To  this  effect,  they  consist  of  truncated  cone  spindles  loose 
upon  journals  set  firmly  into  the  felly  of  the  gearing.  The  wear  of  these  spindles  is  slow, 
because  they  are  numerous  and  engage  at  relatively  wide  intervals  of  time.  The  power  of 
this  machine  is  very  great,  although  no  recourse  is  had  to  a  differential  mechanism  nor  to 
tackle.  Stoppage  is  secured  under  full  load,  either  in  the  raising  or  lowering  of  weights, 
without  the  intervention  of  any  stop-work  or  brake.  No  flying  back  of  the  winch  is  to  be 
feared,  and  this  gives  every  security  to  the  workman. 

Wire  Belting  :  see  Belts. 

Wire-cord  Quarrying  :  see  Quarrying  Machines. 

Wire  Rope  :  see  Rope-making  Machines. 

WIRE  STRAIGHTENING.  The  ordinary  method  of  straightening  wire  is  by  means 
of  rolls,  between  which  the  wire  is  drawn,  and  which  are  adjusted  by  means  of  thumb- 
screws to  bear  heavily  upon  the  bends.  Another  device  is  known  as  a  rotary  straightener, 
in  which  there  are  three  pairs  of  dies,  the  middle  pair  being  set  out  of  line  with  the  end 
pairs.  The  wire  is  carried  through  the  dies,  and  the  dies  themselves  are  rotated,  producing 
a  jerking  motion,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  straighten  out  kinks,  etc.  A  variety  of  auto- 
matic machines  for  wire  straightening  is  described  in  a  previous  volume  of  this  work,  and 
these  have  not  undergone  any  very  material  changes  of  late  years. 

An  entirely  new  method  of  wire  straightening,  however,  has  been  invented  by  Mr. 
John  Wool  Griswold,  of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  in  which  the  use  of  machinery  is  entirely  dispensed 
with.  The  wire,  as  it  comes  from  the  draw  bench,  is  placed  upon  any  suitable  rotary  support, 
and  then  led  through  an  annealing  furnace  of  any  suitable  construction.  Here  it  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  for  a  considerable  interval  of  space,  until  it  finally  reaches  a  pair  of  mov- 
ing rolls,  through  which  it  passes.  The  rolls  draw  the  wire  from  the  reel  and  through  the 
furnace,  delivering  it  upon  a  table,  where  it  is  cut  into  lengths  by  a  descending  knife.  Dur- 
ing the  passage  of  the  wire  through  the  furnace,  and  also  through  the  air  space,  it  is  kept 
under  tension  by  the  action  of  the  roll ;  and  in  this  way  it  is  made  straight.  As  the  wire  is 
finally  cut  into  lengths,  no  coiling  is  necessary.  This  process  has  been  found  exceedingly 
effective,  especially  in  the  manufacture  of  wire  into  bale  bands  at  the  factory  of  Messrs. 
Griswold  Bros. ,  in  Troy,  N.  Y. 


INDEX. 


Abbott  stem- winding  attachment, 

887. 
Accumulator  Co.  storage-battery, 

816. 

Acme  harrow,  677. 
Adams-Blair  iron  process,  453. 
Ader  flying-machine,  7. 
Aerial  navigation,  Langley  experi- 
ments, 7. 

Maxim  experiments,  9. 
Aeroplane.  7. 

Agricultural  machinery,  10. 
Air  coal-mining  machine,  127. 
Air,  compressed,  10. 
Air-compression,  heat  due  to,  120. 
Air-compressor,  15. 

Norwalk.  17. 

Rand.  15 

Sergeant.  16. 

tests  of,  12. 

water  injection  in,  18. 

work  of,  20. 
Air  engine.  255. 

test  of,  257. 

Air-feed  coal-drill,  127. 
Air-heating  stoves,  14. 
Air-hoist.  21. 
Air-motors,  14. 
Air-ships,  1. 

Air-spring  printing-press,  657. 
Air-tool.  21. 
Air-torpedo,  865. 
Alarm,  low-water,  22. 
Alium,  28. 

Allis  pumping-engine,  686. 
Allis  steam-boiler,  57. 
Alloys,  22. 

aluminium,  32. 

for  electrical  conductors,  25. 
Alternating   current,    measuring. 

493. 

Alternating  electric  motors,  552. 
Aluminium,  28. 

alloys.  24,  32. 

annealing,  30. 

bronze,  23. 

cKemical  properties  of,  29. 

in  steel,  811. 

manufacture,  33. 

physical  properties  of,  30. 

process,  Cowles,  34. 

process,  Hall,  34. 

process,  Heroult,  34. 

process.  Minet,  34. 
Amalgamator,  515. 
Ammeter,  Weston,  493. 
Annealing  aluminium,  30. 
Argall  ore-jig,  591. 
Armature,  200. 

windings,  202. 
Armor,  34. 

nickel-steel,  38. 

piercing  projectiles,  673. 

plate,  tests  of.  37. 
Atlas  storage-battery,  820. 
Autographic  telegraphs.  845. 
Ayrton  and  Perry  electric  motor. 
539. 

Back  knife-lathe,  468. 
Bagger,  859. 
Balanced  pump,  691. 
Balance,  Torsion.  41. 
Balancing-wav.  41. 
Bale,  672. 
Baling-press,  670. 


Ball-bearing,  42,  169,  677. 
Ball-bearings  for  drill-press,  185. 
Ball-Norton  electro-magnetic  sep- 
arator, 597. 
Balloon,  1. 

carriage,  5. 
Balloons,  dimensions  of,  2. 

improvements  in,  2. 
Band-saw  for  metal,  769. 

for  wood,  778. 

guide,  779. 
Bank-lock,  482. 
Basic  steel  process,  807. 
Bar-channeler,  702. 
Barlow  corn-planter,  787. 
Barrel,  chlorinating,  517. 
Barrel-making  machine,  42. 
Barr  vestibule-car,  715. 
Batchelder  indicator,  450. 
Batho  steel  furnace,  810. 
Battery,  storage,  815. 
Bearing,  42. 

ball,  42. 

roller,  42,  502,  582. 
Bellows  micrometer,  495. 
Belt-lacing,  steel,  46. 
Belts,  43. 

cotton,  44. 

friction  of.  41. 

gearing,  f  rictional,  120. 

iron-link.  46. 

leather-link,  46. 

rope,  47. 

tests  of,  44. 

wire,  46. 
Bending-machinery,  51,  669. 

pipes,  616. 

rolls,  740. 

Bertenshaw  ore-concentrator,  593. 
Betts  Machine  Co.  metal-planer, 

627. 

Bicycle,  167. 
Binder,  grain,  423.  864. 
Bird,  mechanical,  5. 
Bisulphite  solution,  manufacture 

of,  174. 

Blake  crusher,  575. 
Blake-Marsden  crusher,  576. 
Blanchard  lathe,  470. 
Blast-furnace,  368. 

plant.  371. 

tests  of,  371. 

Blasting,  Knox  system,  706. 
Blind-finishing  machine,  528. 
Blind-slat  tenoning  machine,  857. 
Bliss  boring-mill.  81. 
Bliss  milling-machine,  510. 
Blocking-machine,  437. 
Blocks,  52. 
Block  systems,  827. 
Blower,  54. 
Blower-furnace.  70. 
Blowing-engine.  Reynolds,  257. 
Board-cutter,  75. 
Boat,  naphtha,  270. 
Boiler  covering,  64. 

drilling-machine,  187. 

flanging-machines,  365. 

grate.  70. 

plate  planer,  626. 

tube  cleaner,  70. 
Boiler,  steam,  55. 

Acme.  3-20. 

Allis.  57. 

fire-tube,  55. 


Boiler,  Gill,  60. 

Heine.  59. 

horse-power  of,  65. 

locomotive,  485. 

marine,  58,  283. 

marine,  corrosion  of,  68. 

Mosher,  62. 

Payne,  57. 

Rennie,  58. 

Reynolds,  57. 

semi-portable,  59. 

Shipman,  320. 

tests  of,  55-65. 

torpedo-boat,  61. 

water-tube,  59. 

Yarrow,  61. 
Bolt-cutter.  71. 
Book -binding  machine,  72. 
Book -folding  machines.  73. 
Book-sewing  machine,  75. 
Book-trimmer,  72. 
Boring  and  milling  machine,  508. 
Boring-machine,  chord,  80. 

coal.  126. 


metal.  76. 

Nicholson,  77. 

Niles,  76. 

rake- head,  84. 

Universal,  82. 

wood,  82. 

Boring-mill,  Bliss,  81. 
Boring-tool  lathe,  472. 
Boss-process  silver-milling,  520. 
Bowers  rolls,  583. 
Box-car.  716. 

Box-tool  for  turret-lathes,  468. 
Bradley  harrow,  677. 
Braiding-machine,  84. 
Brake,  86. 

Brake,  Westinghouse,  86. 
Brake-shoe.  719. 
Bran-duster.  507. 
Breaker,  751. 

coal.  120. 

Breech  mechanism.  571. 
Brennan  torpedo,  867. 
Brick-car.  100. 
Brick-drying,  98. 
Brick-machine,  90. 

Chambers,  92. 

New  Haven,  91. 

Penfield  plunger.  95. 
Brick-pallet,  100. 
Brick-repressing  machine,  97. 
Brick-truck,  100. 
Brick-yard,  plan  of.  98. 
Bridgeman  ore-sampler,  602. 
Brim-stretcher.  437. 
Broaching-machine.  100. 
Broadway  Cable  Railroad,  713. 
Bronze,  manganese,  23, 24. 
Bronzes,  23. 
Brooklvn  Bridge  Cable  Railroad, 

712. 

Broughall  stamp-guides.  581. 
Brown   and    Sharpe   milling-ma- 
chine. 510. 

Bruckner  cylinder,  381. 
Brunton's  ore-sampler,  600. 
Brush  electro-motor.  546. 
Brushes,  dynamo.  206. 
Bryan  ore-mill.  585. 
Bryant  channeler,  699. 
Buchanan  crusher,  576. 
Buchanan  magnetic  separator,597. 


918 


INDEX. 


Buck-board,  109. 
Buddie,  ore,  593. 
Buggy,  109. 
Built-up  guns,  570. 
Bulkhead  pump,  692. 
Bullard  boring- mill,  79. 
Butt  welding,  904. 

Cable  railroad,  708. 
Cable,  telegraph,  837 
Caligraph  typewriter,  877. 
Calorimeter,  101. 
barrel,  101. 
Barrus,  102. 

coil,  102. 

Calumet  ore-separator,  590. 
Canal  elevator,  255. 
Cannon,  569. 
Capstan,  steam,  915. 
Car,  Barr  vestibule,  715. 
Car-box,  716. 
Car-brake,  86. 
Car,  brass-grinder,  410. 

brick,  100. 

cable- railroad,  708. 
Car-couplers,  152. 
Car,  Cowell  vestibule,  716. 

gear,  electric,  726. 

Harvey  steel,  716. 
Car-heating,  104. 

commingler  system,  104. 

direct-steam  system,  106. 

disk-drum  system,  106. 

drum  system,  105. 

temperature  regulators  for,  107. 
Car-mortiser,  533. 
Car  pile-driver,  611. 
Car,  railroad,  715. 

steel  railroad,  716. 

tenoner,  533. 

wheels,  717,  856. 
Carbonic  acid  gun,  411. 
Carbon  Iron  Co's  process,  453. 
Card,  cotton,  139. 
Carpenter  projectile,  674. 
Carpet-sewing  machine,  795. 
Carriage,  balloon,  5. 
Carriage  irons,  112. 

rock-drill,  199. 
Carriages  and  wagons,  109. 
Carrier,  hay,  440. 
Cartridge  pack,  363. 
Cartwright  pipe-machine,  616. 
Carved-molding  machine,  114. 
Carving-machines,  wood,  113. 
Casting,  steel,  814 
Cast-iron  lathe  tools,  474. 
Centrifugal  pump,  689. 

reel,  505. 

Centering-machine,  115. 
Center  reamer,  474. 
Century  press,  655. 
Chain-blocks,  tests  of.  53. 
Chain-quilling  machine,  152. 
Chain-rope  making,  752. 
Challenge  ore  feeder,  587. 
Chambers^  brick-machine,  92. 
Channeler,  bar,  702. 

Bryant,  699. 

bit,  705. 

Diamond,  704. 

Saunders.  701. 

Sidehill,  702. 

Sullivan,  700. 

Wardwell,  699. 
Check-valve,  884. 
Chemical  bank-vault,  760 
Chicago  Cable  Railroad,  710. 
Chill  for  car-wheels.  718 
Chisel  mortising,  534. 
Chlorinating  barrel,  517. 
Chlorination  machinerv,  517. 
Chord-boring  machine,*  80. 
Chrome  steel,  26. 
Chucking-machine,  79. 
Circular  saw  for  metal,  766. 

for  wood,  771. 
City  of  Paris,  steamer,  289. 
Clay-crusher,  Brewer,  116. 

Penfield,  117. 

Potts,  117. 

Clay-tempering  wheel,  118. 
Clay-working  machine,  115. 
Cleaning-machine,  flax,  367. 
Clock,  885. 

electric,  890. 


Clock,  pneumatic,  11. 

Clock- winding  mechanism,  890. 

Clutch,  118. 

Coal-boring  machine,  126. 

Coal-breaker,  120. 

Coal-cutter,  124. 

Coal-drill,  126. 

Coal-elevator.  254. 

Coal-handling  machine,  125. 

Coal-jig,  123. 

Coal-mining  machine,  125. 

electric,  128. 

Harrison,  127 

Jeffrey,  127. 

Lechner,  129. 

Sergeant,  128. 
Coal-screen,  121. 
Coal-sizing  machine,  121. 
Coke-oven,  129. 

Aitken,  132. 

Bauer,  131 

Coppie,  130. 

Jameson,  131. 

Liirmann,  131. 

Otto,  132. 

Pernolet,  131. 

Semet-Solvay,  138. 

Simon-Carves,  130. 
Cold-process  soap,  803. 
Cold  saw,  766. 

storage,  449. 
Collom  buddle,  594. 

ore-sampler,  602. 
Collinses  water-wheel,  892. 
Comber,  cotton,  140. 
Comet  crusher,  578 
Commingler  system,  104. 
"  Common-sense  "  packing,  604. 
Commutator,  205. 
Comparator,  497. 
Compound  air-compressor,  17. 

locomotive,  486. 

pumps,  686. 
Compressed  air,  10. 

motor,  14. 

plant,  efficiency,  13. 
Compressed  steel,  670. 
Compressor,  air,  15. 
Concentrator,  ore.  592. 
Condenser,  ore,  134. 

Bulkeley,  134. 

electric,  554. 

Hill,  134. 

Wheeler,  134. 

Worthington,  135. 
Conductors,  electric,  645. 
Conkling  jig,  596. 
Conklin  ore-separator,  599. 
Converter,  Manhes,  385. 

Roberts,  812. 
Cooler,  hot-ore,  523. 
Copper  conductors,  cost  of,  645. 

smelting,  385. 

steel,  24. 

tin  alloys,  22. 
Corbin  lock,  481. 
Corliss  pumping-engine,  685. 
Cornell  University  turbines,  894. 
Corner  block  machine,  115. 
Corn-harvester,  434. 
Cornish  rolls,  581. 
Corn-planter.  786. 

Barlow,  787. 

Deere,  787. 

Corrosion  of  boilers,  68. 
Corrugated  flues,  58. 
Cost  of  electric  conductors,  645. 

of  operating  electric  railroads. 

731. 

Cotton  belts,  45. 
Cotton-card,  139. 
Cotton-comber,  140. 
Cotton-gin,  135. 

Brown,  136. 

Eagle.  135. 

Mason,  136. 
Cotton-harvester,  417. 
Cotton-leather  belts,  45. 
Cotton-mixing.  138. 
Cotton-mule,  148. 
Cotton-opening,  138. 
Cotton-press.  670. 
Cotton-quiller,  151. 
Cotton-reel,  151. 
Cotton-spinning,  138. 
Cotton-twister,  151. 


Cotton-warper,  149. 
Cottrell  printing-press,  655. 
Coupler,  car,  152. 
Coupling,  hose,  351. 
punch,  694. 
shaft,  118.     , 
Siamese,  352. 

steam,  108. 
Covering,  boiler,  64. 
Covering-machine,  84. 
Covering,  pipe,  617. 
Cowell  vestibule  car,  716. 
Cowles  aluminum  process,  34. 
Crandall  typewriter,  881. 
Crane,  155. 

electric,  158. 

hydraulic,  159. 

locomotive,  160. 

overhead,  156. 

rope-driven,  158. 

wharf,  157. 
Creamer,  161. 
Crocker -Wheeler  electric  motor. 

550. 

1  Crosby  indicator,  450. 
Crusher,  Blake,  575. 

Blake-Marsden,  576. 

Buchanan,  576. 

Comet,  578. 

Dodge,  577. 

Forster,  577. 

Gates,  578. 

Krom,  575. 

Michels,  577. 

multiple- jaw,  578. 
Cultivator,  162. 

Albion,  163. 

beet,  166. 

Bradley,  163. 

double-blade,  164. 

steering,  164. 

tongueless,  165. 
Curling-machine,  438. 
Cutaway  disk  harrow,  676. 
Cutter,  board,  75. 

bolt,  71. 

broaching,  100. 

coal,  124. 

ensilage,  334. 

grinder,  408. 

husking  fodder.  336. 

key-seat,  456. 

milling,  456. 


paper,  72. 
stalk, 


337,  805. 
Cutting  glass,  398. 
Cutting-off  machine,  766. 

tool,  472. 
Cycle,  167. 
Cyclone  dust-collector,  506. 

pulverizer,  584. 
Cylinder  boring-machine,  78. 

sewing-machine,  795. 
"  C.  &  C."  electric  motor,  543. 

Daft  electric  locomotive,  720. 

electric  motor,  540. 
Damper-regulator.  736. 
Daniell  planer,  628. 
Davies  clock,  889. 
Davis  key-seater,  456. 
Dayton  swaging-machine,  825. 
Dederick  press,  670. 
Deeds  packing,  604. 
Deere  corn-planter,  787. 
Delivery  mechanism,  663. 
Delta  metal,  23. 

Delany  multiplex  telegraph,  839. 
Deoxidized  bronze,  23. 
Derrick,  155. 

Desmazures  storage-battery,  818. 
Desulphurizing  steel,  811. 
Detrick  and  Harvey  planer,  625. 
Derocheuse,  180. 
Dials,  making  watch,  888. 
Diamond  channeler,  704. 

gadding-machine,  705. 

rock-drill,  196. 
Diehl  electric  machine,  541. 
Die,  brick-machine,  94. 

expanding- pipe,  621. 

rolls,  581. 
Die-stock,  619. 
Digester,  lime  fiber,  174. 
Dimensions  of  balloons,  2. 
Direct-process  iron,  452. 


INDEX. 


919 


Disk  harrow,  676. 
Ditcher,  176. 

Plumb,  176. 

Potter,  177. 
Dodge  crusher,  577. 
Dog-cart,  109. 
Dog  saw-mill,  772. 
Domestic  sewing-machine,  791. 
Door-locks,  480. 

Double-head  milling-machine,  510. 
Double-log  ore-washer,  595. 
Doubling  machine,  744. 
Double  metal-planer,  626. 
Dow  piston-pump,  693. 

steam  turbine,  299. 
Dovetailing-machine,  178. 
Drag-saw.  770. 
Drawing-frame,  141. 
Drawing-press,  6t>5, 
Dressing  ore,  588. 
Dredge,  178. 

bucket,  Morgan,  182. 

centrifugal  pump,  180. 

hydro-pneumatic,  181. 

Lobnitz,  180. 

Vernaudon,  182. 

Dredging  in  New  York  Harbor,  179. 
Drier,  brick,  98. 

ore.  522. 

Driggs-Schroeder  gun,  573. 
Drilling-machine,  metal,  184. 
Drilling  metal,  power  consumed, 

185. 
Drill,  boiler.  187. 

coal,  126. 


grinding-machine,  405. 
Leeds  metal,  1 


185. 

metal,  184. 

metal,  tests  of,  185. 

multiple.  184. 

press,  ball-bearings,  185. 

portable  hydraulic,  187. 

rock, 188. 

rock,  Brandt,  195. 

rock,  carriage,  199. 

rock,  diamond,  196. 

rock,  electric,  197. 

rock,  electric  diamond,  199. 

rock,  electric,  Marvin,  197. 

rock,  Githens,  193. 

rock,  hand-power,  195. 

rock,  hydraulic,  195. 

rock,  Ingersoll,  188. 

rock,  McCulloch,  193. 

rock,  Rand,  188. 

rock.  Rand,  mountings  for,  200. 

rock,  Sergeant,  188. 

rock,  Stephens,  194. 

seed,  785. 

sensitive.  184. 
Driving-gear.  Mills,  504. 
Driving-rope,  47, 
Dump-table,  100. 
Duplex  punch,  697. 
Dust-collector,  506. 
Duval  packing,  605. 
Dynamite  gun,  411. 
Dynamite  projectile,  675,  866. 
Dynamo,  Brush  arc,  208. 

continuous-current,  208. 

Edison.  219. 

Eickemeyer.  220. 

Ferrantfalternating,  237. 

Forbes.  231. 

for  electrolysis.  222. 

Ganz  alternating,  236. 

Goolden  and  Trotter,  217. 

Hochhausen.  213. 

Kennedy,  221,  242. 

Kingdon.  241. 

Mather.  2*»i. 

Mordey.  238. 

multipolar,  Bradley,  228. 

multipolar,  Desrozier,  229. 

multipolar.  Edison.  224. 

multipolar,  Fritzsche,  231. 

multipolar,  Ganz.  226. 

multipolar,  Siemens.  225. 

multipolar,  Wenstrom.  227. 

multipolar.  Westinghouse,  226. 

Oerlikon.  243. 

Sperry.  215. 

tests  of.  245. 

Thomson- Houston,  209,  220,  235. 

types  of,  206. 

unipolar.  231. 


Dynamo,  Waterhouse,  216. 

water-wheel  driving,  900. 

Westinghouse,  232,  239. 

Weston,  219. 
Dynamometer,  245. 

Alden,  245. 

Amsler,  246. 

Tatham,  246. 

Richards,  246. 

Economic  steam-boiler.  59. 
Economizer  steam-boiler,  59. 
Economy  of  electric  power,  646. 
Eddy  electric  motor,  551. 
Edgerton  electric  motor,  549. 
Edging-machine,  439. 
Edison  electric  motor,  550. 
ore-separator,  598. 

Ehonoplex,  843. 
mith  train  telegraph,  850. 
Efficiency  of  compressed  air,  13. 

of  electric  transmission.  643. 
Egan  Company  planer,  632. 

tenoner.  855. 

Eiffel  Tower  elevators,  248. 
Ejector,  452. 

pneumatic,  246. 
Electric  balloon,  1. 

coal-mining  machine,  138. 

clock,  890. 

conductors,  alloys  for,  25. 

elevator,  250. 

engine,  534. 

fuse,  866. 

light  in  carriages,  112. 

locomotive,  719. 

measuring  instrument,  492. 

motors,  534. 

percussion  tool,  197. 

post-marking  machine,  479. 

power  plant,  cost  of,  648. 

power  transmission,  642. 

pump,  688. 

railroad,  719. 

riveting,  908. 

rock-drill,  197. 

sole-sorter,  476. 

stop-motion,  142. 

traveling  crane,  158. 

type-setting  machine,  876. 

signals,  828. 

tabulating-machine,  833. 

welding,  901. 

Electrolytic   production    of    alu- 
minium, 34. 
Electro  -  magnetic  ore  -  separator, 

597. 

Elevating-deck  boat,  247. 
Elevator,  247. 

canal,  254. 

coal,  254. 

Edoux,  250. 

Eiffel  Tower,  248. 

grain,  250. 

hydraulic,  248. 

La  Louviere.  255. 

Les  Fontenelles,  254. 

ore,  589. 

quicksilver,  523. 

Roux.  249. 
Eliminator.  789. 
Embossing-press,  74. 
Embrej-  ore-concentrator,  592. 
Emery-grinding,  404. 
Emerj-- wheels,  tests  of,  406. 
Energy  in  electric  welding,  904. 
Engineering  progress,  282. 
Engine,  air,  255. 

blowing,  257. 

electric.  534. 

ferry-boat,  291. 

gas.  268. 

hydraulic,  274. 

lathe,  458. 

naphtha.  270. 

oil,  268. 

small,  economy  of.  328. 

steam,  compound,  329. 

steam  fire,  260. 

steam  fire,  Ahrens,  263. 

steam  fire,  Amoskeag.  264. 

steam  fire,  Button,  263. 

steam  fire,  chemical.  258. 

steam  fire,  Clapp  and  Jones,  260. 

steam  fire.  La  France,  262. 

steam  fire,  Sibley,  264. 


Engine,  steam  fire,  tests  of,  263. 
steam  friction  in,  331. 
steam  marine,  276. 
steam  marine,  fuel  economy,  287. 
steam  marine,  Quad,  expansion, 

steam  marine,  triple  screw,  280. 
steam,  possible   improvements, 

steam,  reciprocating,  Acme.  320. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Allis  hoist- 
ing. 322. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Allis  roll- 
ing-mill, 318. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Armington 
and  Sims.  310. 

steam,  reciprocating.  Ball.  307. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Ball  and 
Wood.  307. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Corliss,  331 . 

steam,  reciprocating,  Dick  and 
Church,  322. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Fishkill- 
Corliss,  313. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Frick-Cor- 
liss,  326. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Giddings, 
308. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Harris- 
burg,  311. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Ideal,  311. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Mclntosh 
and  Seymour,  307. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Payne- 
Corliss,  314. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Rice,  306. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Shipman, 
320. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Sioux  Citj-- 
Corliss,  312. 

steam,  reciprocating.  Sweet,  302. 

steam,  reciprocating,  tandem- 
compound,  311. 

steam,  reciprocating,  tests  of, 
328. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Talley,  309. 

steam,  reciprocating.  Watts- 
Campbell-Corliss.  322. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Wells  bal- 
anced, 327. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Westing- 
house.  315. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Westing- 
house  compound,  317. 

steam,  reciprocating.  Williams 
triple-expansion.  317. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Willard 
condensing,  318. 

steam,  reciprocating,  Woodbury, 
301. 

steam,  rotary,  296. 

steam,  water   consumption  of, 

traction,  640. 

Tower  spherical,  2%. 
Engstrom  gun,  573. 
Ensilage-machine,  332. 
Erie  key-seating  machine,  456. 
Escapement,  889. 
Essick  telegraph.  848. 
Evans  ore-table,  593. 
Evaporator,  feed-water,  284. 

Yaryan,  338. 

Everett  weighing-machine,  885. 
Excavator,  178. 

Osgood,  183. 

Exhaust-steam  injector,  452. 
Exhauster,  steam-jet,  54. 
Explosive,  Snyder,  675. 
Extractor,  centrifugal,  161. 

dirt,  790. 

Fac-simile  telegraph,  847. 
Fan-blower,  54. 
Faucet.  Thomson,  884. 
Faure  storage- battery.  816. 
Fay  surface-planer,  632. 

planer,  629. 

tenoning-machine.  853. 
Feeder  for  thrashers,  859. 

for  ore,  587. 


for  printing-press.  663. 
j  Feed-water  evaporator,  284. 

Feed-heater.  443. 

Felly-rounding  machine,  909. 
i  Ferro-chrome,  26. 


920 


INDEX. 


Ferry-boat  engines,  291. 
Field  electric  locomotive,  727. 

sextuplex  telegraph,  842. 
Field-magnets,  203. 
Filter,  Hyatt,  341. 

Jewell,  345. 

National,  344. 

press,  345,  526. 

Warren,  343. 
Filtration,  339. 
Fire  appliances,  345. 
Fire-arms,  -353. 
Fire-boat,  266. 
Fire-escape,  363. 
Fire-harness,  349. 
Fire-ladders,  347. 
Fire-proof  safe,  763. 
Fire-tools,  352. 
Fire-trucks,  347. 
Fire-tube  boiler,  55. 
Fish  torpedo,  865. 
Fiske  range-finder,  494. 
Flanging-machine,  364. 
Flax-harvester,  427. 
Flax-machines,  366. 
Flight,  Langley  experiments,  7. 

Maxim  experiments,  9. 
Flooring-planer.  631. 
Flotow  and  Leidig  pipe  process, 

612. 

Flue,  boiler,  58. 
Fluid  metal,  rolling,  747. 
Fly-frame,  143. 
Flying-machine,  5. 

Ader,  7. 

Hargrave,  6. 
Folding-machine,  73. 
Foot-power  saw,  777. 
Forbes  die-stock,  619. 
Forced  draft,  282. 
Forging,  hydraulic,  668. 

press,  668. 
Fork,  hay,  440. 
Forster  crusher,  577. 
Franklin  typewriter,  880. 
Frictional  belt-gearing,  120. 
Friction  of  belts,  44. 

of  engines,  331. 
Friezer,  wood,  529. 
Frisbie-Lucop  ore-mill,  584. 
Frue  vanner,  591. 
Fuel,  consumption  of  locomotives. 
489. 

economy  in  marine-engines,  286. 
Furnace,  aluminium,  34. 

Batho  steel,  810. 

blast,  368. 

blower,  70. 

bullion-melting,  524. 

gas,  373. 

glass,  397. 

heating,  377. 

open-hearth,  375. 

Pettibone-Loomis,  375. 

puddling,  377. 

roasting,  377. 

roasting,  Arents,  381. 

roasting,  Douglas.  382. 

roasting,  Hofmann,  382. 

roasting,  Howell,  382. 

roasting,  CVHara,  380. 

roasting,  White,  381. 

rotary-pan,  379. 

Siemens  tank,  397. 

smelting,  382. 

smelting,  Herreshoff,  384. 

smelting,  Rachette,  383. 

smelting,  reverberatory,  385. 

Spence  desulphurizing,  379. 

steel  open-hearth,  808. 

Stubblebine,  377. 
Fuse,  electric.  866. 

Gadding-machine,  704. 
Gaining-machine,  387. 
Gale  Harrow,  67. 
Gang  boring-machine,  82. 

plow,  638. 
Gap  chucking-lathe,  463. 

tenoning-machine,  854. 
Garden-hoe,  165. 
Garlqck  packing,  605. 
Gamier  concentrator,  592. 
Gas-engine,  Rollason,  268. 

Van  Duzen,  269. 
Gas-furnace,  373. 


Gasket,  604. 

Gaskill  pumping-engine,  683. 

Gas-machine,  390. 

Gas  process,  Archer,  389. 

process,  Loomis.  388. 

process,  Rose,  389. 

producer,  388. 

producer,  Taylor,  390. 

regulator,  768. 
Gates  crusher,  578. 
Gauge,  coupler,  154. 

lathe,  469. 

measuring,  496. 

saw,  390. 

steam,  391. 
Gear-cutter,  391. 

Bilgram,  392. 

Brown  and  Sharpe,  391. 

Eberhardt,  394. 

Pratt  and  Whitney,  394. 

Swasey,  395. 
Gear,  wagon,  110. 
Gesner  iron  process,  455. 
Gevelin  water-wheel,  892. 
Giant  key-seater,  458. 
Gibson  storage-battery,  819. 
Gill  boiler,  60. 

screw-thread,  783. 
Gin,  cotton,  398. 
Glass-cutting  machine,  398. 
Glassing-machine,  477. 
Glass-making,  397. 

pressing,  398. 

rolling,  399. 

Golden  Gate  concentrator,  592. 
Gold-milling,  515. 
Goodell  and  Waters  planer.  631. 
Goodyear  shoe -sewing  machine, 

475. 

Goupil  aeroplane,  7. 
Governor,    Armington  and  Sims, 
401. 

ball,  shaft,  399. 

brush,  motor,  546. 

engine.  399. 

electric  motor,  536. 

Giddings,  401. 

Mclntosh  and  Seymour,  401. 

pump,  403. 

Rice,  401. 

Smith,  399. 

Woodbury,  403. 
Grain-binder.  864. 
Grain-drill,  Hoosier,  785. 
Grain  elevator,  250. 

harvester,  419. 

mill.  499. 

stacker,  858. 

trusser,  864. 
Gramophone,  608. 
Grant  milling-machine,  510. 
Graphophone,  606. 
Grate,  boiler,  70. 
Gravitation  stamp,  580. 
Graydon  projectile,  675. 
Gray  teleautograph,  844. 
Griffen  ore-mill,  586. 
Grinder,  saw,  767. 
Grinding,  emery,  404. 
Grinding-machine,  405. 
Grinding-pan,  523. 
Grip,  cable  railroad.  708. 
Griscom  electric  motor.  540. 
Griswold  wire  process,  916. 
Groover  head,  387. 
Grubber,  679. 
Guide,  stamp,  581. 
Gun,  353. 

built-up,  570. 

carbonic-acid,  411. 

Driggs-Schroeder,  573. 

dynamite,  411. 

Engstrom,  573. 

Hotchkiss,  573. 

Krupp,  569. 

lathe,  464. 

machine,  574. 

Maxim,  574. 

Nordenfeldt,  574. 

pneumatic.  411. 

quick-fire,  573. 

tests  of  navy,  571. 
Guns,  tables  of  United  States,  572. 

Hair  belts,  45. 

Hallidie  Cable  Railroad,  708. 


Hall,  aluminium  process,  34. 
Hall,  torpedo,  869. 
Hammer,  Bradley,  416. 

pile-driving,  609. 

pneumatic,  417. 

power,  415. 

Hammond  typewriter,  881. 
Hand-plow,  635. 
Hanley  ore-separator,  603. 
Hardening  steel,  851. 
Hardwick  alarm,  22. 
Hargrave  flying-machine,  6. 
Harness,  fire,  349. 
Harpoon,  hay,  440. 
Harrison  mining-machine,  127. 
Harrow,  Acme,  677. 

Bradley,  677. 

Disk,  676. 

lever,  677. 

pressure,  678. 

Ray,  678. 

seed,  786. 

spring-tooth,  678. 

tooth,  671. 
Harvester,  corn,  434. 

cotton.  417. 

flax,  427. 

Geiser,  435. 

pea  and  bean,  436. 
Harvey  hardening  process,  857. 
Harvey  street-car,  716. 
Hatch  operating  mechanism,  439. 
Hat-machines.  437. 
Hay -carrier,  440. 
Hay-fork,  440. 
Hay-gatherer,  441. 
Hay-harpoon.  440. 
Hay-loader,  442. 
Hay-press,  670. 
Hay-rake,  442. 
Hay-ricker,  440. 
Hay-sling,  440. 
Heater,  feed-water,  443. 

water,  108. 
Heat  of  air,  20. 
Heating  railroad-cars,  104. 
Heberle  ore-mill,  583. 
Heel-tapering  machine,  532. 
Heine  boiler,  59. 
Hemp  rope,  750. 
Hendey  planer,  623. 

shaper,  796. 

Hercules  water-wheel,  898. 
Heroult  process,  34. 
Hide  and  side  worker,  477. 
High  duty  pump.  679. 

explosive  projectile,  675. 
Hill  refrigerating  apparatus,  449. 
Hochhausen  electric  motor,  544. 
Hoe  printing-press,  654. 
Hoerde  steel  process.  811. 
Hoffman  lixiviatiou  process,  521. 

separator,  599. 
Hoist,  air,  21. 

coal,  254. 

Hoisting-engine,  322. 
Hollerith  tabulating-machine,  833. 
Holt  dust-collector,  507. 
Hoop-coiling  machine,  42. 
Hoop-driving  machine,  42. 
Hoop  guide,  42. 
i  Hoosier  grain-drill,  785. 
Horse-power,  445. 

of  boilers,  65. 
Hose-connections,  352. 
Hose-coupling.  351. 
Hose-holder,  351. 
Hose-nozzle,  349. 
Hose-repairing  device,  352. 
Hot-blast  stove,  822. 
Hotchkiss  gun.  573. 

projectile,  674. 
Hot  water,  transmission  of  power 

by.  654. 

Howell  torpedo.  868. 
Hubbell  tapping-machine,  622. 
Hub-borer,  534.  912. 
Hub-finishing  machine,  911. 
Hub-mortiser,  534. 
Hub-turning  machine,  911. 
Huber  thrasher,  859. 
Humphrey  water-wheel,  895. 
Hunt  water-wheel,  895. 
Hydraulic  crane,  159. 

engine.  274. 

forging,  668. 


INDEX. 


921 


Hydraulic  press.  255. 

ram,  275. 

riveter,  739. 

separator,  590. 
Hyer  electric  motor,  545. 

Ice-machines,  tests  of,  448. 
Ice-making  machines,  446. 
Indicator,  Batchelder,  450. 

Crosby.  449. 

steam-engine,  449. 

Tabor,  449. 

Induction,  telegraph,  848. 
Injector,  450. 
'  condenser,  134. 

exhaust-steam,  452. 

Kortiug,  452. 

Little  Giant,  450. 

Metropolitan,  452. 

Monitor,  450. 

National,  451. 

Peerless,  452. 

Penberthy,  450. 
Interlocking  signal,  830. 
Iron-link  belts,  46. 
Iron  manufacturing  processes,  452. 
Iron  process,  Adams,  453. 

Carbon  Company's,  453. 

Gesner.  455. 

Imperatori,  454. 
Iron-ore  dressing,  594. 

Jacket,  steam,  489. 

Jack,  lifting,  199. 

Jacobi  electric  motor,  535. 

law,  537. 

Jeffrey  mining-machine,  27. 
Jig,  coal,  123. 

iron-ore,  596. 

ore,  590. 

ore,  Argall,  592. 

ore,  Conkling,  596. 

ore,  McLanahan.  587. 

ore,  Parsons.  591. 
Jig-saw,  779. 
Johnson  filter-press,  526. 
Jointer,  633. 
Jones  turret-lathe,  467. 
Jonval  water-wheel,  893. 
Jordan  amalgamator,  515. 

reducer.  586. 
Julien  storage-battery,  817. 

Kennedy  electric  motor,  554. 
Kettle,  soap,  803. 
Key,  455. 
Keyless  lock,  481. 
Key-seater,  456. 
Key  way  slotting-machine,  456. 
Kiln,  378,  458. 
Knurling-tool,  474. 
Knife-grinder,  410. 
Knotter,  419,  420. 
Knox  blasting,  706. 
Korting  injector,  552. 
Krom  crusher,  575. 

ore-feeder,  587. 

rolls,  582. 
Krupp  gun,  569. 

projectile,  672. 

La  France  balloon,  2. 
Land-roller,  786. 

Langley,  experiments  on  flight,  7. 
Lang's  laid  rope,  755. 
Lanston  type-machine,  872. 
Lapper,  ribbon,  140. 
Lappin  brake-shoe,  719. 
Lapping-machine,  407. 
Last  steel  furnace,  808. 
Lasting-machine,  476. 
Lathe  and  planer  tool,  472. 
Lathe,  Blanchard,  470. 

car-wheel,  460. 

forming.  461. 

gap-chucking,  463. 

gauge,  469. 

gun,  464. 

hat,  439. 

metal-working,  458. 

Ober,  470. 

pipe,  620. 

pulley,  463. 

Putnam,  458. 

Richards,  463. 

spoke,  470. 


Lathe-tool,  boring  and  grinding, 
472. 

cast-iron,  474. 

cutting-off ,  472. 

knurling,  474. 

metal-working,  468-472. 

Reamer,  474. 

turret,  474. 
Lathe-turret,  464. 

chucking,  465. 

wood-working,  468. 
Lauffen  electric  power,  653. 
Laurent-Cely  battery,  819. 
Lawn-mower,  558. 
Lawrence  pump,  693. 
Leaching- vat.  524. 
Leather  link-belts.  46. 

measuring  machine,  478. 

working  machine,  475. 
Lechner  mining-machine.  129. 
Lee  plate-printing  press,  663 
Leffel  water-wheel,  898. 
Letter-marking  machine,  479. 
Lever  harrow,  677. 
Lift,  canal,  254. 
Lining,  digestor,  174. 
Link-belt  elevator,  589. 
Link  miller,  513. 
Linotype,  874. 
Lithanode,  818. 
Little  Giant  injector,  450. 
Lock,  480. 

bank,  482. 

cutter,  42. 

keyless,  481. 

Sargent,  481. 

time,  482. 
Locke  valve,  882. 
Locked  coil-rope,  755. 
Locomotive,  483. 

compound,  486. 

crane,  160. 

dimensions,  484. 

electric,  719. 

electric,  Daft,  720. 

electric,  Field,  727. 

electric,  Sprague.  722. 

electric,  Thomson-Houston,  723. 

field,  639. 

fuel,  489. 

petroleum,  489. 

speed,  490. 

steam-jackets,  489. 

Webb,  488. 
Logger,  steam,  492. 
London   electric  railroad   motor, 

728. 

Loop,  steam,  806. 
Los  Angeles  Cable  Railway,  710. 
Lovett  separator,  599. 
Low-water  alarm,  22. 
Lumber-kiln,  458. 
Lumber,  terra-cotta,  858. 
Lurig  Vanner,  592. 

Machine-gun.  594. 
Magnet,  field,  203. 
Magnetic  ore-separator,  597. 
Manganese-bronze,  23. 
Mankey  wood-work,  532. 
Mannesmann  pipe  process,  612. 
Map  telegraph,  847. 
Marine  boiler,  58. 
Marvin  electric  tool,  197. 
Mason  mule-jenny,  147. 

spinning-frame.  146. 
Master-key  locks,  481. 
Maxim  gun,  574. 

experiments  on  flight,  9. 
McDaniel  siphon,  452. 
McKay  lasting-machine,  476. 
McLanahan  ore- jig,  597. 
Measuring  instruments,  electrical, 
492. 

mechanical,  495. 
Measuring-machines,  496. 

machine  leather,  478. 
Mergenthaler  type-setter,  872. 
Merriam  fuse.  866. 
Merriman  bolt-cutter.  71. 
Merritt  typewriter.  882. 
Metallic  packing,  604. 
Meter,  Thomson  water,  891. 

Venturi  water,  891. 
Metropolitan  injector,  452. 
Micrometer,  495. 


Mill,  boring  and  turning,  79. 

gear,  504. 

gold,  514. 

grain,  499. 

Heberle,  583. 

lixiviation.  522. 

ore,  583. 

silver.  519. 

Miller  system  cable  railroad,  711. 
Milling  cutter.  456. 

speed  of,  514. 
Milling-machine,  508. 

attachments,  510. 
Minet  aluminium  process,  34. 
Mine-pump,  687. 
Mine,  submarine,  866. 
Mining-machines,  124. 
Mitchell  packing.  604. 
Mitering-machine,  528. 
Mixing  cotton.  138. 
Molder,  Egan,  528. 

serpentine,  530. 
Monitor  injector,  450. 
Montgomery  breaker,  752. 
Morehead  steam-trap,  870. 
Morse  cable  telegraph,  838. 

frue  vanner,  591. 
Mortising-machines,  533. 

tools,  534. 

Morton  kej'-way  cutter,  456. 
Mosher  steam-boiler,  62. 
Motor,  compressed-air,  14. 

electric,  534. 

electric,  alternating,  552. 

electric,  Ayrton  and  Perry,  539. 

electric.  Brush,  546. 

electric,  Crocker- Wheeler,  554 

electric,  "  C.  &  C.,"  543. 

electric,  Daft.  540. 

electric,  Diehl,  541. 

electric,  Edgerton,  549. 

electric,  Edison,  550. 

electric,  efficiency  of,  537. 

electric,  Griscom,  540. 

electric,  Hochhausen,  544. 

electric,  Hyer,  545. 

electric,  Immisch,  550. 

electric.  Jacobi,  535. 

electric,  Kennedy,  554. 

electric,  London  Railway,  728. 

electric,  Pacinotti,  535. 

electric,  Page.  535. 

electric,  Perret,  542. 

electric,  Rae,  725. 

electric,  Rechniewski,  553. 

electric,  Reckenzaun,  539. 

electric,  Sprague.  722. 

electric,  Stockwell,  545. 

electric,  Tesla,  552. 

electric,  Thomson,  553. 

electric,  Thomson-Houston,  543. 

electric,  three-phase,  553. 

electric,  United  States,  551. 

electric,  Wenstrom,  725. 

electric.  Westinghouse,  726. 
Mowers,  555. 
Mule,  cotton-spinning,  148. 

jenny.  147. 

Mason.  148. 

Parr-Curtis,  82. 
Multiple  boring-machine,  82. 
Multiple- jaw  crusher,  578. 
Multiple  punch,  695. 
Multipolar  dynamo,  224. 
Multiplex  telegraphs,  839. 
Munson  type-setting,  876. 
Munton  tire  process,  746. 

Naphtha-engine.  270. 
National  injector,  451. 
Naval  armor,  35. 
Newton  plane,  628. 

slatter.  801. 

Newspaper  printing-press.  661. 
New  York  Cable  Railroad,  712. 
Niagara  commission.  563. 
Niagara,  works  at,  558. 
Nichols  crusher.  577. 
Nicholson  boring-machine.  77. 
Xiekel-in-slot  machine,  885. 
Nickel  steel.  26. 
Nickel-steel  armor.  38. 
Niles  boring-machine,  76. 

planer.  626. 

pJate-straightener,  743. 

screw-machine,  781. 


922 


INDEX. 


Non-magnetic  watch,  889. 
Nordenfeldt  gun,  574. 

torpedo,  867. 
Northrop  spooler,  149. 
Norton  metal  process,  749. 
Norwalk  air-compressor,  17. 
Novel  printing-press,  656. 
Nozzles,  349. 

Nut-facing  machine.  565. 
Nut-finishing  machine,  566. 
Nut-milling  machine,  567. 
Nut-tapping  machine,  567. 

Ober  lathe,  470. 
Oil-engine,  268. 
Oil-purifier,  698. 
Open-hearth  steel,  808,  810. 
Open-side  planer,  624. 
Ordnance,  569. 
Ore-buddle,  593. 
Ore- concentrator,  592. 

Bertenshaw,  593. 

Embrey,  592. 

Gamier.  592. 

Golden  Gate,  592. 

Triumph,  593. 

cooler,  523. 

Ore-crushing  machines,  575. 
Ore-dressing  machines,  588. 

works,  588. 
Ore-driers,  522. 
Ore-elevators,  523,  589. 
Ore-feeder,  587. 

Challenge,  587. 

Fulton,  587. 

Krom,  587. 

Tulloch,  587. 
Ore-jig,  592. 
Ore-mill,  585. 
Ore-mixer,  603. 
Ore-roaster,  378. 
Ore-sampling,  600-603. 
Ore-sampler,  Ball,  597. 

Buchanan,  597. 

Bridgeman.  602. 

Brunton,  600. 

Calumet,  590. 

Collom,  602. 

Conklin,  597. 

Edison,  598. 

electro-magnetic,  598. 

Hoffman,  599. 

Lovett,  599. 

magnetic,  597. 
Ore-screen,  590. 
Ore-separator.  597. 
Ore-stamp,  579. 
Ore-washer,  595. 
Oven,  coke.  129. 
Over-seaming  machine,  795. 

Pacinotti  electric  motor,  535. 
Packing,  604. 

"  Common-sense,11  604. 

Deeds,  605. 

Duval,  605. 

Garlock,  605. 

metallic,  604. 

Tripp,  604. 
Padlocks,  483. 
Page  electric  motor,  535. 
Pamphlet-binding  machine,  74. 
Pan,  amalgamating,  523. 

grinding,  523. 

Panama  Canal  dredge,  178. 
Pan^l  raising,  532. 
Parsons  ore- jig,  591. 
Patrick  torpedo.  867. 
Patten  telegraph,  839. 
Payne  boiler,  50. 
Pea-harvester,  437. 
Pebbling-machine,  477. 
Pelton  bucket,  900. 

water-wheel,  899. 
Penfield  brick-machine,  95. 

clay-crusher,  117. 
Percussion  tool,  electric,  197. 
Ferret  electric  motor,  542. 
Petroleum  motor,  273. 
Peyrusson  battery,  819. 
Phonograph,  605. 
Phosphor-bronze,  23. 
Phonoplex,  842. 
Pichancourt  bird,  5. 
Picker  stem,  cotton,  418. 
Picking-table,  589. 


Pile-cap,  600. 
Pile-driver,  610. 
Pile-hammer,  610. 
Pile-saw,  610. 
Pillow-block  planer,  628. 
Pinion- cutting  engine,  885. 
Pipe-bending  machine,  616. 
Pipe-coiling  machine,  616. 
Pipe-covering,  617. 
Pipe-cutter,  619-621. 
Pipe-die,  621. 
Pipe-head,  622. 
Pipe-making  machines,  611-616. 

processes,  612.  613. 
Pipe-threading  machine,  619. 
Pipe-welding,  907. 
Piping  of  ingots,  812. 
Pistols,  361. 
Piston-packing,  605. 
Piston-valves,  284. 
Pitts  thrasher,  859. 
Pivot-turning  machine,  886. 
Planer,  Belts,  627. 

boiler-plate,  626. 

Daniell,  628. 

Detrick  and  Harvey,  625. 

double  metal,  626. 

Egan,  632. 

Emery,  410. 

Fay,  629-632. 

flooring,  631. 

Goodefl  and  Waters,  631. 

Hendey.  623. 

metal,  622. 

metal  rotary.  627. 

Newton,  628. 

Niles,  626. 

open-side,  624. 

pillow-block,  628. 

Richards,  626. 

rim,  909. 

Sellers,  622. 

wood,  628. 

Planing  clapboards,  633. 
Plate-planer,  626. 
Plate-printing  press,  663. 
Plate-straightener,  743. 
Planter,  634,  786. 
Plante  battery,  816. 
Play-pipe,  349. 
Plow,  634. 


1.635. 

riding,  635. 

share,  634. 

steam,  638. 

sulky,  636. 

tricycle,  638. 
Plowing  outfit,  638. 
Plug  and  feather  process,  640,  706. 
Pneumatic  clocks,  11. 

dredge,  640. 

ejector,  246. 

gun,  411. 

hammer,  417. 

railroad  signals,  829. 

tool,  21. 

Pole-cutting  machine,  531. 
Polishing,  640. 

Pollock  chlorinating  barrel,  518. 
Popp  air  system,  10. 
Portelectric  railroad,  729. 
Positive  piston-pump,  693. 
Post-marking  machine,  479. 
Post-office  lock-box,  482. 
Potato-digger,  640. 
Potter  printing-press,  658. 
Pouncing-machine,  437. 
Power  consumed  in  drilling,  185. 

distribution  at  Niagara,  562. 

electric,  cost  of  plant,  648. 

transmission  of,  642-649. 

transmission  of  compressed  air. 
10. 

transmission  of  electric,  650. 

transmission  of  hot- water,  654. 

transmission  of  hydraulic,  653. 

transmission  of  vacuum,  654. 
Power,  type  composition,  871. 
Pratt  steam-trap,  870. 
Press,  baling,  670^ 

brick,  90. 

cotton,  670. 

drawing,  665. 

embossing,  74. 

filter,  345,  526. 


Press,  forging,  668. 

glass,  398. 

hay,  670. 

hydraulic,  255. 

printing,  654. 

printing,  air-spring,  657. 

printing,  Century,  655. 

printing,  Cottrell,  655. 

printing,  feeder,  663. 

printing,  Hoe,  654. 

printing,  Lee  plate,  663. 

printing,  newspaper,  661. 

printing,  Novel,  656. 

printing,  Potter,  658. 

printing,  Prudential,  656. 

printing,  quadruple,  663. 

printing,  sextuple,  663. 

printing,  stereotype,  662 

printing,  stop-cylinder,  659. 

printing,  two-revolution,  659. 

printing,  web,  661. 

shearing,  697. 

soap,  803. 

wheel,  914. 
Pressure  harrow,  678. 

regulators,  737. 
Printing  telegraph,  848. 
Projectiles,  672. 

armor-piercing,  673. 

Carpenter,  674. 

dynamite,  675,  866. 

Graydon,  675. 

high-explosive,  675. 

Hotchkiss,  674. 

Krupp,  672. 

rapid-fire,  674. 

steel,  672. 

tests  of,  673. 

United  States,  675. 

welded,  908. 
Propeller,  screw,  676. 

twin-screw,  285. 
Pug-mill,  118. 
Pulley-blocks,  52. 
Pulley-lathe,  463. 
Pullman  car,  715. 
Pulverizer,  676. 

Cyclone,  584. 

Narod,  586. 
Pump,  Allis,  686. 

balanced,  691. 

bulkhead,  692. 

centrifugal,  689. 

Corliss,  685. 

electric,  688. 

Gaskill,  683. 

High-duty,  679. 

Hill  condensation,  134. 

Lawrence,  693. 

mine,  687. 

positive  piston,  693. 

reciprocating,  679. 

Reynolds  screw,  686. 

rotary,  689. 

rotary  piston,  694. 

tests,  679,  683,  686. 

Worthington,  679. 
Punch,  coupling,  694. 

duplex,  697. 

Punching-machines,  694. 
Purifier,  feed-water,  443. 

middlings,  506. 

oil,  698.         . 
Pyro-engraving,  698. 

Quadruple-expansion  engine,  2< 

printing-press,  663. 
Quarrying-machines,  699. 
Quarter  bale,  672. 
Quick-fire  gun,  573. 
Quicksilver  elevator,  523. 
Quiller,  151. 

Rail-fastenings,  734. 
Railroad-brake,  86. 
Railroad-cable,  708. 
Railroad-cars,  715. 

heating,  104. 
Railroad,  electric,  719. 
Railroad-rails,  732. 
Railroad-signals,  826. 
Railroad  snow-shovel,  799. 
Railroad-switches,  826. 
Railway  cut-off  saw,  775. 
Rake-head  boring-machine,  84. 
Ram,  hydraulic,  275. 


INDEX. 


923 


Rand  air-compressor,  15. 
Range-finder,  494. 
Rapid-fire  projectile,  674. 
Ravelli  windlass,  915. 
Ray  harrow,  678. 
Reamer.  474. 

Knox,  707. 
Reaper,  421,  555.  734. 
Recarburizing  steel,  808. 
Rechniewski  electric  motor,  553. 
Reckenzaun  electric  motor,  539. 

battery,  819. 

Reducing-valve.  151,  883. 
Reel,  cotton,  151. 

mill.  504. 

round.  506. 

Ref  rigerating-machines,  446. 
Regenerative  furnace,  373. 
Regulators,  736. 

temperature,  107. 
Reheater,  327. 
Relief-valves,  883. 
Remington  typewriter,  878. 
Rennie  boiler,  58. 
Repeating-rifle,  353. 
Repressing-machine,  97. 
Resawing-machine,  773. 
Reverberatory  furnace,  385. 
Revolver,  361. 
Reynier  battery,  818. 
Reynolds  screw-pump,  686. 

boiler,  57. 
Richards  lathe,  463. 

planer,  626. 
Riding  plow,  635. 
Rifles.  353. 

military,  German,  357. 

military.  Lee  Speed,  353. 

military,  Mannlicher,  354. 

military,  Mauser.  356. 

militar}-,  Schmidt,  359. 
Rim-planer,  909. 
Risdon  water-wheel,  891. 
Rittinger  ore-table,  593. 
Riveting,  electric,  908. 
Riveting- machines,  739. 
Robertson  pipe  process,  612. 
Rock-drill,  188. 

electric.  199. 
Rocket,  865. 
Rod-machines,  740. 
Rogers-Bond  comparator,  497. 
Rogers  surfacer.  633. 

tenoning-machines,  853. 

typograph.  873. 
Roller  bearings,  42,  503. 

mills,  501. 
Rolling  car-wheels,  719. 

fluid  metal,  747. 

plate-glass.  399. 

tubes,  613. 
Rolls,  bending,  740. 

Bowers,  583. 

Cornish,  581. 

die,  581. 

metal-working,  744. 

milling,  500. 

ore.  581. 

tube-making.  613. 
Roney  stoker,  814. 
Root-digger,  641. 
Rope  belts,  47. 

driven-crane.  158.. 

hemp.  750. 

Rope-laying  machine.  755. 
Rope-making  machine.  750. 
Rotary  blow-riveter.  739. 
Rotary-pump,  689-694. 
Rotary  steam-engine,  296. 
Roughing-train,  744. 
Routing-machine,  84,  113,  757. 
Roving- frame.  141. 
Russell  thrasher,  858. 
Russia  iron,  454. 
Rust-proof  process,  455. 

Safe,  758. 

Sampler,  ore,  601. 

Sampling  shovel,  601. 

Sand-papering  machine,  763. 

Sand-wheel,  589. 

San  Francisco  Cable  Railroad,  709. 

Sargent  lock,  481. 

Sash-machine.  765. 

Sash- wiring  machine.  766. 

Saunders  channeler,  700. 


Saunders  pipe -cutting  machine, 

620. 
Saw,  band,  769,  778. 

guide,  769. 

circular,  766. 

cold,  766. 

drag,  770. 

foot-power,  7T7. 

gauge,  390. 

grinder,  767. 

gummer,  408. 

jig.  779. 

metal-working,  766. 

mill-dog,  772. 

pile,  610. 

railway  cut-off,  775. 

wood,  770. 
Scalping- reel.  504. 
Schoop  storage-battery,  830. 
Screen,  coal,  121. 

ore-sizing.  590. 
Screw,  hoist.  52. 
Screw-machines,  780. 
Screw-propellers,  293. 
Screw-pump.  686. 
Screw-threads,  783. 
Scutching-machine,  366. 
Seat,  wagon,  111. 
Secondary  battery,  815. 
Seed-drill,  785. 
Seed-harrow,  786. 
Seeder,  785. 
Sellers  bending  rolls,  743. 

crane,  155. 

planer.  622. 

Selenium  recorder,  832. 
Sensitive  drill,  184. 
Separator,  ore.  590-597. 

steam,  288. 

(thrasher).  858. 
Sergeant  air-compressor,  16. 
Sergent  coal-mining  machine,  128. 
Settler,  524. 
Sewing-machine,  790. 

book,  75. 

carpet,  795. 

cylinder,  795. 
Sewing  shoes,  475. 
Sextuple  printing-i 
Shaft-coupling,  118. 

cutting-machine,  531. 
Shaper,  529.  796. 
Sheaf -carrier,  426. 
Shearing-machine,  697,  798. 
Sheet  steel,  455. 
Shell,  674. 

Shingle-machine,  798. 
Shoe-sewing,  475. 
Shoe-stamp,  581. 
Short-wind  watch,  889. 
Shot-gun,  359. 
Shovel,  cultivator,  160. 

ore-sampling,  601. 

railroad  snow,  799. 
Shunt  regulator,  548. 
Siamese  coupling,  352. 
Side-hill  cultivator,  702. 
Siemens  furnace,  373. 
Signals,  electric,  828. 
Silicon  bronze,  24. 
Silver-mill,  519. 
Simons  metal  rolls,  744. 
Sims-Edison  torpedo,  867. 
Siphon.  452. 

telegraph  vibrator.  837. 
Silo  construction,  332. 
Sizing-screen.  590. 
Slab-slasher,  777. 
Slate-picker,  123. 
Slat-tenoner,  857. 
Slime-washer.  591. 
Sling,  hay,  440. 
Slot  ting-ma  chine,  Key  way,  456. 

metal,  801. 

Smelting,  copper,  386. 
Smith  tapping-machine,  622. 

tenoner,  855. 

typewriter.  879. 
Smolianski  shell,  675. 
Soap-frame.  803. 
Soap-kettle.  803. 
Soap-makers'  machines,  802. 
Soap-making,  802. 
Soap-press,  803. 
Sole-shaper.  478. 
Sole-sorter,  476. 


Spacing-punch,  696. 
Spar  torpedo,  865. 
Speeder,  143. 
Speed  of  cutters,  514. 

of  locomotives.  490. 
Spindles,  cotton,  144. 
Spinning  cotton,  138. 

jenny,  hemp,  753. 
Spoke-lathe,  470. 
Spooler,  149. 
Spoo  ling-frame,  148. 
Sprague  electric  motor,  547. 

electric  railway,  722. 
Spreader,  751. 
Spring-tooth  harrow,  678. 
Spring  wagon,  112. 
Sprinkler,  fire.  346. 
Spur-gear,  52. 
Stabbing-machine,  76. 
Stacker.  858. 
Staking-machine,  477. 
Stalk  cutter.  805. 
Stamp-canceler.  479. 

guides.  581. 

ore.  579. 

shoes.  581. 
Stave- jointer,  42. 
Steam-boiler,  see  Boilers,  steam. 
Steam-capstan,  916. 
Steam-chest  seat  milling- machine, 

513. 

Steam-coupler.  108. 
Steam-engine,  see  Engines. 

indicator,  449. 
Steam-hammer.  416. 
Steam-jacket,  330. 
Steam-loop,  806. 
Steam,  moisture  in,  69. 
Steam-plow,  638. 
!  Steam-pump,  see  Pumps. 
:  Steam-trap,  870. 
:  Steam-windlass,  915. 
'  Steamers,  dimensions,  etc.,  294. 
I  Steel,  annealed,  852. 

belt-lacing.  46. 

casting,  814. 

compressed,  670. 

forging,  670. 

hardening,  851. 

manufacture,  807. 

nickel,  27. 

piping.  812. 

projectiles,  672. 

railroad  cars,  716. 

sheet,  455. 

shell,  674. 

tempering,  851. 

tires,  746. 

tubes,  615. 

Stem  cotton-picking.  418. 
Stem-winding,  887. 
Steno-telegraph,  843. 
Stereotype-press,  662. 
Sterro  metal.  23. 
Stevens  railroad-signal,  830. 

roller-mill,  502. 
Stockwell  electric  motor,  545. 
Stoker,  mechanical,  814. 
Stop-cylinder  printing-press,  659. 
Storage-battery.  815. 

accumulator,  816. 

Atlas,  820. 

Data.  821. 

Des  Mazures,  818. 

Faure,  816. 

Gross.  819.  , 

in  electric  railroads,  728. 

installations.  820. 

Julien.  817. 

Laurent-Cely,  819. 

Plante.  816. 

Peyrusson.  819. 

Reckenzaun,  819. 

Reynier.  818. 

Schoop.  820. 

Tommasi.  818. 

Tudor.  820. 

Waddell  &  Entz,  819. 
Straightener.  697. 
Straightening-machine,  743. 
Straightening  wire.  916. 
Straight-line  engine,  302. 

rolls.  583. 

Strand-forming  machine,  754. 
Strike-knife,  100. 
Stubble.  143. 


924 


INDEX. 


Stump-puller,  823. 
Sturtevant  ore-mill,  583. 
Stove,  air-heating,  14. 

hot-blast,  822. 
Submarine  mine,  866. 
Sulky-plow,  636. 
Sullivan  channeler,  701. 
Superheater,  steam,  824. 
Surfacer,  630. 
Surrey,  110. 
Swaging-machine,  825. 
Swing-saw,  775. 
Switches,  railroad,  826. 

Tabor  indicator,  449. 
Tabulating-machine,  833. 
Talcott  mower,  557. 
Tapping-machine,  622. 
Teleautograph,  845. 
Telegraph,  autographic,  845. 

cable,  837. 

Delany,  839. 

Essick,  818. 

Fac-simile,  847. 

multiplex,  839. 

phonoplex,  842. 

printing,  848. 

recorder,  837. 

selenium,  837. 

sextuplex,  841. 

steno,  843.       . 

train,  848. 

writing,  846. 
Telpherage,  730. 
Tempering,  851. 
Tempering- wheel,  118. 
Tenoner,  533.  852,  854. 

blind-slat,  857. 

car,  856. 

double- head,  855. 

Egan,  855. 

Fay,  853. 

gap,  854. 

Tesla  electric  motor,  552. 
Tests  of  air-compressors,  12. 

of  armor-plate,  37. 

of  belts,  44. 

of  blast-furnaces,  371. 

of  boilers,  55,  65. 

of  boiler-coverings,  64. 

of  brakes,  railroad,  89. 

of  chain-blocks,  53. 

of  creamers,  161. 

of  drills,  185. 

of  dynamos,  245. 

of  electric  power,  transmission, 
650. 

of  emery-wheels,  405. 

of  engines,  air,  257. 

of  engines,  ferry-boat,  291. 

of  engines,  marine,  287.  288. 

of  engines,  naphtha,  272. 

of  engines,  reciprocating.  " 

of  engines,  steam-fire,  260 

of  fire-boat,  267. 

of  ice-machines,  448. 

of  locomotives,  488. 

of  ordnance,  571. 

of  projectiles,  673. 

of  screw-propellers,  293. 

of  pump,  Allis,  686. 

of  pump,  Gaskill,  683. 

of  pump,  Worthington,  679. 

of  rope,  755. 

of  steamers,  294. 

of  stoves,  14. 

of  water-wheel,  Hercules.  898. 

of  water-wheel,  Victor,  895. 
Threading-machine,  71. 
Threading-tool,  472. 
Three-phase  electric  motor,  533. 
Thresher,  858. 

Thies  chlorinating  barrel,  517. 
Thorne  type-setter,  872. 
Thoens  steam-trap,  870. 
Thomas  ore-washer,  595. 
Thomson  electric  motor,  553. 

faucet,  884. 

Thomson  -  Houston   electric  loco- 
motive, 723. 


Thomson-Houston  electric  motor, 

543. 

Thomson  process,  electric   weld- 
ing, 901. 

water-meter,  891. 
Ties,  railroad,  734. 
Tile-machine,  97. 
Time-lock,  482. 
Tip-stretcher,  437. 
Tire,  steel,  746. 

wagon,  112. 

welding,  907. 
Tissandier  balloon,  1. 
Tobin  bronze,  23. 
Toggle  drawing-press,  665. 
Tommasi  storage-battery,  818. 
Tool,  air,  21. 

Tool-grinding  machine,  407. 
Torpedo,  864. 
Torpedo-boat  boiler,  61. 
Torpedo  cruiser,  865. 
Torsion  balance,  41. 
Traction-engine,  640. 
Train  telegraph,  848. 
Transmission  of  power,  642. 
Trap,  steam,  789,  870. 
Tricycle,  172. 

plow,  636. 

Triple-expansion  engine,  276. 
Triple  valve,  87. 
Tripp  packing,  604. 
Triumph  concentrator,  592. 
Trolley  system,  720. 
Trough  Lixiviation,  521. 
Truck,  fire,  347. 
Truck,  standard,  717. 
Trusser,  grain,  864. 
Tube-cleaner,  70. 
Tube-expander,  871. 
Tube-making  machine,  611. 
Tudor  storage-battery,  820. 
Tulloch  ore-feeder,  587. 
Tunnel,  Niagara,  563. 
Turbine,  comp,  steam,  297. 

Dow  steam,  299. 

wheels,  891. 

Turbo-electric  generator,  223. 
Turret-lathe,  464,  468,  780. 

tools,  782. 

Tustin  pulverizer,  586. 
Twin  screws.  285. 
Twister,  cotton,  150. 
Twist-machine,  113. 
Type-cylinder,  882. 
Type-setting  machines,  871. 
Typewriters,  877. 
Typograph.  873. 

Union  railroad-signals,  528. 
Unipolar  dynamo,  231. 
f  nited  States  electric  motor,  551 . 
iversal  boring-machine,  82. 

.  acuum  transmission,  654. 

••elief-valve,  883. 
Valve,  882. 

engineers1  brake,  88. 

gas-regulating,  372. 

gear,  Joy,  327. 

Marshall,  328. 

Giddings,  309. 

motion,  286. 

piston,  284. 

pressure-regulating,  737. 

reducing,  737. 

triple-brake,  87. 
Vat.  leaching,  524. 
Vaults,  758. 
Velocipede,  167. 
Vending-machines,  885. 
Veneer-cutting,  885. 
Venturi  meter,  891. 
Vestibule-car,  715. 
Victor  water-wheel.  895. 
Victoria  torpedo,  868. 
Voltmeter,  493. 

Wade  spooling-frame,  148. 
Waddell  &  Entz  battery,  819. 


THE    END. 


Wagonet,  109. 
Wagons,  109. 
Waltham  watch,  889. 
War  balloon,  1. 
Wardwell  channeler,  699. 
Warper,  149. 
War-ships,  35. 
Watch,  855. 

Watch-dials,  marking,  88. 
Watch-making,  885. 
Watch,  Waltham,  889. 

\Vaterbury,  888. 
Water  -  consumption    of   engines, 

Water-injection    in   air-compress- 
ors, 18. 

Water-lifter,  452. 
Water-meter,  891. 
Water-power  at  Niagara,  558. 
Water-purification,  339. 
Water  relief -valve,  883. 
Water-tower,  348. 
Water-tube  boiler,  59. 
Water-wheel,  891. 

Collins,  892. 

driving,  dynamo,  900. 

Geyelin,  892. 

Hercules,  898. 

Hunt,  895. 

Jonval,  893. 

Leffel,  898. 

Pelton,  899. 

Risdon,  891. 

Victor,  895. 

Webb  locomotive,  488. 
Web  perfecting-press.  661. 
Weighing-machine,  885. 
Welder,  905. 
Welded  tubes,  614. 

projectiles,  908. 
Welding,  electric,  901. 

machine,  902. 

pipe,  907. 

tires,  907. 

Wenstrom  separator,  598. 
Westinghouse  brake,  86. 

electric  motor,  726. 

railroad  signal,  829. 
Weston  alloy  for  conductors,  25. 

triplex  spur-gear,  52. 

voltmeter,  493. 
Wet-crushing  mill,  585. 
Wheel-boxing  machine,  912. 
Wheel,  emery,  404. 
Wheel-making  machine,  909. 
Wheel-polishing  machine,  910. 
Wheeler-Sterling  shell,  674. 
Whitney  chill,  718. 
Whitehead  torpedo,  868. 
Winding  armature.  202 
Windlass.  Ravelli,  915. 

steam.  915. 

Winding-machine,  85. 
Wire  belts,  46. 

cord,  quarrying,  706. 

rope,  756. 

Wire-sewing  machine,  75. 
Wire  straightening,  916. 
Wire-stranding  machine,  756. 
Woodbridge  lathe-tools,  472. 
Wood-fiber,  manufacture  of,  174. 
Wood-planer,  628. 
Wood-reaper,  734. 
Wood-saw,  770. 
Wood-worker,  variety,  531. 
Woodruff  keys,  455. 
Wootten  locomotive  boiler,  485. 
Work  of  air-compressors,  20. 
Worthington  pump,  679. 
Wright  friction  shaper,  797. 
Wrought-iron  car-wheels,  719. 
Writing-machines,  877. 
Writing-telegraph,  846. 

Yale  lock,  480. 
Yarrow  boiler,  61. 
Yaryan  evaporator,  338. 
Yost  typewriter,  880. 


Zaliuski  fuse,  866. 


OVERDUE. 


UNIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


